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L2- 3/4  Occupational Outlook Handbook  v U.S,; Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics May, 1994 Bulletin 2450   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  £wsooe  3I£Sni  1994-95  Edition   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Things Worth Noting • Pointers on interpreting the information presented in the Handbook are found in Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook, page 1. • Additional career-oriented materials, available from private and public organizations, are described in Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training, page 5. • An overview of the job outlook for the year 2005 is given in Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 11. • For 77 occupations not covered in detail in the Handbook, brief descriptions of the nature of the work, number of jobs in 1992, and the projected 1992-2005 change in employment are presented in a section beginning on page 458. • The assumptions and methods used in preparing BLS employment projections are described briefly on page 464. • Occupational Projections and Training Data and the Occupational Outlook Quarterly are publications that  supplement or complement material presented in the Handbook. See page 498 and the inside back cover for information about these publications. • Sources of State and local job outlook information can be found on page 465. Information also can be obtained from any of the following Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices: Atlanta—Suite 540, Peachtree St. NE., Atlanta, GA 30367. Phone (404) 347-4416. Boston—10th Floor, 1 Congress St., Boston, MA 02114. Phone (617) 565-2327. Chicago—9th Floor, Federal Office Bldg., 230 South Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60604. Phone (312) 353-1880. Dallas—Room 221, Federal Bldg., 525 Griffin St., Dallas TX 75202. Phone (214) 767-6970. Kansas City—15th Floor, 911 Walnut St., Kansas City, MO 64106. Phone (816) 426-2481. New York—Room 808, 201 VarickSt., New York, NY 10014. Phone (212) 337-2400. Philadelphia—3535 Market St., P.O. Box 13309, Philadelphia, PA 19101. Phone (215) 596-1154. San Francisco—71 Stevenson St., P.O. Box 193766, San Francisco, CA 94119. Phone (415) 744-6600.  l a .3/4  Occupational Outlook Handbook  1994-95 Edition  U.S. Department of Labor Robert B. Reich, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Katharine G. Abraham, Commissioner April 1994 Bulletin 2450 5.M •  029-00/- 03/58-/   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  S.M.S.U. LIBRARY JUN 2 2 1994 U.S. DEPOSITORY   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  BmBJ   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Message from the Secretary  p> « JP*”*%, IT. 0m" 1!  ^Z'hanges in markets and technologies have dramati­ cally altered the rules for competing in the global work­ place. Preparation for tomorrow’s jobs and the chal­ lenges posed by the new world economy will require an American work force that can adapt to changing work­ place requirements. The Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Govern­ ment’s premier publication on career guidance, pro­ vides essential information about prospective changes in the world of work and the qualifications that will be needed by tomorrow’s workers.  ROBERTB. REICH   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Foreword  (jlobal competition, changing technology and busi­ ness practices, and shifts in the demand for goods and services are reshaping the American job market—mak­ ing the need for comprehensive, up-to-date, and reliable career information more important than ever before. The Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Handbook has been a nationally recognized source of career informa­ tion for more than four and a half decades. Revised every 2 years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, the training and education needed, earnings, working conditions, and expected job prospects in a wide range of occupations covering over 100 million jobs. The 1994-95 edition of the Handbook provides valuable assistance to individuals making career deci­ sions about their future work lives.  KATHARINE G. ABRAHAM Commissioner Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Acknowledgments The Handbook was produced in the Bureau of Labor Statis­ tics under the general guidance and direction of Ronald E. Kutscher, Associate Commissioner for Employment Projec­ tions and Neal H. Rosenthal, Chief, Division of Occupa­ tional Outlook. Mike Pilot, Manager, Occupational Outlook Program, was responsible for planning and day-to-day direc­ tion. Project leaders supervising the research and preparation of material were Douglas J. Braddock, Daniel E. Hecker, Chester C. Levine, Jon Q. Sargent, and Darrel Patrick Wash. Occupational analysts who contributed material were Thomas A. Amirault, Megan Barkume, Verada P. Bluford, Anne W. Clymer, Theresa Cosca, Geoffrey Gradler, Jeffrey Charles Gruenert, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Shelley Davis Franklin, Ari Karen, Colleen Keefe, Christopher Martin, Elizabeth McGregor, Mark Mittelhauser, Rachel Moskowitz, Ludmilla K. Murphy, Matthew Rosenbaum, Kurt E. Schrammel, Douglas S. Shapiro, Kristina Shelley, and Gary Steinberg. Word processing support was handled by Beverly A. Wil­ liams.  Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial organizations, and government agencies provide ca­ reer information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organi­ zations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bu­ reau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations or the information or publica­ tions that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an en­ dorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the or­ ganization and its activities or of the information it may sup­ ply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description ofjobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work inju­ ries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permis­ sion. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC 20212­ 0001.  VII   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources—listed below—that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to photographers working under con­ tract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. A & B Shellfish Co., Inc.; Abbey Home Services; Ace—Federal Reporters; Air Control Services, Inc.; Allied Elevator, Inc.; The American Film Institute—The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts; Amtrak, Galesburg, 111.; Arlington County, Va.—Office of the Sheriff; Arlington Funeral Home: Artech Construction Co.; A & R Tool Equipment; Steve Barrett; Robin Michelle Barrett; Hugh Belton Fine Woodworking; Bethesda Elementary School; Charles M. Beverly Co.; Bill’s Carpet Warehouse; Blakeslee-Lane; Borders Bookstore; Elizabeth Brikowski; Burlington Northern Railroad; Butler Aviation; C & P Telephone; Walter E. Campbell Co., Inc.; United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners Local Union 1831; Central Delivery Services; Crane Rental Co., Inc.; Pastor Louisa Davis— Grace Christ Church; District of Columbia Department of Corrections; District of Columbia Police Department; D.C. Vending Co.; D.C. Village; Deep Run Park; Janet Dinsmore—American Prosecutors Research Institute; Electric Shaver Shops VA Inc.; Ellis Upholstery; Environmental Protection Agency; Equitable Trust Co., Baltimore, Md.; Fairfax County, Va. Fire and Rescue Department; Family Dentistry; Family Eyecare; Federal Aviation Administration; Feline Veterinary Clinic; Ferris, Baker, Watts, Inc.; First Virginia Bank; Fontana Affiliated Lithograph; Galesburg Cottage Hospital; Galesburg Sanitary District; George Washington University; George Washington University Hospital; James W. Grimm— Mid-State Coal Co.; Kevin Hassett—State Farm Insurance; Hechinger Corp.; George Hyman Construction Co.; Information Technology Association of America; Frank lx & Sons, Inc.; Jane Jabbour; Jack’s Auto Body; James River Corp.; Joe’s Pizza; Steve Jones; Joy of Motion; Jump Studio; Knox Veterinary Clinic; Koon’s Ford, Falls Church, Va.; Life Chiropractic Center; June Linowitz; M & M Welding Co.; Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission; Jocelyn McClure— Coldwell Banker; George Meany Labor Studies Center; Memorial Hospital and Medical Care Center, Cumberland, Md.; Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, Washington, D.C.; Midway Marine; Midwest Photo and Video; Minneapolis American Indian Center; Montgomery County Library— Silver Spring Branch; Montgomery County Schools; NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center; National Association of Elementary School Principals; National Institute of Standards and Technology; National Park Service; National Weather Service Forecast Office; New England Bell Telephone; Northern Virginia Community College; Northern Virginia Roofing; Oehme, van Sweden, and Associates, Inc.; Pioneer Technologies; Dr. Janice Postal; Potomac Electric Power Co.; President’s Committee on Employment of People With Disabilities; Protech; Quad Cities Nuclear Power Plant; Radisson Mark Plaza Hotel; Red Top Cab Co.; Reinforcing Ironworkers Local Union #201; Bill Rice; St. Mark’s Catholic Church, Hyattsville, Md.; Susan Sanders—Fine Art Jewelry; Sandy Spring Friends School; Shively Shoe Repair and Leather Goods; Senator Paul Simon; Singletary Auto Body; Stephenson Printing; Strauss Photo-Technical Services, Inc; Teamsters Local 639; Dr. Mai Ting; Dr. John S. Toman; Top Japanese Auto; Urban Institute; USAir; U.S. Army Corp of Engineers; U.S. Assist Travel; U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department of Defense Manpower Data Center; U.S. Department of Energy; U.S. Department of Transportation; U.S. Geological Survey; U.S. News and World Report; U.S. Postal Service; Wagoner Printing Co.; WDCU-FM Washington, D.C.; Westbriar Condominium; White Earth Health Clinic; T.C. Williams High School, Alexandria, Va.; Roger Winter Masonry; Working Images Photographs—Martha Tabor; Frank L. Wright & Co.  viii  Contents Special Features Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook........  1  Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training...........................................................................  5  Tomorrow’s Jobs............................................................... Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections.............................................. Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information.. Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage................. Reprints.............................................................................. Index..................................................  Occupational Coverage Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and auditors ....................................................... Administrative services managers ......................................... Budget analysts ....................................................................... Construction and building inspectors..................................... Construction contractors and managers................................ Cost estimators......................................................................... Education administrators ....................................................... Emploment interviewers ........................................................ Engineering, science, and data processing managers ............ Financial managers ................................................................. Funeral directors...................................................................... General managers and top executives ................................... Government chief executives and legislators ......................... Health services managers........................................................ Hotel managers and assistants .............................................. Industrial production managers ............................................ Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ...... Loan officers and counselors .................................................. Management analysts and consultants .................................. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers ......... Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ...................................................................... Property and real estate managers ......................................... Purchasers and buyers............................................................. Restaurant and food service managers .................................. Retail managers....................................................................... Underwriters ................... ........................................................  Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers.................................................................................. Aerospace engineers ................................................................ Chemical engineers ................................................................. Civil engineers .........................................................................  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Electrical and electronics engineers........................................ Industrial engineers......................................................... Mechanical engineers.............................................................. Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers ................... Mining engineers..................................................................... Nuclear engineers.................................................................... Petroleum engineers ...............................................................  Architects and surveyors Architects ................................................................................ 12 Landscape architects .............................................................. Surveyors................................................................................. 458 Computer, mathematical, and operations research occupations vk Actuaries ............................................................................... 464 Computer scientists and systems analysts ............................. Mathematicians....................................................................... 465 Operations research analysts .................................................. Statisticians ............................................................................. 468 Life scientists Agricultural scientists ............................................................. 484 Biological scientists ................. Foresters and conservation scientists ..................................... 487 Physical scientists Chemists................................................................................... Geologists and geophysicists .................................................. ^Meteorologists ........................................................................ Physicists and astronomers..................................................... Lawyers and judges................................................................. 17 Social scientists and urban planners...................................... 20 Economists and marketing research analysts ........................ 22 Psychologists........................................................................... 24 [Sociologists.............................................................................. 26 Urban and regional planners .................................................. 28 Social and recreation workers 30 Human services workers ........................................................ 32 Recreation workers ................................................................. 34 Social workers.......................................................................... 36 Religious workers 38 Protestant ministers ............................................................... 40 Rabbis ...................................................................................... 42 Roman Catholic priests........................................................... 44 46 Teachers, librarians, and counselors 48 Adult education teachers ........................................................ 49 Archivists and curators........................................................... 53 College and university faculty................................................. 54 Counselors .............................................................................. 56 Librarians ................................................................................ >* School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, 59 andsecondary..................................................................... 62 Health diagnosing practitioners 65 Chiropractors .......................................................................... 68 Dentists.................................................................................... 70 Optometrists ........................................................................... 73fc/ Physicians ............................................... Podiatrists................................................................................ Veterinarians........................................................................... 75 Health assessment and treating occupations 77 Dietitians and nutritionists ..................................................... 78 ^Occupational therapists .......................................................... 79 Pharmacists ...............................................................  79 80 80 81 82 82 83 84 85 87  90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 107 108 110 Ill 114 119 121 124 126 129 132 133 136 138 139 140 143 144 147 149 151 153 157 158 160 161 163 165 167 168 169 IX  Physical therapists ................................................................... Physician assistants .......................................... Recreational therapists ........................................................... Registered nurses .................................................................... Respirator therapists .............................................................. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists .....................  171 173 174 175 178 179  Communications occupations Public relations specialists....................................................... Radio and television announcers and newscasters ................ Reporters and correspondents ............................................... Writers and editors .................................................................  182 184 185 187  Visual arts occupations Designers................................................................................. Photographers and camera operators..................................... Visual artists ...........................................................................  189 191 194  Performing arts occupations Actors, directors, and producers............................................. Dancers and choreographers................................................... Musicians ................................................................................  197 198 200  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Health technologists and technicians Cardiovascular technologists and technicians........................ Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................. Dental hygienists .................................................................... Dispensing opticians................................................................ EEG technologists ................................................................... Emergency medical technicians.............................................. Licensed practical nurses........................................................ Medical record technicians..................................................... Nuclear medicine technologists .............................................. Radiologic technologists ........................................................ Surgical technicians.................................................................  202 203 205 206 208 209 211 212 213 214 216  Technologists, except health Aircraft pilots .......................................................................... Air traffic controllers .............................................................. Broadcast technicians ............................................................. Computer programmers.......................................................... Drafters ................................................................................... Engineering technicians .......................................................... Library technicians ................................................................. Paralegals ................................................................................ Science technicians .................................................................  218 220 222 224 226 228 230 231 233  Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers ................................................................................... 235 Counter and rental clerks ....................................................... 236 ^Insurance agents and brokers ................................................. >237 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives ............. 239 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers ............................ 241 Retail sales workers................................................................. 244 Securities and financial services sales representatives............ 246 Services sales representatives................................................... 248 Travel agents ........................................................................... 250  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.................................. Bank tellers.............................................................................. Clerical supervisors and managers .......................................... Computer and peripheral equipment operators ..................... Credit clerks and authorizers ................................................. General office clerks ................................................................ Information clerks .................................................................. Hotel and motel clerks ........................................................ Interviewing and new accounts clerks ............................... Receptionists ....................................................................... x  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  253 257 259 260 262 263 264 266 266 267  Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.............................................................. Mail clerks and messengers .................................................... Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations .......................................... Dispatchers............................. Stock clerks.......................................................................... Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ............................... Postal clerks and mail carriers ................................................ Record clerks .......................................................................... Billing clerks ....................................................................... Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks .................. Brokerage clerks and statement clerks ............................... File clerks............................................................................. Library assistants and bookmobile drivers......................... Order clerks ......................................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................................... Personnel clerks ................................................................... Secretaries ................................................................................ Stenographers and court reporters.......................................... Teacher aides............................................................................ Telephone operators ................................................................ Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers ...................  268 269 270 272 273 274 275 277 279 280 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 289 290 292  Service Occupations Protective service occupations Correction officers ................... Firefighting occupations ......................................................... Guards ..................................................................................... Police, detectives, and special agents .....................................  295 297 299 301  Food and beverage preparation and service occupations Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers ............................... Food and beverage service occupations..................................  304 306  Health service occupations Dental assistants ...................................................................... Medical assistants.................................................................... Nursing aides and psychiatric aides........................................  309 310 311  Personal service and building and grounds service occupations Animal caretakers, except farm .............................................. Barbers and cosmetologists .................................................... Preschool workers ................................................................... Flight attendants...................................................................... Gardeners and groundskeepers .............................................. Homemaker-home health aides .............................................. Janitors and cleaners................................................................ Private household workers ......................................................  314 315 317 319 321 322 324 325  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Farm operators and managers ................................................ Fishers, hunters, and trappers................................................. Forestry and logging occupations...........................................  327 329 332  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists .............................. Automotive body repairers ...................................................... Automotive mechanics ........................................................... Diesel mechanics...................................................................... Electronic equipment repairers .............................................. Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers .......................................................................... Communications equipment mechanics ............................ Computer and office machine repairers.............................. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ........ Telephone installers and repairers ..................................... Elevator installers and repairers ............................................. Farm equipment mechanics ....................................................  335 337 338 341 343 345 345 346 347 347 348 349  T  General maintenance mechanics............................................ Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians ...... Home appliance and power tool repairers ............................. Industrial machinery repairers............................................... Line installers and cable splicers ............................................ Millwrights.............................................................................. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics ...................................... Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics ..................... Musical instrument repairers and tuners ............................... Vending machine servicers and repairers ...............................  351 352 354 356 357 359 360 362 364 366  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons ................................................. Carpenters................................................................................ Carpet installers....................................................................... Concrete masons and terrazzo workers.................................. Drywall workers and lathers .................................................. Electricians.............................................................................. Glaziers.................................................................................... Insulation workers .................................................................. Painters and paperhangers ..................................................... Plasterers .................................................................................. Plumbers and pipefitters.......................................................... Roofers .................................................................................... Roustabouts............................................................................. Sheetmetal workers ................................................................. Structural and reinforcing ironworkers.................................. Tilesetters ................................................................................  368 369 371 372 374 375 377 379 380 382 383 385 386 388 389 391  Production Occupations   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  400 402 404 406 408  Plant and systems operators Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers ............................................... Stationary engineers ............................................................... Water and wastewater treatment plant operators ..................  410 411 413  Printing occupations Prepress workers..................................................................... Printing press operators ......................................................... Bindery workers .....................................................................  415 417 419  Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations Apparel workers ..................................................................... Shoe and leather workers and repairers ................................ Textile machinery operators .................................................. Upholsterers ...........................................................................  421 423 424 426  Woodworking occupations .....................................................  427  Miscellaneous production occupations Dental laboratory technicians................................................ Ophthalmic laboratory technicians ........................................ Painting and coating machine operators ............................... Photographic process workers ...............................................  429 431 432 434  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Busdrivers ................................................................................ Material moving equipment operators................................... Rail transportation occupation ............................................. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs ................................................... Truckdrivers ........................................................................... Water transportation occupations .........................................  436 438 440 442 444 447  396 397  Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers  450  399  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces.........................  452  Assemblers Precision assemblers ................................................................ Blue-collar worker supervisors .............................................. Food processing occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters ......................... Inspectors, testers, and graders .............................................. Metalworking and plastics-working occupations Boilermakers ............................................................................  Jewelers.................................................................................... Machinists and tool programmers ......................................... Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators ....... Tool and die makers ............................................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators..................  393 394  XI  Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook describes about 250 occupa­ tions in detail—covering about 104 million jobs, or 85 percent of all jobs in the Nation. Occupations that require lengthy education or training are given more attention. In addition, summary informa­ tion on 77 occupations—accounting for another 6 percent of all jobs—is presented in the chapter beginning on page 458. The re­ maining 9 percent of all jobs are mainly residual categories—such as all other management support workers—for which little meaningful information could be developed. The Handbook is best used as a reference; it is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, start by exploring the table of contents, where related occupations are grouped in clusters, or look in the alphabetical index at the end of the Handbook for specific oc­ cupations that interest you. This introductory chapter explains how the occupational descriptions, or statements, are organized. The next two chapters, Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training, and Tomorrow’s Jobs, tell you where to obtain addi­ tional information and discuss the forces that are likely to determine employment opportunities in industries and occupations through the year 2005. For any occupation that sounds interesting to you, use the Hand­ book to find out what the work entails; what education and training you need; what the advancement possibilities, earnings, and job out­ look are; and what related occupations you might consider. Each occupational statement in the Handbook follows a standard format, making it easier for you to compare occupations. The following de­ scribes each section of a Handbook statement, and gives some hints on how to interpret the information provided.  About Those Numbers at the Beginning of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational statements are from the Dictionary of Oc­ cupational Titles (D.O.T.), Fourth Edition, Revised 1991, a U.S. Department of Labor publication. Each number classi­ fies the occupation by the type of work, required training, physical demands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by State employment service offices to classify applicants and job openings. They are included in the Handbook because some career information centers and li­ braries use them for filing occupational information. An index at the back of this book beginning on page 468 cross-references the Revised Fourth Edition D.O.T. numbers to occupations covered in the Handbook.  Nature of the Work This section explains what workers typically do on the job, what equipment they use, how closely they are supervised, the end prod­ uct of their efforts, and how much variety there is in their daily rou­ tine. Technological innovations that are changing what workers do or how they do it, as well as emerging specialties, also are described here. Responsibilities of workers in the same occupation usually vary by employer, industry, and size of firm. In small organizations, for example, workers generally perform a wider range of duties because the resources for specialization simply do not exist. In addition, most occupations have several levels of skill and responsibility.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Trainees or those with little experience may start by performing rou­ tine tasks under close supervision. Experienced workers perform more difficult duties, with greater independence, while the most skilled and senior workers perform the most difficult and responsi­ ble jobs. Working Conditions This section describes work hours, the physical environment, work­ ers’ susceptibility to injury and illness, and protective clothing and safety equipment that commonly are worn. In many occupations, people usually work regular business hours—40 hours a week, mornings and afternoons, Monday through Friday. Others may work nights or weekends, or more than 40 hours—periodically or on a regular basis. Some workers have a degree of freedom in deter­ mining their hours—in occupations that lend themselves to tempo­ rary work or self-employment, for example. Some jobs are per­ formed in pleasant surroundings, while others are in dirty, noisy, dangerous, or stressful ones. Workers may move around a lot or work in a confined space, with varying degrees of physical exertion. Some jobs require outdoor work or extensive travel. A growing number of employers require drug testing. Employment This section reports how many jobs this occupation provided in 1992, and in what industries they were found. Where significant, it also discusses the geographic distribution of jobs, the proportion of workers in the occupation who worked part time (fewer than 35 hours a week), and the proportion who were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement You can be trained for jobs in high schools, colleges, postsecondary vocational schools, home study courses, government training pro­ grams, the Armed Forces, apprenticeships and other formal train­ ing programs offered by employers, or informally on the job. In most occupations, there are various ways to get training. This sec­ tion identifies the different ways, and indicates the most common or the type generally preferred by employers. It lists high school and college courses considered useful preparation for a job, discusses the nature and length of the training or education program, and reveals if continuing education is required to maintain the position. Re­ member, the amount of training you have often determines the level at which you enter an occupation and how quickly you may ad­ vance. For entry level jobs in many occupations covered in the Hand­ book, employers do not require specific formal training but instead look for other qualifications. They hire people with good general skills and the proven ability to learn, then give them the specific training needed to do the job. Employers want people who get along with others; have good work habits; read, write, and speak well; and have basic mathematical and, increasingly, basic computer skills. They may require a high school diploma or college degree as evi­ dence of good general skills. Handbook statements also list other de­ sirable aptitudes and personal characteristics—such as mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, patience, accuracy, and ability to work as part of a team or without close supervision. This section also indicates whether a certificate, examination, or license is required for entry into the field or for independent prac­ tice, and if it is helpful for advancement. It also describes typical paths of advancement within the occupation, whether continuing education is required, and patterns of movement or advancement to other occupations. 1  2  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook This section identifies the factors that will influence employment in the occupation through the year 2005. How will government spending, technological advances, changing business practices, or shifting population patterns affect the demand for workers? The projections of job outlook presented in the Handbook are based on a set of assumptions about how the economy is likely to change between 1992 and 2005. After studying economic trends, how industries currently operate, and the directions in which they are moving, the number, distribution, and composition of jobs in 2005 were projected. Of course, no one can predict with certainty all the economic, political, social, and technological forces that will ul­ timately influence employment growth and job prospects in the fu­ ture. A summary of the assumptions and methods used by the Bu­ reau of Labor Statistics in making employment projections is presented on page 464. A detailed description is presented in The American Work Force: 1992-2005, BLS Bulletin 2452. If an occupation grows rapidly, it obviously will provide more openings than if it grows slowly. Moreover, the strong demand for talent in a rapidly growing occupation generally improves chances for advancement and mobility. Keep in mind that slow-growing oc­ cupations, if large, also provide many job openings. The need to re­ place workers who transfer occupations or leave the labor force cre­ ates the majority of job openings in most occupations, regardless of the rate of growth. Large occupations generally have more replace­ ment openings than small ones. Those with low pay and status, few training requirements, and a high proportion of young, old, or part­ time workers generally have more turnover than those with high pay and status, lengthy training requirements, and many prime­ working-age, full-time workers.  Key Phrases in the Handbook Changing employment between 1992 and 2005 If the statement reads...  Employment is projected to...  Grow much faster than the average Grow faster than the average Grow about as fast as the average Little change or grow more slowly than the average Decline  Increase 41 percent or more Increase 27 to 40 percent Increase 14 to 26 percent  job openings and the number of jobseekers. The descriptions of the relationship between the supply of and demand for workers in a par­ ticular occupation reflects the knowledge and judgment of econo­ mists in the Bureau’s Office of Employment Projections. Individuals might want to enter an occupation or specialty or lo­ cate in a geographic area that has fewer qualified workers than jobs. This is understandable because, under these shortage conditions, jobseekers generally can choose from more job offers, expect higher salaries, and advance faster. Keep in mind, however, that even in oc­ cupations with a rough balance of jobseekers and openings, almost all qualified applicants can usually find jobs, although perhaps not their first choice. When there are surpluses of workers, on the other hand, applicants may have to search for a longer time, accept a less desirable offer, find a job in another occupation, or face extended unemployment. But since job openings do exist even in overcrowded fields, good students or well-qualified individuals should not be de­ terred from undertaking training or seeking entry. Some statements discuss job security—workers in some occupa­ tions are more likely than workers in other occupations to keep or lose their jobs during recessions or government budget cuts, or when new technologies are introduced. Finally, it is possible that opportunities in your community or State are better or worse than those described in the Handbook, which discusses opportunities in the Nation as a whole. Therefore, it is important to check with local sources. (See the chapter on Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training, beginning on page 5, and the list of State and local agencies, beginning on page 465.) Earnings This section indicates how much workers in the occupation gener­ ally earn. Earnings are based on several types of pay plans. Workers may be paid a straight annual salary, an hourly wage, commissions based on a percentage of what they sell, or a piece rate for each item they produce. Others receive tips for services to customers. Workers  Employer costs for employee benefits have grown as a percent of compensation. Percent of compensation  Increase 0 to 13 percent  30-1  Decrease 1 percent or more  Opportunities and competition for jobs If the statement reads...  Job openings compared to job­ seekers may be...  Excellent opportunities Very good opportunities Good or favorable opportunities May face competition May face keen competition  Much more numerous More numerous About the same Fewer Much fewer  Besides describing projected employment change, this section also may discuss the degree of competition for jobs that applicants are likely to encounter. How easy or hard will it be to get a job in this field? Does the occupation attract many more jobseekers than there are openings to be filled? Do opportunities vary by industry, size of firm, or geographic location? The accompanying box explains how to interpret the key phrases used to describe projected changes in employment. It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Source: Department of Commerce, Chamber of Commerce, and Bureau of Labor Statistics  Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook  Jobs within occupations differ in complexity and pay varies accordingly.  Half of all physical therapists earned between $26,600 and $43,600 in 1992.  Range of annual salaries for middle 50 percent of employees in each level, June 1992  Percent distribution of full-time salaried physical therapists, 1992  3  Median $35,500  $120,000 3rd quartile  $110,000 Median  $100,000  1st quartile  $90,000 $80,000 $70,000  3rd quartile i $43,600  $60,000 1st quartile $26,600V  $50,000  9th decile $52,500  $40,000 1st decile $17,800.  $30,000  $20,000 $10 000 -J—1—lllii I  L_  II III IV V VI VIIVIII  Engineers  J__IIIIl_ _JII__L. I II III IV V VI I II III IV Engineering technicians  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  also may be paid a combination of a salary plus commission, or a salary or hourly wage plus bonus, piecework, or tips. Nearly all workers receive employer-paid benefits in addition to wages and salaries. Standard employee benefits such as health, pen­ sion, and vacation and sick leave generally are not mentioned in the detailed occupational statements. Instead, the statements focus on unique benefits, if any. Teachers, for example, get summers off; col­ lege faculty get sabbatical leave and tuition for dependents; pilots, flight attendants, and aircraft mechanics working for airlines get free or discounted air travel for themselves and their families; and retail sales workers get discounted merchandise. In 1991, benefits comprised about 28 percent of total compensa­ tion costs, reflecting increases in social security and medical care benefits, as well as growth in benefits designed to meet the needs of a changing labor force—parental leave, child care, and employee as­ sistance programs, for example (chart 1). In addition to medical care, most employees also receive pensions, paid vacations and holi­ days, and life insurance. Some also receive stock options, profit sharing plans, savings plans, tuition assistance, discounts on mer­ chandise, and expense accounts. Benefits vary depending on where an employee works and whether they work full time or part time. State and local govern­ ment employees, for example, generally have a higher incidence of medical and dental care, life insurance, retirement plans, and differ­ ent types of leave than workers in the private sector. Private sector employees, on the other hand, tend to have a higher incidence of holidays, vacations, and sickness and accident insurance. Workers employed in medium and large firms with 100 or more employees enjoy better benefits than workers in small firms with fewer than 100 workers. Medium and large firms generally provided more medical and dental, life insurance, and retirement benefits, as well as more unpaid maternity leave and long term disability insur­ ance. Paid vacations and holidays, and medical care and life insur­ ance were the only benefits available to the majority of workers in small firms.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ■?' 4?' o9>' <&'  $>'  4?' <Z>  Drafters Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Similarly, full-time workers almost always receive more benefits than part-time employees. For example, one third of part-time em­ ployees received paid vacations and holidays in 1991, compared to over four-fifths of full-time workers. Employee benefits also are dis­ cussed in the section on evaluating a job offer in the following chap­ ter, Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training, be­ ginning on page 5. About 8 percent of all workers were self-employed in 1992. Their earnings vary more than those of workers on wages or salaries and, unlike most wage and salary workers, they pay for their own bene­ fits. Within every occupation, earnings of workers vary depending on experience, level of responsibility, performance, industry, amount of unionization, and geographic area. Earnings generally are higher in cities than in rural areas, and vary by geographic region. Keep in mind that the geographic areas where earnings are higher often have higher costs of living as well. The level of responsibility that goes with a job affects earnings, too. Annual salaries for eight levels of engineers, five levels of engi­ neering technicians, and five levels of drafters are illustrated in chart 2. These reflect different work levels, starting with entry level jobs and continuing up the career ladder to more complex and responsi­ ble supervisory positions. Therefore, it is rarely accurate to say that all people in one occupation earn more than those in another. We can say that the average is higher or that the middle range of earn­ ings is higher, but there usually is some overlap. Many Handbook statements cite Current Population Survey (CPS) data. They show the median earnings of full-time salaried (but not selfemployed) workers in 1992. (The median is the midpoint—half earned more than this and half earned less.) They generally also give the range of earnings of the middle 50 percent of workers, and earnings of the low­ est and highest 10 percent. The earnings distribution of physical ther­ apists in 1992, based on CPS data, is illustrated in chart 3. The shaded area under the curve indicates that the median was $35,500, with onehalf earning between $26,600 and $43,600. The lowest 10 percent earned under $17,800, while the highest 10 percent earned more than  4  Occupational Outlook Handbook  $52,500. You can compare CPS earnings data between occupations or to the average for all occupations. The median for all full-time wage and salary workers in 1992 was $23,100; the middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $15,500 and $34,400; the highest 10 percent earned $48,500 or more, and the lowest 10 percent, $11,300 or less. Some statements include earnings data from sources other than the CPS. The characteristics of these data vary, making it difficult to compare earnings precisely among occupations. Related Occupations When you find an occupation that appeals to you, also explore the jobs listed in this section. These occupations usually involve similar aptitudes, interests, education, and training.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information This section lists names and addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide useful in­ formation. For some occupations, this section also refers you to free or relatively inexpensive publications that offer more information. These publications also may be available in libraries, school career centers, or guidance offices. (For additional sources of information, read the next chapter, Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training.)  Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training This chapter identifies selected sources of information about occu­ pations, counseling, training and education, financial aid, and find­ ing and evaluating potential jobs. Also, read the occupational state­ ments in the Handbook, including the section on sources of additional information, which lists organizations you can contact for more information about particular occupations. Career Information A good place to start collecting information you need is from the people closest to you, your family and friends. These personal con­ tacts are often overlooked, but can be extremely helpful. They may be able to answer your questions directly or, more importantly, put you in touch with someone else who can. This “networking” can lead to an “informational interview,” where you can meet with someone who is willing to answer your questions about a career or a company, and who can provide inside information on related fields and other helpful hints. This is a highly effective way to learn the recommended type of training for certain positions, how someone in that position entered and advanced, and what he or she likes and dislikes about the work. While developing your network of contacts, you may want to begin exploring other avenues. Public libraries, career centers, and guidance offices have a great deal of career material. To begin your library search, look in the card catalog or at the computer listings under “vocations” or “ca­ reers” and then under specific fields. Also, leaf through the file of pamphlets that describe employment in different organizations. Check the periodicals section, where you will find trade and profes­ sional magazines and journals about specific occupations and indus­ tries. Familiarize yourself with the concerns and activities of poten­ tial employers by skimming their annual reports and other information they distribute to the public. You can also find occupational information on video cassettes, in kits, and through computerized information systems. Check career centers for programs such as individual counseling, group discus­ sions, guest speakers, field trips, and career days. Always assess career guidance materials carefully. Information should be current. Beware of materials produced by schools for re­ cruitment purposes that seem to glamorize the occupation, over­ state the earnings, or exaggerate the demand for workers. You may wish to seek help from a counselor. Counselors are trained to help you discover your strengths and weaknesses, guide you through an evaluation of your goals and values, and help you determine what you want in a career. The counselor will not tell you what to do, but will administer interest inventories and aptitude tests, interpret the results, and help you explore your options. Coun­ selors also may be able to discuss local job markets, and the entry re­ quirements and costs of the schools, colleges, or training programs offering preparation for the kind of work that interests you. You can find counselors in: • high school guidance offices, • college career planning and placement offices, • placement offices in private vocational/technical schools and in­ stitutions, • vocational rehabilitation agencies, • counseling services offered by community organizations, • private counseling agencies and private practices, • State employment service offices affiliated with the U.S. Employ­ ment Service.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Before employing the services of a private counselor or agency, seek recommendations and check their credentials. The Interna­ tional Association of Counseling Services (IACS) accredits counsel­ ing services throughout the country. To receive the listing of accred­ ited services for your region, send a self-addressed, stamped, business-size envelope to IACS, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 211, Alexandria, VA 22304. The Directory of Counseling Services, an IACS publication providing employment counseling and other as­ sistance, may be available in your library or school career counsel­ ing center. For a list of certified career counselors by State, contact the National Board of Certified Counselors, 3-D Terrace Way, Greensboro, NC 27403. Phone: (919) 547-0607. Professional societies, trade associations, labor unions, business firms, and educational institutions provide a variety of free or inex­ pensive career material. Many of these are identified in the Sources of Additional Information section of each Handbook statement. For information on occupations not covered in the Handbook, consult directories in your library’s reference section for the names of poten­ tial sources. You may need to start with The Guide to American Di­ rectories or The Directory of Directories. Another useful resource is The Encyclopedia of Associations, an annual multivolume publica­ tion listing trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations. The National Audiovisual Center, a central source for all audiovi­ sual material produced by the U.S. Government, rents and sells ma­ terial on jobs and careers. For a catalog, contact the National Au­ diovisual Center, 8700 Edgeworth Dr., Capitol Heights, MD 20743. Phone: 1-800-788-6282. For first-hand experience in an occupation, you may wish to in­ tern, or take a summer or part-time job. Some internships offer aca­ demic credit or pay a stipend. Check with guidance offices, college career resource centers, or directly with employers. State and Local Information The Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. For help in locating State or local area information, contact your State occupational information coordinating committee (SOICC). These committees may provide the information directly, or refer you to other sources. Refer to the chapter beginning on page 465 for ad­ dresses and telephone numbers of the SOICC’s. Most States have career information delivery systems (CIDS). Look for these systems in secondary schools, postsecondary institu­ tions, libraries, job training sites, vocational rehabilitation centers, and employment service offices. Jobseekers can use the systems’ computers, printed material, microfiche, and toll-free hotlines to ob­ tain information on occupations, educational opportunities, student financial aid, apprenticeships, and military careers. Ask counselors and SOICC’s for specific locations. State employment security agencies develop detailed information about local labor markets, such as current and projected employ­ ment by occupation and industry, characteristics of the work force, and changes in State and local area economic activity. Addresses and telephone numbers of the directors of research and analysis in these agencies are listed in the chapter beginning on page 465. Education and Training Information Colleges, schools, and training institutes normally readily reply to requests for information. When contacting these institutions, you may want to keep in mind the following items: 5  6  Occupational Outlook Handbook  • • • • • •  admission requirements courses offered certificates or degrees awarded cost available financial aid location and size of school Check with professional and trade associations for lists of schools that offer career preparation in a field you’re interested in. Guidance offices and libraries usually have copies of the kinds of directories listed below, as well as college catalogs that can provide more infor­ mation on specific institutions. Be sure to use the latest edition be­ cause these directories and catalogs are often revised annually. Information about home study programs appears in the Directory ofAccredited Home Study Schools, published by the National Home Study Council. Send requests for the Directory and a list of other publications to the National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20009. Phone: (202) 234-5100. Local labor unions, school guidance counselors, and State em­ ployment offices provide information about apprenticeships. Copies of The National Apprenticeship Program and Apprenticeship Infor­ mation are available from the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Train­ ing, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 219-5921. Financial Aid Information Information about financial aid is available from a variety of sources. Contact your high school guidance counselor and college financial aid officer for information concerning scholarships, fellow­ ships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. In addition, every State administers financial aid programs; contact State Depart­ ments of Education for information. Banks and credit unions can provide information about student loans. You also may want to con­ sult the directories and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. The Federal Government provides grants, loans, work-study pro­ grams, and other benefits to students. Information about programs administered by the U.S. Department of Education is presented in The Student Guide to Federal Financial Aid Programs, updated an­ nually. To get a copy, write to the Federal Student Aid Information Center, c/o Federal Student Aid Programs, P.O. Box 84, Washing­ ton, DC 20044, or phone, toll-free, 1-800-433-3243. The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 allows individuals aged 17 and over, to serve in approved local programs before, during, or after postsecondary education, to earn money for education. A participant must complete at least 1 year of full-time or 2 years of part-time service to qualify. Awards may be used for past, present, or future expenses, including 2- and 4-year colleges, training programs, and graduate or professional programs. Infor­ mation about service appointments may be found in high schools, colleges, and other placement offices, or can be obtained by contact­ ing the commission on national service in your State, or by calling 1800-94-ACORPS. Meeting College Costs, an annual publication of the College Board, explains how student financial aid works and how to apply for it. The current edition is available to high school students through guidance counselors. Need a Lift?, an annual publication of the American Legion, con­ tains career and scholarship information. Copies cost $2 each, pre­ paid (including postage), and can be obtained from the American Legion, Attn: Emblem Sales, P.O. Box 1050, Indianapolis, IN 46206. Phone: (317) 635-8411. Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups—Hispanics, blacks, native Americans, or women, for exam­ ple. Higher Education Opportunities for Minorities and Women, published in 1991 by the U.S. Department of Education, is a guide to organizations offering assistance. This publication can be found in libraries and guidance offices, or copies may be obtained from the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  U.S. Department of Education, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washing­ ton, DC 20202. Phone: (202) 401-3550. The Armed Forces have several educational assistance programs. These include the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), the New G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. Information can be obtained from military recruiting centers, located in most cities. Information on Finding a Job It takes some people a great deal of time and effort to find a job they enjoy. Others may walk right into an ideal employment situation. Don’t be discouraged if you have to pursue many leads. Friends, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of available jobs in your field of interest. Read the want ads. Consult State employment service offices and private or nonprofit employment agencies or con­ tact employers directly.  Where To Learn About Job Openings • Parents, friends, and neighbors • School or college placement services • Classified ads —Local and out-of-town newspapers —Professional journals —Trade magazines • Employment agencies and career consultants • State employment service offices • Civil service announcements (Federal, State, local) • Labor unions • Professional associations (State and local chapters) • Libraries and community centers • Women’s counseling and employment programs • Youth programs • Employers  Informal job search methods. It is possible to apply directly to employers without a referral. You may locate a potential employer in the Yellow Pages, in directories of local chambers of commerce, and in other directories that provide information about employers. When you find an employer you are interested in, you can file an ap­ plication even if you don’t know for certain that an opening exists. Want ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in newspapers list hundreds of jobs. Realize, however, that many job openings are not listed there. Also, be aware that the classified ads sometimes do not give some important information. Many offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may simply give a post office box for sending your resume. This makes follow-up inquiries very difficult. Furthermore, some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than employment. Keep the following in mind if you are using want ads: • Do not rely solely on the classifieds to find a job; follow other leads as well. • Answer ads promptly, since openings may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper. • Follow the ads diligently. Check them every day, as early as pos­ sible, to give yourself an advantage. • Beware of “no experience necessary” ads. These ads often signal low wages, poor working conditions, or straight commission work. • Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded, including the specific skills, educational background, and personal qualifications required for the position.  Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training  What Goes Into a Resume A resume summarizes your qualifications and employment his­ tory. It usually is required when applying for managerial, admin­ istrative, professional, or technical positions. Although there is no set format, it should contain the following information: • Name, address, and telephone number. • Employment objective. State the type of work or specific job you are seeking. • Education, including school name and address, dates of at­ tendance, curriculum, and highest grade completed or de­ gree awarded. • Experience, paid or volunteer. Include the following for each job: Job title, name and address of employer, and dates of employment. Describe your job duties. • Special skills, knowledge of machinery, proficiency in foreign languages, honors received, awards, or membership in or­ ganizations. • Note on your resume that “references are available upon re­ quest.” On a separate sheet, list the name, address, tele­ phone number, and job title of three references.  Public employment service. The State employment service, some­ times called the Job Service, operates in coordination with the La­ bor Department’s U.S. Employment Service. About 1,700 local of­ fices, also known as employment service centers, help jobseekers locate employment and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to themselves. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employ­ ment.” A computerized job network system—America’s Job Bank—run by the U.S. Department of Labor, lists 50,000 or so job openings each week, with plans to list 75,000 or more in the future. Jobseekers can access these listings through the use of a personal computer in any local public employment service office, as well as in several hun­ dred military installations. In addition, some State employment ageencies have set up America’s Job Bank in other settings, includ­ ing libraries, schools, shopping malls, and correctional facilities. A wide range ofjobs are listed. Tips for Finding the Right Job, a U.S. Department of Labor pam­ phlet, offers advice on determining your job skills, organizing your job search, writing a resume, and making the most of an interview. Job Search Guide: Strategies For Professionals, another U.S. Depart­ ment of Labor publication, also descusses specific steps that job­ seekers can follow to identify employment opportunities. This publi­ cation includes sections on handling your job loss, managing your personal resources, assessing your skills and interests, researching the job market, conducting the job search and networking, writing resumes and cover letters, employment interviewing and testing, and sources of additional information. Check with your State em­ ployment service office, or order a copy of these publications from the U.S. Government Printing Office. Phone: (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information. Job matching and referral. At a State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are “job ready” or if counseling and testing services would be helpful before you begin your job search. After you are “job ready,” you may examine America’s Job Bank, a computerized listing of public- and private-sector job open­ ings that is updated daily. Select openings that interest you, then get more details from a staff member who can describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Counseling and testing. Centers can test for occupational apti­ tudes and interests and then help you choose and prepare for a ca­ reer.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  7  Services for special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority at State employment service centers. Veterans’ employment repre­ sentatives can inform you of available assistance and help you deal with any problems. Summer Youth Programs provide summer jobs in city, county, and State government agencies for low-income youth. Students, school dropouts, or graduates entering the labor market who are be­ tween 16 and 21 years of age are eligible. In addition, the Job Corps, with more than 100 centers throughout the United States, helps young people learn skills or obtain education. Service centers also refer applicants to opportunities available under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982. JTPA prepares economically disadvantaged persons and those facing bar­ riers to employment for jobs. Federal job information. For information about employment with the U.S. Government, call the Federal Job Information Center, operated by the Office of Personnel Management. The phone num­ ber is (202) 606-2700, or write to Federal Job Information Center, 1900 E St. NW„ Room 1416, Washington, DC 20415. Private employment agencies. These agencies can be very helpful, but don’t forget that they are in business to make money. Most agencies operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a successful match. You or the hiring company will have to pay a fee for the matching service. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying it before using the service. While employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise may be difficult to locate, in some cases, your costs may outweigh the benefits. Consider any guarantee they offer when figuring the cost. College career planning and placement offices. College placement offices facilitate matching job openings with suitable jobseekers. You can set up schedules and use available facilities for interviews with recruiters or scan lists of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs maintained in many of these offices. You also can get counsel­ ing, testing, and job search advice and take advantage of their career resource library. Here you also will be able to identify and evaluate your interests, work values, and skills; attend workshops on such topics as job search strategy, resume writing, letter writing, and ef­ fective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes and videotapes of mock interviews; explore files of resumes and references; and attend job fairs conducted by the office. Community agencies. Many nonprofit organizations offer coun­ seling, career development, and job placement services, generally targeted to a particular group, such as women, youth, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers. Many communities have career counseling, training, placement, and support services for employment. These programs are spon­ sored by a variety of organizations, including churches and syna­ gogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agencies, the State employment service, and vocational rehabilitation agencies. Many cities have commissions that provide services for these special groups. Evaluating a Job Offer Once you receive a job offer, you are faced with a difficult decision. Fortunately, most organizations will not expect you to accept or re­ ject an offer on the spot. You probably will be given at least a week to make up your mind. Although there is no way to remove all risks from this career decision, you will increase your chances of making the right choice by thoroughly evaluating each offer—weighing all the advantages against all the disadvantages of taking the job. There are many issues to consider when assessing a job offer. Will the organization be a good place to work? Will the job be interest­ ing? How are opportunities for advancement? Is the salary fair? Does the employer offer good benefits? If you have not already fig­ ured out exactly what you want, the following discussion may help you develop a set of criteria for judging job offers, whether you are  8  Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Interview Tips Preparation: • Learn about the organization. • Have a specific job or jobs in mind. • Review your qualifications for the job. • Prepare answers to broad questions about yourself. • Review your resume. • Practice an interview with a friend or relative. • Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview. Personal Appearance: • Be well groomed. • Dress appropriately. • Do not chew gum or smoke. The Interview: • Answer each question concisely. • Respond promptly. • Use good manners. Learn the name of your interviewer and shake hands as you meet. • Use proper English and avoid slang. • Be cooperative and enthusiastic. • Ask questions about the position and the organization. • Thank the interviewer, and follow up with a letter.  Test (if employer gives one): • Listen closely to instructions. • Read each question carefully. • Write legibly and clearly. • Budget your time wisely and don’t dwell on one question. Information To Bring to an Interview: • Social Security number. • Driver’s license number. • Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the inter­ viewer with information about your education, training, and previous employment. • Usually an employer requires three references. Get permission from people before using their names, and make sure they will give you a good reference. Try to avoid using rela­ tives. For each reference, provide the following informa­ tion: Name, address, telephone number, and job title.  starting a career, reentering the labor force after a long absence, or planning a career change. The Organization. Background information on the organiza­ tion—be it a company, government agency, or nonprofit concern— can help you decide whether it is a good place for you to work. Fac­ tors to consider include the organization’s business or activity, fi­ nancial condition, age, size, and location. Information on growth prospects for the industry or industries that the company represents also is important. Here are some questions to ask. Is the organization’s business or activity in keeping with your own interests and beliefs? It will be easier to apply yourself to the work if you are enthusiastic about what the organization does. How will the size of the organization affect you? Large firms gener­ ally offer a greater variety of training programs and career paths, more managerial levels for advancement, and better employee bene­ fits than small firms. Large employers also have more advanced technologies in their laboratories, offices, and factories. However, jobs in large firms tend to be highly specialized—workers are as­ signed relatively narrow responsibilities. On the other hand, jobs in small firms may offer broader authority and responsibility, a closer  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  working relationship with top management, and a chance to clearly see your contribution to the success of the organization. Should you work for a fledgling organization or one that is well es­ tablished? New businesses have a high failure rate, but for many people, the excitement of helping create a company and the poten­ tial for sharing in its success more than offset the risk of job loss. It may be almost as exciting and rewarding, however, to work for a young firm which already has a foothold on success. Does it make any difference to you whether the company is private or public? A private company may be controlled by an individual or a family, which can mean that key jobs are reserved for relatives and friends. A public company is controlled by a board of directors re­ sponsible to the stockholders. Key jobs are open to anyone with tal­ ent. Is the organization in an industry with favorable long-term pros­ pects? The most successful firms tend to be in industries that are growing rapidly. Where is the job located? If it is in another city, you need to con­ sider the cost of living, the availability of housing and transporta­ tion, and the quality of educational and recreational facilities in the new location. Even if the place of work is in your area, consider the time and expense of commuting and whether it can be done by pub­ lic transportation. Where are the firm’s headquarters and branches located? Al­ though a move may not be required now, future opportunities could depend on your willingness to move to these places. It frequently is easy to get background information on an organi­ zation simply by telephoning its public relations office. A public company’s annual report to the stockholders tells about its corpo­ rate philosophy, history, products or services, goals, and financial status. Most government agencies can furnish reports that describe their programs and missions. Press releases, company newsletters or magazines, and recruitment brochures also can be useful. Ask the organization for any other items that might interest a prospective employee. Background information on the organization also may be availa­ ble at your public or school library. If you cannot get an annual re­ port, check the library for reference directories that provide basic facts about the company, such as earnings, products and services, and number of employees. Some directories widely available in li­ braries include the following: Dun & Bradstreet's Million Dollar Di­ rectory; Standard and Poor’s Register of Corporations, Directors and Executives; Moody’s Industrial Manual; Thomas’ Register ofAmeri­ can Manufacturers; and Ward’s Business Directory. If you plan to continue your job search, these directories also will list the names and addresses of other firms that might hire you. Stories about an organization in magazines and newspapers can tell a great deal about its successes, failures, and plans for the future. You can identify articles on a company by looking under its name in periodical or computerized indexes—such as the Business Periodi­ cals Index, Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature, Newspaper In­ dex, Wall Street Journal Index, and New York Times Index. It prob­ ably will not be useful to look back more than 2 or 3 years. The library also may have government publications that present projections of growth for the industry in which the organization is classified. Long-term projections of employment and output for more than 200 industries, covering the entire economy, are devel­ oped by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and revised every other year—see the November 1993 Monthly Labor Review for the most recent projections. The U.S. Industrial Outlook, published annually by the U.S. Department of Commerce, presents detailed analyses of growth prospects for a large number of industries. Trade magazines also have frequent articles on the trends for specific industries. Career centers at colleges and universities often have information on employers that is not available in libraries. Ask the career center librarian how to find out about a particular organization. The career center may have an entire file of information on the company.  Sources of Information on Career Preparation and Training The Nature of the Work. Even if everything else about the job is good, you will be unhappy if you dislike the day-to-day work. Deter­ mining in advance whether you will like the work may be difficult. However, the more you find out about it before accepting or re­ jecting the job offer, the more likely you are to make the right choice. Ask yourself questions like the following. Does the work match your interests and make good use of your skills? The duties and responsibilities of the job should be explained in enough detail to answer this question. How important is the job in this company? An explanation of where you fit in the organization and how you are supposed to con­ tribute to its overall objectives should give an idea of the job’s im­ portance. Are you comfortable with the supervisor? Do the other employees seem friendly and cooperative? Does the work require travel? Does the job call for irregular hours? How long do most people who enter this job stay with the company? High turnover can mean dissatisfaction with the nature of the work or something else about the job. The Opportunities. A good job offers you opportunities to grow and move up. It gives you chances to learn new skills, increase your earnings, and rise to positions of greater authority, responsibility, and prestige. A lack of opportunities can dampen interest in the work and result in frustration and boredom. The company should have a training plan for you. You know what your abilities are now. What valuable new skills does the com­ pany plan to teach you? The employer should give you some idea of promotion possibili­ ties within the organization. What is the next step on the career lad­ der? If you have to wait for a job to become vacant before you can be promoted, how long does this usually take? Employers differ on their policies regarding promotion from within the organization. When opportunities for advancement do arise, will you compete with applicants from outside the company? Can you apply for jobs for which you qualify elsewhere within the organization or is mobil­ ity within the firm limited? The Salary and Benefits. Wait for the employer to introduce these subjects. Most companies will not talk about pay until they have decided to hire you. In order to know if their offer is reasona­ ble, you need a rough estimate of what the job should pay. You may have to go to several sources for this information. Talk to friends who recently were hired in similar jobs. Ask your teachers and the staff in the college placement office about starting pay for graduates with your qualifications. Scan the help-wanted ads in newspapers. Check the library or your school’s career center for salary surveys, such as the College Placement Council Salary Survey and Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational wage surveys. If you are considering the salary and benefits for a job in another geographic area, make al­ lowances for differences in the cost of living, which may be signifi­ cantly higher in a large metropolitan area than in a smaller city, town, or rural area. Use the research to come up with a base salary range for yourself, the top being the best you can hope to get and the bottom being the least you will take. An employer cannot be specific about the amount of pay if it includes commissions and bonuses. The way the plan works, however, should be explained. The em­ ployer also should be able to tell you what most people in the job earn. You also should learn the organization’s policy regarding over­ time. Depending on the job, you may or may not be exempt from laws requiring the employer to compensate you for overtime. Find out how many hours you will be expected to work each week and whether you receive overtime pay or compensatory time off for working more than the specified number of hours in a week. Also take into account that the starting salary is just that, the start. Your salary should be reviewed on a regular basis—many or­ ganizations do it every 12 months. If the employer is pleased with  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  9  your performance, how much can you expect to earn after 1, 2, or 3 or more years? Don’t think of your salary as the only compensation you will re­ ceive—consider benefits. Benefits can add a lot to your base pay. Health insurance and pension plans are among the most important benefits. Other common benefits include life insurance, paid vaca­ tions and holidays, and sick leave. Benefits vary widely among smaller and larger firms, among full-time and part-time workers, and between the public and private sectors. Find out exactly what the benefit package includes and how much of the costs you must bear. When you evaluate a job offer, you have many things to consider. Only you will be able to weigh the advantages of a job that is more compatible with your interests and skills against a job that offers a higher salary and more promising advancement opportunities, or weigh the advantages of a job that offers better benefits against a job that is much closer to your home. Asking yourself these kinds of questions won’t guarantee that you make the best career decision— only hindsight could do that—but you probably will make a better choice than if you act on impulse. Detailed data on wages and benefits is available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Compensation and Working Condi­ tions, Division of Occupational Pay and Employee Benefit Levels, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4160, Washington, DC 20212­ 0001. Phone: (202) 606-6225. Data on weekly earnings, based on the Current Population Survey, is available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4945, Washington, DC 20212­ 0001. Phone: (202) 606-6400. Organizations for Specific Groups The organizations listed below provide information on career plan­ ning, training, or public policy support for specific groups. Disabled: President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, 1331 F St. NW., 3rd Floor, Washington, DC 20004. Phone: (202) 376-6200. The blind: Information on the free national reference and referral service provided by the Federation of the Blind can be obtained by contacting lob Opportunities for the Blind (JOB), National Federa­ tion of the Blind, 1800 Johnson St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Phone: toll-free, 1-800-638-7518, or locally (410) 659-9314. Minorities: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 4805 Mount Hope Dr., Baltimore, MD 21215A3297. Phone: (410) 358-8900. The National Urban League is a nonprofit community-based so­ cial service and civil rights organization that assists African-Ameri­ cans in the achievement of social and economic equality. There are 113 local affiliates throughout the country that provide services re­ lated to employment and job training, and education and career de­ velopment. Contact the affiliate nearest you for information. Older workers: National Association of Older Workers Employ­ ment Services, c/o National Council on the Aging, 409 3rd St. SW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200. For publications on job opportunities, contact the American As­ sociation of Retired Persons, Workforce Program Department, 601 E St. NW., Floor A5, Washington, DC 20049. Phone: (202) 434­ 2040. Asociacion Nacional Por Personas Mayores (National Associa­ tion for Hispanic Elderly), 2727 W. 6th St., Suite 270, Los Angeles, CA 90057. Phone: (213) 487-1922. This organization specifically serves low-income, minority persons who are 55 years of age and older. National Caucus/Center on Black Aged, Inc., 1424 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 637-8400. Veterans: Contact the nearest regional office of the Department of Veterans Affairs.  10  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Veterans’ Employment and Training Service (VETS), 200 Consti­ tution Ave. NW., Room S-1313, Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202)219-9116. Women: U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 200 Con­ stitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 219­ 6652. Catalyst, 250 Park Ave. South, 5th floor, New York, NY 10003. Phone:(212)777-8900. Wider Opportunities for Women, 1325 G St. NW., Lower Level, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 638-3143. Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant pro­ grams bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, relig­ ion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Information on how to   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  file a charge of discrimination is available from U.S. Equal Employ­ ment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Government, EEOC, or are available from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1801 L St. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20507. Phone: (202) 663-4264. Information on Federal laws concerning fair labor standards such as the minimum wage and equal employment opportunity can be obtained from the Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Em­ ployment Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 523-8743.  Tomorrow’s Jobs Every 2 years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics develops projections of the labor force, economic growth, industry output and employment, and occupational employment under three sets of alternative as­ sumptions—low, moderate, and high. These projections cover a 10to 15-year period and provide a framework for the discussion of job outlook in each occupational statement in the Handbook. All of the approximately 250 statements in this edition of the Handbook iden­ tify the principal factors affecting job prospects, then discuss how these factors are expected to affect the occupation. This chapter uses the moderate alternative of each projection to provide a framework for the individual job outlook discussions. For more information on the alternative assumptions, see page 464. Population Trends Employment opportunities are affected by population trends in sev­ eral ways. Changes in the size and composition of the population be­ tween 1992 and 2005 will influence the demand for goods and ser­ vices. For example, the population aged 85 and over will grow about four times as fast as the total population, increasing the demand for health services. Population changes also produce corresponding changes in the size and characteristics of the labor force. The U.S. civilian noninstitutional population, aged 16 and over, is expected to increase from about 192 to 219 million over the 1992­ 2005 period—growing more slowly than it did during the previous 13-year period, 1979-92. However, even slower population growth will increase the demand for goods and services, as well as the de­ mand for workers in many occupations and industries. The age distribution will shift toward relatively fewer children and teenagers and a growing proportion of middle-aged and older people into the 21st century. The decline in the proportion of teen­ agers reflects the lower birth rates that prevailed during the 1980’s; the impending large increase in the middle-aged population reflects the aging of the “baby boom” generation born between 1946 and 1964; and the very rapid growth in the number of old people is at­ tributable to high birth rates prior to the 1930’s, together with im­ provements in medical technology that have allowed most Ameri­ cans to live longer. Minorities and immigrants will constitute a larger share of the U.S. population in 2005 than they do today. Substantial increases in the number of Hispanics, Asians, and Blacks are anticipated, re­ flecting immigration, and higher birth rates among Blacks and His­ panics. Substantial inflows of immigrants will continue to have sig­ nificant implications for the labor force. Immigrants tend to be of working age but of different educational and occupational back­ grounds than the U.S. population as a whole. Population growth varies greatly among geographic regions, af­ fecting the demand for goods and services and, in turn, workers in various occupations and industries. Between 1979 and 1992, the population of the Midwest and the Northeast grew by only 3 percent and 4 percent, respectively, compared with 19 percent in the South and 30 percent in the West. These differences reflect the movement of people seeking new jobs or retiring, as well as higher birth rates in some areas than in others. Projections by the Bureau of the Census indicate that the West and South will continue to be the fastest growing regions, increasing 24 percent and 16 percent, respectively, between 1992 and 2005. The Midwest population is expected to grow by 7 percent, while the number of people in the Northeast is projected to increase by only 3 percent. Geographic shifts in the population alter the demand for and the supply of workers in local job markets. Moreover, in areas domi­ nated by one or two industries, local job markets may be extremely sensitive to the economic conditions of those industries. For these  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The West and South will continue to be the fastest growing regions of the country.  El 1979-1992 EZ21992-2005  Cv Cv ►>> w; »!♦ ►» Northeast  Cv ►%v »>!* ►».  K*Z* South Source: Bureau of the Census  and other reasons, local employment opportunities may differ sub­ stantially from the projections for the Nation as a whole presented in the Handbook. Sources of information on State and local employ­ ment prospects are identified on page 465. Labor Force Trends Population is the single most important factor governing the size and composition of the labor force, which includes people who are working, or looking for work. The civilian labor force, 127 million in 1992, is expected to reach 151 million by 2005. This projected 19percent increase represents a slight slowdown in the rate of labor force growth, largely due to slower population growth (chart 2). America’s workers will be an increasingly diverse group as we move toward 2005. White non-Hispanic men will make up a slightly smaller proportion of the labor force, and women and minority group members will comprise a larger share than in 1992. White non-Hispanics have historically been the largest component of the labor force, but their share has been dropping, and is expected to fall from 78 percent in 1992 to 73 percent by 2005. Whites are projected to grow more slowly than Blacks, Asians, and others, but because of their size, whites will experience the largest numerical increase. His­ panics will add about 6.5 million workers to the labor force from 1992 to 2005, increasing by 64 percent. Despite this dramatic growth, Hispanics’ share of the labor force will only increase from 8 percent to 11 percent, as shown in chart 3. Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians and other racial groups will account for roughly 35 percent of all labor force entrants between 1992 and 2005. Women will continue to join the labor force in growing numbers. The percentage increase of women in the labor force between 1992 and 2005 will be larger than the percentage increase in the total la­ bor force, but smaller than the percentage increase for women in the 11  12  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The labor force will grow more slowly due to slower population growth. E23 Numerical change (in millions) ^3 Percent change  2o  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  previous 13-year period. In the late 1980’s, the labor force participa­ tion of women under age 40 began to increase more slowly than in the past. Women were only 42 percent of the labor force in 1979; by 2005, they are expected to constitute 48 percent. The changing age structure of the population will directly affect tomorrow’s labor force. Compared to young workers, the pool of ex­ perienced workers will increase. In 1992, the median age of the labor force was 37.2 years; by 2005, it will be 40.5 years. Between 1979 and 1992, the youth labor force (16 to 24 years of age) dropped by 5 million, a 20-percent decline. In contrast, the number of youths in the labor force will increase by 3.7 million over the 1992-2005 period, reflecting an increase of 18 percent, compared to 19 percent growth for the total labor force. As a result, young people are expected to comprise roughly the same percentage of the labor force in 2005 as in 1992. Among youths, the teenage labor force (16 to 19 years of age) will increase by 31 percent over the 1992-2005 period, a numerical increase of 2.1 million. The labor force 20 to 24 years of age is projected to increase by 12 percent, a numerical increase of 1.6 million. The total youth labor force ac­ counted for 24 percent of the entire labor force in 1979, fell to 16 percent in 1992, and should stay about the same through 2005. The scenario should be somewhat different for prime-age workers (25 to 54 years of age). The baby boom generation will continue to add members to the labor force, but their share of the labor force peaked in 1985. These workers accounted for 62 percent of the labor force in 1979, and rose significantly to 72 percent in 1992, but should decline slightly to 70 percent by 2005. The proportion of workers in the 25-34 age range will decline dramatically, from 28 percent to 21 percent in 2005. On the other hand, the growing pro­ portion of workers between the ages of 45 and 54 is equally striking. These workers should account for 24 percent of the labor force by the year 2005, up from 18 percent in 1992. Because workers in their mid-forties to mid-fifties usually have substantial work experience and tend to be more stable than younger workers, this could result in improved productivity and a larger pool of experienced appli­ cants from which employers may choose.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The number of older workers, aged 55 and above, is projected to grow about twice as fast as the total labor force between 1992 and 2005, and about 15 times as fast as the number of workers aged 55 and above grew between 1979 and 1992. As the baby boomers grow older, the number of workers aged 55 to 64 will increase; they ex­ hibit higher labor force participation than their older counterparts. By 2005, workers aged 55 and over will comprise 14 percent of the labor force, up from 12 percent in 1992. In recent years, the level of educational attainment of the labor force has risen dramatically. In 1992, 27 percent of all workers aged 25 and over had a bachelor’s degree or higher, while only 12 percent did not possess a high school diploma. The trend toward higher edu­ cational attainment is expected to continue. Projected rates of em­ ployment growth are faster for occupations requiring higher levels of education or training than for those requiring less. Three out of the 4 fastest growing occupational groups will be ex­ ecutive, administrative, and managerial; professional specialty; and technicians and related support occupations. These occupations generally require the highest levels of education and skill, and will make up an increasing proportion of new jobs. Office and factory automation, changes in consumer demand, and movement of pro­ duction facilities to offshore locations are expected to cause employ­ ment to stagnate or decline in many occupations that require little formal education—apparel workers and textile machinery opera­ tors, for example. Opportunities for those who do not finish high school will be increasingly limited, and workers who are not literate may not even be considered for most jobs. Those who do not complete high school and are employed are more likely to have low paying jobs with little advancement poten­ tial, while workers in occupations requiring higher levels of educa­ tion have higher incomes. In addition, many of the occupations pro­ jected to grow most rapidly between 1992 and 2005 are among those with higher earnings. Nevertheless, even slower growing occupations that have a large number of workers will provide many job openings, because the  The racial composition of the labor force will continue to shift. Percent distribution  White, non-Hispanic  Black  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Hispanic  Asian, and other  Tomorrow’s Jobs  The age distribution of the labor force will continue to shift. Percent distribution by age of the civilian labor force Age  ______  55 years and over 45 to 54 years  35 to 44 years  25 to 34 years  16 to 24 years  Source: Bureau of Labor Sfatistics  need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations account for most job openings. Consequently, workers with all levels of education and training will continue to be in demand, although advancement opportunities generally will be best for those with the most education and training. Employment Change Total employment is expected to increase from 121.1 million in 1992 to 147.5 million in 2005, or by 22 percent. The 26.4 million jobs that will be added to the U.S. economy by 2005 will not be evenly distrib­ uted across major industrial and occupational groups, causing some restructuring of employment. Continued faster than average em­ ployment growth among occupations that require relatively high levels of eduction or training is expected. The following two sections examine projected employment change from both industrial and oc­ cupational perspectives. The industrial profile is discussed in terms of wage and salary employment, except for agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. The occupational profile is viewed in terms of total employment (wage and salary, self-employed, and unpaid family workers). Industrial Profile The long-term shift from goods-producing to service-producing em­ ployment is expected to continue (chart 5). For example, serviceproducing industries, including transportation, communications, and utilities; retail and wholesale trade; services; government; and finance, insurance, and real estate are expected to account for ap­ proximately 24.5 million of the 26.4 million job growth over the 1992-2005 period. In addition, the services division within this sec­ tor—which includes health, business, and educational services— contains 15 of the 20 fastest growing industries. Expansion of ser­ vice sector employment is linked to a number of factors, including changes in consumer tastes and preferences, legal and regulatory changes, advances in science and technology, and changes in the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  13  way businesses are organized and managed. Specific factors respon­ sible for varying growth prospects in major industry divisions are discussed below. Service-Producing Industries Services. Services is both the largest and the fastest growing division within the service-producing sector (chart 6). This division provided 38.6 million jobs in 1992; employment is expected to rise 40 percent to 54.2 million by 2005, accounting for almost two-thirds of all new jobs. Jobs will be found in small firms and in large corporations, and in industries as diverse as hospitals, data processing, and manage­ ment consulting. Health services and business services are projected to continue to grow very fast. In addition, social, legal, and engi­ neering and management services industries further illustrate this division’s strong growth. Health services will continue to be one of the fastest growing in­ dustries in the economy with employment increasing from 9.6 to 13.8 million. Improvements in medical technology, and a growing and aging population will increase the demand for health services. Employment in home health care services—the second fastest grow­ ing industry in the economy—nursing homes, and offices and clinics of physicians and other health practitioners is projected to increase rapidly. However, not all health industries will grow at the same rate. Despite being the largest health care industry, hospitals will grow more slowly than most other health services industries. Business services industries also will generate many jobs. Em­ ployment is expected to grow from 5.3 million in 1992 to 8.3 million in 2005. Personnel supply services, made up primarily of temporary help agencies, is the largest sector in this group and will increase by 57 percent, from 1.6 to 2.6 million jobs. However, due to the slow­ down in labor force participation by young women, and the prolifer­ ation of personnel supply firms in recent years, this industry will grow more slowly than during the 1979-92 period. Business services also includes one of the fastest growing industries in the economy, computer and data processing services. This industry’s rapid growth  Service-producing industries will continue to account for virtually all job growth.  Service-producing  Goods-producinq 1979 Non-farm wage and salary employment Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  14  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Services will remain the fastest growing major industry division. Services Construction Retail trade  >23  Total, all industries Finance, insurance, and real estate Wholesale trade Transportation and public utilities Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Government Manufacturing Mining  I__ T—TT------1-------- 1---- 1-------1  I I Service-producing X//A Goods-producing  -20  -10 0 10 20 30 40 Percent change in employment, 1992-20051  1AII figures are for wage and salary employment only, except for agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  stems from advances in technology, world wide trends toward office and factory automation, and increases in demand from business firms, government agencies, and individuals. Education is expected to add 2.8 million jobs to the 9.7 million in 1992. This increase reflects population growth and, in turn, rising enrollments projected for elementary, secondary, and postsecon­ dary schools. The elementary school age population (ages 5-13) will rise by 2.8 million between 1992 and 2005, the secondary school age (14-17) by 3.4 million, and the traditional postsecondary school age (18-24) by 2.2 million. In addition, continued rising enrollments of older, foreign, and part-time students are expected to enhance em­ ployment in postsecondary education. Not all of the increase in em­ ployment in education, however, will be for teachers; teacher aides, counselors, and administrative staff also are projected to increase. Employment in social services is expected to increase by 1.7 mil­ lion, bringing the total to 3.7 million by 2005, reflecting the growing elderly population. For example, residential care institutions, which provide around-the-clock assistance to older persons and others who have limited ability for self-care, is projected to be the fastest growing industry in the U.S. economy. Other social services indus­ tries that are projected to grow rapidly include child daycare ser­ vices and individual and miscellaneous social services, which in­ cludes elderly daycare and family social services. Wholesale and retail trade. Employment in wholesale and retail trade is expected to rise by 19 and 23 percent, respectively; from 6 to 7.2 million in wholesale trade and from 19.3 to 23.8 million in retail trade. Spurred by higher levels of personal income, the fastest pro­ jected job growth in retail trade is in apparel and accessory stores, and appliance, radio, television, and music stores. Substantial nu­ merical increases in retail employment are anticipated in large in­ dustries, including eating and drinking places, food stores, automo­ tive dealers and service stations, and general merchandise stores. Finance, insurance, and real estate. Employment is expected to in­ crease by 21 percent—adding 1.4 million jobs to the 1992 level of 6.6 million. The strong demand for financial services is expected to con­ tinue. Bank mergers, consolidations, and closings—resulting from  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  overexpansion and competition from nonbank corporations that of­ fer bank-like services—are expected to limit job growth among com­ mercial banks and savings and loan associations. The fastest grow­ ing industries within this sector are expected to be holding and investment offices and mortgage bankers and brokers. Insurance agents, brokers, and services is expected to register the largest nu­ merical increase in jobs. Transportation, communications, and public utilities. Overall em­ ployment will increase by 14 percent. Employment in the transpor­ tation sector is expected to increase by 24 percent, from 3.5 to 4.3 million jobs. Truck transportation will account for 50 percent of all new jobs; air transportation will account for 29 percent. The pro­ jected gains in transportation jobs reflect the continued shift from rail to road freight transportation, rising personal incomes, and growth in foreign trade. In addition, deregulation in the transporta­ tion industry has increased personal and business travel options, spurring strong job growth in the passenger transportation arrange­ ment industry, which includes travel agencies. Reflecting laborsav­ ing technology and industry competition, employment in communi­ cations is projected to decline by 12 percent. Employment in utilities, however, is expected to grow, adding 117,000 new jobs, highlighted by strong growth in water supply and sanitary services. Government. Between 1992 and 2005, government employment, excluding public education and public hospitals, is expected to in­ crease 10 percent, from 9.5 million to 10.5 million jobs. Growth will be driven by State and local government. Employment in the Fed­ eral Government and U.S. Postal Service is expected to decline by 113,000 and 41,000 jobs, respectively. Goods-Producing Industries Employment in this sector has not recovered from the recessionary period of the early 1980’s and the trade imbalances that began in the mid-1980’s. Although overall employment in goods-producing in­ dustries is expected to show little change, growth prospects within the sector vary considerably. Construction. Construction is expected to increase by 26 percent from 4.5 to 5.6 million. The need to improve the Nation’s infrastruc­ ture, resulting in increases in road, bridge, and tunnel construction, will offset the slowdown in demand for new housing, reflecting the slowdown in population growth and the overexpansion of office building construction in recent years. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing. After declining for many de­ cades, overall employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing is projected to grow by 14 percent, from 1.7 million to 2 million jobs. Strong growth in agricultural services will more than offset an ex­ pected continued decline in crops, livestock and livestock products. Manufacturing. Manufacturing employment is expected to de­ cline by 3 percent from the 1992 level of 18 million. The projected loss of manufacturing jobs reflects productivity gains achieved from increased investment in manufacturing technologies. The composition of manufacturing employment is expected to shift since most of the jobs that will disappear are production jobs. On the other hand, the number of professional positions in manufac­ turing firms will increase. Mining. Mining employment is expected to decline 11 percent from 631,000 to 562,000. Underlying this projection is the assump­ tion that domestic oil production will drop and oil imports will rise, reducing employment in the crude petroleum industry. In addition, employment in coal mining should continue to decline sharply due to the expanded use of laborsaving machinery. Occupational Profile Continued expansion of the service-producing sector conjures up an image of a work force dominated by cashiers, retail sales workers, and waiters. Although service sector growth will generate millions of these jobs, it also will create jobs for financial managers, engi­ neers, nurses, electrical and electronics technicians, and many other managerial, professional, and technical workers. As indicated ear­ lier, the fastest growing occupations will be those that require the most formal education and training.  Tomorrow’s Jobs This section furnishes an overview of projected employment in 12 categories or “clusters” of occupations based on the Standard Occu­ pational Classification (SOC). The SOC is used by all Federal agen­ cies that collect occupational employment data, and is the organiza­ tional framework for grouping statements in the Handbook. In the discussion that follows, projected employment change is described as growing faster, slower, or the same as the average for all occupations. (These phrases are explained on page 2.) While oc­ cupations that are growing fast generally offer good opportunities, the numerical change in employment also is important because large occupations, such as retail sales workers, may offer many more new jobs than a small, fast-growing occupation, such as paralegals (chart 7). For a more detailed discussion of occupational growth, see the discussion ofjob outlook in an earlier chapter, Keys to Understand­ ing What’s in the Handbook. Professional specialty occupations. Workers in these occupations perform a wide variety of duties, and are employed in almost every industry. Employment in this cluster is expected to grow by 37 per­ cent, from 16.6 to 22.8 million jobs, making it the fastest growing occupational cluster in the economy (chart 8). Human services workers, computer scientists and systems analysts, physical ther­ apists, special education teachers, and operations research analysts are among the fastest growing professional specialty occupations. Service occupations. This group includes a wide range of workers in protective services, food and beverage preparation, health ser­ vices, and cleaning and personal services. Employment in these oc­ cupations is expected to grow by 33 percent, faster than average, from 19.4 to 25.8 million. Service occupations that are expected to experience both fast growth and large job growth include home­ maker-home health aides, nursing aides, child care workers, guards, and correction officers. Technicians and related support occupations. Workers in this group provide technical assistance to engineers, scientists, physi­ cians, and other professional workers, as well as operate and pro­ gram technical equipment. Employment in this cluster is expected to increase 32 percent, faster than average, from 4.3 to 5.7 million. Employment of paralegals is expected to increase much faster than  Even though an occupation is expected to grow rapidly, it may provide fewer openings than a slower growing, larger occupation. 786,000  86 percent  workers  :*V*V*VA  ♦VAVtVi *»♦♦»»« ►VAVWV mmm ♦%♦%%%%* vIwIvK *♦%%%%%%% vIwKv! VAVAVi •»»»>♦ rVmviV *♦%%%%%%% WAViVi Wiwvvi *»»»>♦ rVAWA* *>»»». >V*VAV« AVAViV VAVAVi VAVAV* A’AVAV A’AVAV. AVAV4V 'AVAVA AVAVA* VtVAVA AVAVA*  ;♦>»»»: »♦»»»>  percent» AVAViV VAVAVi rAVAVA ATAVAV  81,000  workers  Paralegals  rATATATA  VA*AVA .AVAVA  VWWW**  Retail sales workers  Percent and numerical change in employment, 1992-2005 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  15  Employment change will vary widely by broad occupational group. Professional specialty Sen/ice Technicians and related support Executive, administrative, and managerial Transportation and material moving  mm/////////;/**  Total, all occupations  22  Construction trades and extractive  y////////////ZKi2i  Marketing and sales Helpers, laborers, and material movers Mechanics, installers, and repairers Administrative support, including clerical Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related Production  w<mm* I3  ft1  .  .  0 10 20 30 40 Percent change in employment, 1992-2005 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  average as use of these workers in the rapidly expanding legal ser­ vices industry increases. Health technicians and technologists, such as licensed practical nurses and radiological technologists, will add large numbers of jobs. Growth in other occupations, such as broad­ cast technicians, will be limited by laborsaving technological ad­ vances. Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations. Workers in this cluster establish policies, make plans, determine staffing re­ quirements, and direct the activities of businesses, government agencies, and other organizations. Employment in this cluster is ex­ pected to increase by 26 percent, from 12.1 to 15.2 million, reflect­ ing average growth. Growth will be spurred by the increasing num­ ber and complexity of business operations and result in large employment gains, especially in the services industry division. How­ ever, many businesses will streamline operations by employing fewer managers, thus offsetting increases in employment. Like other occupations, changes in managerial and administra­ tive employment reflect industry growth, and utilization of manag­ ers and administrators. For example, employment of health services managers will grow much faster than average, while wholesale and retail buyers are expected to grow more slowly than average. Hiring requirements in many managerial and administrative jobs are becoming more stringent. Work experience, specialized training, or graduate study will be increasingly necessary. Familiarity with computers will continue to be important as a growing number of firms rely on computerized management information systems. Transportation and material moving occupations. Workers in this cluster operate the equipment used to move people and equipment. Employment in this group is expected to increase by 22 percent, from 4.7 to 5.7 million jobs. Average growth is expected for bus drivers, reflecting rising school enrollments. Similar growth is ex­ pected for truck drivers and railroad transportation workers due to growing demand for transportation services. Technological im­ provements and automation should result in material moving equip­ ment operators increasing more slowly than the average. Water transportation workers are projected to show little change in em­ ployment as technological advances increase productivity.  16  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Construction trades and extractive occupations. Workers in this group construct, alter, and maintain buildings and other structures, and operate drilling and mining equipment. Overall employment in this group is expected to increase 21 percent, about as fast as aver­ age, from 3.7 to 4.5 million. Virtually all of the new jobs will be in construction. Spurred by new projects and alterations to existing structures, average employment growth is expected in construction. On the other hand, increased automation, continued stagnation in the oil and gas industries, and slow growth in demand for coal, metal, and other materials will result a decline in employment of ex­ tractive workers. Marketing and sales occupations. Workers in this cluster sell goods and services, purchase commodities and property for resale, and stimulate consumer interest. Employment in this cluster is pro­ jected to increase by 21 percent, from 13 to 15.7 million jobs, about as fast as average. Demand for travel agents is expected to grow much faster than average. Due to strong growth in the industries that employ them, services sales representatives, securities and fi­ nancial services sales workers, and real estate appraisers will experi­ ence faster than average growth. Many part- and full-time job open­ ings are expected for retail sales workers and cashiers due to the large size and high turnover associated with these occupations. Op­ portunities for higher paying sales jobs, however, will tend to be more competitive. Helpers, laborers, and material movers. Workers in this group as­ sist skilled workers and perform routine, unskilled tasks. Overall employment is expected to increase by 17 percent, about as fast as average, from 4.5 to 5.2 million jobs. Some routine tasks will become increasingly automated, limiting employment growth among ma­ chine feeders and offbearers. Employment of service station attend­ ants will decline, reflecting the trend toward self-service gas sta­ tions. Employment of construction laborers, however, is expected to increase about as fast as average, reflecting growth in the construc­ tion industry. Mechanics, installers, and repairers. These workers adjust, main­ tain, and repair automobiles, industrial equipment, computers, and many other types of equipment. Overall employment in these occu­ pations is expected to grow by 16 percent, from 4.8 to 5.6 million, due to increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment. The fastest growing occupation in this group is expected to be data processing equipment repairers, reflecting the increased use of these types of machines. Communications equipment mechanics, install­ ers, and repairers, and telephone and cable television line installers and repairers, in sharp contrast, are expected to record a decline in employment due to laborsaving advances. Administrative support occupations, including clerical. Workers in this largest major occupational group perform a wide variety of ad­ ministrative tasks necessary to keep organizations functioning smoothly. The group as a whole is expected to grow by 14 percent, from 22.3 to 25.4 million jobs, about as fast as the average. Techno­ logical advances are projected to slow employment growth for ste­ nographers and typists and word processors. Receptionists and in­ formation clerks will grow faster than average, spurred by rapidly expanding industries such as business services. Because of their large size and substantial turnover, clerical occupations will offer abundant opportunities for qualified jobseekers in the years ahead. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations. Workers in these occupations cultivate plants, breed and raise livestock, and catch animals. Although demand for food, fiber, and wood is ex­ pected to increase as the world’s population grows, the use of more productive farming and forestry methods and the consolidation of smaller farms are expected to result in only a 3-percent increase in employment, from 3.5 to 3.6 million jobs. Employment of farm op­ erators and farm workers is expected to rapidly decline, reflecting greater productivity; the need for skilled farm managers, on the other hand, should result in average employment growth in that oc­ cupation. Production occupations. Workers in these occupations set up, in­ stall, adjust, operate, and tend machinery and equipment and use hand tools to fabricate and assemble products. Little change in the 1992 employment level of 12.2 million is expected due to increases in imports, overseas production, and automation. Relative to other  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  occupations, employment in many production occupations is more sensitive to the business cycle and competition from imports. Replacement Needs Most jobs through the year 2005 will become available as a result of replacement needs. Thus, even occupations with little or no employ­ ment growth or slower than average employment growth still may offer many job openings. Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations as a step up the career ladder or change careers. Others stop working in order to return to school, as­ sume household responsibilities, or retire. The number of replacement openings and the proportion of job openings made up by replacement needs varies by occupation. Oc­ cupations with the most replacement openings generally are large, with low pay and status, low training requirements, and a high pro­ portion of young and part-time workers. Occupations with rela­ tively few replacement openings tend to be associated with high pay and status, lengthy training requirements, and a high proportion of prime working age, full-time workers. Workers in these occupations generally acquire education or training that often is not applicable to other occupations. For example, among professional specialty oc­ cupations, only 38 percent of total job opportunities result from re­ placement needs, as opposed to 78 percent among production occu­ pations (chart 9). Interested in More Detail? Readers interested in more information about projections and detail on the labor force, economic growth, industry and occupational em­ ployment, or methods and assumptions should consult the Novem­ ber 1993 Monthly Labor Review or The American Work Force: 1992­ 2005, BLS Bulletin 2452. Information on the limitations inherent in economic projections also can be found in either of these two publi­ cations. For additional occupational data, as well as statistics on ed­ ucational and training completions, see the 1994 edition of Occupa­ tional Projections and Training Data, BLS Bulletin 2451.  Job openings arise from both occupational replacement needs and occupational growth. Percent distribution of job openings, 1992-2005  E  ] Growth Replacements  22 percent:  62 percent:-:  percent  38 percent  Production occupations Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Professional specialty occupations  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and auditors also work for Federal, State, and local governments. Government accountants see that revenues are re­ ceived and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regu­ lations. Many persons with an accounting background work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Service agents or in finan­ cial management, financial institution examination, and budget analysis and administration. In addition, a small number of persons trained as accountants teach and conduct research at business and professional schools. Some work part time as accountants or consultants. Computers are widely used in accounting and auditing. With the aid of special computer software packages, accountants summarize transactions in standard formats for financial records or organize data in special formats for financial analysis. These accounting packages are easily learned and require few specialized computer skills, and greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work associ­ ated with figures and records. Personal and laptop computers en­ able accountants and auditors in all fields—even those who work in­ dependently—to use their clients’ computer system and to extract information from large mainframe computers. Internal auditors may recommend controls for their organization’s computer system to ensure the reliability of the system and the integrity of the data. A growing number of accountants and auditors have extensive com­ puter skills and specialize in correcting problems with software or developing software to meet unique data needs.  Accountants and Auditors (D.O.T. 160 through .167-042, -054, and .267-014)  Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial information in order to make important decisions. Accountants and auditors prepare, ana­ lyze, and verify financial reports and taxes, and monitor informa­ tion systems that furnish this information to managers in all busi­ ness, industrial, and government organizations. Four major fields of accounting are public, management, and government accounting, and internal auditing. Public accountants have their own businesses or work for public accounting firms. They perform a broad range of accounting, auditing, tax, and consulting activities for their clients, who may be corporations, governments, nonprofit organizations, or individuals. Management accountants, also called industrial, corporate, or private accountants, record and analyze the financial information of the companies for which they work. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization’s records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Govern­ ment accountants and auditors maintain and examine the records of government agencies and audit private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to government regulations or taxation. Within each field, accountants often concentrate on one phase of accounting. For example, many public accountants concentrate on tax matters, such as preparing an individual’s income tax returns and advising companies of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Others concentrate on consulting and of­ fer advice on matters such as employee health care benefits, and compensation; the design of companies’ accounting and data processing systems; and controls to safeguard assets. Some special­ ize in forensic accounting—investigating and interpreting bankrupt­ cies and other complex financial transactions. Still others work pri­ marily in auditing—examining a client’s financial statements and reporting to investors and authorities that they have been prepared and reported correctly. However, fewer accounting firms are per­ forming this type of work because of potential liability. Management accountants analyze and interpret the financial in­ formation corporate executives need to make sound business deci­ sions. They also prepare financial reports for nonmanagement groups, including stock holders, creditors, regulatory agencies, and tax authorities. Within accounting departments, they may work in financial analysis, planning and budgeting, cost accounting, and other areas. Internal auditing is rapidly growing in importance. As computer systems make information more timely and available, top manage­ ment can base its decisions on actual data rather than personal ob­ servation. Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms’ finan­ cial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are ade­ quate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compli­ ance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations. There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data processing auditors, environmental auditors, engineering auditors, legal auditors, insurance premium auditors, bank auditors, and health care auditors.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Accountants and auditors work in offices, but public accountants may frequently visit the offices of clients while conducting audits. Self-employed accountants may be able to do part of their work at  I  CPA's have the widest range ofjob opportunities. 17  18  Occupational Outlook Handbook  home. Accountants and auditors employed by large firms and gov­ ernment agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at clients’ places of business, branches of their firm, or government facilities. The majority of accountants and auditors generally work a stan­ dard 40-hour week, but many work longer, particularly if they are self-employed and free to take on the work of as many clients as they choose. For example, about 4 out of 10 self-employed accountants and auditors work more than 50 hours per week, compared to 1 out of 4 wage and salary accountants and auditors. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 939,000 jobs in 1992. They worked throughout all types of firms and industries, but nearly onethird worked for accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping firms, or were self-employed. The majority of accountants and auditors were unlicensed man­ agement accountants, internal auditors, or government accountants and auditors. However, in 1992 there were on record over 475,000 State-licensed Certified Public Accountants (CPA’s), Public Ac­ countants (PA’s), Registered Public Accountants (RPA’s), and Ac­ counting Practitioners (AP’s). The vast majority of these—over 400,000—were CPA’s, but there may have been far fewer practicing CPA’s in the country; many CPA’s hold licenses in several States at once. Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas where public accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concentrated. Roughly 10 percent of all accountants were self-em­ ployed, and less than 10 percent worked part time. Some accountants and auditors teach full time in junior colleges and colleges and universities; others teach part time while working for private industry or government or as self-employed accountants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most public accounting and business firms require applicants for ac­ countant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field. Those wishing to pursue a bachelor’s degree in accounting should carefully research account­ ing curricula before enrolling. Many States will soon require CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of coursework prior to taking the CPA exam, and many schools have altered their curric­ ula accordingly. Some employers prefer those with a master’s degree in accounting or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting. Most employers also prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in account­ ing and internal auditing. For beginning accounting and auditing positions in the Federal Government, 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in ac­ counting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience is required. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an appli­ cant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experience through summer or part-time internship programs con­ ducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is in­ valuable in gaining permanent employment in the field. Professional recognition through certification or licensure also is helpful. In the majority of States, CPA’s are the only accountants who are licensed and regulated. Anyone working as a CPA must have a certificate and a license issued by a State board of account­ ancy. The vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be col­ lege graduates, but a few States substitute a certain number of years of public accounting experience for the educational requirement. Based on recommendations made by the American Institute of Cer­ tified Public Accountants and the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, some States currently require that CPA candidates complete 150 semester hours of college coursework, and many other States are working toward adopting this law. This 150 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The number of accounting graduates remained stable between 1986 and 1991, but more women than men obtained bachelor's degrees in accounting. Degrees awarded (thousands)  Women  s<$>' ^  Source: National Center for Education Statistics  hour rule requires an additional 30 hours of coursework beyond the usual 4-year bachelor’s degree in accounting. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination prepared by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. The 2day CPA examination is rigorous, and only about one-quarter of those who take it each year pass each part they attempt. Candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once, although most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections of the test to be passed within a certain pe­ riod of time. Most States also require applicants for a CPA certifi­ cate to have some accounting experience. The designations PA or RPA are also recognized by most States, and several States continue to issue these licenses. With the growth in the number of CPA’s, however, the majority of States are phasing out the PA, RPA, and other non-CPA designations by not issuing any more new licenses. Accountants who hold PA or RPA designa­ tions have similar legal rights, duties, and obligations as CPA’s, but their qualifications for licensure are less stringent. The designation Accounting Practitioner is also awarded by several States. It re­ quires less formal training than a CPA license and covers a more limited scope of practice. Nearly all States require both CPA’s and PA’s to complete a cer­ tain number of hours of continuing professional education before their licenses can be renewed. The professional associations repre­ senting accountants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Professional societies bestow other forms of credentials on a vol­ untary basis. Voluntary certification can attest to professional com­ petence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who acquired some skills on the job, without the amount of formal education or public account­ ing work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. Increasingly, employers seek appli­ cants with these credentials.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations The Institute of Internal Auditors confers the designation Certi­ fied Internal Auditor (CIA) upon graduates from accredited col­ leges and universities who have completed 2 years’ work in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The EDP Auditors Association confers the designation Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) upon candidates who pass an examination and who have 5 years of experience in auditing electronic data processing systems. However, auditing or data processing experi­ ence and college education may be substituted for up to 3 years. Other organizations, such as the National Association of Certified Fraud Examiners and the Bank Administration Institute, confer other specialized auditing designations. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), formerly the National Association of Accountants, confers the Certified Man­ agement Accountant (CMA) designation upon college graduates who pass a four-part examination, agree to meet continuing educa­ tion requirements, comply with standards of professional conduct, and have at least 2 years’ work in management accounting. The CMA program is administered through an affiliate of the IMA, the Institute of Certified Management Accountants. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, a satellite organization of the National Society of Public Accountants, awards a Certificate of Accreditation in Accountancy to those who pass a comprehensive examination, and a Certificate of Accreditation in Taxation to those with appropriate experience and education. It is not uncommon for a practitioner to hold multiple licenses and designations. For in­ stance, one internal auditor might be a CPA, CIA, and CISA. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly, and make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and management. Accountants and auditors must be good at working with people as well as with business systems and computers. Accuracy and the ability to handle responsibility with limited supervision are impor­ tant. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial state­ ment users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. Capable accountants and auditors should advance rapidly; those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates ofjunior colleges and business and correspondence schools, as well as bookkeepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience re­ quirements set by their employers, can obtain junior accounting po­ sitions and advance to more responsible positions by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start by assisting with work for several clients. They may advance to positions with more re­ sponsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, or partners, open their own public accounting firms, or transfer to ex­ ecutive positions in management accounting or internal auditing in private firms. Beginning management accountants often start as cost account­ ants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for other accounting po­ sitions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to accounting manager, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents. Many senior corporation executives have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance. There is a large degree of mobility among public accountants, management accountants, and internal auditors. Practitioners often shift into management accounting or internal auditing from public accounting, or between internal auditing and management account­ ing. However, it is less common for accountants and auditors to move from either management accounting or internal auditing into public accounting.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  19  Job Outlook Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Quali­ fied accountants and auditors should have good job opportunities. Although the profession is characterized by a relatively low rate of turnover, because the occupation is so large many openings also will arise as accountants and auditors retire, die, or move into other oc­ cupations. CPA’s should have the widest range of opportunities, es­ pecially as more States enact the 150-hour rule and it becomes more difficult to become a CPA. As the economy grows, the number of business establishments in­ creases, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up their books, prepare their taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors on costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. More complex requirements for account­ ants and auditors also arise from changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial matters. In addition, businesses will increasingly need quick, accurate, and individually tailored financial informa­ tion due to the demands of growing international competition. The changing role of public accountants, management account­ ants, and internal auditors also will spur job growth. Public ac­ countants will perform less auditing work due to potential liability, and less tax work due to growing competition from tax preparation firms, but they will assume an even greater management advisory role and expand their consulting services. These rapidly growing services will lead to increased demand for public accountants in the coming years. Management accountants also will take on a greater advisory role as they develop more sophisticated and flexible ac­ counting systems, and focus more on analyzing operations rather than just providing financial data. Similarly, management will in­ creasingly need internal auditors to develop new ways to discover and eliminate waste and fraud. Despite growing opportunities for qualified accountants and au­ ditors, competition for the most prestigious jobs—such as those with major accounting and business firms—will remain keen. Ap­ plicants with a master’s degree in accounting, a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting, or a broad base of computer experience will have an advantage. Moreo­ ver, computers now perform many simple accounting functions, al­ lowing accountants and auditors to incorporate and analyze more information. This increasingly complex work requires greater knowledge of more specialized areas such as international business and current legislation, and expertise in specific industries. Earnings According to a College Placement Council Salary Survey in 1993, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received starting salary offers averaging nearly $28,000 a year; master’s degree candidates in accounting, over $30,000. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, accountants with limited experience had median earnings of $24,700 in 1992, with the middle half earning between $22,200 and $27,500. The most experienced accountants had median earnings of $76,000, with the middle half earning between $68,500 and $84,600. Public accountants—employed by public accounting firms—with limited experience had median earnings of $28,000 in 1992, with the middle half earning between $26,500 and $29,400. The most exper­ ienced public accountants had median earnings of $42,400, with the middle half earning between $36,900 and $50,400. Many owners and partners of firms earned considerably more. Based on a survey by the Institute of Management Accountants, the average salary of IMA members was about $55,100 a year in 1992. IMA members who were certified public accountants aver­ aged $61,900, while members who were certified management ac­ countants averaged $58,700.  20  Occupational Outlook Handbook  (D.O.T. 162.117-014; 163.167-026; 169.167-034; 188.117-122,. 167-106)  top-level managers. These managers—such as the vice president or director of administration—are included in the Handbook state­ ment on general managers and top executives. Supervisory-level administrative services managers directly over­ see supervisors or staffs involved in supportive services. Mid-level managers develop overall plans, set goals and deadlines, develop procedures to direct and improve supportive services, define the re­ sponsibilities of supervisory-level managers, and delegate authority. They often are involved in the hiring and dismissal of employees but generally have no role in the formulation of personnel policy. As the size of the firm increases, administrative services managers increasingly specialize in one or more supportive services activities. For example, administrative services managers may work primarily as facilities managers, office managers, contract administrators, property managers, or unclaimed property officers. In some cases, the duties of these administrative services managers are quite simi­ lar to those of other managers and supervisors, some of whom are discussed in other Handbook statements. Administrative services managers who specialize in facilities management engage in facilities planning, including buying, selling, or leasing facilities; redesign work areas to be more efficient and “ergonomic” (user-friendly); ensure that facilities comply with gov­ ernment regulations; and supervise maintenance, grounds, and cus­ todial staffs. In some firms, these workers are called facilities man­ agers, and may work in facilities management departments. Administrative services managers who work as office managers oversee supervisors of large clerical staffs. In small firms, however, clerical supervisors—who are discussed in the Handbook statement on clerical supervisors and managers—perform this function. Ad­ ministrative services managers who work as contract administrators direct the preparation, analysis, negotiation, and review of contracts related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. However, procurement functions are gener­ ally directed by purchasing agents and managers, also discussed in a separate Handbook statement. Property management is divided into the management and use of personal property such as office supplies, an administrative services management function, and real property management, a function of property and real estate managers—who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Personal property managers acquire, distribute, and store supplies, and sometimes sell or dispose of surplus property. Some property managers are engaged solely in surplus property dis­ posal, the resale of scraps, rejects, and other unneeded supplies and machinery, which is an increasingly important source of revenue for many organizations. In government, surplus property officers may acquire and then sell or dispose of government property. Other administrative services managers oversee unclaimed prop­ erty disposal. In government, this activity includes locating owners of unclaimed liquid assets—such as stocks, bonds, savings accounts, and the contents of safe deposit boxes—and locating owners of, or auctioning off, unclaimed personal property—such as motor vehi­ cles.  Nature of the Work Administrative services managers work throughout private indus­ try and government, and their range of duties is broad. They coordi­ nate and direct supportive services, which may include secretarial and correspondence; administration; preparation of payrolls; con­ ference planning and travel; information processing; mail; facilities management; materials scheduling and distribution; printing and reproduction; records management; telecommunications manage­ ment; personal property procurement, supply, and disposal; data processing; library; food; security; and parking. In small firms, one administrative services manager may oversee all supportive services. In larger firms, however, administrative ser­ vices managers work within the same managerial hierarchy as other managers. Supervisory-level, or “first-line,” managers report to their mid-level counterparts who, in turn, report to proprietors or  Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable of­ fices. However, since their duties involve a wide range of activities, they must maintain regular contact with personnel in other depart­ ments, and working conditions may vary. In small firms, for in­ stance, they may work alongside the supervisors and staffs they oversee, and the office area may be crowded and noisy. Their work can be stressful, as they attempt to schedule work to meet deadlines. Although the 40-hour week is standard, uncompen­ sated overtime is often required to resolve problems. Managers in­ volved in contract administration and personal property procure­ ment, use, and disposal may travel extensively between home offices, branch offices, vendors’ offices, and property sales sites. Fa­ cilities managers who are responsible for the design of work spaces may spend time at construction sites. Facilities managers also may  According to a survey by the Institute of Internal Auditors, sala­ ries of internal auditors in 1992 ranged from $26,500 for those with less than 2 years of experience to $60,700 for those with over 10 years of experience. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and auditors was about $18,300 in 1993. Candidates who had a superior academic record could begin at about $22,700. Applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years’ professional experi­ ence began at $27,800. Accountants employed by the Federal Gov­ ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $46,300 a year in 1993; auditors, $48,200. Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and ana­ lyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is inval­ uable include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts and managers, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales workers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about different accounting licenses and the standards for licensure in your State may be obtained from your State board of accountancy. A list of the addresses and chief executives of all State boards of accountancy is available from: tw National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, 380 Lexington Ave., Suite 200, New York, NY 10168-0002.  Information about careers in certified public accounting and about CPA standards and examinations may be obtained from: 13= American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036-8775, or call 1-800-862-4272.  Information on management and other specialized fields of ac­ counting and auditing and on the Certified Management Account­ ant program is available from: \S> Institute of Management Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645-1760. National Society of Public Accountants and the Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314. XW The Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201. t3"The EDP Auditors Association, 455 Kehoe Blvd., Suite 106, Carol Stream, IL 60188-0180.  For information on accredited accounting programs and educa­ tional institutions offering a specialization in accounting or business management, contact: 13= American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, 605 Old Balias  Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, MO 63141.  Administrative Services Managers   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Some administrative services managers run their own management consulting firms. monitor the work of maintenance, grounds, or custodial staffs, and often travel between different facilities. Employment Administrative services managers held about 226,000 jobs in 1992. Over two-fifths worked in services industries, including manage­ ment, business, social, and health services organizations. Others were found in virtually every other industry. A few run their own management services, management consulting, or facilities support services firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many administrative services managers advance through the ranks in an organization, acquiring several years’ work experience in vari­ ous administrative services before assuming supervisory duties. For example, managers who oversee clerical supervisors should be fa­ miliar with office procedures and equipment and have a working knowledge of word processing, communications, data processing, and recordkeeping. Facilities managers often have a background in architecture, engineering, construction, interior design, or real es­ tate, in addition to managerial or other administrative experience. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experi­ ence in purchasing and sales and knowledge of a wide variety of sup­ plies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution must be experienced in receiving, ware­ housing, packaging, shipping, transportation, and related opera­ tions. Contract administrators may have worked as contract special­ ists, cost analysts, or procurement specialists. Managers of unclaimed property often have experience in claims analysis and records management. Educational requirements vary widely. For supervisory-level ad­ ministrative services managers of secretarial, mail room, and related administrative support activities, many employers prefer an associ­ ate of arts degree in business or management, although a high school diploma may suffice. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other more technical activities, postsecondary technical school training is preferred. For managers of highly complex services such as contract administration, a bachelor’s degree, preferably in busi­ ness administration or finance, is usually required. The curriculum  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  21  should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathematics, computer applications, and business law. Similarly, facilities managers often need a bachelor’s degree in engineering, in­ terior design, or business administration. Some administrative ser­ vices managers have advanced degrees. Whatever the manager’s du­ ties, his or her educational background must be accompanied by work experience reflecting demonstrated ability. Persons interested in becoming administrative services managers should be able to communicate and establish effective working rela­ tionships with many different people—managers, supervisors, pro­ fessionals, clerks, and blue-collar workers. They should be analyti­ cal, detail-oriented, flexible, and decisive. The ability to coordinate several activities and to quickly analyze and resolve specific problems is important. Ability to work under stress and cope with deadlines is also important. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. Attainment of the “Certified Ad­ ministrative Manager” (CAM) designation, through work experi­ ence and successful completion of examinations offered by the Academy of Administrative Management, can increase one’s ad­ vancement opportunities. A bachelor’s degree enhances a supervi­ sory-level manager’s opportunities to advance to a mid-level man­ agement position, such as director of administrative services, and eventually to a top-level management position, such as executive vice president for administrative services, in one’s own or a larger firm. Those with the required capital and experience can establish their own management consulting, management services, or facili­ ties support services firm. Job Outlook Employment of administrative services managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Moreover, the occupation is characterized by relatively low turnover—similar to other managerial occupations—and rela­ tively few of the administrative services managers who leave their jobs leave the profession permanently. These factors, coupled with the ample supply of competent, experienced workers seeking mana­ gerial jobs, should result in keen competition for administrative ser­ vices management positions in the coming years. Although administrative services are becoming more complex, many firms are increasingly contracting out administrative services and otherwise streamlining these functions in an effort to cut costs. Corporate restructuring has tempered growth of administrative ser­ vices managers in recent years, and this trend is expected to con­ tinue. As it becomes more common for firms to contract out administra­ tive services, however, demand for administrative services managers will increase in management services, management consulting, and facilities support services firms to which these services are con­ tracted out. In addition, some types of administrative services man­ agers may grow more quickly than others. Facilities managers, a rel­ atively young and quickly growing occupation, may not be subject to the same cost-cutting pressures as other administrative services managers. Also, the extent to which governments at all levels, par­ ticularly Federal, contract out for goods and services could affect demand for contract administrators and personal property manag­ ers. Earnings According to a salary survey by the A.M.S. Foundation (Adminis­ trative Management Society), building services/facilities managers averaged about $48,000 a year in 1993; office/administrative ser­ vices managers, over $40,000; and records managers, about $35,000. Average salaries ranged from $28,000 for the lowest paid records managers to $58,000 for the highest paid building services/facilities managers. In the Federal Government, contract specialists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $43,800 a year  22  Occupational Outlook Handbook  in 1993; facilities managers, $42,600; administrative officers, $42,100; industrial property managers, $41,300; property disposal specialists, $38,300; and support services administrators, $32,900. Related Occupations Administrative services managers direct and coordinate supportive services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal property. Occupations with similar functions include administrative assistants, appraisers, buyers, clerical supervisors, contract special­ ists, cost estimators, procurement services managers, property and real estate managers, purchasing managers, marketing and sales managers, and personnel managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers and certification in administrative ser­ vices management is available from: 0* Academy of Administrative Management, 550 W. Jackson Blvd., Suite  360, Chicago IL 60661.  Detailed data on salaries of administrative services managers is available from: 0= A.M.S. Foundation, 550 W. Jackson Blvd., Suite 360, Chicago, IL 60661.  For information about careers in the management of personal property, contact:  W National Property Management Association, 380 Main St., Suite 290, Dunedin, FL 34698. For information about careers in facilities management, contact: tw International Facility Management Association, 1 East Greenway Plaza, 11th Floor, Houston, TX 77046-0194.  For information on careers in records and information manage­ ment, contact:  Association of Records Managers and Administrators, 4200 Somerset Dr., Suite 215, Prairie Village, KS 66208.  Budget Analysts (D.O.T. 161.117-010 and 161.267-030)  Nature of the Work Budget analysts play a primary role in the development, analysis, and execution of budgets. Budgets are financial plans used to esti­ mate future requirements and organize and allocate expenditures and capital resources effectively. The analysis of spending behavior and the planning of future operations are an integral part of the deci­ sion-making process in most corporations and government agencies. Budget analysts work in both private industry and the public sec­ tor. In private industry, a budget analyst examines, analyzes, and seeks new ways to improve efficiency and increase profits. Although analysts working in government generally are not concerned with profits, they too are interested in finding the most efficient distribu­ tion of funds and resources among various departments and pro­ grams. A major responsibility of budget analysts is to provide advice and technical assistance in the preparation of annual budgets. At the be­ ginning of the budget cycle, managers and department heads submit proposed operating and financial plans to budget analysts for re­ view. These plans outline expected programs—including proposed program increases or new initiatives, estimated costs and expenses, and capital expenditures needed to finance these programs. Analysts begin by examining the budget estimates or proposals for completeness, accuracy, and conformance with established pro­ cedures, regulations, and organizational objectives. They review fi­ nancial requests by employing cost-benefit analysis, assessing pro­ gram trade-offs, and exploring alternative funding methods. They also examine past and current budgets, and research economic and financial developments that affect the organization’s spending. This process allows analysts to evaluate program proposals in terms of the organization’s priorities and financial resources.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  After this review process, budget analysts consolidate the individ­ ual department budgets into operating and financial budget summa­ ries. The analyst submits preliminary budgets to senior manage­ ment, or sometimes, as is often the case in local and State governments, to appointed or elected officials, with comments and supporting statements to justify or deny funding requests. By re­ viewing different departments’ operating plans, analysts gain insight into an organization’s overall operations. This generally proves very useful when they interpret and offer technical assistance to officials approving the budget. At this point in the budget process, budget analysts help the chief operating officer, agency head, or other top managers analyze the proposed plan and devise possible alternatives if the projected results are unsatisfactory. The final decision to ap­ prove the budget, however, is usually made by the organization head or elected officials. Throughout the rest of the year, analysts periodically monitor the operating budget by reviewing reports and accounting records to de­ termine if allocated funds have been spent as specified. If deviations appear between the approved budget and actual performance, budget analysts may write a report explaining the causes of the vari­ ations along with recommendations for new or revised budget pro­ cedures. They suggest reallocation of excess funds or recommend program cuts to avoid or alleviate deficits. They also inform pro­ gram managers and others within their organization of the status and availability of funds in different budget accounts. Before any changes are made to an existing program or a new one is started, a budget analyst assesses its efficiency and effectiveness. Analysts also may project budget needs for long-range planning. Analysts also assist in developing procedural guidelines and poli­ cies governing the development, formulation, and maintenance of the budget. If necessary, they conduct training sessions for agency or company personnel on new budget procedures. Budget analysts who work for local or State governments may also spend time answering inquiries from constituents. Working Conditions Budget analysts work in a normal office setting and generally work 40 hours per week. However, during the initial development and  Budget analysts assure that actual expenditures comply with the approved budget plan.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations mid-year and final reviews of budgets, they often experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules. The work during these periods can be extremely stressful, and analysts are usually re­ quired to work more than the routine 40 hours a week. Budget analysts spend the majority of their time working inde­ pendently, compiling and analyzing data and preparing budget pro­ posals. Nevertheless, their routine schedule can be interrupted by special budget requests, meetings, and training sessions. Others may travel to obtain budget details and explanations of variances from coworkers, and to personally observe what funding is being used for in the field. Employment Budget analysts held about 67,000 jobs throughout private industry and government in 1992. Federal, State, and local governments are major employers, accounting for 1 of every 3 budget analyst jobs. The Department of Defense employed 7 of every 10 budget analysts working for the Federal Government. Schools, hospitals, banks, and manufacturers of transportation equipment, chemicals and allied products, electrical and electronic machinery, and industrial ma­ chines are other major employers of budget analysts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most private firms and government agencies require candidates for budget analyst positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree. Within the Federal Government, a bachelor’s degree in any field is suffi­ cient background for an entry-level budget analyst trainee position. State and local governments have varying requirements, but a bach­ elor’s degree in one of the following areas usually qualifies one for entry into the occupation: Accounting, finance, business or public administration, economics, political science, planning, statistics, or a social science such as sociology. Sometimes, a field closely related to the employing industry or organization within an industry, such as engineering, may be preferred. Some employers prefer that candi­ dates possess a master’s degree to ensure adequate analytical and communication skills. Financial experience can occasionally be sub­ stituted for an advanced degree when applying for a budget analyst position. Some companies prefer to promote from within; therefore, competent accounting or payroll clerks and other clerical staff who have worked closely with the budget process are sometimes given the opportunity to advance to entry level budget analyst positions even if they do not meet the educational requirements. Because developing a budget involves manipulating numbers and requires strong analytical skills, courses in mathematics, statistics, or accounting are helpful, regardless of the prospective budget ana­ lyst’s major field of study. Because most financial analysis per­ formed by organizations is automated, a familiarity with the finan­ cial software packages used by most organizations in budget analysis, as well as word processing, is generally required by em­ ployers. Software packages commonly used by budget analysts in­ clude electronic spreadsheets and database and graphics software. Job candidates who already possess these computer skills may be preferred over those who need to be trained. In addition to analytical and computer skills, those seeking a ca­ reer as a budget analyst must also be able to work under strict time constraints. Strong oral and written communication skills are essen­ tial for analysts to prepare, present and defend budget proposals to decision makers. Entry level budget analysts may receive some formal training when they begin their jobs. However, most employers feel that the best training is obtained by working through one complete budget cycle. During the cycle, analysts become familiar with all the steps involved in the budgeting process. The Federal Government, on the other hand, offers extensive onthe-job and classroom training for entry level analysts, who are ini­ tially called trainees. Analysts are encouraged to participate in the various classes offered throughout their careers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  23  Beginning analysts usually work under close supervision. Capable entry level analysts can be promoted into intermediate level posi­ tions within 1 to 2 years, and then into senior positions within a few more years. Progressing to a higher level means added budgetary re­ sponsibility and can lead to a supervisory role. In the Federal Government, for example, beginning budget ana­ lysts compare projected costs with prior expenditures; consolidate and enter data prepared by others; and assist higher grade analysts by doing research. As analysts progress, they begin to develop and formulate budget estimates and justification statements; perform in­ depth analyses of budget requests; write statements supporting funding requests; advise program managers and others on the status and availability of funds in different budget activities; and present and defend budget proposals to senior managers. Because financial and analytical skills are vital in any organiza­ tion, budget analysts often are able to transfer to a related field in other organizations. Job Outlook Employment of budget analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced budget analysts who transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. Expanding use of automation may make analysts more produc­ tive, allowing them to process more data in less time. Also, com­ puters are increasingly used to organize, summarize, and dissemi­ nate automated data to the top levels in organizations, thereby centralizing decision-making and reducing the need for middle managers. Any computer-induced effects on employment may be offset, however, by a greater demand for information and analysis. Easier manipulation of and accessibility to data provide manage­ ment more considerations on which to base decisions. Also, because of the growing complexity of business and the increasing specializa­ tion of functions within organizations, more attention is being given to planning and financial control. Many companies will continue to rely heavily on budget analysts to examine, analyze, and develop budgets to determine capital requirements and to allocate labor and other resources efficiently among all parts of the organization. Man­ agers will continue to use budgets as a vehicle to plan, coordinate, control, and evaluate activities within their organizations more ef­ fectively. Despite the increase in demand for budget analysts, competition for jobs should remain keen because of the substantial number of qualified applicants. Job opportunities are usually best for candi­ dates with a college degree, particularly a master’s. In some cases, experience is more beneficial than a degree and can be used to offset a lack of education. A working knowledge of computer financial software packages can also enhance one’s employment prospects in this field. The financial work performed by budget analysts is an important function in every organization. Financial and budget reports must be completed even during periods of economic slowdowns. There­ fore, employment of budget analysts generally is not as adversely af­ fected as other workers during economic slumps. Earnings Salaries of budget analysts vary widely by experience, education, and employer. According to a 1993 survey of financial, accounting, banking, and information systems professions conducted by Robert Half International Incorporated, average annual starting salaries of budget and other financial analysts ranged from $23,500 to $28,000 for those working in medium-size firms, and from $24,000 to $29,000 for those employed by larger organizations. Analysts with 1 to 3 years of experience earned from $27,000 to $35,000 a year in medium-size firms and from $28,500 to $37,500 in larger compa­ nies. Senior analysts earned from $34,500 to $41,200 in medium-size  24  Occupational Outlook Handbook  firms and from $36,000 to $44,000 in larger firms. Earnings of man­ agers in this field ranged from $41,000 to $51,000 in medium-size firms to $45,000 to $62,000 in large organizations. A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that experienced budget analysts had median annual earnings of about $39,700 in 1992, with the middle half earning between about $35,700 and $44,300 a year. In the Federal Government, budget analysts generally started as trainees earning about $18,300 a year in 1993. Candidates with a master’s degree began at $27,800. The average annual salary for budget analysts employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $42,033 in 1993. Related Occupations Budget analysts review, analyze, and interpret financial data; make recommendations for the future; and assist in the implementation of new ideas. Workers who use these skills in other occupations in­ clude accountants and auditors, economists, financial analysts, fi­ nancial managers, and loan officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities as a budget analyst may be available from your State or local employment service. Persons interested in working as a budget analyst in the Federal Government can obtain information from: IS" U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  Construction and Building Inspectors (D.O.T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, -050, .267-010, -102; 182.267; 850.387, .467)  Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors examine the construction, al­ teration, or repair of buildings, highways and streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, and other structures to ensure com­ pliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. They make the initial inspections during the first phase of construction, and make followup inspections through­ out the construction period to monitor continuing compliance with regulations. In areas with severe natural hazards—such as earth­ quakes or hurricanes—inspectors monitor compliance with addi­ tional regulations. Inspectors generally specialize in one particular type of construction work. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality and general safety of buildings. Some may specialize—for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete buildings. Before construction, plan ex­ aminers determine whether the plans for the building or other struc­ ture comply with building code regulations and are suited to the en­ gineering and environmental demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the footings. Then they in­ spect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the number of other visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they make a final comprehensive inspection. In addition, inspectors may calculate fire insurance rates by assessing the type of construction, building contents, availability of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. Electrical inspectors inspect the installation of electrical systems and equipment to ensure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security systems, mo­ tors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appli­ ances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and amusement rides. Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechanical components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air-con­ ditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers or ventilating equipment. Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including pri­ vate disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors ensure that Federal, State, and local gov­ ernment construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspectors may specialize in highways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others spe­ cialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. Home inspectors conduct inspections of newly built homes to as­ certain adherence to regulatory requirements. Some home inspec­ tors are hired by prospective home buyers to inspect and report on the condition of the home’s major systems and components. Home inspectors typically are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer or as a contingency to a sales contract. Construction and building inspectors increasingly use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and the issuance of permits. Details about construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other information can thus be stored and easily retrieved. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and test equip­ ment such as concrete strength measurers. They often keep a daily log of their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the construction contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover something that does not comply with the appropriate codes, ordinances, contract specifications, or approved plans. If the deficiency is not corrected within a reasonable or specified period of time, government inspectors have authority to issue a “stop-work” order. Many inspectors also investigate construction or alterations being done without proper permits. Violators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. However, several may be assigned to a large, complex project. They may spend much of their time in a field office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspec­ tions. The rest of their time is spent inspecting construction sites. Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs, or may have to crawl in tight places. Although the work is not considered hazardous, inspectors often wear “hard hats” for safety. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, if an accident occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work irregular hours to complete their report. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 66,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly 6 of every 10 worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. Employment of local  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  /C  V'-mm  Construction inspectors ensure compliance with building codes, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban ar­ eas undergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large in­ spection staffs, including many inspectors who specialize in struc­ tural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, electrical, and elevator inspection. About 15 percent of all construction and building inspectors worked for engineering and architectural services firms, doing in­ spections for a fee. Most of the remaining inspectors were employed at the Federal and State levels. Many construction inspectors em­ ployed by the Federal Government worked for the Department of Defense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Other im­ portant Federal employers include the Departments of Agriculture, Housing and Urban Development, and Interior, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Construction or building inspectors need several years of experience as a construction contractor, supervisor, or craft worker before be­ coming inspectors. Most employers also require an applicant to have a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in drafting, algebra, geometry, and English are also useful. Workers who want to become inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a gen­ eral area like structural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. Many construction and building inspectors have re­ cent experience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Employers prefer inspectors who have graduated from an appren­ ticeship program, have studied engineering or architecture for at least 2 years, or have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, mathe­ matics, and building inspection. Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a driver’s license. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments usually require that inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction and building inspectors usually receive most of their training on the job. At first, working with an experienced inspector,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  25  they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regu­ lations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. They begin by inspecting less complex types of construction such as residential buildings. They then progress to more complex assignments. An engineering degree is frequently required to ad­ vance to supervisory inspector. Since they advise builders and the general public on building codes, construction practices, and technical developments, con­ struction and building inspectors must keep abreast of new building code developments. Many employers provide formal training pro­ grams to broaden inspectors’ knowledge of construction materials, practices, and inspection techniques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can broaden their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training programs, by taking college or correspon­ dence courses, or by attending seminars sponsored by the organiza­ tions listed below under Sources of Additional Information . Certification enhances construction inspectors’ chances for higher paying, more responsible positions. Some States and cities re­ quire certification for employment. Inspectors with substantial ex­ perience and education can attain certification by passing stringent examinations on construction techniques, materials, and code re­ quirements. The organizations listed below offer many categories of certification for inspectors and plan examiners, including the desig­ nation “CBO,” Certified Building Official. Job Outlook Employment of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increases in the level of construction activity and a rising con­ cern for public safety and for improvements in the quality of con­ struction should spur demand for construction and building inspec­ tors. The trend of government—particularly Federal and State—to contract out construction inspection functions to engineering, archi­ tectural and management services firms is expected to continue. In addition, a growing volume of real estate transactions and a greater awareness and emphasis on home inspections will add to employ­ ment requirements for home inspectors. Despite the expected rapid growth in demand for inspection ser­ vices, most job openings will arise from the need to replace inspec­ tors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Be­ cause of the trend toward the establishment of professional standards for inspectors, job prospects should be best for highly ex­ perienced craft workers who have some college education or who are certified as inspectors. Employment of construction and building inspectors is not al­ ways directly affected by changes in the level of building activity. Unlike most construction occupations, inspectors—particularly those in government—seldom experience layoffs when construction activity declines. During these periods, maintenance and renova­ tion—which usually require more frequent inspection than new construction—generally continue, enabling inspectors to continue working full time year round. In an upturn, new jobs for inspectors increase but not to the same degree as construction activity. Earnings The median annual salary of construction and building inspectors was $31,200 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,000 and $40,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,700 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51,100 a year. Generally, building inspectors, including plan examiners, earn the highest sala­ ries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small local jurisdictions. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine a knowledge of con­ struction principles and law with the ability to coordinate data, di­ agnose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other  26  Occupational Outlook Handbook  occupations with a similar combination of skills are drafters, estima­ tors, industrial engineering technicians, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career and certification as a construction or building inspector is available from the following model code orga­ nizations: CS-* International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, CA 90601. O’Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, IL 60478. O’Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Rd., Birmingham, AL 35213.  Information on careers and certification as a home inspector is available from: O’American Society of Home Inspectors, Inc., 1735 North Lynn St., Suite 950, Arlington, VA 22209.  For information about a career as a State or local government construction or building inspector, contact your State or local em­ ployment service. Persons interested in a career as a construction and building in­ spector with the Federal Government can obtain information from: IW U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW, Washington, DC 20415.  Construction Contractors and Managers (D.O.T. 182.167 except -022)  Nature of the Work Construction contractors and managers assume various levels of re­ sponsibility and are known by a wide range of job titles that are often used interchangeably—for example, constructor, construction superintendent, general superintendent, production manager, pro­ ject manager, general construction manager, executive construction manager, general contractor, contractor, and subcontractor. Con­ struction contractors and managers may be owners or salaried em­ ployees of a construction contracting firm or individuals under con­ tract with the owner, developer, contractor, or management firm overseeing the construction project. This Handbook statement uses the term “construction manager” broadly to encompass all supervisory-level salaried and self-em­ ployed construction managers who oversee construction supervisors and workers. Supervisory level managers report to mid-level and top-level construction managers, who are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives. Within the construction industry, the term “construction man­ ager” is used more narrowly to denote the firm or individual in­ volved in a special form of control to perform a construction man­ agement function. A construction manager frequently acts as the owner’s or developer’s consultant regarding the scheduling and co­ ordination of all design and construction processes over the life of the project. On small construction projects such as remodeling a home, con­ struction managers are usually self-employed construction contrac­ tors who directly oversee their employees. However, large construc­ tion projects like an industrial complex are too complicated for one person to supervise. These projects are divided into many segments: Site preparation, including land clearing and earth moving; sewage systems; landscaping and road construction; building construction, including excavation and laying foundations, erection of frame­ work, floors, walls, and roofs; or building services, including car­ pentry, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heating. Con­ struction managers may be in charge of one or more of these activities, and may have several subordinates, such as crew supervi­ sors, reporting to them.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Construction contractors and managers plan, budget, and direct the construction project. The planning, often in collaboration with design professionals, requires sophisticated scheduling techniques with flow charts, bar charts, and other graphic presentations. They often use computers to evaluate various construction methods and to determine the most cost-effective plan. They determine the ap­ propriate construction methods and schedule all required construc­ tion site activities into logical, specific steps, leading to an interme­ diate or final objective. They budget the time required to complete each step in an effort to meet established deadlines for a particular task. Construction managers determine the labor requirements and supervise or monitor the hiring and dismissal of workers. On the job, construction contractors and managers direct con­ struction supervisors and monitor the progress of construction ac­ tivities including the delivery and use of materials, supplies, tools, machinery, equipment, and vehicles. They are responsible for all necessary permits and licenses and, depending upon the contractual arrangements, direct or monitor compliance with building and safety codes and other regulations. They regularly review engineering and architectural drawings and specifications and confer with design professionals to monitor progress and ensure compliance with plans and specifications. They meet with cost estimators in order to keep track of construction costs and to avoid cost overruns. Based upon direct observation and reports by subordinate supervisors, these managers may prepare daily reports of progress and requirements for labor, material, and machinery and equipment at the construction site. Construction managers meet regularly with owners, other contractors and man­ agers, and design professionals to monitor and coordinate all phases of the construction project. Working Conditions Construction contractors and managers work out of a main office from which the overall construction project is monitored or out of a field office at the construction site. Management decisions regarding daily construction activities are usually made at the job site. Manag­ ers may have to travel when the construction site is in another State or when the manager is responsible for activities at two or more sites. Overseas projects usually entail temporary residence in an­ other country. Construction contractors and managers are “on call” to deal with accidents, delays, or bad weather at the site. The standard 40-hour week is rare. Indeed, construction may proceed round-the-clock for days, even weeks to meet special project deadlines. Although the work generally is not considered dangerous, con­ struction contractors and managers must be careful while touring  Construction contractors review engineering and architectural drawings and specifications with clients.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations construction sites, especially when machinery, equipment, and vehi­ cles are being operated. Because of the rapid pace of construction activities, they must always be prepared to quickly answer ques­ tions, establish priorities, and assign duties. This requires the con­ tractor and or manager to observe job conditions and to be alert to potential problems and to ways to make the work go faster, easier, and safer. Due to the inherent dangers involved in construction, the manager in the field must be alert to and actively manage the safety aspects ofjobsite operations. Employment Construction contractors and managers held about 180,000 jobs in 1992. About 85 percent were employed in the construction industry, primarily by special trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air-conditioning, and electrical—and general building contractors. Many worked as self-employed independent contrac­ tors in the specialty trades. Others were employed by local govern­ ments, educational institutions, real estate developers, and engineer­ ing, architectural, surveying, and construction management services firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A growing number of entrants into this occupation have a strong ac­ ademic background. Completion of a bachelor’s degree program in construction science with emphasis on construction management can greatly enhance one’s opportunities. In 1992, about 130 colleges and universities offered 4-year degree programs in construction sci­ ence. These programs include courses in project control and devel­ opment, site planning, building design, construction methods, con­ struction materials, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, contract administration, building codes and standards, inspection procedures, and electives in engineering and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Recent graduates from these 4-year degree programs usually are hired as assistants to project managers, field engineers, schedulers, or cost estimators. A growing number of graduates in related fields—engineering, archi­ tecture, and cost estimating—also enter construction management, often after having had substantial experience on construction projects. About 30 colleges and universities also offer a master’s degree program in construction science, and one, the University of Florida, offers a doctoral degree program in this field. Master’s degree recipi­ ents, especially those with experience, typically become construc­ tion managers in very large construction companies. Doctoral de­ gree recipients generally become college teachers. Many contractors and managers have substantial experience as construction craft workers—for example, carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electricians—and proven supervisory ability. Many managers have worked as construction supervisors or as indepen­ dent contractors overseeing workers in one or more construction trades—for example, structural steel, roofing, or excavation. Many have also attended training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, usually in collaboration with postsecondary institutions. In 1992, over 200 2-year colleges offered construction management or construction technology programs. Persons interested in becoming a construction contractor or man­ ager should be adaptable and be able to work effectively in a fast­ paced environment. They should be decisive and able to quickly se­ lect among alternative courses of action. The ability to coordinate several major activities at once, while being able to analyze and re­ solve specific problems is imperative, as is the ability to understand engineering, architectural, and other construction drawings. They must be able to establish a good working relationship with many dif­ ferent people—entrepreneurs, other managers, construction profes­ sionals, supervisors, and craft workers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  27  Advancement depends upon the size of the construction com­ pany. In large companies, they may become mid-level and eventu­ ally top-level managers. Highly experienced individuals may be­ come consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or as arbitrators in disputes. Those with the required capital may estab­ lish their own firms and offer construction management services. Others may establish their own general contract construction firms that oversee construction projects from start to finish—including project planning, design, and construction. Job Outlook Employment of construction contractors and managers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the number and complexity of construction projects continues to grow. In addition to this rising demand, many openings should result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Prospects are expected to be particularly favorable—especially in rapidly growing construction management services firms—for experienced construction manag­ ers with a bachelor’s (or higher) degree in construction science with emphasis on construction management. Increased spending on the Nation’s infrastructure—highways, bridges, dams, schools, subways, airports, water and sewage sys­ tems, and electric power generation and transmission facilities— will be the primary stimulus to the demand for construction con­ tractors and managers. Additional jobs will be created by growth in less rapidly expanding construction activities as well. The need to build more residential housing, commercial and office buildings, and factories, as well as maintenance and repair of all kinds of ex­ isting structures will stimulate further demand for these workers. In addition to growth in the level of construction activity, the in­ creasing complexity of construction projects will lead to more jobs being created. Advances in building materials and construction methods and the growing number of multipurpose buildings, elec­ tronically operated “smart”buildings, and energy-efficient struc­ tures will require the expertise of more construction managers. In addition, the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and en­ vironmental pollution has further complicated the manager’s job and should increase demand for these workers. Employment of construction contractors and managers is sensi­ tive to the short-term nature of many construction projects and cyc­ lical fluctuations in construction activity. During periods of dimin­ ished construction activity—when many construction workers are laid off—many construction contractors and managers remain em­ ployed in their own or other firms planning, scheduling, or estimat­ ing costs of future construction projects. When these downturns oc­ cur, some self-employed contractors may merge operations or dissolve their business and seek salaried employment with other contractors. Earnings Earnings of salaried construction managers and incomes of self-em­ ployed contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic location, and economic condi­ tions. Based on limited information, average starting salaries of con­ struction managers in 1992 were about $32,000; annual earnings of most experienced managers ranged from $35,000 to $110,000. Many salaried construction managers receive fringe such as bo­ nuses, liberal motor vehicle and per diem allowances, paid vaca­ tions, and life and health insurance. The income of self-employed contractors varies even more widely than that of salaried managers. The failure rate of small, newly formed construction firms is higher than that of other newly established small businesses. Related Occupations Construction contractors and managers participate in the concep­ tual development of a construction project and organize, schedule,  28  Occupational Outlook Handbook  and oversee its implementation. Occupations with similar functions include architects, civil engineers, construction supervisors, cost en­ gineers, cost estimators, developers, electrical engineers, industrial engineers, landscape architects, and mechanical engineers. Sources of Information For information about careers for construction managers contact: f3= American Institute of Constructors, 9887 North Gandy Blvd., Suite 104, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. O’Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. O’Associated General Contractors of America, 1300 North 17th St. Rossyln, VA 22209-3883. O* Construction Management Association of America, 1893 Preston White Dr., Suite 130, Reston, VA 22091.  Information on construction science and management program accreditation requirements is available from: O’American  Council for Construction Education, 901 Hudson Lane, Monroe, LA 71201.  Cost Estimators (D.O.T. 169.267-038; 221.362-018, and .367-014)  Nature of the Work Being able to accurately predict the cost of future projects is vital to the economic survival of any business. Cost estimators develop this information for owners or managers to use in making bids for con­ tracts or in determining if a new product will be profitable, or in de­ termining which of a firms’ products are making a profit. Regardless of industry, estimators compile and analyze data on all the factors that can influence costs—materials, labor, location, and special machinery requirements, including computer hardware and software. Job duties vary widely depending upon the type and size of the project. Estimators working in the construction industry and manufacturing businesses have different methods of, and rea­ sons for, estimating costs. On a large construction project, for example, the estimating pro­ cess begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing the ar­ chitect’s drawings, specifications, and other bidding documents, the estimator visits the site of the proposed construction project to gather information on access to the site and availability of electric­ ity, water, and other services, as well as surface topography and drainage. If the project is a remodeling or renovation job, the esti­ mator might consider the need to control noise and dust and to per­ form work in such a way that occupants can continue to carry out their activities as normally as possible. The information developed during the site visit generally is recorded in a signed report that is made part of the project estimate. After the site visit is completed, the estimator must determine the quantity of materials and labor that the firm will have to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or “takeoff,” is completed by filling out standard estimating forms that provide spaces for the entry of dimensions, number of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general contractor, for example, will esti­ mate the costs of the items the contractor must provide. Although subcontractors will estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process, the general contractor’s cost estimator often analyzes bids made by subcontractors as well. Allowances for the waste of materi­ als, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs are made as the takeoff proceeds. In large construc­ tion companies with several estimators, it is common practice for them to specialize. For instance, one person may estimate only elec­ trical work, whereas another may concentrate on excavation, con­ crete, and forms. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  must make decisions concerning equipment needs, sequence of op­ erations, and crew size. On completion of the quantity surveys, a total project cost sum­ mary is prepared by the chief estimator that includes the cost of la­ bor, equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insurance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief estimator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the de­ veloper. In manufacturing and other firms, cost estimators generally are assigned to the engineering or cost department. The estimators’ goal in manufacturing is to accurately allocate costs of making products to the people and machines they are produced by. Their job may be­ gin with a request by managers to estimate the costs associated with a major redesign of an existing product or the development of a new product or production process. For example, to develop a new prod­ uct, the estimator, working with engineers, first reviews blueprints or conceptual drawings to determine the machining operations, tools and gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estimator then must prepare a parts list and determine whether it is more efficient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from po­ tential suppliers. The next step is to determine the cost of manufac­ turing each component of the product. Some high technology prod­ ucts require massive amounts of computer programming during the design phase. The cost of software is one of the fastest growing and most difficult activities to estimate. Some cost estimators now spe­ cialize in estimating computer software development and related costs. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. The former indicate the time required for tool design and fabrication, tool “debugging” (finding and correcting all problems), manufacturing of parts, assembly, and testing. Learning curves re­ present graphically the rate at which performance improves with practice. These curves are commonly called “problem-elimination” curves because many problems, such as engineering changes, re­ work, parts shortages, and lack of operator skills, diminish as the number of parts produced increases, resulting in lower unit costs. Using all this information, the estimator then calculates the stan­ dard labor hours necessary to produce a predetermined number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in dollars. Then the estimator compares the cost of purchasing parts with the firm’s cost of manufacturing them to de­ termine which is cheaper. Computers are widely used because cost estimating may involve complex mathematical techniques. For example, to undertake a par­ ametric analysis, a process used to estimate project costs on a per unit basis subject to the specific requirements of a project, cost es­ timators use a computer database containing information on costs and conditions of many other similar projects. Although computers cannot be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve es­ timators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. This leaves estimators with more time to study and analyze projects and can lead to more accurate es­ timates. (Details on various cost estimating techniques are available from the organizations listed under Sources of Additional Informa­ tion below.) Working Conditions Estimators spend most of their time in an office. Nevertheless, con­ struction estimators must make frequent visits to work sites that are dirty and cluttered with debris. Likewise, estimators in manufactur­ ing must spend time on the factory floor where it can be hot, noisy, and dirty. Cost estimators usually operate under pressure, especially when facing deadlines, because inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose out on a bid that would have been profitable or to take on a job that proves to be unprofitable. Although estimators usually  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Cost estimators use quantitative techniques to analyze factors that influence cost. work a 40-hour week, much overtime is often required. In some in­ dustries, frequent travel between the parent firm and its subsidiaries or subcontractors is required. Government and other estimators often visit firms to substantiate bids or prices. Employment Cost estimators held about 163,000 jobs in 1992, primarily in con­ struction industries. Others worked for manufacturing industries. Some worked for engineering and architectural services firms, busi­ ness services firms, and a wide range of other industries. Construc­ tion analysts in the Department of Housing and Urban Develop­ ment and operations research, production control, cost, and price analysts in the Departments of Defense and Energy may do signifi­ cant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. (For more information, see the statement on operations research analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Cost estimators work in all parts of the country, usually in or near major industrial, commercial, and government centers and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development where large amounts of construction are taking place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry requirements vary by industry. In construction, employers prefer applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction mater­ ials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumbing systems, or masonry work. In fact, most construction estimators have experience as a construction craft worker or as a contractor. Persons who combine this experi­ ence with some postsecondary training in construction estimating or a bachelor’s or associate degree in civil engineering, architectural drafting, or building construction have the edge in landing jobs. Those with an academic background who lack work experience qualify for some jobs, but are at a distinct disadvantage when com­ peting for jobs with experienced applicants. In manufacturing, em­ ployers prefer persons with a degree in engineering, science, opera­ tions research, mathematics, or statistics, or in accounting, finance, business, or a related subject. In high-technology industries, great emphasis is placed on experience involving quantitative techniques.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  29  Computer literacy and, in some cases, programming capability are required. Regardless of background, estimators receive much training on the job. Working with an experienced estimator, they become famil­ iar with each step in the process. Those with no experience reading construction specifications or blueprints first learn that aspect of the work. Then they may accompany an experienced estimator to the construction site or the shop floor where they observe the work be­ ing done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, they learn how to tabulate quan­ tities and dimensions from drawings and how to select which mate­ rial prices are to be used. Cost estimating is included as part of the civil engineering, indus­ trial engineering, and construction management or construction en­ gineering technology curriculums in many colleges and universities. Many technical schools, junior colleges, and universities offer courses and programs in cost estimating techniques and procedures. In addition, cost estimating is a significant part of the master’s de­ gree program in construction management offered by many colleges and universities. Organizations that represent cost estimators, such as AACE International and the Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, also sponsor educational programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experienced estimators stay abreast of changes affecting the profession. Professional recognition through certification is valuable, because it is a mark of the estimator’s competence and experience. To be­ come certified, estimators generally must have between 3 and 7 years of estimating experience and must pass both a written and an oral examination. In addition, certification requirements may in­ clude publication of at least one article or paper in the field. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to quickly analyze, compare, and interpret detailed and sometimes poorly defined information, and be able to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowledge. Assertiveness and self-confi­ dence in presenting and supporting their conclusions are important. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into a management position, such as pro­ ject manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial en­ gineering department for a manufacturer. Others may go into busi­ ness for themselves as consultants, providing estimating services for a fee to government or construction and manufacturing firms. Job Outlook Employment of cost estimators is dependent primarily upon the level of construction and manufacturing activity. Growth of the construction industry, where about 58 percent of all cost estimators are employed, will be the driving force behind the rising demand for these workers, whose employment is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The fastest growing sectors of the construction industry will be those associated with spending on the Nation’s infrastructure. Construction and re­ pair of highways and streets, bridges, and construction of more sub­ way systems, airports, water and sewage systems, and electric powerplants and transmission lines will stimulate demand for many more cost estimators. In addition, spending on hotels, office and other commercial buildings, and construction of residential units, will add to the demand for cost estimators to predict the costs of these projects. Job prospects should be best for those workers who have substantial experience in various phases of construction or a specialty craft or those with a degree in construction management, engineering, or architectural drafting. Employment of cost estimators in manufacturing should expand as output increases and as more firms use the services of cost estima­ tors to identify and control their operating costs. In manufacturing, experienced persons with degrees in engineering, science, mathe­ matics, business administration, or economics and who have com­ puter expertise should have the best job prospects. Certification is an asset in all instances.  30  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Earnings Salaries for cost estimators vary widely by experience, education, size of firm, and industry. According to limited data available, most starting salaries in the construction industry for those with limited training ranged from $17,000 to $21,000 in 1992. College graduates in fields such as engineering or construction management that pro­ vide a strong background in cost estimating can start at $30,000 or more. Highly experienced individuals earned $75,000 or more. Starting salaries and annual earnings in the manufacturing sector were usually somewhat higher. Related Occupations Other workers who quantitatively analyze information based upon relatively imprecise data include appraisers, cost accountants, cost engineers, economists, evaluators, financial analysts, loan officers, operations research analysts, underwriters, and value engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certification, schools, and continuing education programs in cost estimating in the construc­ tion industry may be obtained from: tgr AACE International, P.O. Box 1557, Morgantown, WV 26507-1557. IW Professional Construction Estimators Association of America, P.O. Box 11626, Charlotte, NC 28220-1626.  Similar information about cost estimating in government and manufacturing and other industries is available from: O” Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 313, Alexandria, VA 22304.  Education Administrators (D.O.T. 075.117-010, -018, -030; 090.117 except -034, .167; 091.107; 092.167; 094.107, .117-010, .167-014; 096.167; 097.167; 099.117 except -022, .167-034; 100.117-010; 169.267-022; 188.167-094; 239.137-010)  Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide direction, leader­ ship, and day-to-day management of educational activities in schools, colleges and universities, businesses, correctional institu­ tions, museums, and job training and community service organiza­ tions. (College presidents and school superintendents are covered in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) Education administrators set educational standards and goals and aid in establishing policies and procedures to carry them out. They develop academic programs; train and motivate teachers and other staff; manage guidance and other student services; administer re­ cordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle relations with parents, pro­ spective students, employers, or others outside of education; and perform numerous other activities. • They supervise subordinate managers, management support staff, teachers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and others. In an organiza­ tion such as a small daycare center, there may be one administrator who handles all functions. In a major university or large school sys­ tem, responsibilities are divided among many administrators, each with a specific function. Principals manage elementary and secondary schools. They set the academic tone—high-quality instruction is their main responsi­ bility. Principals assign teachers and other staff, help them improve their skills, and evaluate them. They confer with them—advising, explaining, or answering procedural questions. They visit class­ rooms, review instructional objectives, and examine learning mater­ ials. They also meet with other administrators, students, parents, and representatives of community organizations. They prepare  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  budgets and reports on various subjects, including finances, health, and attendance, and oversee the requisitioning and allocation of supplies. As school budgets become tighter, many principals are try­ ing to encourage financial support for their schools from local busi­ nesses. In recent years, as schools have become more involved with a stu­ dent’s emotional welfare as well as academic achievement, schools are providing more services to students. As a result, principals face new responsibilities. For example, in response to the growing num­ ber of dual-income and single-parent families and teenage parents, more schools have before- and after-school child-care programs or family resource centers, which also may offer parenting classes and social service referrals. With the help of other community organiza­ tions, principals also may establish programs to combat the increase in crime, drug and alcohol abuse, and sexually transmitted disease among students. Assistant principals aid the principal in the overall administration of the school. Depending on the number of students, a school may have more than one assistant principal, or may not have any. They are responsible for programming student classes and coordinating transportation, custodial, cafeteria, and other support services. They usually handle discipline, social and recreational programs, and health and safety. They also may counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. Public schools also are managed by administrators in school dis­ trict central offices. This group includes those who direct subject area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special education, and mathematics. They plan, evaluate, and improve curriculums and teaching techniques and help teachers improve their skills and learn about new methods and materials. They oversee ca­ reer counseling programs, and testing which measures students’ abilities and helps place them in appropriate classes. Central office administrators also include directors of programs such as guidance, school psychology, athletics, curriculum and instruction, and pro­ fessional development. With the trend toward site-based manage­ ment, principals and assistant principals, along with teachers and other staff, have primary responsibility for many of these programs in their individual schools. In colleges and universities, academic deans, also known as deans of faculty, provosts, or university deans, assist presidents and de­ velop budgets and academic policies and programs. They direct and coordinate activities of deans of individual colleges and chairper­ sons of academic departments. College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments such as English, biological science, or mathe­ matics. They coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assign­ ments, propose budgets, recruit, interview, and hire applicants for teaching positions, evaluate faculty members, and perform other ad­ ministrative duties in addition to teaching. Higher education administrators also provide student services. Deans of students—also known as vice presidents of student affairs or student life, or directors of student services—direct and coordi­ nate admissions, foreign student services, and health and counseling services, as well as social, recreation, and related programs. In a small college, they may counsel students. Registrars are custodians of students’ education records. They register students, prepare stu­ dent transcripts, evaluate academic records, oversee the preparation of college catalogs and schedules of classes, and analyze registration statistics. Directors of admissions manage the process of recruiting and admitting students, and work closely with financial aid direc­ tors, who oversee scholarship, fellowship, and loan programs. Di­ rectors of student activities plan and arrange social, cultural, and recreational activities, assist student-run organizations, and may orient new students. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic activities, including publicity for athletic events, preparation of budgets, and supervision of coaches.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Education administrators, unlike teachers, usually work year round. Working Conditions Education administrators hold management positions with signifi­ cant responsibility. Coordinating and interacting with faculty, par­ ents, and students can be fast-paced and stimulating, but also stress­ ful and demanding. Some jobs include travel. Principals and assistant principals whose main duty is discipline may find working with difficult students frustrating, but challenging. Most education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, including many nights and weekends when school activities take place. Unlike teachers, they usually work year round. Employment Education administrators held about 351,000 jobs in 1992. About 9 out of 10 were in educational services—in elementary, secondary, and technical schools and colleges and universities. The rest worked in child daycare centers, religious organizations, job training cen­ ters, State departments of education, and businesses and other orga­ nizations that provide training activities for their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education administrator is not usually an entry level job. Many edu­ cation administrators begin their careers in related occupations, and prepare for a job in education administration by completing a mas­ ter’s or doctoral degree. Because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experience vary considerably. Principals, assistant principals, central office ad­ ministrators, and academic deans usually have taught or held an­ other related job before moving into administration. Some teachers  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  31  move directly into principalships; however, most first gain experi­ ence as an assistant principal or in a central office administrative job. In some cases, administrators move up from related staff jobs such as recruiter, residence hall director, or financial aid or admis­ sions counselor. Earning a higher degree generally improves one’s advancement opportunities in education administration. To be considered for education administrator positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating can­ didates, supervisors look for determination, confidence, innovative­ ness, motivation, and managerial attributes, such as ability to make sound decisions and to organize and coordinate work efficiently. Since much of an administrator’s job involves interacting with others, from students to parents to teachers, they must have strong interpersonal skills and be effective communicators and motivators. Knowledge of management principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. In public schools, principals, assistant principals, and school ad­ ministrators in central offices generally need a master’s degree in ed­ ucation administration or educational supervision, and a State teaching certificate. Some principals and central office administra­ tors have a doctorate in education administration. In private schools, they often have a master’s or doctoral degree, but may hold only a bachelor’s degree since they are not subject to State certifica­ tion requirements. Academic deans usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Ad­ missions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars often start in related staff jobs with bachelor’s degrees—any field usually is acceptable—and get advanced degrees in college student affairs or higher education administration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. usu­ ally is necessary for top student affairs positions. Computer literacy and a background in mathematics or statistics may be assets in ad­ missions, records, and financial work. Advanced degrees in higher education administration, educa­ tional supervision, and college student affairs are offered in many colleges and universities. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits programs. Education administration degree programs include courses in school management, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and evalua­ tion, research design and data analysis, community relations, polit­ ics in education, counseling, and leadership. Educational supervi­ sion degree programs include courses in supervision of instruction and curriculum, human relations, curriculum development, re­ search, and advanced pedagogy courses. Education administrators advance by moving up an administra­ tive ladder or transferring to larger schools or systems. They also may become superintendent of a school system or president of an educational institution. Job Outlook Substantial competition is expected for prestigious jobs as education administrators. Many teachers and other staff meet the education and experience requirements for these jobs, and seek promotion. However, the number of openings is relatively small, so generally only the most highly qualified are selected. Candidates who have the most formal education and who are willing to relocate should have the best job prospects. Employment of education administrators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, particularly for principals and assistant principals, are likely to result from the need to replace administra­ tors who retire. Additional openings will be created by workers who transfer to other occupations. Employment of education administrators will grow as school en­ rollments increase; as more services are provided to students; as ef­ forts to improve the quality of education continue; and as institu­ tions comply with government regulations, such as those regarding financial aid.  32  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The number of education administrators employed depends largely on State and local expenditures for education. Budgetary constraints could result in fewer administrators than anticipated; pressures to increase spending to improve the quality of education could result in more. Earnings Salaries of education administrators vary according to position, level of responsibility and experience, and the size and location of the institution. According to the Educational Research Service, Inc., average sal­ aries for principals and assistant principals in the school year 1992­ 93 were as follows: Principals: Elementary school..................................................................... Junior high/middle school........................................................ Senior high school.....................................................................  $54,900 58,600 63,000  Assistant principals: Elementary school..................................................................... Junior high/middle school........................................................ Senior high school.....................................................................  45,400 49,900 52,300  In 1992-93, according to the College and University Personnel Association, median annual salaries for selected administrators in higher education were as follows: Academic deans: Medicine.................................................................................... $ 182,600 Law............................................................................................ 129,000 Engineering.................................................................................... 97,000 Arts and sciences........................................................................... 74,100 Business........................................................................................... 73,700 Education....................................................................................... 72,500 Social sciences........................................................................... 54,500 Mathematics.............................................................................. 53,400 Student services directors; Admissions and registrar............................................................... Student financial aid....................................................................... Student activities...........................................................................  47,500 40,500 30,900  Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to individuals. Workers in related occupations include health services administrators, social service agency admin­ istrators, recreation and park managers, museum directors, library directors, and professional and membership organization execu­ tives. Since principals and assistant principals generally have exten­ sive teaching experience, their backgrounds are similar to those of teachers and many school counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on elementary and secondary school principals, as­ sistant principals, and central office administrators, contact: ^American Federation of School Administrators, 1729 21st St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. IT American Association of School Administrators, 1801 North Moore St., Arlington, VA 22209.  For information on elementary school principals and assistant principals, contact: 13= The National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3483.  For information on secondary school principals and assitant prin­ cipals, contact: 13* The National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Associa­ tion Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  For information on college student affairs administrators, con­ tact:  tw National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 1875 Con­ necticut Ave. NW., Suite 418, Washington, DC 20009-5728.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information on collegiate registrars and admissions officers, contact:  American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, One Dupont Circle NW., Suite 330, Washington, DC 20036-1171.  Employment Interviewers (D.O.T. 166.267-010)  Nature of the Work Whether you are looking for a job or trying to fill one, you could find yourself turning to an employment interviewer for help. Some­ times called personnel consultants, human resources coordinators, manpower development specialists, or employment brokers, em­ ployment interviewers help jobseekers find employment and help employers find qualified staff. Working largely in private personnel supply firms or State em­ ployment security offices (also known as job or employment service centers), employment interviewers act as brokers, putting together the best combination of applicant and job. To accomplish this, they obtain information from employers as well as jobseekers. Being a private industry employment interviewer is a sales job. Counselors pool together a group of qualified applicants and try to sell them to many different companies. Often a consultant will call a company that has never been a client (cold-calling) with the aim of filling their employment needs. Employers generally pay private (but not public) agencies to re­ cruit workers. The employer places a “job order” with the agency describing the opening and listing requirements such as education, licenses or credentials, and experience. Employment interviewers often contact the employer to determine their exact personnel needs. Jobseekers are asked to fill out forms or present resumes that detail their education, experience, and other qualifications. They may be interviewed or tested and have their background, references, and credentials checked. The employment interviewer then reviews the job requirements and the jobseeker qualifications to determine the best possible match of position and employee. Although computers are increasingly used to keep records and match employers with job­ seekers, personal contact with an employment interviewer remains an essential part of an applicant’s job search. Maintaining good relations with employers is an important part of the employment interviewer’s job because this helps assure a steady flow of job orders. Being prepared to fill an opening quickly with a qualified applicant impresses employers most and keeps them as clients. Besides helping firms fill job openings, employment interviewers help individuals find jobs. The services they provide depend upon the company or type of agency they work for and the clientele it serves. Employment interviewers in personnel supply firms who place permanent employees are generally called counselors. They usually place job applicants who have the right qualifications but lack knowledge of the job market for their desired position. Counselors in these firms offer tips on personal appearance, suggestions on presenting a positive image of oneself, background on the company with which an interview is scheduled, and recommendations about interviewing techniques. Many firms specialize in placing applicants in particular kinds ofjobs, for example secretarial, word processing, computer programming and computer systems analysis, engineer­ ing, accounting, law, or health. Counselors in such firms usually have 3 to 5 years of experience in the field into which they are plac­ ing applicants. Some employment interviewers work in temporary help services companies. These companies send out their own employees to firms that need temporary help. Employment interviewers take job orders  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations from client firms and match their requests against a list of available workers. The employment interviewer selects the best qualified worker available and assigns him or her to the firm requiring assis­ tance. Sometimes these employees are placed with a company as a temporary and later become a permanent employee. Traditionally, firms that placed permanent employees usually dealt with highly skilled applicants, such as lawyers or accountants, and those placing temporary employees dealt with less skilled work­ ers, such as secretaries or data entry operators. However, temporary help services increasingly place workers with a wide range of educa­ tional backgrounds and work experience; businesses are turning to temporary employees to fill all types of positions to reduce costs of pay and benefits associated with hiring permanent employees. Regular evaluation of employee job skills is an important part of the job for those interviewers working in temporary help services companies. Initially, interviewers evaluate or test new employees’ skills to determine their abilities and weaknesses. The results, which are kept on file, are referred to when filling job orders. In some cases, the temporary help company will train employees to improve their skills. Periodically, the interviewer may reevaluate or retest employees to identify any new skills they may have developed. The duties of employment interviewers in job service centers dif­ fer somewhat because applicants may lack marketable skills. In these centers, jobseekers present resumes and fill out forms that ask about educational attainment, job history, skills, awards, certifi­ cates, and licenses. An employment interviewer reviews these forms and asks the applicant about the type ofjob sought and salary range desired. Applicants sometimes have exaggerated expectations. Em­ ployment interviewers must be tactful, but persuasive, if an appli­ cant’s job or salary requests are unreasonable. Applicants may need help identifying the kind of work for which they are best suited. The employment interviewer evaluates the ap­ plicant’s qualifications and either chooses an appropriate occupa­ tion or class of occupations, or refers the applicant for vocational testing. After identifying an appropriate job type, the employment inter­ viewer searches the file of job orders seeking a possible job match, and refers the applicant to the employer if a match is found. If no match is found, the interviewer shows the applicant how to use list­ ings of available jobs. Some applicants are hindered by problems such as poor English language skills, no high school diploma, a history of drug or alcohol dependency, or a prison record. The amount and nature of special help for such applicants vary from State to State. In some States, it is the employment interviewer’s responsibility to counsel hard-toplace applicants and refer them elsewhere for literacy or language instruction, vocational training, transportation assistance, child care, and other services. In other States, specially trained counselors perform this task. Working Conditions Employment interviewers usually work in comfortable, well-lighted offices. Some interviewers may spend much of their time out of the office interviewing clients or at a computer terminal. The work can prove hectic, especially in temporary help service companies which supply clients with immediate help for short periods of time, or longer spells, depending on the client’s needs. Some overtime may be required, and temporary workers may need their own transporta­ tion to make employer visits. The private placement industry is competitive, so counselors feel pressed to give their client companies the best service. Employment Employment interviewers held about 79,000 jobs in 1992. Three out of 5 worked for personnel supply services, generally of employment firms or temporary help services companies, in the private sector. One out of 5 worked for State or local government.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  33  Employment interviewers help bring jobseekers and employers together. Employees of career consulting or outplacement firms are not in­ cluded in these estimates. Workers in these firms help clients market themselves; they do not act as job brokers, nor do they match indi­ viduals with particular vacancies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most public and private agencies prefer to hire college graduates for interviewer jobs, a degree is not always necessary. Hir­ ing requirements in the private sector reflect a firm’s management approach as well as the placements in which its interviewers special­ ize. Those that place highly trained individuals such as accountants, lawyers, engineers, physicians, or managers generally have some training or experience in the field in which they are placing workers. Thus, a bachelor’s, master’s, or even a doctoral degree may be a pre­ requisite for some interviewers. Even with the right education, how­ ever, sales ability is still required to succeed in the private sector. Educational requirements play a lesser role for interviewers plac­ ing secretaries, word processing operators, and other clerical per­ sonnel. In these positions, qualities such as energy level, telephone voice, and sales ability take precedence over educational attainment. Entry level employment interviewer positions in the public sector are generally filled by college graduates, even though the positions do not always require a bachelor’s degree. Some States allow substi­ tution of suitable work experience for college education. Suitable work experience is generally defined as public contact work or time spent at other jobs (including clerical jobs) in a job service office. In States that permit employment interviewers to engage in counseling, course work in counseling may be required. Most States and many large city and county governments use some form of merit system for hiring interviewers. Applicants may take a written exam, undergo a preliminary interview, or submit records of their education and experience for evaluation. Those who meet the standards are placed on a list from which the top-ranked candidates are selected for later interviews and possible hiring. Other desirable qualifications for employment interviewers in­ clude good communications skills, a desire to help people, office skills, and adaptability. A friendly, confidence-winning manner is an asset because personal interaction plays a large role in this occu­ pation. Increasingly, employment interviewers use computers as a tool; thus, knowledge of computers is helpful. Advancement as an employment interviewer in the public sector is often based on a system providing regular promotions and salary increases for those meeting established standards. Advancement to supervisory positions is highly competitive. In personnel supply  34  Occupational Outlook Handbook  firms, advancement often depends on one’s success in placing work­ ers and generally takes the form of greater responsibility and higher income. Successful individuals may form their own businesses. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to grow as fast as the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005. Most new jobs will be with temporary help or personnel supply firms. Relatively little growth is anticipated in State job service offices because of budget­ ary problems and the increasing use of computerized job matching and information systems. Some additional job openings will result from the need to replace interviewers who do not meet their employ­ er’s requirements for placing job applicants, and to replace exper­ ienced interviewers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Expansion of firms supplying temporary help will be responsible for much of the growth in this occupation. Businesses of all types are turning to temporary help services companies for additional work­ ers during busy periods, for handling short-term assignments or one-time projects, for launching new programs, and to reduce costs of pay and benefits associated with hiring permanent employees. Expansion of the personnel supply industry in general will also spur job growth. Job orders will increase as the economy expands and new businesses are formed; this is expected to heighten demand for employment interviewers. Firms that lack the time or resources to develop their own screening procedures will likely turn to person­ nel firms. Employment opportunities should be better in private placement firms than in State job service centers. Entry to this occupation is relatively easy for college graduates, or people who have had some college courses, except in those positions specializing in placement of workers with highly specialized training, such as lawyers, doc­ tors, and engineers. Employment interviewers who place permanent workers may lose their jobs during recessions because employers reduce or elimi­ nate hiring for permanent positions during downturns in the econ­ omy. Also, during periods of high unemployment, employers have fewer problems finding the workers they need, so they turn less often to employment agencies for help. However, during these times the need for the services of employment interviewers who place tem­ porary employees may increase. Employers are increasingly turning to temporary services because temporary employees cost less to hire than permanent employees and are more flexible in terms of hours and working conditions. Those who place permanent or temporary personnel are more susceptible to layoffs than State job service em­ ployment interviewers. Earnings Earnings in private firms vary, in part because the basis for compen­ sation varies. Workers in personnel supply firms tend to be paid on a commission basis; those in temporary help service companies re­ ceive a salary. When workers are paid on a commission basis (or salary plus commission), total earnings depend on how much business they bring in. This is usually based on the type as well as the number of placements. Those who place more highly skilled or hard-to-find employees earn more. An interviewer or counselor working strictly on a commission basis often makes around 30 percent of what he or she bills the client, although this varies widely from firm to firm. Some work on a salary-plus-commission basis because they fill diffi­ cult or highly specialized positions requiring long periods of search. The salary, usually small by normal standards, guarantees these in­ dividuals security through slow times. The commission provides the incentive and opportunity for higher earnings. Some personnel supply firms employ new workers for a 2-to 3month probationary period during which they draw a regular sal­ ary. This gives new workers time to develop their skills and acquire  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  some clients. At the end of the probationary period, the new em­ ployees are evaluated, and they are either let go or switched to a commission basis. According to the limited data available, average earnings of inter­ viewers or counselors in personnel supply and temporary help ser­ vices firms ranged from about $17,000 to $25,000 in 1991; some earned considerably more. Salaries for those placing professional workers are usually higher than those placing clerical workers. Starting salaries for employment interviewers in State job service centers vary from State to State and ranged from about $13,000 to $20,000 a year in 1992. Related Occupations Employment interviewers serve as intermediaries for jobseekers and employers. Workers in several other occupations do similar jobs. Personnel officers screen and help hire new employees, but they concern themselves mainly with the hiring needs of the firm; they never represent individual jobseekers. Personnel officers may also have additional duties in areas such as payroll or benefits manage­ ment. Career counselors help students and alumni find jobs, but they primarily emphasize career counseling and decision making, not placement. Counselors in community organizations and vocational rehabili­ tation facilities help clients find jobs, but they also assist with drug or alcohol dependencies, housing, transportation, child care, and other problems that stand in the way of finding and keeping a job. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an employment interviewer/coun­ selor, contact: O’National Association of Personnel Consultants, 3133 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305. O’ National Association of Temporary Services, 119 S. Saint Asaph St., Al­ exandria, VA 22314.  For information on a career as an employment interviewer in State employment security offices, contact: O’ Interstate  Conference of Employment Security Agencies, 444 North Capitol St. NW., Suite 142, Washington, DC 20001.  Engineering, Science, and Data Processing Managers (D.O.T. 007.167012.167029.167-  002.167-018; 003.167-034 and -070; 005.167-010 and -022 014; 008.167-010; 010.161-010, -014, and .167-018; 011.161-010 058 and-062; 018.167-022; 019.167-014; 022.161-010; 024.167-010 014; 162.117-030; 169.167-030 and-082; and 189.117-014)  Nature of the Work Engineering, science, and data processing managers plan, coordi­ nate, and direct research, development, design, production, and computer related activities. They supervise a staff which may in­ clude engineers, scientists, technicians, computer specialists, data processing workers, along with support personnel. Engineering, science, and data processing managers determine scientific and technical goals within broad outlines provided by top management. These goals may include the redesign of an industrial machine, improvements in manufacturing processes, the develop­ ment of a large computer program, or advances in basic scientific re­ search. Managers make detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals—for example, they may develop the overall concepts of new products or identify problems standing in the way of project completion. They forecast costs and equipment and personnel needs for projects and programs. They hire and assign scientists, engi­ neers, technicians, computer specialists, data processing workers,  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations and support personnel to carry out specific parts of the projects, su­ pervise their work, and review their designs, programs, and reports. Managers coordinate the activities of their unit with other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, industrial production, marketing, and other manag­ ers; and with contractors and equipment suppliers. They also estab­ lish working and administrative procedures and policies. Engineering managers direct and coordinate production, opera­ tions, quality assurance, testing, or maintenance in industrial plants; or plan and coordinate the design and development of machinery, products, systems, and processes. Many are plant engineers, who di­ rect and coordinate the maintenance, operation, design, and instal­ lation of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Others man­ age research and development activities that produce new products and processes or improve existing ones. Natural science managers oversee activities in agricultural sci­ ence, chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology, or physics. They manage research and development projects and direct and coordi­ nate testing, quality control, and production activities in industrial plants. Electronic data processing managers direct, plan, and coordinate data processing activities. Top level managers direct all computerrelated activities in an organization. Others manage computer oper­ ations, software development, or data bases. They analyze the data processing requirements of their organization and assign, schedule, and review the work of systems analysts, computer programmers, and computer operators. They determine computer hardware re­ quirements, evaluate equipment options, and make purchasing deci­ sions. Some engineering, science, and data processing managers head a section of perhaps 3 to 10 or more scientists, engineers, or computer professionals. Above them are heads of divisions composed of a number of sections, with as many as 15 to 50 scientists or engineers. A few are directors of large laboratories or directors of research. Working Conditions Engineering, science, and data processing managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, may also work in laboratories or industrial plants, where they normally are exposed to the same conditions as research scientists and may occasionally be exposed to the same conditions as production workers. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occa­ sion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pressure to meet technical or scientific goals within a short time or within a tight budget.  BSP1  g  Engineering managers direct the research, development, and manufacture of a product.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  35  Employment Engineering, science, and data processing managers held about 337,000 jobs in 1992. Although these managers are found in almost all industries, nearly two-fifths are employed in manufacturing, es­ pecially in the industrial machinery and equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, transportation equipment, instruments, and chemicals industries. They also work for engineering, management, and computer and data processing services companies. Others work for government, colleges and universities, and nonprofit research organizations. The majority are most likely engineering managers, often managing industrial research, development, and design projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience as an engineer, mathematician, natural scientist, or computer professional is the usual requirement for becoming an en­ gineering, science, or data processing manager. Consequently, edu­ cational requirements are similar to those for scientists, engineers, and data processing professionals. Engineering managers start as engineers. A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is acceptable for beginning engineering jobs, but many engineers increase their chances for promotion to manager by obtaining a master’s degree in engineering or business administration. A degree in business admin­ istration or engineering management is especially useful for becom­ ing a general manager. Natural science managers usually start as a chemist, physicist, bi­ ologist, or other natural scientist. Most natural scientists engaged in basic research have a Ph.D. degree. Some in applied research and other activities may have lesser degrees. First-level science manag­ ers are usually specialists in the work they supervise. For example, the manager of a group of physicists doing optical research is almost always a physicist who is an expert in optics. Most data processing managers have been systems analysts, al­ though some may have experience as programmers, operators, or in other computer specialties. There is no universally accepted way of preparing for a job as a systems analyst. Many have degrees in com­ puter or information science, computer information systems, or data processing and have experience as computer programmers. A bachelor’s degree is usually required and a graduate degree often is preferred. A typical career advancement progression in a large or­ ganization would be from programmer to programmer/analyst, to systems analyst, and then to project leader or senior analyst. The first real managerial position might be as project manager, program­ ming supervisor, systems supervisor, or software manager. In addition to educational requirements, scientists, engineers, or computer specialists generally must have demonstrated above-aver­ age technical skills to be considered for promotion to manager. Superiors also look for leadership and communication skills, as well as managerial attributes such as the ability to make rational deci­ sions, to manage time well, to organize and coordinate work effec­ tively, to establish good working and personal relationships, and to motivate others. Also, a successful manager must have the desire to manage. Many scientists, engineers, and computer specialists want to be promoted but actually prefer doing technical work. Some scientists and engineers become managers in marketing, personnel, purchasing, or other areas or become general managers. Job Outlook Employment of engineering and science managers is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Opportunities for those who wish to become engineering, sci­ ence, and data processing managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found. (See the statements on natural scientists, engi­ neers, computer programmers, and computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.)  36  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Underlying much of the growth of managers in science and engi­ neering are competitive pressures and advancing technologies which force companies to update and improve products more fre­ quently. Research and investment in plants and equipment to ex­ pand output of goods and services and to raise productivity also will add to employment requirements for science and engineering man­ agers involved in research and development, design, and the opera­ tion and maintenance of production facilities. Many of the industries which employ engineers and scientists de­ rive a large portion of their business from defense contracts. Because defense expenditures are being reduced, employment growth and job outlook for managers in these industries may not be as strong in the future as in the 1980’s, when defense expenditures were increas­ ing. Employment of data processing managers will increase rapidly due to the fast paced expansion of the computer and data processing services industry and the increased employment of computer sys­ tems analysts. Large computer centers are consolidating or closing as small computers become more powerful, and more automated systems are resulting in fewer opportunities for data processing managers at computing centers. However, as the economy expands and as advances in technology lead to broader applications for com­ puters, opportunities should increase and employment growth should be brisk. Despite growth in employment, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because many engineers, natural scientists, and computer specialists are eli­ gible for management and seek promotion, there can be substantial competition for these openings. Earnings Earnings for engineering, science, and data processing managers vary by specialty and level of management. Science and engineering managers had average salaries that ranged from $50,000 to well over $100,000 for the most senior managers in large organizations, ac­ cording to the limited data available. Data processing managers had salaries that ranged from $35,000 to $80,000. Managers often earn about 15 to 25 percent more than those they directly supervise, al­ though there are cases where some employees are paid more than the manager who supervises them, especially in research. In addition, engineering, science, and data processing managers, especially those at higher levels, often are provided more benefits than non-managerial workers in their organizations. Higher level managers often are provided with expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses. Related Occupations The work of engineering, science, and data processing managers is closely related to that of engineers, natural scientists, computer per­ sonnel, and mathematicians. It is also related to the work of other managers, especially general managers and top executives. Sources of Additional Information Contact the sources of additional information on engineers, natural scientists, and systems analysts that are listed in statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.  Financial Managers (D.O.T. 160.167-058; 161.117-018; 169.167-086; 186.117-066, -070, -078, -086; .167-054, -086; and 189.117-038)  Nature of the Work Practically every firm—whether in manufacturing, communica­ tions, finance, education, or health care—has one or more financial  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  managers. Some of them are treasurers, controllers, credit manag­ ers, cash managers; they prepare the financial reports required by the firm to conduct its operations and to ensure that the firm satis­ fies tax and regulatory requirements. Financial managers also over­ see the flow of cash and financial instruments, monitor the exten­ sion of credit, assess the risk of transactions, raise capital, analyze investments, develop information to assess the present and future fi­ nancial status of the firm, and communicate with stock holders and other investors. In small firms, chief financial officers usually handle all financial management functions. However, in large firms, these officers over­ see all financial management departments and help top managers develop financial and economic policy and establish procedures, delegate authority, and oversee the implementation of these policies. Highly trained and experienced financial managers head each fi­ nancial department. Controllers direct the preparation of all finan­ cial reports—for example, income statements, balance sheets, and special reports such as depreciation schedules. They oversee the ac­ counting, audit, or budget departments. Cash and credit managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements to meet the business and investment needs of the firm. For example, cash flow projections are needed to determine whether loans must be obtained to meet cash requirements, or whether surplus cash may be invested in interest-bearing instruments. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to minimize risks and losses that may arise from financial transactions and business operations under­ taken by the institution. Credit operations managers establish credit rating criteria, determine credit ceilings, and monitor their institu­ tion’s extension of credit. Reserve officers review their institution’s financial statements and direct the purchase and sale of bonds and other securities to maintain the asset-liability ratio required by law. User representatives in international accounting develop integrated international financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. A working knowledge of the financial systems of foreign countries is essential. Financial institutions—such as banks, savings and loan associa­ tions, credit unions, personal credit institutions, and finance compa­ nies—may serve as depositories for cash and financial instruments and offer loans, investment counseling, consumer credit, trust man­ agement, and other financial services. Some specialize in specific fi­ nancial services. Financial managers in financial institutions include vice presidents—who may head one or more financial depart­ ments—bank branch managers, savings and loan association man­ agers, consumer credit managers, and credit union managers, for example. These managers make decisions in accordance with policy set by the institution’s board of directors and Federal and State laws and regulations. Due to changing regulations and increased government scrutiny, financial managers in financial institutions must place greater em­ phasis on accurate reporting of financial data. They must have de­ tailed knowledge of industries allied to banking—such as insurance, real estate, and securities—and broad knowledge of business and in­ dustrial activities. With growing domestic and foreign competition, knowledge of an expanding and increasingly complex variety of fi­ nancial services is becoming a necessity for financial managers in fi­ nancial institutions and other corporations. Besides supervising fi­ nancial services, financial managers in financial institutions may advise individuals and businesses on financial planning. Working Conditions Financial managers are provided with comfortable offices, often close to top managers and to departments which develop the finan­ cial data these managers need. Although overtime may sometimes be required, financial managers typically work a 40-hour week. At­ tendance at meetings of financial and economic associations and similar activities is often required. In very large corporations, some traveling to subsidiary firms and to customer accounts may be nec­ essary.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Outstanding financial managers are prime candidates for promotion to top management jobs. Employment Financial managers held about 701,000 jobs in 1992. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, one-third were employed by financial institutions—banks, savings institutions, fi­ nance companies, credit unions, insurance companies, securities dealers, and real estate firms, for example. Nearly another third were employed by services industries, including business, health, so­ cial, and management services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance, or in business admin­ istration with an emphasis on accounting or finance, is suitable aca­ demic preparation for financial managers. A Master of Business Ad­ ministration (MBA) degree is increasingly valued by employers. Many financial management positions are filled by promoting ex­ perienced, technically skilled professional personnel—for example, accountants, budget analysts, credit analysts, insurance analysts, loan officers, and securities analysts—or accounting or related de­ partment supervisors in large institutions. Due to the growing complexity of global trade, shifting Federal and State laws and regulations, and a proliferation of new, complex financial instruments, continuing education is becoming vital for fi­ nancial mangers. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills and encourage employees to take graduate courses at colleges and universities or attend confer­ ences sponsored by the company. In addition, financial manage­ ment, banking, and credit union associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, sponsor numerous national or local training programs. Persons enrolled prepare extensively at home, then attend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget management, corporate cash management, financial analy­ sis, international banking, and data processing and management in­ formation systems. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by this type of special study. In some cases, financial managers may also broaden their skills and exhibit their competency in specialized fields by attaining pro­ fessional certification. For example, the Association for Investment  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  37  Management and Research confers the Chartered Financial Ana­ lyst designation to investment professionals who have a bachelor’s degree, pass three test levels, and have 3 or more years of experience in the field. The National Association of Credit Management ad­ ministers a three-part certification program for business credit pro­ fessionals. Through a combination of experience and examinations, these financial managers pass through the level of Credit Business Associate, to Credit Business Fellow, to Certified Credit Executive. The Treasury Management Association confers the Certified Cash Manager designation to those who pass an examination and have 2 years of relevant experience. Persons interested in becoming financial managers should like to work independently, deal with people, and analyze detailed account information. The ability to communicate, both orally and in writing, is increasingly important. They also need tact, good judgment, and the ability to establish effective personal relationships to oversee su­ pervisory and professional staff members. Financial analysis and management have been revolutionized by technological improvements in personal computers and data processing equipment. Knowledge of their applications is vital to upgrade managerial skills and to enhance advancement opportuni­ ties. Because financial management is critical for efficient business op­ erations, well-trained, experienced financial managers who display a strong grasp of the operations of various departments within their organization are prime candidates for promotion to top manage­ ment positions. Some financial managers transfer to closely related positions in other industries. Those with extensive experience and access to sufficient capital may head their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Like other managerial occupations, the number of applicants for fi­ nancial management positions is expected to exceed the number of job openings, resulting in competition for jobs. Employment of fi­ nancial managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition, job openings will arise each year as financial managers transfer to other occupa­ tions, start their own businesses, or retire. Similar to other manag­ ers, most financial managers who leave their jobs seek other posi­ tions in their field; relatively few experienced workers leave the occupation permanently each year. Although the need for skilled financial management will increase due to the demands of global trade, the proliferation of complex fi­ nancial instruments, and continually changing Federal and State laws and regulations, employment growth among financial manag­ ers will be tempered by corporate restructuring and downsizing in many industries. Many firms are reducing their ranks of middle managers in an effort to be more efficient and competitive. Simi­ larly, as the banking industry consolidates and banks merge their operations, some financial management positions may be elimi­ nated. These forces will prevent the growing need for skilled finan­ cial managers from resulting in dramatic employment growth. Many opportunities will still exist for the most skilled, adaptable, and knowledgeable financial managers. Those who keep abreast of the latest financial instruments and changing regulations, and those familiar with a range of financial services—for example, banking, business credit, credit unions, insurance, real estate, and securities—and with data processing and management information systems will enjoy the best employment opportunities. Developing expertise in a rapidly growing industry, such as health care, also may prove helpful. Earnings The median annual salary of financial managers was $39,700 in 1992. The lowest 10 percent earned $20,200 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $77,800. According to a survey by Robert Half International, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, salaries of chief  38  Occupational Outlook Handbook  financial officers/treasurers ranged from $56,000 in the smallest firms to $290,000 in the largest firms in 1993; controllers, $44,000 to $129,000; and assistant controllers, $38,000 to $75,000. The salary level depends upon the manager’s experience and the size and location of the organization, and is likely to be higher in large organizations and cities. Many financial managers in private industry receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, which also vary substantially by size of firm. Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal education with experience in one or more areas of finance—such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or insurance risk and loss control. Workers in other occupations which require similar train­ ing and ability include accountants and auditors, budget officers, credit analysts, loan officers, insurance consultants, portfolio man­ agers, pension consultants, real estate advisors, securities analysts, and underwriters. Sources of Additional Information For general information about financial management careers, con­ tact:  ©"Financial Management Association, Inti., College of Business Adminis­ tration, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5500. ©"Financial Managers Society, 8 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 500, Chicago, IL 60603.  For information about financial management careers in banking and related financial institutions, contact: ©"American Bankers Association, Center for Banking Information, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036.  For information about financial management careers in credit un­ ions, contact: ©"Credit Union Executives Society, P.O. Box 14167, Madison, WI 53714.  For information about financial careers in business credit man­ agement, the Certified Credit Executive program, and institutions offering graduate courses in credit and financial management, con­ tact:  ©" National Association of Credit Management (NACM), and Credit Re­ search Foundation, the education and research affiliate of NACM, 8815 Centre Park Dr., Columbia, MD 21045-2117.  For information about careers in corporate cash management and the Certified Cash Manager program, contact: ©"Treasury Management Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814.  For information about the Chartered Financial Analyst program, contact:  ©" Association for Investment Management and Research, 5 Boar’s Head Lane, P.O. Box 3668, Charlottesville, VA 22903.  For information about financial management careers in the health care industry, contact: ©"Healthcare Financial Management Association, 2 Westbrook Corporate Center, Suite 700, Westchester, IL 60154.  For information on careers and courses for financial managers in the banking industry, contact: ©■Savings and Community Bankers of America, Education Services, Center For Financial Studies, 200 Barlow Rd., Fairfield, CT 06430.  Information about careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: ©"Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Division of Human Resources Management, Washington, DC 20551, or from the human re­ sources department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area.  State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. ©" The American Financial Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publications). ©" The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). ©* Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). ©■ Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.).  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Funeral Directors (D.O.T. 187.167-030)  Nature of the Work Since the earliest of times, most peoples have held funeral ceremo­ nies. The dead have ritually been interred in pyramids, cremated on burning pyres, and sunk beneath the oceans’ waves. Even today, fu­ neral practices and rites vary greatly among various cultures and re­ ligions. Among the many diverse groups in the United States, fu­ neral practices generally share some common elements: Removal of the remains of the deceased to a mortuary, preparation of the re­ mains, performance of a ceremony that honors the deceased and ad­ dresses the spiritual needs of the living as well as the dead, and the burial or destruction of the remains. To unburden themselves of ar­ ranging and directing these tasks, grieving families turn to funeral directors. Funeral directors are also called morticians or undertakers. Al­ though this career does not appeal to everyone, the men and women who work as funeral directors take great pride in the fact that they provide efficient and appropriate services that give comfort to their customers. Funeral directors interview the family to learn what they desire with regard to the nature of the funeral the clergy members or other persons who will officiate, and the final disposition of the remains; sometimes the deceased leave detailed instructions for their own fu­ nerals. Directors establish with the family the location, dates, and times of wakes, memorial services, and burials. They also send a hearse to carry the body to the funeral home or mortuary. Burial in a casket is the most common method of disposing of re­ mains in this country, although entombments also occur. Crema­ tion, which is the burning of a body in a special furnace, is increas­ ingly selected. Even when remains are cremated, the ashes are often placed in an urn and buried. Funeral directors usually stock a selec­ tion of caskets and urns for families to purchase. Directors arrange the details and handle the logistics of funerals. They prepare obituary notices and have them placed in newspapers, arrange for pallbearers and clergy, schedule with the cemetery the opening and closing of a grave, decorate and prepare the sites of all services, and provide for the transportation of the remains, mourn­ ers, and flowers between sites. They also direct preparation and shipment of remains for out-of-State burial. Funeral services may take place in the home, a house of worship, or the funeral home and at the grave site or crematory. Services may be nonreligious, but often they reflect the religion of the family, so funeral directors must be familiar with the funeral and burial cus­ toms of many faiths, ethnic groups, and fraternal organizations. For example, members of some religions seldom have the bodies of the deceased embalmed or cremated. Most funeral directors are also trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. In large funeral homes, an embalming staff of one or more embalmers, plus several apprentices, may be employed. Em­ balming is a sanitary, cosmetic, and preservative process through which the body is prepared for interment. If more than 24 hours or so elapses between death and interment, State laws usually require that remains be embalmed. The embalmer washes the body with germicidal soap and replaces the blood with embalming fluid to pre­ serve the body. Embalmers may reshape and reconstruct disfigured or maimed bodies using materials, such as clay, cotton, plaster of Paris, and wax. They also may apply cosmetics to provide a natural appearance, and then dress the body and place it in a casket. Em­ balmers may maintain records, such as itemized lists of clothing or valuables delivered with the body and the name of person em­ balmed. Funeral directors also handle the paper work involved with the person’s death. They may help family members apply for veterans’  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations burial benefits, notify the Social Security Administration of the death, apply on behalf of survivors for the transfer of any pensions or annuities, and submit papers to State authorities so that a formal certificate of death may be issued and copies distributed to heirs. Funeral directors are also responsible for the success and the profitability of their businesses. Directors keep records on expenses, purchases, and services rendered; prepare and send invoices for ser­ vices; prepare and submit reports for unemployment insurance; pre­ pare Federal, State, and local tax forms; and prepare itemized bills for customers. Directors also strive to foster a cooperative spirit and friendly attitude among employees and a compassionate demeanor toward the families. Most funeral homes have a chapel, one or more viewing rooms, a casket-selection room, and a preparation room. Equipment may in­ clude a hearse, a flower car, limousines, and sometimes an ambu­ lance. Working Conditions Funeral directors often work long, irregular hours. Shift work is sometimes necessary because funeral home hours include evenings and weekends. In smaller funeral homes, working hours vary, but in larger homes employees generally work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Funeral directors occasionally come into contact with the re­ mains of persons who had contagious diseases, but the possibility of infection is remote if strict health regulations are followed. To show proper respect and consideration for the families and the dead, funeral directors must dress appropriately. The profession usually requires short, neat hair cuts and trim beards if any, for men. Suits, ties, and dresses are customary for a conservative look. Employment Funeral directors held about 27,000 jobs in 1992. About one-third were self-employed. Nearly all worked in the funeral service and crematory industry, but a few worked for the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Funeral directors must be licensed in all but one State, Colorado. Li­ censing laws vary from State to State, but most require applicants to be 21 years old, have a high school diploma, complete some college training in mortuary science, and serve an apprenticeship. After passing a State board licensing examination, new funeral directors may join the staff of a funeral home. Embalmers are required to be licensed in all States, and some States issue a single license for both funeral directors and embalmers. In States that have separate licens­ ing and apprenticeship requirements for the two positions, most  Most funeral directors are also trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  39  people in the field obtain both licenses. Persons interested in a career as a funeral director should contact their state board for specific state requirements. College programs in mortuary science usually last from 1 to 4 years, depending on the school. There were 40 mortuary science programs accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Ed­ ucation in 1992. One-year mortuary science programs offered by some vocational schools emphasized basic subjects such as anat­ omy, physiology, embalming techniques, and restorative art. Twoyear programs were offered by a small number of community and junior colleges, and a few colleges and universities offered both 2and 4-year programs. Longer mortuary science programs include courses in business management, accounting, and use of computers in funeral home management and client services. They also included courses in the social sciences and legal, ethical, and regulatory sub­ jects, such as psychology, grief counseling, oral and written commu­ nication, funeral service law, business law, and ethics. The National Foundation of Funeral Service offers a continuing education program designed for active practitioners in the field. It is a 3-week program in communications, counseling, and manage­ ment. Some States have continuing education requirements that fu­ neral directors must meet before a license can be renewed. Apprenticeships must be completed under an experienced and li­ censed funeral director or embalmer. Depending on State regula­ tions, apprenticeships last from 1 to 2 years and may be served before, during, or after mortuary school. They provide practical ex­ perience in all facets of the funeral service from embalming to trans­ porting remains. State board licensing examinations vary, but they usually consist of written and oral parts and include a demonstration of practical skills. Persons who want to work in another State may have to pass the examination for that State, although many States will grant li­ censes to funeral directors from another State without further exam­ ination. High school students can start preparing for a career as a funeral director by taking courses in biology and chemistry and participat­ ing public speaking or debating clubs. Part-time or summer jobs in funeral homes consist mostly of maintenance and clean-up tasks, such as washing and polishing limousines and hearses, but these tasks can help students become familiar with the operation of fu­ neral homes. Important personal traits for funeral directors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. They also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in their time of sorrow. Advancement opportunities are best in large funeral homes at which directors and embalmers may earn promotions to higher pay­ ing positions such as branch manager or general manager. Some di­ rectors eventually acquire enough money and experience to estab­ lish their own funeral businesses. Job Outlook Employment of funeral directors and embalmers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment opportunities are expected to be excellent, because the number of graduates in mortuary science is likely to continue to be less than the number ofjob openings in the field. Demand for funeral services will rise as the population grows, and with it the number of deaths. The population is projected to become older because the number of persons age 55 and over is expected to increase significantly faster than the population as a whole. Deaths will also increase among members of the younger population due to AIDS. Cremations have been increasing over the years. This trend may lessen the demand for embalming somewhat, because in some States, embalming is not required before cremation. As a conse­ quence, fewer services would be needed from funeral directors.  40  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Earnings Salaries of funeral directors depend on the size of the establishment and the number of services performed. A survey conducted by the National Funeral Directors Association found that the average sal­ ary, including bonus, for funeral directors who were owner/manag­ ers was $59,574 in 1991; mid-level managers averaged $41,393. Embalmers had average salaries of $27,421, and apprentices averaged $17,489. Related Occupations The job of a funeral director requires tact, discretion, and compas­ sion when dealing with grieving people. Others who need these qual­ ities include members of the clergy, social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and other health care professionals. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as a funeral director is available from:  their duties may be highly specialized. For example, they may over­ see general managers of marketing, sales promotion, purchasing, fi­ nance, personnel, training, industrial relations, administrative ser­ vices, electronic data processing, property management, transportation, or legal services departments. (Some of these and other managerial occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In smaller firms, an executive vice president might be responsible for a number of these departments. General managers, in turn, direct their individual department’s activities within the framework of the organization’s overall plan. With the help of supervisory managers and their staffs, general man­ agers oversee and strive to motivate workers to achieve their depart­ ment’s goals as rapidly and economically as possible. In smaller or­ ganizations, such as independent retail stores or small manufacturers, a general manager may be responsible for purchas­ ing, hiring, training, quality control, and all other day-to-day super­ visory duties. (See the Handbook statement on retail managers.)  O’ The National Funeral Directors Association, 11121 West Oklahoma Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53227. XW National Selected Morticians, 1616 Central St., Evanston, IL 60201.  For a list of accredited programs in mortuary science and scholar­ ship information contact:  @°The American Board of Funeral Service Education, 14 Crestwood Rd., Cumberland, ME 04021.  For information on continuing funeral service education contact: O’The National Foundation of Funeral Service, 2250 East Devon Ave., Suite 250, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  General Managers and Top Executives (A list of D.O.T. codes is available upon request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Chief executive officer, executive vice president for marketing, de­ partment store manager, financial institution president, brokerage office manager, college president, school superintendent, and police chief—these are examples of general managers and top executives who, at the upper end of the management hierarchy, formulate the policies and direct the operations of the Nation’s private firms and government agencies. (Top executives who formulate policy in pub­ lic administration are discussed in detail in the Handbook statement on government chief executives and legislators.) The fundamental objectives of private organizations are to main­ tain efficiency and profitability in the face of shifting consumer tastes and needs, accelerating technological complexity, economic interdependence, and domestic and foreign competition. Similarly, nonprofit organizations and government agencies must effectively implement programs subject to budgetary constraints and shifting public preferences. General managers and top executives try to en­ sure that their organizations meet these objectives. An organization’s general goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, usually executive vice presidents, and often with a board of direc­ tors. In a large corporation, a chief executive officer may frequently meet with top executives of other corporations, domestic or foreign governments, or outside consultants to discuss matters affecting the organization’s policies. Although the chief executive officer retains ultimate authority and responsibility, the chief operating officer may be delegated the authority to oversee executive vice presidents who direct the activities of various departments and are responsible for implementing the organization’s policies in these departments. The scope of executive vice presidents’ responsibility depends greatly upon the size of the organization. In large corporations,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions General managers in large firms or government agencies are pro­ vided with offices close to the departments they direct and to the top executives to whom they report. Top executives may be provided with spacious offices and often meet and negotiate with top execu­ tives from other corporations, government, or other countries. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are the rule for most top executives and general managers, though their schedules may be flexible. Though still uncommon, more executives are accepting temporary positions, sometimes only working for the duration of one project or several months. Substantial travel is often required. General managers may travel between national, regional, and local offices to monitor operations and meet with other executives. Top executives may travel to meet with their counterparts in other corporations in the country or over­ seas. Many attend meetings and conferences that are sponsored by industries and associations and provide invaluable opportunities to meet with peers and keep abreast of technological and other devel­ opments. Perquisites such as reimbursement of an accompanying  Corporate restructuring and downsizing will limit employment growth among general managers and top executives.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations spouse’s travel expenses may help executives cope with frequent or extended periods away from home. In large corporations, job transfers between the parent company and its local offices or subsidiaries, here or abroad, are common. With increasing domestic and international competition, general managers and top executives are under intense pressure to attain, for example, ever higher production and marketing goals. Executives in charge of poorly performing companies or departments often find that their jobs are in jeopardy. Employment General managers and top executives held nearly 2.9 million jobs in 1992. They are found in every industry—wholesale and retail trade and services industries employ over 6 out of 10 general managers and top executives. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational background of managers and top executives varies as widely as the nature of their diverse responsibilities. Many gen­ eral managers and top executives have a bachelor’s degree in liberal . arts or business administration. Their major often is related to the departments they direct—for example, accounting for a general manager of finance or computer science for a general manager of in­ formation systems. Graduate and professional degrees are common. Many managers in administrative, marketing, financial, and manu­ facturing activities have a master’s degree in business administra­ tion. Managers in highly technical manufacturing and research ac­ tivities often have a master’s or doctoral degree in an engineering or scientific discipline. A law degree is mandatory for general manag­ ers of corporate legal departments, and hospital administrators gen­ erally have a master’s degree in health services administration or business administration. (For additional information, see the Hand­ book statement on health services managers.) College presidents and school superintendents generally have a doctorate, often in educa­ tion administration; some have a law degree. (See the Handbook statement on education administrators.) On the other hand, in some industries, such as retail trade, competent individuals without a col­ lege degree may become general managers. Many general managers in the public sector have a liberal arts de­ gree in public administration or in one of the social sciences such as economics, psychology, sociology, or urban studies. For others, ex­ perience is still the primary qualification. For park superintendents, a liberal arts degree also provides a suitable background. Police chiefs are graduates of police academies, and a degree in police sci­ ence or a related field is increasingly important. Similarly, fire chiefs are graduates of fire academies, and a degree in fire science is gain­ ing in importance as well. For harbormasters, a high school educa­ tion and experience as a harbor pilot are sufficient. Most general manager and top executive positions are filled by promoting experienced, lower level managers. Some companies pre® fer that their top execuitves have specialized backgrounds—in fi­ nance or marketing, for example. However, certain qualities, includ­ ing leadership, self-confidence, motivation, decisiveness, flexibility, the ability to communicate effectively, and sound business judgment are far more important. In small firms, where the number of posi­ tions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotions may occur more quickly. Advancement may be accelerated by participation in company training programs to broaden knowledge of company policy and op­ erations. Attendance at national or local training programs spon­ sored by numerous industry and trade associations and continuing education, normally at company expense, in colleges and universi­ ties can familiarize managers with the latest developments in man­ agement techniques. Every year, thousands of senior managers, who often have some experience in a particular field such as accounting, engineering, or science, attend executive development programs to facilitate their promotion from functional specialists to general managers. In addition, participation in interdisciplinary conferences  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  41  and seminars can expand knowledge of national and international issues influencing the manager’s firm. Persons interested in becoming general managers and top execu­ tives must have highly developed personal skills. A highly analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important. The ability to consider and evaluate the interrela­ tionships of numerous factors and to select the best course of action is imperative. In the absence of sufficient information, sound intui­ tive judgment is crucial to reaching favorable decisions. General managers and top executives also must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively with customers, subordinates, and other managers in their firm. General managers may advance to top executive positions, such as executive or administrative vice president, in their own firm or to a corresponding general manager position in a larger firm. Similarly, top-level managers may advance to peak corporate posi­ tions—chief operating officer and, finally, chief executive officer. Chief executive officers and other top executives may also become members of the board of directors of one or more firms. Some gen­ eral managers and top executives with sufficient capital and experi­ ence establish their own firms or become independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of general managers and top executives is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as companies restructure managerial hierarchies in an ef­ fort to cut costs. General managers and top executives may be more affected by these cost-cutting strategies than in the past, thus mod­ erating employment growth. Although this is a large occupation, and many openings will oc­ cur each year as executives transfer to other positions, start their own businesses, or retire, competition for top managerial jobs will be keen. Many executives who leave their jobs transfer to other exec­ utive or managerial positions, limiting openings for new entrants, and large numbers of layoffs resulting from downsizing and restruc­ turing will lead to an ample supply of competent managers. Moreo­ ver, the aging of the workforce will result in more senior middle managers vying for a limited number of top executive positions. Projected employment growth of general managers and top exec­ utives varies widely among industries. For example, employment growth is expected to be faster than average in all services industries combined, but slower than average in all finance, insurance, and real estate industries combined. Employment of general managers and top executives is projected to decline in manufacturing industries overall. • Managers whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qual­ ities and the ability to improve the efficiency or competitive position of their organizations will have the best opportunities in all indus­ tries. In an increasingly global economy, certain types of experience, such as international economics, marketing, or information sys­ tems, or knowledge of several disciplines, will also be advantageous. Earnings General managers and top executives are among the highest paid workers in the Nation. However, salary levels vary substantially de­ pending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of ser­ vice, and type, size, and location of the firm. At the highest level, chief executive officers (CEO) are extremely well paid. According to a survey by Fortune magazine, CEO’s at 200 major companies averaged S3.2 million in 1993, including bonuses and stock awards, which are often tied to performance. According to a similar survey of 365 companies by Business Week magazine, CEO salaries and bonuses averaged $1.1 million in 1992; total com­ pensation, including stock options and dividends, averaged $3.8 million. Salaries are related to the size of the corporation—a top manager in a very large corporation can earn significantly more than a counterpart in a small firm.  42  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Salaries also vary substantially by type and level of responsibili­ ties and by industry. According to a salary survey by Robert Half International, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, senior vice presidents/heads of lending in banks with $1 bil­ lion and higher in assets earned about $200,000 in 1993. Based on a survey sponsored by the Society for Human Resource Management, the average base salary for top human resources managers was about $136,000 in 1993. A survey by Network World newsweekly found that upper level computer network managers—including chief information officers, vice presidents, and directors—averaged $83,900 in 1993; mid-level managers—including network, data communications, telecommunications, and technical support man­ agers—averaged $59,400 in that year. Among top network manag­ ers, those in the health care industry were the highest paid, averag­ ing $142,500 in 1993, while those in wholesale/retail trade were the lowest paid, averaging $56,000. Among other industries, top net­ work managers in manufacturing/finance and utilities were among the highest paid, while those in education and government were among the lowest paid. Company-paid insurance premiums, physical examinations, exec­ utive dining rooms, use of company cars, paid country club mem­ berships, and expense allowances are among the benefits enjoyed by some general managers and top executives in private industry. Related Occupations General managers and top executives plan, organize, direct, control, and coordinate the operations of an organization and its major de­ partments or programs. The members of the board of directors and supervisory managers are also involved in these activities. Occupa­ tions in government with similar functions are governor, mayor, postmaster, commissioner, director, and office chief. Sources of Additional Information For a wide variety of information on general managers and top exec­ utives, including educational programs and job listings, contact: 0= American Management Association, Management Information Service,  135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020. 0" National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH  45439.  Information about general managers and top executives in spe­ cific industries may be obtained from organizations listed under a number of headings—for example, administration, administrators, directors, executives, management, managers, and superintend­ ents—in various encyclopedias or directories of associations in pub­ lic libraries.  Government Chief Executives and Legislators Nature of the Work Go to school. Pay your taxes. Register for the draft. Stop at the stop sign. It seems as though the Government is always telling us what to do. Who, then, tells the Government what to do? Chief executives and legislators at the Federal, State, and local level do the telling. They are elected or appointed officials who strive to meet the needs of their constituents with an effective and efficient government. Chief executives are officials who run governmental units that help formulate, carry out, and enforce laws. These officials include the President and Vice President of the United States, State gover­ nors and lieutenant governors, county executives, town and town­ ship officials, mayors, and city, county, town, and township manag­ ers. All except local government managers are elected; managers are appointed by the local government council or commission.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Government chief executives, like corporation presidents and other chief executives, have overall responsibility for how their or­ ganizations perform. In coordination with legislators, they establish goals and objectives and then organize programs and form policies to attain these goals. They appoint people to head departments, such as highway, health, police, park and recreation, economic develop­ ment, and finance. Through these departmental heads, chief execu­ tives oversee the work of civil servants, who carry out programs and enforce laws enacted by the legislative bodies. They prepare budg­ ets, specifying how government resources will be used. They insure that their government uses resources properly and carries out pro­ grams as planned by holding staff conferences, requiring work schedules and periodic performance reports, and conducting per­ sonal inspections. Chief executives meet with legislators and constituents to solicit their ideas, discuss programs, and encourage their support. They also may confer with leaders of other governments to solve mutual problems. Chief executives nominate citizens for government boards and commissions to oversee government activities or ex­ amine and help the government solve problems such as drug abuse, crime, deteriorating roads, and inadequate public education. They also solicit bids from and select contractors to do work for the government, encourage business investment and economic de­ velopment in their jurisdictions, and seek Federal or State funds. Chief executives of large jurisdictions rely on a staff of aides and as­ sistants, but those in small ones often do much of the work them­ selves. City, county, town, and other managers, although appointed officials, may act as, and refer to themselves as, chief executives. Legislators are the elected officials who make laws or amend ex­ isting ones in order to remedy problems or to promote certain activi­ ties. They include U.S. Senators and Representatives, State senators and representatives (called assemblymen and assemblywomen, or delegates in some States), county legislators (called supervisors, commissioners, councilmembers, or freeholders in some States), and city and town council members (called aldermen and alderwomen, trustees, clerks, supervisors, magistrates, and commissioners, among other titles). Legislators introduce bills in the legislative body and examine and vote on bills introduced by other legislators. In preparing legisla­ tion, they read reports and work with constituents, representatives of interest groups, members of boards and commissions, the chief executive and department heads, consultants, and legislators in other units of government. They also approve budgets and the ap­ pointments of department heads and commission members submit­ ted by the chief executive. In some jurisdictions, the legislative body appoints a city, town, or county manager. Many legislators, espe­ cially at the State and Federal levels, have a staff to help do research, prepare legislation, and resolve constituents’ problems. In some units of government, the line between legislative and ex­ ecutive functions blurs. For example, mayors and city managers may draft legislation and conduct council meetings, and council members may oversee the operation of departments. Both chief executives and legislators perform ceremonial duties— they open new structures and businesses, make proclamations, wel­ come visitors, and lead celebrations. Working Conditions Working conditions of chief executives and legislators vary depend­ ing on the size of the governmental unit. Time spent at work ranges from meeting once a month for a local council member to 60 or more hours per week for a legislator. U.S. Senators and Representa­ tives, governors and lieutenant governors, and chief executives and legislators in some large local jurisdictions work full time year round, as do almost all county and city managers. Some city and town managers work for several small jurisdictions. Most State leg­ islators work full time while legislatures are in session (usually for a few months a year) and part time the rest of the year. Local elected officials in most jurisdictions work part time; however, even though  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Government chief executives exercise authority over local, State, and National political institutions. the job is officially designated part time, some incumbents actually work a full-time schedule. In addition to their regular schedules, chief executives are on call at all hours to handle emergencies. Some jobs require only occasional out-of-town travel, but others involve more frequent travel—often to attend sessions of the legisla­ ture or to meet with officials of other units of government. Officials in districts covering a large area may drive long distances to perform their regular duties. Employment Chief executives and legislators held about 73,000 jobs in 1992. About 5 of 6 worked in local government; the rest worked primarily in State governments. The Federal Government had 535 Senators and Representatives and 2 chief exexutives. There were about 7,500 State legislators and, according to the International City/County Management Association (ICMA), about 11,000 city managers. Ex­ ecutives and council members for local governments made up the remainder. Chief executives and legislators who do not hold full-time, yearround positions normally work in a second occupation as well (com­ monly the one they held before being elected), are retired from an­ other occupation, or attend to household responsibilities. Business owner or manager, teacher, and lawyer are common second occupa­ tions, and there are many others as well. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Choosing from among candidates who meet the minimum age, resi­ dency, and citizenship requirements, the voters try to elect the indi­ vidual who they decide is most fit to hold the position at stake. The question is thus not “How does one become qualified?” but “How does one get elected?” Successful candidates usually have a strong record of accomplish­ ment in paid and unpaid work. Many have business, teaching, or le­ gal experience, but others come from a wide variety of occupations. In addition, many have served as volunteers on school boards or zoning commissions; with charities, political action groups, and po­ litical campaigns; or with religious, fraternal, and similar organiza­ tions. Work experience and public service help develop the planning, organizing, negotiating, motivating, fundraising, budgeting, public speaking, and problem solving skills needed to run a political cam­ paign. Candidates must make decisions quickly and fairly with little or contradictory information. They must have confidence in them­ selves and their employees to inspire and motivate their constituents  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  43  and their staff. They should also be sincere and candid, presenting their views thoughtfully and convincingly. Additionally, they must know how to hammer out compromises with colleagues and constit­ uents. National and Statewide campaigns also require a good deal of energy, stamina, and fund raising skills. Town, city, and county managers are appointed by a council or commission. Managers come from a variety of educational back­ grounds. A master’s degree in public administration—including courses such as public financial management and legal issues in pub­ lic administration—is widely recommended but not required. Virtu­ ally all town, city, and county managers have at least a bachelor’s degree and many hold a master’s degree. In addition, working as a student intern in government is recommended—the experience and personal contacts acquired can prove invaluable in eventually secur­ ing a position as a town, city, or county manager. Generally, a town, city, or county manager in a smaller jurisdic­ tion is required to have some expertise in a wide variety of areas; those who work for larger jurisdictions specialize in financial, ad­ ministrative, or personnel matters. For all managers, communica­ tion skills and the ability to get along with others are essential. Advancement opportunities for most elected public officials are not clearly defined. Because elected positions normally require a pe­ riod of residency and because local public support is critical, offi­ cials can usually advance to other offices only in the jurisdictions where they live. For example, council members may run for mayor or for a position in the State government, and State legislators may run for governor or for Congress. Many officials are not politically ambitious, however, and do not seek advancement. Others lose their bids for reelection or voluntarily leave the occupation. A lifetime ca­ reer as a government chief executive or legislator is rare. Town, city, and county managers have a clearer career path. They generally obtain a master’s degree in public administration, then gain experience as management analysts or assistants in government departments working with councils and chief executives and learn­ ing about planning, budgeting, civil engineering, and other aspects of running a city. After several years, they may be hired to manage a town or a small city and may eventually become manager of pro­ gressively larger cities. Job Outlook Little, if any, growth is expected in the number of government chief executives and legislators through the year 2005. Few, if any, new governments are likely to form, and the number of chief executives and legislators in existing governments rarely changes. The addition of one or two States to the union would lead to several additional U.S. Senators and Representatives. Some small increase may occur as growing communities—in the rapidly growing South and West, for example—become independent cities and towns and elect a chief executive and legislators and, perhaps, appoint a town manager. A few new positions may also develop as cities and counties without managers hire them and as unpaid offices—which are not counted as employment—are converted to paid positions. On the other hand, attempts by governments to cut costs and streamline opera­ tions, in response to tight budgets, could reduce the number of paid positions, particularly at the local level. The number of State legislators recently declined slightly when States, as required by law, completed their decennial redistricting. Elections give newcomers the chance to unseat incumbents or to fill vacated positions. In many elections, there is substantial compe­ tition, although the level of competition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from year to year. Generally, there is less competi­ tion in small jurisdictions, which have part-time positions offering relatively low salaries and little or no staff to help with tedious work, than in large jurisdictions, which have full-time positions offering higher salaries, more staff, and greater status. In some cases, usually in small jurisdictions, an incumbent runs unopposed, or an incum­ bent resigns, leaving only one candidate for a job. The high cost of  44  Occupational Outlook Handbook  running for such positions in large jurisdictions may serve as a de­ terrent to running, or may leave the challenger dependent on contri­ butions from special interest groups. Earnings Earnings of public administrators vary widely, depending on the size of the government unit and on whether the job is part time, full time and year round, or full time for only a few months a year. Sala­ ries range from little or nothing for a small town council member to $200,000 a year for the President of the United States. According to the International City/County Management Asso­ ciation, the average annual salary of mayors was about $9,900 in 1991. In cities with a population under 2,500, they averaged about $1,800; in cities with a population over 1 million, around $78,000. ICMA data indicate that the average salary for the chair of the county legislative body in 1991 was about $19,700. Those in coun­ ties with populations over 1 million earned an average of $76,900. County managers earned $68,100 on average in 1991. In counties with a population over 1 million, they earned an average of $120,000. The average annual salary of city managers was about $60,000 in 1991. Salaries ranged from $35,000 in towns with fewer than 2,500 residents to $127,000 in cities with a population over 1 million. According to Book of The States, 1992-93, published by the Council of State Governments, the average salary for legislators in the 40 States that paid an annual salary was about $23,000 in 1992. In 10 States, legislators just received a per diem while legislatures were in session. Salaries and per diem were generally higher in the larger States. Data from Book of the States, 1992-93 also indicate that guberna­ torial annual salaries ranged from $35,000 in Arkansas to $130,000 in New York. In addition to a salary, most governors received per­ quisites such as transportation and an offical residence. Lieutenant governors averaged over $57,000 annually. Related Occupations Related occupations include managerial positions that require a broad range of skills in addition to administrative expertise, such as corporate chief executives and board members, and generals in the military. Sources of Additional Information For more information on careers in public administration, consult your elected representatives and local library. Information on State governments can be obtained from: IW Council of State Governments, P.O. Box 11910, Iron Works Pike, Lex­ ington, KY 40578. Information on appointed officials in local government can be ob­ tained from: tw International City/County Management Association, 111 North Capitol St. NE., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20002.  Health Services Managers (D.O.T. 072.117; 074.167; 075.117-014, -022, -026, and -030; 076.117; 077.117; 078.131,.161-010,-014, and.162; 079.117-010, .131, .151, .167-014 and .267; 187.117-010, -058, -062, and .167-090; 188.117-082  Nature of the Work Health care is a business, albeit a special one. Like every other busi­ ness, it needs good management to keep it running smoothly. The term “health services manager” encompasses individuals in many different positions who plan, organize, coordinate, and supervise the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  delivery of health care. Health services managers include both gen­ eralists—the administrators managing or helping to manage an en­ tire facility—and health specialists—the managers in charge of spe­ cific clinical departments or services that are found only in the health industry. The top administrator or chief executive officer (CEO) and the as­ sistant administrators without specific titles are health care general­ ists. They set the overall direction of the facility. They also are con­ cerned with community outreach, planning, policymaking, and complying with government agencies and regulations. Their range of knowledge is necessarily broad, including developments in the clinical departments as well as in the business arena. They often speak before civic groups, promote public participation in health programs, and coordinate the activities of the organization with those of government or community agencies. CEO’s make long term institutional plans by assessing the need for services, personnel, fa­ cilities, and equipment and recommending changes such as opening a home health service. CEO’s need leadership ability as well as tech­ nical skills to provide quality health care while, at the same time, satisfying demand for financial viability, cost containment, and pub­ lic and professional accountability. CEO’s prepare for oversight and scrutiny of their facility’s past performance and plans by consumer groups, government agencies, professional oversight bodies, and insurance companies and other third-party payers. Larger facilities typically have several assistant administrators to aid the top administrator and to handle day-to-day decisions. They may direct actitivies in clinical areas such as nursing, surgery, ther­ apy, food service, and medical records; or the activities in nonhealth areas such as finance, housekeeping, human resources, and informa­ tion management. (Because the nonhealth departments are not di­ rectly related to health care, these managers are not included in this statement. For information about them, see the statements on man­ agerial occupations elsewhere in the Handbook). In smaller facili­ ties, top administrators may handle more of the details of day-to­ day operations. For example, many nursing home administrators di­ rectly manage personnel, finance, operations, and admissions. Clinical managers have more narrowly defined responsibilities than the generalists to whom they report and have training and/or experience in the field. For example, directors of physical therapy are experienced physical therapists, and most medical records ad­ ministrators have a bachelor’s degree in medical records administra­ tion. These managers establish and implement policies, objectives, and procedures for their departments; evaluate personnel and work; develop reports and budgets; and coordinate activities with other managers. In group practices, managers work closely with the physician owners. While an office manager may handle business affairs in small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians themselves, larger groups generally employ a full-time administra­ tor to advise on business strategies and coordinate day-to-day busi­ ness. A small group of 10 or 15 physicians might employ a single ad­ ministrator to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, planning, equipment outlays, and patient flow. A large practice of 40 or 50 physicians may have a chief administrator and several assistants, each responsible for different areas. Health services managers in health maintenance organizations (HMO’s) perform functions similar to those in large group prac­ tices, except their staffs may be larger. The size of the administrative staff in HMO’s may vary according to the type of HMO and the size of the enrolled population. Some health services managers oversee the activities of a number of facilities in multifacility health organizations.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  ■ ■III  Health services managers plan, organize, coordinate, and supervise the delivery of health care. Working Conditions Many health services managers work long hours. Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and adminis­ trators and managers may be called at all hours to deal with problems. The job also may include travel to attend meetings or to inspect satellite facilities. Employment Health services managers held about 302,000 jobs in 1992. Over one-half of all jobs were in hospitals. About 1 in 7 were in nursing and personal care facilities, and 1 in 8 were in offices and clinics of physicians. The remainder worked in home health agencies, medical and dental laboratories, offices of dentists and other practitioners, and other health and allied services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Health services managers must be familiar with management princi­ ples and practices. Some learn from work experience. However, for­ mal education is usually necessary for advancement. For most CEO positions, a graduate degree in health services administration, nurs­ ing administration, or business administration is required. For some generalist positions, employers seek applicants with clinical experi­ ence (as nurses or therapists, for example) as well as academic prep­ aration in business or health services administration. Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs in health ad­ ministration are offered by colleges, universities, and schools of pub­ lic health, medicine, allied health, public administration, and busi­ ness administration. There are also some certificate or diploma programs, generally lasting less than 1 year, in health services ad­ ministration and in medical office management. A master’s degree—in hospital administration, health services administration, long term care administration, health sciences, public health, public administration, or business administration—is regarded as the stan­ dard credential for most generalist positions in this field. However, a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry-level positions and a few top positions in smaller operations, and for some middle man­ agement jobs in larger ones. Bachelor’s degrees may not be needed in smaller nursing homes, physicians’ offices, and other facilities. Appropriate experience or certificates and diplomas are sometimes  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  45  acceptable. For clinical department heads, a degree in the appropri­ ate field and work experience are usually sufficient, but courses in health services administration are helpful. In 1993, 29 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degree programs in health services administration. Sixty-four schools had accredited programs leading to the master’s degree in health ser­ vices administration, according to the Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration. Some graduate programs seek students with undergraduate de­ grees in business or health administration; however, many programs prefer students with a liberal arts or health professions background. Competition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above-average grades to gain admission. The programs gener­ ally last between 2 and 3 years. They include up to 1 year of super­ vised administrative experience, and course work in areas such as hospital organization and management, accounting and budgeting, human resources administration, strategic planning, health eco­ nomics, and health information systems. Students generally special­ ize in one type of facility—hospitals; nursing homes; mental health facilities; HMO’s; or outpatient care facilities, including medical groups. New graduates with master’s degrees in health services or hospi­ tal administration may start as assistant hospital administrators, or as managers of nonhealth departments, like finance. Postgraduate residencies and fellowships are offered by hospitals and other health facilities; these are normally staff jobs. Graduates from master’s de­ gree programs also take jobs in HMO’s, large group medical prac­ tices, clinics, mental health facilities, and multifacility nursing home corporations. New recipients of bachelor’s degrees in health administration usually begin as administrative assistants or assistant department heads in larger hospitals, or as department heads or assistant admin­ istrators in small hospitals or in nursing homes. A Ph.D. degree may be required to teach, consult, or do research. Nursing service administrators are usually chosen from among su­ pervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and ad­ vanced education. All States and the District of Columbia require nursing home ad­ ministrators to pass a licensing examination, complete a State-ap­ proved training program, and pursue continuing education. Most States also have additional requirements. A license is not required in other areas of health services management. Health services managers are often responsible for millions of dol­ lars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to different opinions and good at analyzing contradictory information. To motivate others to implement their decisions, they need strong leadership qualities. Tact, diplomacy, and communication skills are essential. Health services managers advance by moving into more responsi­ ble and higher paying positions such as assistant or associate admin­ istrator and, finally, CEO, or by moving to larger facilities. Job Outlook Employment of health services managers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as health services continue to expand and diversify. Hospitals will con­ tinue to employ the most managers, although the number of jobs will not be growing as fast as in other areas. Employment in home health agencies and nursing and long term care facilities will grow the fastest, due to an increased number of elderly who will need care. Demand in medical group practices will grow, too. As medical group practices and HMO’s become larger and more complex, more job opportunities for department heads should emerge. Health services managers in hospitals will face very keen competi­ tion for upper level management jobs, a reflection of the pyramidal management structure characteristic of most large organizations. In nursing homes and other long term care facilities, job opportunities  46  Occupational Outlook Handbook  for individuals with strong business and management skills will con­ tinue to be good. Earnings Earnings vary by type and size of the facility, as well as by level of responsibility. For example, the Medical Group Management Asso­ ciation reported that the median salary for administrators in small group practices—with net revenues of $2 million or less—was $46,600; for those in very large group practices—with net revenues over $50 million—$166,700. According to a survey sponsored by the Hay Group and the American Society of Healthcare Human Resources Administration, half of all hospital CEO’s earned $140,900 or more in 1993. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $77,000; the top 10 percent earned $223,600 or more. Clinical department heads’ salaries varied too. According to a survey by Modern Healthcare magazine, average salaries in 1993 for heads of the following clinical departments were: Medical records, $47,600; home health, $52,500; imaging/radiology, $53,300; physi­ cal therapy, $54,700; rehabilitation services, $58,800; and nursing services, $65,700. According to the American College of Health Care Administra­ tors, nursing home administrators had median annual total com­ pensation of $44,100 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,000 and $54,000. Those in facilities with less than 50 licensed beds earned $36,500; those in facilities with 400 or more beds, $68,200. Licensed assistant administrators earned median total compensation of $35,000. Related Occupations Health services managers have training or experience in both health and management. Other occupations that require knowledge of both fields are public health directors, social welfare administrators, directors of voluntary health agencies and health professional as­ sociations, and underwriters in health insurance companies and HMO’s. Sources of Additional Information General information about health administration is available from: American College of Healthcare Executives, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  Information about undergraduate and graduate academic pro­ grams in this field is available from: 0= Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 1911  North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209.  For a list of accredited graduate programs in health services ad­ ministration, contact:  XW Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administra­ tion, 1911 North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209.  For information about career opportunities in long term care ad­ ministration, contact:  IS" American College of Health Care Administrators, 325 S. Patrick St., Al­ exandria, VA 22314.  For information about career opportunities in medical group practices and ambulatory care management, contact:  XW Medical Group Management Association, 104 Inverness Terrace East, Englewood, CO 80112-5306.  Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 187.117-038, .137-018; .167-046, -078, -106, -122; and 320)  Nature of the Work For vacationing families and persons whose jobs take them out of town, a comfortable room, good food, and a helpful hotel staff can  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  make being away from home an enjoyable experience. Hotel manag­ ers and assistant managers work to insure that guests’ visits are pleasant. Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable op­ eration of their establishments. In a small hotel, motel, or inn with a limited staff, a single manager may direct all aspects of operations. However, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers, and the manager may be aided by a number of assistant managers assigned among departments responsible for various aspects of operations. The general manager has overall responsibility for the operation of the hotel. Within guidelines established by the owners of the hotel or executives of the hotel chain, the general manager sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and estab­ lishes standards for service to guests, decor, housekeeping, food quality, and banquet operations. (For more information, see the statement on general managers and top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Assistant managers must insure that the day-to-day op­ erations of their departments meet the general manager’s standards. Resident managers live in hotels and are on call 24 hours a day to resolve any problems or emergencies, although they normally work an 8-hour day. As the most senior assistant manager, a resident manager oversees the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In many hotels, the general manager also serves as the resident manager. Executive housekeepers are responsible for insuring that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, or­ derly, and well maintained. They train, schedule, and supervise the work of housekeepers, inspect rooms, and order cleaning supplies. Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assign­ ments and train and direct the hotel’s front desk staff that deals with the public. They insure that guests are handled courteously and effi­ ciently, complaints and problems are resolved, and requests for spe­ cial services are carried out. Food and beverage managers direct the food services of hotels. They oversee the operation of hotels’ restaurants, cocktail lounges, and banquet facilities. They supervise and schedule food and bever­ age preparation and service workers, plan menus, estimate costs, and deal with food suppliers. (For more information, see the state­ ment on restaurant and food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Convention services managers coordinate the activities of large ho­ tels’ various departments for meetings, conventions, and other spe­ cial events. They meet with representatives of groups or organiza­ tions to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of hotel meeting space, and any banquet services needed. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor activities to check that hotel operations con­ form to the expectations of the group. Other assistant managers may be specialists responsible for activi­ ties such as personnel, accounting and office administration, mar­ keting and sales, purchasing, security, maintenance, and recrea­ tional facilities. (For more information, see the related statements on personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers; financial managers; and marketing, advertising, and public relations managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Managers who work for chains may be assigned to organize and staff a newly built hotel, re­ furbish an older hotel, or reorganize a hotel or motel that is not op­ erating successfully. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Many hotel managers work considerably more than 40 hours per week. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Some employees of resort hotels are managers during the busy season and have other duties the rest of the year. Hotel managers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinat­ ing a wide range of functions. Conventions and large groups of tour­ ists may present unusual problems. Dealing with irate patrons can  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assignments. also be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers around checkin and checkout time. Employment Hotel managers and assistant managers held about 99,000 wage and salary jobs in 1992. An additional number—primarily owners of small hotels and motels—were self-employed. Others were em­ ployed by companies that manage hotels and motels under contract. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training in hotel or restaurant management is pre­ ferred for most hotel management positions, although a college lib­ eral arts degree may be sufficient when coupled with related hotel experience. In the past, most managers were promoted from the ranks of front desk clerks, housekeepers, waiters and chefs, and ho­ tel sales workers. Although some persons still advance to hotel man­ agement positions without the benefit of education or training be­ yond high school, postsecondary education is increasingly preferred. Nevertheless, experience working in a hotel—even part time while in school—is an asset to all persons seeking to enter hotel management careers. Restaurant management training or experi­ ence is also a good background for entering hotel management be­ cause the success of a hotel’s food service and beverage operations is often of great importance to the profitability of the entire establish­ ment. A bachelor’s degree in hotel and restaurant administration pro­ vides particularly strong preparation for a career in hotel manage­ ment. In 1993, over 160 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s and graduate programs in this field. Over 800 community and jun­ ior colleges, technical institutes, vocational and trade schools, and other academic institutions also have programs leading to an associ­ ate degree or other formal recognition in hotel or restaurant man­ agement. Graduates of hotel or restaurant management programs usually start as trainee assistant managers, or at least advance to such positions more quickly. Hotel management programs usually include instruction in hotel administration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeeping, food service management and catering, hotel maintenance engineer­ ing, and data processing—reflecting the widespread use of com­ puters in hotel operations such as reservations, accounting, and housekeeping management. Programs encourage part-time or sum­ mer work in hotels and restaurants because the experience gained and the contacts made with employers may benefit students when they seek full-time employment after graduation. Hotel managers must be able to get along with all kinds of people, even in stressful situations. They need initiative, self-discipline, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  47  the ability to organize and direct the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Sometimes large hotels sponsor specialized on-the-job manage­ ment training programs which enable trainees to rotate among vari­ ous departments and gain a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s oper­ ation. Other hotels may help finance the necessary training in hotel management for outstanding employees. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability. Newly built hotels, particularly those without well-established onthe-job training programs, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned es­ tablishments, but relocation every several years often is necessary for advancement. The large chains have more extensive career lad­ der programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to an­ other hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Career advancement can be accelerated by completion of certification programs offered by the associations listed below. These programs generally require a combination of course work, ex­ aminations, and experience. Job Outlook Employment of salaried hotel managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as more hotels and motels are built. Business travel will continue to grow, and increased domestic and foreign tourism will also create demand for additional hotels and motels. However, manager jobs are expected to grow more slowly than the hotel industry because a growing share of the industry will be comprised of economy proper­ ties, which generally have fewer managers than full-service hotels. In the face of financial constraints, guests are becoming more bar­ gain-conscious, and hotel chains are increasing the number of rooms in economy class hotels. Economy hotels offer clean, comfortable rooms and front desk services without costly extras like restaurants and room service. Because there are not as many departments in each hotel, fewer managers are needed on the hotel premises. Econ­ omy hotels have a general manager, and regional offices of the hotel management company employ department managers, such as exec­ utive housekeepers, to oversee several hotels. Although new employment growth is expected to be concentrated in economy hotels, large full-service hotels will continue to offer many trainee and managerial opportunities. Most openings are ex­ pected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupa­ tions, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Opportunities to enter hotel management are expected to be good for persons who have college degrees in hotel or restaurant manage­ ment. Earnings Salaries of hotel managers varied greatly according to their respon­ sibilities and the size of the hotel in which they worked. In 1993, an­ nual salaries of assistant hotel managers averaged an estimated $32,500, based on a survey conducted for the American Hotel and Motel Association. Assistants employed in large hotels with over 350 rooms averaged nearly $38,400 in 1993, while those in small ho­ tels with no more than 150 rooms averaged more than $26,000. Sal­ aries of assistant managers also varied because of differences in du­ ties and responsibilities. For example, food and beverage managers averaged an estimated more than $41,200, according to the same survey, whereas front office managers averaged nearly $26,500. The manager’s level of experience is also an important factor. In 1993, salaries of general managers averaged more than $59,100, ranging from an average of about $44,900 in hotels and motels with no more than 150 rooms to an average of about $86,700 in large hotels with over 350 rooms. Managers may earn bonuses ranging up to 15 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addi­ tion, they and their families may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services.  48  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most managers and assistants receive 3 to 11 paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pen­ sion plans. Some hotels offer profit-sharing plans, educational assis­ tance, and other benefits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organizing and directing a business in which pleasing people is very important. Others with similar responsibilities include restau­ rant managers, apartment building managers, retail store managers, and office managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, contact:  The American Hotel and Motel Association (AH&MA), Information Center, 1201 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005-3931.  For information on educational programs, including correspon­ dence courses, in hotel and restaurant management, write to: [5= The Educational Institute of AH&MA, P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826.  Information on careers in housekeeping management may be ob­ tained from: fW National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081.  For information on hospitality careers, as well as how to purchase a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hotel and restaurant administration, write to: W Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097.  Industrial Production Managers (D.O.T. 180.167-054; 181.117-010; 182.167-022; 183.117-010,-014, .161-014, .167-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -034, and -038; and 189.117-042, .167-042, and -046)  Nature of the Work Industrial production managers coordinate activities related to pro­ duction of goods and direct the work of first-line supervisors. Due to the variety of goods produced, few factories are exactly alike, so managers’ duties may vary from plant to plant. However, industrial production managers generally have the same major functions re­ gardless of industry. These include responsibility for production scheduling, staffing, equipment, quality control, inventory control, and the coordination of activities with other departments. Based on current and projected customer demand, management determines what and how much will be produced. Working within budgetary limitations and time constraints, industrial production managers plan the production schedule. This entails analyzing the plant’s personnel and capital resources and selecting the best way to meet the production quota. They determine which machines will be used, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, the sequence of production, and related matters. They also monitor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule, and, if problems arise, take action to solve them. Industrial production managers also monitor product standards. When quality drops below the established standard, product man­ agers must determine why standards aren’t being maintained and how to improve the product. If the problem is poor work, the man­ ager may implement better training programs, reorganize the manu­ facturing process, or institute employee suggestion or involvement programs. If the cause is substandard materials, the manager works with the purchasing department to improve the quality of the prod­ uct’s components. Maintaining the inventory of materials necessary for production ties up the firm’s financial resources. Yet, insufficient quantities of materials cause delays in production. Working with the purchasing department, the production manager ensures that plant inventories  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  are maintained at their optimal level. A breakdown in communica­ tions between departments can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production schedules. Production managers usually report to the plant manager or the vice president for manufacturing. (Information about these workers can be found in the statement on general managers and top execu­ tives elsewhere in the Handbook). In many plants, one production manager is responsible for all production. In large plants with sev­ eral operations—aircraft assembly, for example—there are manag­ ers in charge of each operation, such as machining, assembly, or fin­ ishing. Because the work of many departments is dependent upon others, managers work closely with heads of other departments such as sales, purchasing, and traffic to plan and implement companies’ goals, policies, and procedures. Production managers also work closely with, and act as a liaison between, executives and first-line supervisors. Computers play an integral role in the coordination of the pro­ duction process by providing up-to-date data on such things as in­ ventory, work-in-progress, and product standards. Industrial pro­ duction managers then analyze these data and, working with those from upper management and other departments, determine if ad­ justments need to be made. As the trend toward flatter management structure and worker empowerment continues, production managers will increasingly take on the role of a facilitator. Instead of singly making decisions and giving and taking orders, production managers will review and discuss recommendations with subordinates and superiors in the hopes of improving productivity. Because of the additional duties resulting from corporate downsizing, production managers are dele­ gating more authority and responsibility to first-line supervisors. Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between the shop floor and their office. While on the floor, they must follow es­ tablished health and safety practices and wear the required protec­ tive clothing and equipment. The time in the office—often located on or near the production floor—is usually spent meeting with sub­ ordinates or other department managers, analyzing production data, and writing and reviewing reports.  Industrial production managers ensure that quality standards are maintained.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facili­ ties that operate around the clock, managers may have to work shifts or may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies that could result in production line downtime. Occasionally, this may mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. Dealing with production workers as well as superiors when working under the pressure of production deadlines or emergency situations can be stressful. In addition, restructuring has eliminated levels of manage­ ment and support staff. As a result, production managers now have to accomplish more with less and this has greatly increased job-re­ lated stress. Employment Industrial production managers held about 203,000 jobs in 1992. Although employed throughout manufacturing, about one-half are employed in five industries: Industrial machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, electronic and electrical equipment, fabricated metal products, and food products. Although production managers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concen­ trated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of manufacturing operations and job re­ quirements, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in busi­ ness administration or industrial engineering. Some have a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Others are former pro­ duction line supervisors who have been promoted. Although many employers prefer candidates to have a degree in business or engi­ neering, some companies hire liberal arts graduates. As production operations become more sophisticated, an increas­ ing number of employers are looking for candidates with MBA’s. This, combined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, is considered particularly good preparation. Companies also are plac­ ing greater importance on a candidate’s personality. Because the job demands technical knowledge and the ability to compromise, per­ suade, and negotiate, successful production managers must be well rounded and have excellent communication skills. Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm’s production process. As a result, they may spend their first few months on the job in the company’s training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the pro­ duction line, company policies and procedures, and the require­ ments of the job. In larger companies, they may also include assign­ ments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. Blue-collar worker supervisors who advance to production man­ ager positions already have an intimate knowledge of the production process and the firm’s organization. To be selected for promotion, these workers must have demonstrated leadership qualities, and often take company-sponsored courses in management skills and communications techniques. Some companies hire college gradu­ ates as blue-collar worker supervisors and then promote them. Once in their job, industrial production managers must stay abreast of new production technologies and management practices. To do this, they belong to professional organizations and attend trade shows where new equipment is displayed; they also attend in­ dustry conferences and conventions where changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. Although certification in production management and inventory control is not required for most positions, it demonstrates an indi­ vidual’s knowledge of the production process and related areas. Va­ rious certifications are available through the American Production and Inventory Control Society. To be certified in production and in­ ventory management, candidates must pass a series of examinations that test their knowledge of inventory management, just-in-time sys­ tems, production control, capacity management, and materials planning.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  49  Industrial production managers must be able to speak and write effectively and deal tactfully with both subordinates and superiors in pressure situations. Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs at larger firms with more re­ sponsibilities. Opportunities also exist as consultants. (For more in­ formation, see the statement on management analysts and consul­ tants elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Little change in employment of industrial production managers is expected through the year 2005. Although manufacturing output is expected to rise significantly, the trend towards smaller manage­ ment staffs and the lack of growth in production worker employ­ ment will limit demand for production managers. Nevertheless, many additional openings will result from the need to replace work­ ers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. How­ ever, many of these openings may be filled through internal promo­ tions. Opportunities should be best for those with college degrees in in­ dustrial engineering or business administration and MBA’s with un­ dergraduate engineering degrees. Employers also are likely to seek candidates who have excellent communication skills, and who are personable, flexible, and eager to participate in ongoing training. Earnings Salaries of industrial production managers vary significantly by in­ dustry and plant size. According to the limited data available, the average salary for all production managers was about $60,000 in 1992. In addition to salary, industrial production managers usually receive bonuses based on job performance. Benefits for industrial production managers tend to be similar to those offered many workers: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equip­ ment, insure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Individuals with similar functions include materials, operations, purchasing, and traffic managers. Other occupations requiring similar training and skills are sales engineer, manufacturers’ sales representative, and industrial engi­ neer. Sources of Additional Information Information on industrial production management can be obtained from: National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. 13* American Manufacturing Association, 135 W 50th St., New York, NY 10020.  Inspectors and Compliance Officers, Except Construction (A list of D.O.T. codes is available upon request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Inspectors and compliance officers enforce adherence to a wide range of laws, regulations, policies, and procedures that protect the public on matters such as health, safety, food, immigration, licens­ ing, interstate commerce, and international trade. Depending upon their employer, inspectors’ duties vary widely. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chem­ ists, microbiologists, health workers, and lawyers to insure compli­ ance with public health and safety regulations governing food,  50  Occupational Outlook Handbook  drugs, cosmetics, and other consumer products. They also adminis­ ter regulations that govern the quarantine of persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The major types of health inspectors are consumer safety, food, agricultural quaran­ tine, and environmental health inspectors. In addition, some inspec­ tors work in agricultural commodity grading, a field closely related to food inspection. Most consumer safety inspectors specialize in food, feeds and pes­ ticides, weights and measures, cosmetics, drugs and medical equip­ ment, or radiation emitting products. Some are proficient in several areas. Working individually or in teams under a senior or supervi­ sory inspector, they periodically check firms that produce, handle, store, and market the products they regulate. Inspectors look for in­ accurate product labeling, and for decomposition or chemical or bacteriological contamination that could result in a product becom­ ing harmful to health. They may use portable scales, cameras, ultra­ violet lights, container sampling devices, thermometers, chemical testing kits, radiation monitors, and other equipment to ascertain vi­ olations. They may send product samples collected as part of their examinations to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspectors discuss their obser­ vations with plant managers or officials and point out areas where corrective measures are needed. They write reports of their findings and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken to enforce the law. Federal and State laws empower food inspectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are safe for public consumption. Working onsite as a team under a veterinarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sanitation. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agriculture from the spread of foreign plant and animal pests and diseases. To safeguard crops, forests, gardens, and livestock, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles entering the United States for restricted or prohibited plants, animals, insects, agricultural commodities, and animal by-products. Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, who work prima­ rily for State and local governments, insure that food, water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compli­ ance with sanitation rules and regulations and oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. In addition, inspectors may visit pollution sources and test for pollutants by collecting air, water, or waste samples for analysis. They try to determine the na­ ture and cause of pollution and initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, envi­ ronmental health inspectors may specialize in milk and dairy prod­ ucts, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, water pollution, institutional sanitation, or occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environ­ mental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to aid the buying and selling of commodities and to insure that retailers and consumers know the quality of the products they purchase. Al­ though this grading is not required by law, buyers generally will not purchase ungraded commodities. Graders usually specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, meat, poultry, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They examine product samples to determine quality and grade, and issue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to maintain sanitation standards. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors insure compliance with laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Important types of regulatory inspectors include immigration, customs, avia­ tion safety, railroad, motor vehicle, occupational safety and health, mine, wage-hour compliance, postal, and alcohol, tobacco, and fire­ arms.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking to enter the United States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship status and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and pe­ titions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports. Stationed in the U.S. and overseas at airports, seaports, and border crossing points, they examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial cargoes entering and leav­ ing the United States to determine admissibility and the amount of tax that must be paid. They insure that all cargo is properly de­ scribed on accompanying manifests to determine the proper duty. They inspect baggage and articles worn by passengers and crew members to insure that all merchandise is declared, proper duties are paid, and contraband is not present. They also ensure that peo­ ple, ships, planes, and anything used to import or export cargo com­ ply with all appropriate entrance and clearance requirements. Postal inspectors observe the functioning of the postal system and enforce laws and regulations. As law enforcement agents, postal in­ spectors have statutory powers of arrest and the authority to carry firearms. They investigate criminal activities such as theft and mis­ use of the mail. In instances of suspected mismanagement or fraud, inspectors conduct management or financial audits. They also col­ laborate with other government agencies, such as the Internal Reve­ nue Service, as members of special task forces. Aviation safety inspectors insure that Federal Aviation Adminis­ tration (FAA) regulations which govern the quality and safety of aircraft equipment and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety inspectors may inspect aircraft and equipment manufacturing, maintenance and repair, or flight operations procedures. They usu­ ally specialize in either commercial or general aviation aircraft. They also examine and certify aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instructors, repair stations, schools, and instructional materials. Railroad inspectors verify the compliance of railroad systems and equipment with Federal safety regulations. They investigate acci­ dents and review railroads’ operating practices. Motor vehicle inspectors verify the compliance of automobiles and trucks with State requirements for safe operation and emissions. They inspect truck cargoes to assure compliance with legal limita­ tions on gross weight and hazardous cargoes. Traffic inspectors oversee the scheduled service of streetcar, bus, or railway systems and determine the need for additional vehicles, revised schedules, or other changes to improve service. They also re­ port conditions hazardous to passengers and disruptive to service. Park rangers enforce laws and regulations in State and national parks. Their duties range from registering vehicles and visitors, col­ lecting fees, and providing information regarding park use and points of interest, to patrolling areas to prevent fire and theft, partic­ ipating in first aid and rescue activities, and training and supervising other park workers. Some rangers specialize in snow safety and ava­ lanche control. With increasing numbers of visitors to our national parks, their duties increasingly resemble those of traditional urban law enforcement officers in a rural setting, a kind of forest police. Occupational safety and health inspectors visit places of employ­ ment to detect unsafe machinery and equipment or unhealthy work­ ing conditions. They discuss their findings with the employer or plant manager and urge that violations be promptly corrected in ac­ cordance with Federal, State, or local government safety standards and regulations. Mine safety and health inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners. They visit mines and related facilities to obtain in­ formation on health and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws and regulations. They discuss their findings with the management of the mine and issue citations describing violations and hazards that must be corrected. Mine inspectors also investigate and report on mine accidents and may direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect employers’ time, pay­ roll, and personnel records to insure compliance with Federal laws  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations on such matters as minimum wages, overtime, pay, and employ­ ment of minors. They often interview employees to verify the em­ ployer’s records and to check for complaints. Equal opportunity representatives ascertain and correct unfair em­ ployment practices through consultation with and mediation be­ tween employers and minority groups. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors inspect distilleries, win­ eries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and importers; firearms and explosives manufacturers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They insure compliance with revenue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices, and determine that appropriate taxes are paid. Some alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors have statutory powers of arrest and the au­ thority to carry firearms and investigate criminal activities. Securities compliance examiners implement regulations concern­ ing securities transactions. They investigate applications for regis­ tration of securities sales and complaints of irregular securities transactions, and recommend necessary legal action. Revenue officers investigate delinquent tax returns and liabilities. They attempt to resolve tax problems with taxpayers and recom­ mend penalties, collection actions, and prosecution when necessary. Chief bank examiners direct investigations of financial institu­ tions to enforce Federal and State laws and regulations governing the institution’s operations and solvency. Examiners schedule au­ dits, determine actions to protect the institution’s solvency and the interests of shareholders and depositors, and recommend accept­ ance or rejection of applications for mergers, acquisitions, establish­ ment of a new institution, or acceptance in the Federal Reserve Sys­ tem. Attendance officers investigate continued absences of pupils from public schools. Dealer compliance representatives inspect franchised establish­ ments to ascertain compliance with the franchiser’s policies and procedures. They may suggest changes in financial and other opera­ tions. Logging operations inspectors review contract logging operations. They prepare reports and issue remedial instructions for violations of contractual agreements and of fire and safety regulations. Travel accommodations raters inspect hotels, motels, restaurants, campgrounds, and vacation resorts. They evaluate travel and tourist accommodations for travel guide publishers and organizations such as tourism promoters and automobile clubs. Quality control inspectors and coordinators inspect products man­ ufactured or processed by private companies for government use to insure compliance with contract specifications. They may specialize in specific products such as lumber, machinery, petroleum prod­ ucts, paper products, electronic equipment, or furniture. Others co­ ordinate the activities of workers engaged in testing and evaluating pharmaceuticals in order to control quality of manufacture and in­ sure compliance with legal standards. Other inspectors and compliance officers include coroners, code inspectors, mortician investigators, and construction and building inspectors. (Construction and building inspectors are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Inspectors and compliance officers meet people and work in a vari­ ety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable field work, and some inspectors travel frequently. They often are fur­ nished with an automobile or are reimbursed for travel expenses. Inspectors may experience unpleasant or dangerous working con­ ditions. For example, mine safety and health inspectors often are ex­ posed to the same hazards as miners. Food inspectors may examine and inspect the livestock slaughtering process in slaughterhouses and frequently come in contact with strong, unpleasant odors. Alco­ hol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors frequently confront risk when trying to curtail criminal activity. Customs inspectors may have to conduct body searches of passengers or crewmembers and may ex­ perience violence in the course of subsequent arrests. Park rangers may help work outdoors in very hot or bitterly cold weather, and risk injury in rough terrain or mountainous areas. Many inspectors  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  51  Inspectors promote the general health and safety by ensuring compliance with laws and regulations. work long and often irregular hours. Even those inspectors not en­ gaged in some form of police work may find themselves in adver­ sarial roles when the group being inspected does not want them there. Employment Inspectors and compliance officers held 155,000 jobs in 1992. State governments employed 33 percent, the Federal Government— chiefly the Departments of Defense, Treasury, Agriculture, and Jus­ tice—employed 28 percent, and local governments employed 20 percent. The remaining 19 percent were employed in the U.S. Postal Service and throughout the private sector—primarily in education, hospitals, insurance companies, labor unions, and manufacturing firms. The largest single employer of consumer safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State governments. Most food inspectors and agricultural commod­ ity graders in processing plants are employed by the U.S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture, as are agricultural quarantine inspectors. Many environmental health inspectors work for State and local gov­ ernments. Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the United States. The Department of Defense employs the most quality control inspectors. The Treasury Depart­ ment employs internal revenue officers, alcohol, tobacco, and fire­ arms inspectors, and customs inspectors. Aviation safety inspectors work for the Federal Aviation Administration. The Environmental Protection Agency employs inspectors to verify compliance with pollution control laws. The U.S. Department of Labor and many State governments employ wage-hour compliance officers, occupa­ tional safety and health inspectors, and mine safety and health in­ spectors. Immigration inspectors are employed by the U.S. Depart­ ment of Justice, while the U.S. Department of Interior employs park rangers. Like agricultural quarantine inspectors, immigration and customs inspectors work in the United States and overseas at air­ ports, seaports, and border crossing points. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of functions, qualifications for inspector and compliance officer jobs differ greatly. Requirements are a com­ bination of education, experience, and often a passing grade on a  52  Occupational Outlook Handbook  written examination. Employers generally prefer applicants with college training, including courses related to the job. The following examples illustrate the range of qualifications for various inspector jobs. Food inspectors must have related experience and pass an exami­ nation based on specialized knowledge. Postal inspectors must have a bachelor’s and a graduate degree or one of several professional certifications, such as certified public ac­ countant. They also must pass certain age and health requirements, possess a valid State driver’s license, and be a U.S. citizen. Aviation safety inspectors must have considerable experience in aviation maintenance and operations and knowledge of the industry and relevant Federal laws. In addition, FAA mechanic or pilot and medical certificates are required. Some also are required to have an FAA flight instructor rating. Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight and maintenance training in the Armed Forces. No writ­ ten examination is required. Applicants for positions as mine safety and health inspectors gen­ erally must have experience in mine safety, management, or supervi­ sion or possess a skill such as that of an electrician (for mine electri­ cal inspectors). Most mine safety inspectors are former miners. Applicants for internal revenue officer jobs must have a bache­ lor’s degree or 3 years of business, legal, or investigative work expe­ rience that displays strong analytical ability. Park rangers need at least 2 years of college with courses in sci­ ence and criminal justice. Many start as part-time, seasonal workers with the U.S. Forest Service. Environmental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, sometimes must have a bachelor’s degree in environmental health or in the physical or biological sciences. In most States, they are licensed by examining boards. All inspectors and compliance officers are trained in applicable laws and inspection procedures through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. Inspectors and compliance officers should be neat and per­ sonable and able to express themselves well orally and in writing. Federal Government inspectors and compliance officers whose job performance is satisfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full performance level. For positions above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancement is competitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local governments and the private sector are often simi­ lar to those in the Federal Government. Some civil service examinations, including those for agricultural quarantine inspectors, aviation safety inspectors, and agricultural commodity graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and education and require no written examination. Job Outlook Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflecting growing public demand for a safe environment and quality products. Employment growth, particularly in local govern­ ment, will stem from the expansion of regulatory and compliance programs in solid and hazardous waste disposal and water pollu­ tion. In private industry, employment growth will reflect increasing self-enforcement of government and company regulations and poli­ cies, particularly among the rapidly growing number of franchise dealerships in various industries. Job openings will also arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is seldom af­ fected by general economic fluctuations. Most work in programs which enjoy wide public support. In addition, Federal, State, and lo­ cal governments—which employ most inspectors—provide workers with considerable job security. As a result, inspectors are less likely  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  to lose their jobs than many other workers when government pro­ grams are cut. Earnings The median weekly salary of inspectors and compliance officers, ex­ cept construction, was about $630 in 1992. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $375; the highest 10 percent earned over $1,000. In the Federal Government, the average annual salaries for in­ spectors varied substantially in 1993—from $24,800 to $59,300— depending upon the nature of the inspection or compliance activity. The following tabulation presents 1993 average salaries for selected inspectors and compliance officers in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions.  Table 1. Average salaries of selected Federal inspectors and compliance of­ ficers, 1992 Aviation safety inspectors....................................... Highway safety inspectors..................................... Insurance examiners.............................................. Railroad safety inspectors...................................... Equal opportunity compliance officials................. Mine safety and health inspectors.......................... Internal revenue agent.......................................... Environmental protection specialists.................... Import specialists............................................ Safety and occupational health managers............ Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors........... Quality assurance inspectors................................ Public health quarantine inspectors .................... Securities compliance examiners.......................... Customs inspectors .............................................. Agricultural commodity graders ......................... Immigration inspectors........................................ Food inspectors.................................................... Consumer safety inspectors.................................. Transportation rate and tariff examiners............ Environmental protection assistants....................  $59,300 55.100 51.100 50.200 49.100 48.400 48.000 45,700 43.600 43.400 41.500 41.000 39.600 36.500 36.400 34.200 33.500 29.800 27.600 25.600 24.800  SOURCE: U.S. Office of Personnel Management  Salaries of inspectors and compliance officers in State and local government and in private industry are generally lower than those of their Federal counterparts. Most inspectors and compliance officers work for Federal, State, and local governments and in large private firms, all of which gener­ ally offer more generous fringe benefits than do smaller firms. Related Occupations Inspectors and compliance officers are responsible for seeing that laws and regulations are obeyed. Construction and building inspec­ tors, fire marshals, State and local police officers, FBI and Secret Service agents, and fish and game wardens also enforce laws. Sources of Additional Information Information on Federal Government jobs is available from offices of the State employment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of Per­ sonnel Management, and Federal Job Information Centers in large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a spe­ cific type of Federal inspector or compliance officer, the Federal de­ partment or agency that employs them may also be contacted di­ rectly. Information about State and local government jobs is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Information about jobs in private industry is available from the State Employment Service, which is listed under “Job Service” or “Employment” in the State government section of local telephone directories.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Loan Officers and Counselors (D.O.T. 186.167-078, .267-018, -022, -026)  Nature of work Banks and other financial institutions need up-to-date information on companies and individuals applying for loans and credit. Cus­ tomers and clients provide this information to the financial institu­ tion’s loan officers and counselors, generally the first employees to be seen by them. Loan officers prepare, analyze, and verify loan ap­ plications, make decisions regarding the extension of credit, and help borrowers fill out loan applications. Loan counselors help con­ sumers with low income or a poor credit history qualify for credit, usually a home mortgage. Loan officers usually specialize in commercial, consumer, or mortgage loans. Commercial or business loans help companies pay for new equipment or to expand operations. Consumer loans in­ clude home equity, automobile, and personal loans. Mortgage loans are made to purchase real estate or to refinance an existing mort­ gage. Loan officers represent lending institutions that provide funds for a variety of purposes. Personal loans can be made to consolidate bills, purchase expensive items such as an automobile or furniture, or finance a college education. Loan officers attempt to lower their firm’s risk by receiving collateral—security pledged for the payment of a loan. For example, when lending money for a college education, the bank may insist that the borrower offer his or her home as collat­ eral. If the borrower were ever unable to repay the loan, the bor­ rower would have to sell the home to raise the necessary money. Loans backed by collateral also are beneficial to the customer be­ cause they generally carry a lower interest rate. Loan officers and counselors must keep abreast of new financial products and services. To meet their customers’ needs, for example, banks and other lenders now offer a variety of mortgage products, including reverse equity mortgages, shared equity mortgages, and adjustable rate mortgages. A reverse equity mortgage provides in­ come to the owner of the property, and is paid back either through a conventional mortgage or in a lump sum. A shared equity mortgage allows a group of people to jointly own and be responsible for pay­ ment of the mortgage. Adjustable rate mortgages have a fluctuating interest rate, commonly based on the interest rate paid on govern­ ment bonds—a change in interest rates affects the borrower’s monthly payment. Loan officers meet with customers and gather basic information about the loan request. Often customers will not fully understand the information requested, and will call the loan officer for assis­ tance. Once the customer completes the financial forms, the loan of­ ficer begins to process them. The loan officer reviews the completed financial forms for accuracy and thoroughness, and requests addi­ tional information if necessary. For example, the loan officer verifies that the customer has correctly identified the type and purpose of the loan. The loan officer then requests a credit report from one or more of the major credit reporting agencies. This information, along with comments from the loan officer, is included in a loan file, and is compared to the lending institution’s requirements. Banks and other lenders have established requirements for the maximum percentage of income that can safely go to repay loans. At this point, the loan officer, in consultation with company managers, decides whether or not to grant the loan. A loan that would otherwise be denied may be approved if the customer can provide the lender appropriate collat­ eral. Whether or not the loan request is approved, the loan officer informs the borrower of the lender’s decision. Loan counselors meet with consumers who are attempting to purchase a home or refinance debt, but who do not qualify for loans with banks. Often clients rely on income from self-employment or  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  53  government assistance to prove that they can repay the loan. Coun­ selors also help to psychologically prepare consumers to be home­ owners and to pay their debts. Counselors frequently work with cli­ ents who have no experience with financial matters. Loan counselors provide positive reinforcement along with the fi­ nancial tools needed to qualify for a loan. This assistance may take several forms. Some clients simply need help in understanding what information loan officers need to complete a loan transaction. Most clients, however, need loans and grants for a down payment suffi­ cient to qualify them for a bank-financed mortgage loan. Many cli­ ents have been renting for years and want to buy their properties. While they have the desire to improve their lives through home ownership, they frequently have little or no resources for a down payment. Other clients want to move to a safer and more secure en­ vironment where, as owners, they can make decisions regarding the property. The loan counselor helps the client complete an applica­ tion, and researches Federal, State, and local government programs that could provide the additional money needed for the client to purchase the home. Often several government programs are com­ bined to provide the necessary money. Working Conditions Loan officers and counselors work in offices, but mortgage loan of­ ficers frequently move from office to office and often visit homes of clients while completing a loan request. Commercial loan officers employed by large firms may travel frequently to prepare complex loan agreements. Most loan officers and counselors work a standard 40-hour week, but may work longer, particularly mortgage loan officers who are free to take on as many customers as they choose. Loan officers and counselors usually carry a heavy caseload and sometimes cannot ac­ cept new clients until they complete current cases. They are espe­ cially busy when interest rates are low, resulting in a surge in loan applications. Employment Loan officers and counselors held about 172,000 jobs in 1992. About 7 out of 10 are employed by commercial banks, savings insti­ tutions, and credit unions. Others are employed by nonbank finan­ cial institutions, such as mortgage brokerage firms and personal credit firms. Most loan counselors work for State and local govern­ ments, or for nonprofit organizations. Loan officers and counselors generally work in urban areas where large banks are concentrated.  Loan officers and counselors are particularly busy when interest rates are low, resulting in a surge in loan applications.  54  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most loan officer positions require a bachelor’s degree in finance, economics, or a related field. Most employers al?o prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in banking. A mortgage loan officer is the exception, with training or experience in sales more crucial to potential employers. Many loan officers ad­ vance through the ranks in an organization, acquiring several years of work experience in various other occupations, such as teller or customer service representative. Capable loan officers may advance to larger branches of the firm or to a managerial position, while less capable loan officers and those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned to smaller branches and find promotion difficult. Advancement from a loan officer position usually includes becoming a supervisor over other loan officers and clerical staff. Most loan counselors receive substantial on-the-job training, gaining a thorough understanding of the requirements and proce­ dures for approval of loans. Some acquire this knowledge through work experience in a related field. In addition, accounting skills can be very helpful. Educational requirements vary—some counselors are high school graduates while others have a college degree in eco­ nomics, finance, or a related field. Like other workers, outstanding loan counselors can advance to supervisory positions. However, promotion potential is limited, and many loan counselors leave for better paying positions elsewhere. Persons planning a career as a loan officer or counselor should have good mathematical and communications skills. Developing ef­ fective working relationships with different people—managers, cli­ ents, and the public—is essential to success as a loan officer or coun­ selor. They also must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work, orally and in writing, to customers and management. Loan officers must enjoy public contact and be willing to attend community events as a representative of their employer. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire trust, respect, and confi­ dence. Because loan counselors frequently explain the complicated world of banking to clients who have never been exposed to it, pa­ tience and an understanding of mortgage banking is necessary to be an effective loan counselor. Counselors should be sensitive to their clients’ needs and feelings. Clients want to improve their lives, and counselors must consider the importance and pride they attach to home ownership. Counselors should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Job Outlook Employment of loan officers and counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As the population and economy grow, applications for commercial, consumer, and mortgage loans will increase, spurring demand for loan officers and counselors. Growth in the variety and complexity of loans, and the importance of loan officers to the success of banks and other lending institutions, also should assure rapid employment growth. Although increased demand will generate many new jobs, most openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. College graduates and those with banking or lending experience should have the best job prospects. Loan officers are less likely to lose their jobs than other workers in banks and other lending institutions during difficult economic times. Since loans are the major source of income for banks, loan of­ ficers are central to the success of their organizations. Loan counsel­ ors typically have so many clients that a reduction in their numbers would lead to a decline in the services provided to the community. However, job security is influenced by the spending patterns of local governments. Budget reductions could result in less hiring or even layoffs of loan counselors.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings According to a salary survey conducted by Robert Half Interna­ tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and fi­ nance, real estate mortgage loan officers earned between $25,000 and $45,000 in 1993; consumer loan officers, between $27,000 and $44,000. Larger banks generally paid higher salaries than smaller banks. Some mortgage loan officers, who typically are paid on a commission basis, earn considerably more. Based on limited information, most loan counselors earned be­ tween $15,000 and $35,000 in 1993. Local government employees in large cities earned the highest salaries. Banks and other lenders sometimes offer their loan officers free checking privileges and somewhat lower interest rates on personal loans. Loan counselors sometimes get awards for their service to the community. Related Occupations Loan officers and counselors help the public manage financial assets and secure loans. Occupations that involve similar functions include securities and financial services sales representatives, financial aid officers, real estate agents and brokers, and insurance agents and brokers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities as a loan officer or counselor, contact local employers—banks, savings institutions, mortgage bro­ kers, personal credit firms, or your municipal government—or the local State employment service office. Information about a career as a loan officer may be obtained from:  13° American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20036.  Management Analysts and Consultants (D.O.T. 100.117-014; 161.117-014, .167-010, -014, -018, and -022, .267 except -014 and -030; 169.167-074; and 310.267-010)  Nature of the Work A rapidly growing small company needs a better system of control over inventories and expenses. An established manufacturing com­ pany decides to relocate to another State and needs assistance plan­ ning the move. After acquiring a new division, a large company real­ izes that its corporate structure must be reorganized. A division chief of a government agency wants to know why the division’s con­ tracts are always going over budget. These are just a few of the many organizational problems that management analysts, as they are called in government agencies, and management consultants, as business firms refer to them, help solve. Although their job titles may differ, their job duties are essentially the same. The work of management analysts and consultants varies from employer to employer and from project to project. For example, some projects require several consultants to work together, each specializing in one area; at other times, they will work indepen­ dently. In general, analysts and consultants collect, review, and ana­ lyze information; make recommendations; and often assist in the implementation of their proposal. Both public and private organizations use consultants for a vari­ ety of reasons. Some don’t have the internal resources needed to handle a project; others need a consultant’s expertise to determine what resources will be required—or problems encountered—if they pursue a particular course of action; while others want to get outside advice on how to resolve organizational problems that have already been identified or to avoid troublesome problems that could arise.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Firms providing consulting services range in size from solo prac­ titioners to large international organizations employing thousands of consultants. Some firms specialize by industry; others by type of business function, such as human resources or information systems. Consulting services usually are provided on a contract basis—a company solicits proposals from consulting firms specializing in the area in which it needs assistance. These proposals include the esti­ mated cost and scope of the project, staffing requirements, and the deadline. The company then selects the proposal which best meets its needs. Upon getting an assignment or contract, consultants define the nature and extent of the problem. During this phase of the job, they may analyze data such as annual revenues, employment, or expendi­ tures; interview employees; or observe the operations of the organi­ zational unit. Next, they use their knowledge of management systems and their expertise in a particular area to develop solutions. In the course of preparing their recommendations, they must take into account the general nature of the business, the relationship the firm has with others in that industry, and the firm’s internal organization, as well as information gained through data collection and analysis. Once they have decided on a course of action, consultants usually report their findings and recommendations to the client, often in writing. In addition, they often make oral presentations regarding their findings. For some projects, this is all that is required; for others, consultants may assist in the implementation of their sugges­ tions. Management analysts in government agencies use the same skills as their private-sector colleagues to advise managers in government on many types of issues—most of which are similar to the problems faced by private firms. For example, if an agency is planning to purchase several personal computers, it first must determine which type to buy, given its budget and data processing needs. Manage­ ment analysts would assess the various types of machines available and determine which best meets their department’s needs. Working Conditions Management analysts and consultants usually divide their time be­ tween their offices and their client’s operation. Although much of their time is spent indoors in clean, well-lighted offices, they may have to visit a client’s production facility where conditions may not be so favorable. They must follow established safety procedures when making field visits to sites where they may encounter poten­ tially hazardous conditions.  Management consultants may spend a significant portion of their time with clients.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  55  Typically, analysts and consultants work at least 40 hours a week. Overtime is common, especially when deadlines must be met. In ad­ dition, because they must spend a significant portion of their time with clients, they may travel frequently. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their client base, which can be diffi­ cult at times. Employment Management analysts and consultants held about 208,000 jobs in 1992. Four out of 10 of these workers were self-employed. Most of the rest worked in management consulting firms and for Federal, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Federal Government were found in the Department of Defense. Management analysts and consultants are found throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal educational requirements for entry level jobs in this field. However, employers in private industry prefer to hire those with a master’s degree in business administration or a disci­ pline related to the firms’ area of specialization. Those individuals hired straight out of school with only a bachelor’s degree are likely to work as research associates or junior consultants, rather than fullfledged management consultants. It is possible for research associ­ ates to advance up the career ladder if they demonstrate a strong ap­ titude for consulting, but, more often, they need to get an advanced degree to do so. Many entrants to this occupation have, in addition to the appro­ priate formal education, several years of experience in management or in another occupation. Most government agencies hire those with a bachelor’s degree and no work experience as entry level management analysts, and often provide formal classroom training in management analysis. Many fields of study provide a suitable formal educational back­ ground for this occupation because of the diversity of problem areas addressed by management analysts and consultants. These include most areas of business and management, as well as computer and in­ formation sciences and engineering. Management analysts and consultants who are hired directly from school sometimes participate in formal company training pro­ grams. These programs may include instruction on policies and pro­ cedures, computer systems and software, research processes, and management practices and principles. Because of their previous in­ dustry experience, most who enter at middle levels do not partici­ pate in formal company training programs. However, regardless of background, analysts and consultants routinely attend conferences to keep abreast of current developments in their field. Additionally, some large firms offer in-house formal training programs for all levels of staff. Management analysts and consultants often work under little or no supervision, so they should be independent and self-motivated. Analytical skills, strong oral communication and written skills, good judgment, the ability to manage time well, and creativity in de­ veloping solutions to problems are other desirable qualities for pro­ spective management analysts and consultants. In large consulting firms, beginners usually start as a member of a consulting team. The team is responsible for the entire project and each consultant is assigned to a particular area. As consultants gain experience, they may be assigned to work on one specific project full-time, taking on more responsibility and managing their own hours. At the senior level, consultants may supervise entry level workers and become increasingly involved in seeking out new busi­ ness. Those with exceptional skills may eventually become a partner or principal in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm.  56  Occupational Outlook Handbook  A high percentage of management consultants are self-employed, partly because start-up costs are low. Little capital is required ini­ tially, and it is possible for self-employed consultants to share office space, administrative help, and other resources with other self-em­ ployed consultants or small consulting firms, thus reducing over­ head costs. The Institute of Management Consultants (a division of the Council of Consulting Organizations) offers the Certified Manage­ ment Consultant (CMC) designation to those who pass an examina­ tion and meet minimum levels of education and experience. Certifi­ cation is not mandatory for management consultants to practice, but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage. Job Outlook Employment of management analysts and consultants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as industry and government increasingly rely on outside expertise to improve the performance of their organizations. Growth is expected in large consulting firms, but also in small con­ sulting firms whose consultants will specialize in highly specific ar­ eas of expertise. Although most job openings will result from em­ ployment growth of the occupation, additional opportunities will arise from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Increased competition has caused American industry to take a closer look at its operations. In more competitive international and domestic markets, firms cannot afford inefficiency and wasted re­ sources or else they risk losing their share of the market. Manage­ ment consultants are being increasingly relied upon to help reduce costs, streamline operations, and develop marketing strategies. As businesses downsize and eliminate needed functions as well as per­ manent staff, consultants will be used to perform those functions on a contractual basis. On the other hand, businesses undergoing ex­ pansion, particularly into world markets, will also need the skills of management consultants to help with organizational, administra­ tive, and other issues. Continuing changes in the business environ­ ment also are expected to lead to demand for management consul­ tants: Firms will use consultants’ expertise to incorporate new technologies, to cope with more numerous and complex government regulations, and to adapt to a changing labor force. As businesses rely more on technology, there are increasing roles for consultants with a technical background, such as engineering or biotechnology, particularly when combined with an MBA. Federal, State, and local agencies also are expected to expand their use of management analysts. In the era of budget deficits, ana­ lysts’ skills at identifying problems and implementing cost reduction measures are expected to become increasingly important. However, because one-half of the management analysts employed by the Fed­ eral government work for the Department of Defense, the pace of Federal employment growth will vary with the defense budget. In the private sector, job opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate degree and some industry expertise, while op­ portunities for those with only a bachelor’s degree will be best in the Federal Government. Because many small consulting firms fail each year for lack of managerial expertise and clients, those interested in opening their own firm should have good organizational and marketing skills, plus several years of consulting experience. Despite projected rapid employment growth, competition for jobs as management consultants is expected to be keen in the private sec­ tor. Because management consultants can come from such diverse educational backgrounds, the pool of applicants from which em­ ployers hire is quite large. Additionally, the independent and chal­ lenging nature of the work combined with high earnings potential make this occupation attractive to many.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Salaries for management analysts and consultants vary widely by experience, education, and employer. In 1992, those who were wage and salary workers had median annual earnings of about $40,300. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,500 and $60,100. In 1991, according to the Association of Management Consulting Firms (ACME), earnings—including bonuses and/or profit shar­ ing—for research associates in ACME member firms averaged $31,300; for entry level consultants, $39,100; for management con­ sultants, $56,300; for senior consultants, $76,700; for junior part­ ners, $105,600; and for senior partners, $166,100. Typical benefits for salaried analysts and consultants include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, vacation and sick leave, profit sharing, and bonuses for outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reimbursed by their employer. Self-em­ ployed consultants usually have to maintain an office and do not re­ ceive employer-provided benefits. Related Occupations Management analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze data; make recommendations; and assist in the implementation of their ideas. Others who use similar skills are managers, computer systems analysts, operations research analysts, economists, and fi­ nancial analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in management consulting is available from:  ACME, The Association of Management Consulting Firms, 521 Fifth Ave., 35th Floor, New York, NY 10175-3598.  For information about a career as a State or local government management analyst, contact your State or local employment ser­ vice. Persons interested in a management analyst position in the Fed­ eral Government can obtain information from: EF*U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 ESt. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations Managers (D.O.T. 141.137-010; 159.167-022; 163.117-014, -018, -022, -026, .167-010, -018, -022, .267-010; 164.117-010, -014, -018, .167-010; 185.117-014, .157-010, -014; 187.167-162; 189.117-018)  Nature of the Work The fundamental objective of any firm is to market its products or services profitably. In small firms, all marketing responsibilities may be assumed by the owner or chief executive officer. In large firms, which may offer numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, experienced marketing, advertising, and public relations managers coordinate these and related activities. The executive vice president for marketing in large firms directs the overall marketing policy—including market research, market­ ing strategy, sales, advertising, promotion, pricing, product devel­ opment, and public relations activities. (This occupation is included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top execu­ tives.) These activities are supervised by middle and supervisory managers who oversee staffs of professionals and technicians. Marketing managers develop the firm’s detailed marketing strat­ egy. With the help of subordinates, including product development managers and market research managers, they determine the de­ mand for products and services offered by the firm and its competi­ tors and identify potential consumers—for example, business firms,  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations wholesalers, retailers, government, or the general public. Mass mar­ kets are further categorized according to various factors such as re­ gion, age, income, and lifestyle. Marketing managers develop pric­ ing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm’s share of the market and its profits while ensuring that the firm’s customers are satisfied. In collaboration with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to best promote the firm’s products and services and to attract potential users. Sales managers direct the firm’s sales program. They assign sales territories and goals and establish training programs for their sales representatives. Managers advise their sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They ana­ lyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales poten­ tial and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of cus­ tomers. Such information is vital to develop products and maximize profits. Except in the largest firms, advertising and promotion staffs are generally small and serve as a liaison between the firm and the ad­ vertising or promotion agency to which many advertising or promo­ tional functions are contracted out. Advertising managers oversee the account services, creative services, and media services depart­ ments. The account services department is managed by account ex­ ecutives, who assess the need for advertising and, in advertising agencies, maintain the accounts of clients. The creative services de­ partment develops the subject matter and presentation of advertis­ ing. This department is supervised by a creative director, who over­ sees the copy chief and art director and their staffs. The media services department is supervised by the media director, who over­ sees planning groups that select the communication media—for ex­ ample, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, or outdoor signs— to disseminate the advertising. Promotion managers supervise staffs of promotion specialists. They direct promotion programs combining advertising with purchase incentives to increase sales of products or services. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distribu­ tors, or consumers—promotion programs may involve direct mail, telemarketing, television or radio advertising, catalogs, exhibits, in­ serts in newspapers, in-store displays and product endorsements, and special events. Purchase incentives may include discounts, sam­ ples, gifts, rebates, coupons, sweepstakes, and contests. Public relations managers supervise public relations specialists (see the Handbook statement on public relations specialists). These managers direct publicity programs to a targeted public. They use any necessary communication media in their effort to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization’s suc­ cess depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the general pub­ lic. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm’s point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special interest groups. They may evaluate advertising and pro­ motion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts. Public relations managers, in effect, serve as the eyes and ears of top management. They observe social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately have an effect upon the firm, and make recom­ mendations to enhance the firm’s public image in view of those trends. Public relations managers may confer with labor relations managers to produce internal company communications—such as news about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They may assist company executives in drafting speeches, arranging interviews, and other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to information requests. In addition, public relations managers may  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  57  handle special events such as sponsorship of races, parties introduc­ ing new products, or other activities the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly. Working Conditions Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers are provided with offices close to top managers. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. Working under pressure is unavoidable as schedules change, problems arise, and deadlines and goals must be met. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers meet frequently with other managers; some meet with the public and gov­ ernment officials. Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries is often mandatory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local of­ fices and to various dealers and distributors. Advertising and pro­ motion managers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of communications media. Public relations managers may travel to meet with special interest groups or government officials. Job trans­ fers between headquarters and regional offices are common—par­ ticularly among sales managers—and may disrupt family life. Employment Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers held about 432,000 jobs in 1992. These managers are found in virtually every industry. Industries employing them in significant numbers include motor vehicle dealers; printing and publishing firms; advertising agencies; department stores; computer and data processing services firms; and management and public relations firms. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications A wide range of educational backgrounds are suitable for entry into marketing, advertising, and public relations managerial jobs, but many employers prefer a broad liberal arts background. A bache­ lor’s degree in sociology, psychology, literature, or philosophy, among other subjects, is acceptable. However, requirements vary depending upon the particular job. For marketing, sales, and promotion management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in business administration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in business law, economics, accounting, finance, mathematics, and statistics are also highly recommended. In highly technical industries, such as  Increasing competition in products and services will spur rapid employment growth among marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.  58  Occupational Outlook Handbook  computer and electronics manufacturing, a bachelor’s degree in en­ gineering or science combined with a master’s degree in business ad­ ministration may be preferred. For advertising management posi­ tions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s degree in advertising or journalism. A course of study should include courses in marketing, consumer behavior, market research, sales, communications meth­ ods and technology, and visual arts—for example, art history and photography. For public relations management positions, some em­ ployers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in public relations or journalism. The individual’s curriculum should include courses in advertising, business administration, public affairs, political science, and creative and technical writing. For all these specialties, courses in management and completion of an internship while in school are highly recommended. Familiarity with computerized word process­ ing and data base applications also are important for many market­ ing, advertising, and public relations management positions. Most marketing, advertising, and public relations management positions are filled by promoting experienced staff or related profes­ sional or technical personnel—for example, sales representatives, purchasing agents, buyers, product or brand specialists, advertising specialists, promotion specialists, and public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position may come slowly. In large firms, promo­ tion may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by participation in management training programs conducted by many large firms. Many firms also provide their employees with continuing education opportunities, either in-house or at local colleges and universities, and encourage employee participation in seminars and conferences, often provided by professional societies. Often in collaboration with colleges and universities, numerous marketing and related associa­ tions sponsor national or local management training programs. Courses include brand and product management, international marketing, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and direct sales, promotion, marketing communication, market research, or­ ganizational communication, and data processing systems proce­ dures and management. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for those who successfully complete courses. Some associations (listed under sources of additional informa­ tion) offer certification programs for marketing, advertising, and public relations managers. Certification is a sign of competence and achievement in this field that is particularly important in a competi­ tive job market. While relatively few marketing, advertising, and public relations managers currently are certified, the number of managers who seek certification is expected to grow. For example, Sales and Marketing Executives International offers a management certification program based on education and job performance. The Public Relations Society of America offers an accreditation pro­ gram for public relations practitioners based on years of experience and an examination. The American Marketing Association is devel­ oping a certification program for marketing managers. Persons interested in becoming marketing, advertising, and pub­ lic relations managers should be mature, creative, highly motivated, resistant to stress, and flexible, yet decisive. The ability to communi­ cate persuasively, both orally and in writing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. Marketing, advertising, and public rela­ tions managers also need tact, good judgment, and exceptional abil­ ity to establish and maintain effective personal relationships with supervisory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, mar­ keting, advertising, and public relations managers often are prime candidates for advancement. Well-trained, experienced, successful managers may be promoted to higher positions in their own or other firms. Some become top executives. Managers with extensive experi­ ence and sufficient capital may open their own businesses.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations manag­ ers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increasingly intense domestic and global competition in products and services offered to consumers should require greater marketing, promotional, and public relations efforts. Management and public relations firms may experience particularly rapid growth as businesses increasingly hire contractors for these services rather than support additional full-time staff. In addition to faster than average growth, many job openings will occur each year as a result of managers moving into top manage­ ment positions, transferring to other jobs, or leaving the labor force. However, many of these highly coveted jobs will be sought by other managers or highly experienced professional and technical person­ nel, resulting in substantial job competition. College graduates with extensive experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communi­ cation skills should have the best job opportunities. Projected employment growth varies by industry. For example, employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations manag­ ers is expected to grow much faster than average in most business services industries, such as computer and data processing, and man­ agement and public relations firms, while average growth is pro­ jected in manufacturing industries overall. Earnings According to a College Placement Council survey, starting salary offers to marketing majors graduating in 1993 averaged about $24,000; advertising majors, about $21,000. The median annual salary of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers was $41,000 in 1992. The lowest 10 percent earned $22,000 or less, while the top 10 percent earned $79,000 or more. Many earn bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their sala­ ries. Surveys show that salary levels vary substantially depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, educa­ tion, and the employer’s size, location, and industry. For example, manufacturing firms generally pay marketing, advertising, and pub­ lic relations managers higher salaries than nonmanufacturing firms. For sales managers, the size of their sales territory is another impor­ tant factor. According to a 1992 survey by Abbot, Langer and Associates, of Crete, Illinois, annual incomes for sales/marketing managers varied greatly—from under $25,000 to over $250,000—depending on the manager’s level of education, experience, industry, and the number of employees he or she supervises. The median annual income for top advertising managers was $45,000; product/brand managers, $54,000; top market research managers, $55,000; regional sales managers, $64,000; and chief marketing executives, $67,000. Related Occupations Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers direct the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the commu­ nication of information about their firms’ activities. Other personnel involved with marketing, advertising, and public relations include art directors, commercial and graphic artists, copy chiefs, copywriters, editors, lobbyists, marketing research analysts, public relations specialists, promotion specialists, sales representatives, and technical writers. (Some of these occupations are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in sales and marketing management, contact:  ^American Marketing Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. O" Sales and Marketing Executives International, 458 Statler Office Tower, Cleveland, OH 44115.  For information about careers in advertising management, con­ tact:  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations tW American Advertising Federation, Education Services Department, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW,, Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005.  Information about careers in promotion management is available from: ©"Council of Sales Promotion Agencies, 750 Summer St., Stamford, CT 06901. ©•Promotion Marketing Association of America, Inc., 322 Eighth Ave., Suite 1201, New York, NY 10001.  Information about careers in public relations management is available from: ©“ Public Relations Society of America, 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376.  Personnel, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists and Managers (D.O.T. 079.127; 099.167-010; 166.067, .117, .167 except -046, .257, .267-014 through-046; 169.107, .167-062, .207; 188.117-010, -086, .217)  Nature of the Work Attracting the most qualified employees available and matching them to the jobs they are best suited for is important for the success of any organization. However, many enterprises are too large to per­ mit close contact between top management and employees. Instead, personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers, commonly known as human resource specialists and managers, pro­ vide this link. These individuals recruit and interview employees and advise on hiring decisions in accordance with policies and re­ quirements that have been established in conjunction with top man­ agement. In an effort to improve morale and productivity and limit job turnover, they also help their firms effectively use employees’ skills, provide training opportunities to enhance those skills, and boost employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and working condi­ tions. Although some jobs in the human resources field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve frequent contact. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. In a small organization, one person may handle all aspects of per­ sonnel, training, and labor relations work. In contrast, in a large corporation, the top human resources executive usually develops and coordinates personnel programs and policies. (Executives are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These policies usually are implemented by a director or manager of human resources and, in some cases, a director of indus­ trial relations. The director of human resources may oversee several depart­ ments, each headed by an experienced manager, who most likely specializes in one personnel activity such as employment, compen­ sation, benefits, training and development, or employee relations. Employment and placement managers oversee the hiring and sep­ aration of employees and supervise various workers, including equal employment opportunity specialists and recruitment specialists. Recruiters maintain contacts within the community and may travel extensively—often to college campuses—to search for prom­ ising job applicants. Recruiters screen, interview, and, in some cases, test applicants, and recommend those who are qualified to fill vacancies. They may also check references before an offer is made. These workers need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employees. They also need to keep informed about equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines and laws, such as the Americans With Disabilities Act. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this area in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  59  Employer relations representatives—who usually work in gov­ ernment agencies—maintain working relationships with local em­ ployers and promote the use of public employment programs and services. Similarly, employment interviewers—sometimes called personnel consultants—help match jobseekers with employers. (For more information, see the statement on employment interviewers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job analysts, sometimes called position classifiers, perform very exacting work. They collect and examine detailed information about job duties to prepare job descriptions. These descriptions explain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a large or­ ganization introduces a new job or reviews existing jobs, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, generally in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relationships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and industry, government, and labor unions. Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the principal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, com­ pensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates compare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale complies with chang­ ing laws and regulations. In addition, compensation managers often oversee their firm’s performance evaluation system, and they may design reward systems such as pay-for-performance plans. Employee benefits managers handle the company’s employee benefits program, notably its health insurance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering benefits programs contin­ ues to gain importance as employer-provided benefits account for a growing proportion of overall compensation costs, and as benefit plans increase in number and complexity. For example, pension benefits might include savings and thrift, profit sharing, and stock ownership plans, and health benefits may include long-term cata­ strophic illness insurance and dental insurance. Familiarity with health benefits is a top priority at present, as more firms struggle to cope with the rising cost of health care for employees and retirees. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, some firms offer their employees life and accidental death and dismemberment insur­ ance, disability insurance, and relatively new benefits designed to meet the needs of a changing work force, such as parental leave, child care and elder care, long-term nursing home care insurance, employee assistance and wellness programs, and flexible benefits plans, in which employees have the option of receiving cash instead of benefits. Benefits managers must keep abreast of changing Fed­ eral and State regulations and legislation that may affect employee benefits. Employee assistance plan managers—also called employee wel­ fare managers—are responsible for a wide array of programs cover­ ing occupational safety and health standards and practices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treatment, such as first aid; plant security; publications; food service and recreation activities; car pooling; employee suggestion systems; child care and elder care; and counseling services. Child care and elder care are increasingly important due to growth in the number of dual-income households and the elderly population. Counseling may help employees deal with emotional disorders, al­ coholism, or marital, family, consumer, legal, and financial problems. Career counseling and second career counseling for em­ ployees approaching retirement age also may be provided. In large firms, some of these programs—such as security and safety—are in separate departments headed by other managers. Training is supervised by training and development managers. In­ creasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of de­ veloping skills, enhancing productivity and quality of work, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale, but this is only one of the reasons for its growing importance. Other factors include the complexity of the  60  Occupational Outlook Handbook  work environment, the rapid pace of organizational and technologi­ cal change, and the growing number of jobs in fields that constantly generate new knowledge. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how training can be organized most effectively for adults. Training specialists plan, organize, and direct a wide range of training activities. Trainers conduct orientation sessions and ar­ range on-the-job training for new employees. They help rank-andfile workers maintain and improve their job skills and possibly pre­ pare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors improve their interpersonal skills in order to deal effectively with employees. To help employees prepare for future responsibilities, they may set up individualized training plans to strengthen existing skills or to teach new skills. Training specialists in some companies set up pro­ grams to develop executive potential among employees in lower level positions. In government-supported training programs, train­ ing specialists function as case managers. They first assess the train­ ing needs of the client, then help guide the client through the appro­ priate training method. After training, they either refer the client to employer relations representatives or help them get a job. Planning and program development is an important part of the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and assess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with managers and super­ visors or conduct surveys. They also periodically evaluate training effectiveness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, trainers may differ considerably in their responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods include on-the-job training; schools in which shop conditions are duplicated for trainees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; classroom training; programmed instruction, which may involve interactive videos, videodiscs, and other computer-aided instructional technol­ ogies; simulators; conferences; and workshops. The director of industrial relations forms labor policy, oversees industrial labor relations, negotiates collective bargaining agree­ ments, and coordinates grievance procedures to handle complaints resulting from disputes under the contract for firms with unionized employees. The director of industrial relations also advises and col­ laborates with the director of human resources and other managers and members of their staff, because all aspects of personnel policy— such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work practices—may be in­ volved in drawing up a new or revised contract. Industrial labor relations programs are implemented by labor re­ lations managers and their staff. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, labor relations specialists prepare information for management to use during negotiation, which re­ quires familiarity with economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with respect to grievances, wages and salaries, employee welfare, health care, pensions, union and management practices, and other contractual stipulations. As union membership is continuing to decline in most industries, industrial relations personnel are working more with em­ ployees who are not members of a labor union. Dispute resolution—that is, attaining tacit or contractual agree­ ments—has become increasingly important as disputants attempt to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other disruptions. Dispute resolu­ tion also has become more complex, involving employees, manage­ ment, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Specialists in­ volved in dispute resolution must be highly knowledgeable and experienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and manage­ ment to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agreements or other labor relations issues. Arbitrators, sometimes called umpires or referees, decide disputes and bind both labor and management to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. La­ bor relations specialists who work for unions perform many of the same functions on behalf of the union and its members.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Other emerging specialists include international human resources managers, who handle human resources issues related to a com­ pany’s foreign operations, and human resources information system specialists, who develop and apply computer programs to process personnel information, match jobseekers with job openings, and handle other personnel matters. Working Conditions Personnel work is office work. Generally, the work setting is clean, pleasant, and comfortable. Many personnel, training, and labor re­ lations specialists and managers work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. However, many work longer hours—for example, labor rela­ tions specialists and managers—when contract agreements are be­ ing prepared and negotiated. Although most personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers work in the office, some travel extensively. For exam­ ple, recruiters regularly attend professional meetings and visit col­ lege campuses to interview prospective employees. Employment Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers held about 474,000 jobs in 1992. They were employed in virtually every industry. Specialists accounted for 281,000 positions; manag­ ers, 193,000. About 10,000—mostly specialists—were self-em­ ployed, working as consultants to public and private employers. The private sector accounted for about 85 percent of salaried jobs. Among these salaried jobs, services industries—including business, health, social, management, and educational services—accounted for nearly 4 out of 10 jobs; labor organizations—the largest em­ ployer among specific industries—accounted for 1 out of 10. Manu­ facturing industries accounted for over 2 out of 10 jobs, while fi­ nance, insurance, and real estate firms accounted for about 1 out of 10. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 15 percent of salaried personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and  More personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers will be needed as employers devote greater resources to job-specific training programs.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations managers. They handled the recruitment, interviewing, job classifi­ cation, training, salary administration, benefits, employee relations, and related matters of the Nation’s public employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of duties and level of responsibility, the edu­ cational backgrounds of personnel, training, and labor relations spe­ cialists and managers vary considerably. In filling entry level jobs, firms generally seek college graduates. Some employers prefer appli­ cants who have majored in human resources, personnel administra­ tion, or industrial and labor relations, while others look for college graduates with a technical or business background. Still others feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is best. Many colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in personnel, human resources, or labor relations. Some offer degree programs in personnel administration or human resources manage­ ment, training and development, or compensation and benefits. De­ pending on the school, courses leading to a career in human re­ sources management may be found in departments of business administration, education, instructional technology, organizational development, human services, communication, or public adminis­ tration, or within a separate human resources institution or depart­ ment. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. Some jobs may require a back­ ground in engineering, science, finance, or law. Most prospective personnel specialists should take courses in compensation, recruit­ ment, training and development, and performance appraisal, as well as courses in principles of management, organizational structure, and industrial psychology. Other relevant courses include business administration, public administration, psychology, sociology, politi­ cal science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collec­ tive bargaining, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psy­ chology also provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Knowledge of computers and information systems is important for some jobs. Graduate study in industrial or labor relations is increasingly im­ portant for those seeking work in labor relations. A law degree sel­ dom is required for entry level jobs, but many people responsible for contract negotiations are lawyers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and law is highly desirable. A background in law is also desirable for employee benefits managers and others who must interpret the growing number of laws and regulations. A degree in dispute resolution provides an excellent background for mediators, arbitrators, and related personnel. A master’s degree in personnel, training, or labor relations, or in business administration with a con­ centration in human resources management, is desirable for those seeking general and top management positions. For many specialized jobs in this field, previous experience is an asset; for managerial positions, it is essential. Many employers pre­ fer entry level workers who have gained some experience through an internship or work-study program while in school. Personnel ad­ ministration and human resources development require the ability to work with individuals as well as a commitment to organizational goals. This field also demands other skills that people may develop elsewhere—computer usage, selling, teaching, supervising, and vol­ unteering, among others. This field offers clerical workers opportu­ nities for advancement to professional positions. Responsible posi­ tions sometimes are filled by experienced individuals from other fields, including business, government, education, social services ad­ ministration, and the military. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers should speak and write effectively and be able to work with or super­ vise people of all levels of education and experience as part of a team. They must be patient to cope with conflicting points of view and emotionally stable to deal with the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to function under pressure is essential. Integrity, fair https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  61  mindedness, and a persuasive, congenial personality are important qualities. Entry level workers often enter formal or on-the-job training pro­ grams, in which they learn how to classify jobs, interview appli­ cants, or administer employee benefits. Next, they are assigned to specific areas in the personnel department to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a managerial position, overseeing a major ele­ ment of the personnel program—compensation or training, for ex­ ample. Exceptional personnel, training, and labor relations workers may be promoted to director of personnel or industrial relations, which can eventually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a consulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Though not widespread, some organizations offer certification examinations to members who meet certain education and experi­ ence requirements. Certification is a sign of competence and can en­ hance one’s advancement opportunities. (Several of these organiza­ tions are listed under sources of additional information.) Job Outlook The number of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2005. As in other occupations, job growth among specialists is projected to outpace job growth among managers. In addition, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave this occupation to transfer to other jobs, retire, or for other reasons. However, the job market is likely to remain competitive in view of the abundant supply of qualified col­ lege graduates and experienced workers. Most new jobs for personnel, training, and labor relations special­ ists and managers will be in the private sector as employers, increas­ ingly concerned about productivity and quality of work, devote greater resources to job-specific training programs in response to the growing complexity of many jobs, the aging of the work force, and technological advances that can leave employees with obsolete skills. In addition, legislation and court rulings setting standards in occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, wages, and health, pension, family leave, and other benefits will in­ crease demand for experts in these areas. The increasing cost of liti­ gation related to labor-management disputes may spur demand for labor relations workers to help resolve these disputes out of court. Increasing demand for international human resources managers and human resources information systems specialists may spur ad­ ditional job growth. On the other hand, widespread use of comput­ erized human resources information systems could make workers more productive, thus limiting job growth. Employment demand will be particularly strong in management and consulting firms as well as personnel supply firms as businesses increasingly contract out personnel functions or hire personnel spe­ cialists on a contractual basis to meet the increasing cost and com­ plexity of training and development programs. Demand should also increase in firms that develop and administer the increasingly com­ plex employee benefits and compensation packages for other organi­ zations. Demand for personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers also is governed by the staffing needs of the firms where they work. A rapidly expanding business is likely to hire addi­ tional personnel workers—either as permanent employees or con­ sultants—while a business that has experienced a merger or a reduc­ tion in its work force will require fewer personnel workers. Similar to other workers, employment of personnel, training, and labor rela­ tions specialists and managers, particularly in larger firms, may be adversely affected by corporate downsizing and restructuring. On the other hand, as human resource management becomes increas­ ingly important to the success of an organization, some small and medium-size businesses that do not have a human resources depart­ ment may employ workers to perform human resources duties on a  62  Occupational Outlook Handbook  part-time basis while maintaining other unrelated responsibilities within the company. In any particular firm, the size and the job du­ ties of the human resources staff are determined by a variety of fac­ tors, including the firm’s organizational philosophy and goals, the labor intensity and skill profile of the industry, the pace of techno­ logical change, government regulations, collective bargaining agree­ ments, standards of professional practice, and labor market condi­ tions. Earnings According to a 1993 College Placement Council salary survey, bachelor’s degree graduates who majored in human resources, in­ cluding labor relations, received starting offers averaging $22,900 a year; master’s degree recepients, $30,500. The median annual salary of personnel, training, and labor rela­ tions specialists was about $32,000 in 1992. For managers, the me­ dian annual salary was over $37,000. However, salaries varied widely. The lowest 10 percent of specialists earned around $17,000, while the highest 10 percent of managers earned nearly $64,000. According to a 1992 survey of compensation in the human re­ sources field, conducted by Abbott, Langer, and Associates of Crete, Illinois, the median annual salaries for selected personnel and labor relations occupations were: Industrial/labor relations manag­ ers, $70,000; corporate training directors, $63,900; compensation specialists (executive, managerial, and professional jobs), $40,200; EEO/affirmative action specialists, $33,800; personnel research specialists, $29,400; and benefits specialists (clerical jobs), $24,200. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, personnel specialists with limited experience had median earnings of $25,100 a year in 1992, with the middle half earning between $22,500 and $28,000 a year. The most experienced personnel spe­ cialists had median earnings of $76,900, with the middle half earn­ ing between $67,200 and $84,300. Personnel supervisors/managers with limited experience had median earnings of $51,100 a year in 1992, with the middle half earning between $47,200 and $56,400 a year. The most experienced personnel supervisors/managers had median earnings of $105,000, with the middle half earning between $94,800 and $123,900. In the Federal Government in 1993, persons with a bachelor’s de­ gree or 3 years’ general experience in the personnel field generally started at $18,300 a year. Those with a superior academic record or an additional year of specialized experience started at $22,700 a year. Holders of a master’s degree started at $27,800, and those with a doctorate in a personnel field started at $33,600. There are no for­ mal entry level requirements for managerial positions. Applicants must possess a suitable combination of educational attainment, ex­ perience, and record of accomplishment. Labor relations specialists in the Federal Government averaged $50,400 a year in 1993; personnel managers, $48,200; equal employ­ ment opportunity specialists, $47,200; position classification spe­ cialists, $45,000; and personnel staffing specialists, $42,600. Related Occupations All personnel, training, and labor relations occupations are closely related. Other workers with skills and expertise in interpersonal re­ lations include employment, rehabilitation, and college career plan­ ning and placement counselors; lawyers; psychologists; sociologists; social workers; public relations specialists; and teachers. These oc­ cupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers and certification in the human resources field, send a self-addressed, stamped, legal-sized envelope to:  tw Society for Human Resource Management, 606 N. Washington St., Al­ exandria, VA 22314.  For information about careers in employee training and develop­ ment, contact:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  American Society for Training and Development, 1640 King St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313.  For information about careers and certification in employee com­ pensation and benefits, contact: tw American Compensation Association, 14040 Northsight Blvd., Scotts­ dale, AZ 85260.  Information about careers and certification in employee benefits is available from: O'International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., Brookfield, WI 53008.  For information about careers in arbitration and other aspects of dispute resolution, contact: O'American Arbitration Association, 140 West 51st St., New York, NY 10020.  For information about academic programs in industrial relations, write to: tw Industrial Relations Research Association, University of Wisconsin, 7226 Social Science Bldg., 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison, WI 53706.  Information about personnel careers in the health care industry is available from: XW American  Hospital Association, American Society for Healthcare Human Resources, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. tw American Society for Healthcare Education and Training, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  For information about personnel and labor relations careers in government, contact: 0= International Association of Personnel in Employment Security, 1801  Louisville Rd., Frankfort, KY 40601.  For additional information on government careers in personnel, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: xw International Personnel Management Association, IPMA Center for Personnel Research, 1617 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Property and Real Estate Managers (D.O.T. 186.117-042, -046, -058, and -062,-167-018, -030, -038, -042, -046, -062, -066, and -090; 187.167-190; 189.157; 191.117-030 and -042 through -050)  Nature of the Work Many people own real estate in the form of a home, but, to busi­ nesses and investors, commercial real estate is a source of income and profit rather than simply a place for shelter. For them, real es­ tate—including land and structures such as office buildings, shop­ ping centers, and apartment complexes—is a valuable asset that can produce income and appreciate in value over time if well managed. Real estate can be a source of income when it is leased to others, and a substantial business expense when it is leased from others. For this reason, property managers perform an important function in in­ creasing and maintaining the value of real estate investments for in­ vestors. Property managers administer income-producing commer­ cial and residential properties and manage the communal property and services of condominium and community associations. Real es­ tate managers plan and direct the purchase, development, and dis­ posal of real estate for businesses. Most property and real estate managers work in the field of prop­ erty management. When owners of apartments, office buildings, re­ tail and industrial properties, or condominiums lack the time or ex­ pertise to assume the day-to-day management of their real estate investments, they often hire a property manager, or contract for one’s services with a real estate management company. Most prop­ erty managers handle several properties simultaneously. Property managers act as the owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They market vacant space to prospective tenants, through the use of a leasing agent, advertising, or by other means, and establish rental rates in accordance with prevailing local conditions. They negotiate and prepare lease or rental agreements with tenants and collect their rent payments and other fees. Property managers also handle the bookkeeping for the property. They see to it that rents are received  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations and make sure that mortgages, taxes, insurance premiums, payroll, and maintenance bills are paid on time. They also supervise the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters. Property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers must solicit bids from several contractors and recommend to the owners which bid to accept. They monitor the performance of the contractors, and investigate and resolve complaints from tenants. Managers also purchase all supplies and equipment needed for the property, and make arrange­ ments with specialists for any repairs that cannot be handled by the regular property maintenance staff. Property managers hire the maintenance and on-site management personnel. At smaller properties, the property manager might em­ ploy only a building engineer who maintains the building’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and performs other rou­ tine maintenance and repair. Larger properties require a sizable maintenance staff supervised by a full-time on-site manager, who works under the direction of the property manager. Although some on-site managers oversee large office buildings or shopping centers, most manage apartments. They train, supervise, and assign duties to the maintenance staff and routinely inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment, determine what repairs and maintenance are needed, and assign workers to do them. Occasion­ ally, outside contractors are required, and the on-site manager may obtain bids for the work and submit them to the property manager. On-site managers schedule routine servicing of the heating, ventila­ tion, and air-conditioning systems and ensure that the work of the maintenance staff and contract workers is up to standards or con­ tract specifications. They keep records of expenditures incurred for operating the property and submit regular expense reports to the property manager or owners. They may recruit maintenance staff, interview job applicants, and make hiring recommendations to the property manager. Tenant relations is an important part of the work of on-site man­ agers, particularly apartment and condominium managers. They are responsible for enforcing rules and lease restrictions, such as pet restrictions or use of parking areas. Apartment managers handle te­ nants’ requests for service or repairs and try to resolve complaints. They show vacant apartments to prospective tenants and explain the occupancy terms. Property managers must understand the pro­ visions of legislation such as the Americans With Disabilities Act and local fair housing laws to be sure they are not being discrimina­ tory in the renting or advertising of apartments. Property and on-site managers employed by condominium and homeowner associations must be particularly adept at dealing with people. Instead of tenants, they must deal on a daily basis with homeowners—members of the community association that employs the manager. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the associ­ ation, the community association manager administers its daily af­ fairs and oversees the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. Many community associations are small and cannot afford professional management, but managers of larger condominiums have many of the same responsibilities as the managers of large apartment com­ plexes. Some homeowner associations encompass thousands of homes, and, in addition to administering the associations’ financial records, their managers may be responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, community centers, and the mainte­ nance of landscaping, parking areas, and streets. Some real estate managers are employed by businesses to locate, acquire, and develop real estate needed for their operations and to dispose of property no longer suited to their uses. These managers locate desirable sites for factories, retail stores, hotels and motels, and other business ventures and arrange to purchase or lease the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  63  property. They select a site based on their assessment of considera­ tions such as property values, zoning, population growth, and traffic volume and patterns. They negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the property, securing the most beneficial terms for their company. Real estate managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings, identifying properties that are no longer com­ mercially attractive. They negotiate the sale or termination of the lease of properties selected for disposal. Real estate managers who work for land development companies acquire land and plan the construction of shopping centers, houses and apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with representatives of local government, other businesses, commu­ nity and public interest groups, and public utilities to eliminate ob­ stacles to the development of the land and to gain support for the planned project. It sometimes takes years to win approval for a pro­ ject, and in the process managers may have to modify the plans for the project many times. Once they are free to proceed with a project, managers negotiate short-term loans to finance the construction of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then contract with architectural firms to draw up de­ tailed plans, and with construction companies to build the project. Working Conditions Most property and real estate managers work in clean, well-lighted offices, but many spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Property managers frequently visit the properties they oversee, sometimes on a daily basis when contractors are doing ma­ jor repair or renovation work. On-site apartment managers may spend a large portion of their workday away from their office visit­ ing the building engineer in the boiler room, checking up on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating a problem reported by a tenant. Many real estate managers spend the majority of their time away from home, traveling to company real estate holdings or searching for properties that might be acquired. Property and real estate managers often must attend meetings in the evening with property owners, community association boards of directors, or civic groups. Not surprisingly, many property and real estate managers put in long work weeks. Many apartment managers are required to live in the apartments where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs while they are off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off, however, for working at night or on weekends. Many apartment managers re­ ceive time off during the week so that they are available on week­ ends to show apartments to prospective tenants.  Property managers must quickly resolve tenants' complaints.  64  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Property and real estate managers held about 243,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for real estate operators and lessors or for property management firms. Others worked for real estate development com­ panies, banks, government agencies that manage public buildings, and corporations with extensive holdings of commercial properties. Many were self-employed developers, apartment owner-managers, or owners of property management or full-service real estate broker­ age firms that manage as well as sell real estate for clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property and real estate management positions. Degrees in business administra­ tion, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are preferred, but persons with degrees in the liberal arts are often ac­ cepted. Good speaking and writing skills and an ability to deal tact­ fully with people are essential. Most persons enter property and real estate management as on-site apartment or community association managers, or as assistants to property managers. Previous employ­ ment as a real estate agent may be an asset to apartment managers because it provides experience useful in showing apartments and dealing with people, as well as an understanding that an attractive, well-maintained property can command higher rental rates and result in lower turnover among tenants. In the past, many persons with backgrounds in building maintenance have advanced to apartment manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, but this is becoming uncommon as employers are placing greater emphasis on administrative and com­ munication abilities for managerial jobs. On-site managers usually begin at a smaller apartment complex, condominium, or community association, or as an assistant man­ ager at a large property, association, or management company. As they acquire experience working under the direction of a property manager, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility at larger properties. Persons who excel as on-site managers often transfer to assistant property manager positions where they can ac­ quire experience handling a broader range of property management responsibilities. Although most persons who enter jobs as assistant property man­ agers do so on the strength of on-site management experience, em­ ployers are increasingly hiring inexperienced college graduates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in business administration, finance, or real estate for these jobs. Assistants work closely with a property manager and acquire experience performing a variety of manage­ ment tasks, such as preparing the budget, analyzing insurance cov­ erage and risk options, marketing the property to prospective te­ nants, and collecting overdue rent payments. In time, many assistants advance to property manager positions. The responsibilities and compensation of property managers in­ crease as they manage larger properties. Most property managers are responsible for several properties at a time, and as their careers advance they are gradually entrusted with properties that are larger or whose management is more complex. Many specialize in the management of one type of property, such as apartments, office buildings, condominiums and homeowner associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants may specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the management of older properties that require renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced property and real estate managers open their own property manage­ ment or real estate firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate manager jobs by trans­ ferring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data to assess the fair market value of property or its development potential. Resourceful­ ness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  who specialize in land development. Real estate managers may be required to hold a real estate broker’s license. Many property and real estate managers attend short-term for­ mal training programs conducted by various professional and trade associations active in the real estate field. Employers send managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and maintenance of building mechanical systems, insurance and risk management, personnel management, business and real estate law, communications, and accounting and financial concepts. Managers also participate in these programs to prepare themselves for posi­ tions of greater responsibility in property and real estate manage­ ment. Completion of these programs, together with meeting job ex­ perience standards and achieving a satisfactory score on a written examination, leads to certification, or the formal award of a profes­ sional designation, by the sponsoring association. In addition to these qualifications, some associations require their members to ad­ here to a specific code of ethics. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Govern­ ment are required to be certified, but many property and real estate managers who work with all kinds of property choose to earn a pro­ fessional designation voluntarily because it represents formal recog­ nition of their achievements and status in the occupation. A number of organizations offer such programs. The Institute of Real Estate Management awards the designations Accredited Residential Man­ ager and Certified Property Manager, while the National Associa­ tion of Home Builders awards the designation Registered Apart­ ment Manager. The National Apartment Association confers the designations Certified Apartment Manager and Certified Apart­ ment Property Supervisor. The Community Associations Institute bestows the designation Professional Community Association Man­ ager and Association Management Specialist, while the Building Owners and Managers Institute International awards the designa­ tions Real Property Administrator and Facilities Management Ad­ ministrator. The International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives confers the designations Associate of Corporate Real Es­ tate and Master of Corporate Real Estate. Job Outlook Employment of property and real estate managers is projected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Despite the rapid growth in demand for these workers, the vast majority ofjob openings are expected to occur as property man­ agers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Oppor­ tunities should be best for persons with college degrees in business administration and related fields. Growth in the demand for office buildings and retail establish­ ments will spur employment of property and real estate managers. Nearly 9 of every 10 new jobs that will be created over the 1992­ 2005 period are expected to be in wholesale and retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and service industries. Because establish­ ments in these industries are the primary tenants of commercial properties, expansion of these industries is expected to require growth in the Nation’s supply of office and retail space. Although development in this area is slow now, it is expected to pick up within several years. Some growth will come from adding on to existing buildings. Although some of these additions will be handled by the property manager already on the site, other additions will require the hiring of additional property managers. More complex responsi­ bilities combined with larger facilities may lead to the hiring of more property managers per building. In addition, the expected faster than average employment growth in some retail trade industries should require greater numbers of real estate managers to acquire and develop properties for ex­ panding restaurant, food, apparel, and specialized merchandise chains. Growth in the Nation’s stock of apartments and houses also should require more property and real estate managers. Although  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations the rate of new household formation is expected to slow somewhat over the 1992-2005 period, the high cost of purchasing a home is ex­ pected to force an increasing proportion of individuals to delay leav­ ing rental housing. In addition, developments of new homes are in­ creasingly being organized with community or homeowner associations that provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas, requiring professional management. A growing proportion of commercial and multiunit residential property owners are expected to entrust the management of their properties to a professional manager. Recent changes to income tax laws have greatly limited the tax benefits that property owners and investors can derive from unprofitable apartments and commercial properties. To help properties become more profitable, more owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of property and real estate managers. Earnings Median earnings of all property and real estate managers were $21,800 a year in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,600 and $33,600. Ten percent earned less than $10,300 and 10 percent earned more than $47,300 annually. Earnings of property and real estate managers vary widely by level of responsibility. Those who are certified in their field tend to earn a higher salary than those who are not. A survey conducted by Huntress Real Estate Executive Search Inc. found that the middle third of the on-site apartment managers surveyed had annual sala­ ries averaging $33,000 in 1992. Property managers had considerably higher earnings, with the middle third of property managers respon­ sible for multiple apartment properties averaging $67,200. Of prop­ erty managers responsible for regional shopping malls, the middle third earned $72,700; of those who managed office buildings, the middle third earned $75,200. Earnings of corporate real estate managers were generally compa­ rable to those of property managers, according to the same survey. Among those employed by fast-food and restaurant chains, the mid­ dle third of the lease negotiators and site selection representatives averaged $62,300 annually, while the middle third of real estate di­ rectors earned $68,900. Among real estate managers employed by retail apparel chains, the middle third of the lease negotiators and site selection representatives averaged $64,700 and the middle third of real estate directors had an average annual salary of $64,500, Community association managers received compensation compa­ rable to on-site and property managers employed by other types of properties. Many resident apartment managers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Property and real estate managers often are given the use of a company automobile, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in projects that they develop. Related Occupations Property and real estate managers plan, organize, staff, and manage the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform simi­ lar functions in other fields include restaurant and food service man­ agers, hotel and resort managers and assistants, health services managers, education administrators, and city managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in property and real estate man­ agement and programs leading to the award of a professional desig­ nation in the field is available from: O’ Apartment Owners and Managers Association of America, 65 Cherry Plaza, Watertown, CT 06795-0238. O’Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. O’Community Associations Institute, 1630 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. fsr Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago IL 60611. O’ International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives, 440 Co­ lumbia Dr., Suite 100, West Palm Beach, FL 33409.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  65  O’ National Apartment Association, 1111 14th St. NW., Suite 900, Wash­ ington, DC 20005. O’ National Association of Home Builders, 15th & M Sts. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20005.  Purchasers and Buyers (D.O.T. 162.117-010, and -018, .157-010, -018, -022, -030, -034, and -038, .167-010,-014,-018,-022, and-030; 163.117-010; 169.167-054; 184.117-078; and 185.167-034)  Nature of the Work Purchasers and buyers seek to obtain the highest quality merchan­ dise at the lowest possible price for their employers. The work gen­ erally involves determining which commodities or services are best, determining the suppliers of the product or service, negotiating the lowest price, and awarding contracts that ensure that the correct amount of the product or service is received at the appropriate time. In order to accomplish these tasks successfully, purchasers and buy­ ers study sales records and inventory levels of current stock, identify foreign and domestic suppliers, and keep abreast of changes affect­ ing both the supply of and demand for products and materials for which they are responsible. Purchasers and buyers evaluate and se­ lect suppliers based upon price, quality, availability, reliability, and selection. They review listings in catalogs, industry periodicals, di­ rectories, and trade journals, research the reputation and history of the suppliers, and advertise anticipated purchase actions in order to solicit bids from suppliers. Meetings, trade shows, conferences, and visits to suppliers’ plants and distribution centers also provide op­ portunities for purchasers and buyers to examine products, assess a supplier’s production and distribution capabilities, and discuss other technical and business considerations that bear on the purchase. Although this describes the general activities of purchas­ ers and buyers, specific job duties and responsibilities depend upon the type of commodities or services to be purchased and on the em­ ployer. Purchasing professionals who are most often employed by gov­ ernment agencies or manufacturing firms are usually called purchasing directors, managers, agents, industrial buyers, or con­ tract specialists. These workers acquire product materials, interme­ diate goods, machines, supplies, and other materials used in the pro­ duction of a final product. Purchasing agents and managers obtain items ranging from raw materials, fabricated parts, machinery, and office supplies to construction services and airline tickets. The flow of work—or even the entire production process—can be slowed or halted if the right materials, supplies, or equipment are not on hand when needed. In order to be effective, purchasers and buyers must have a working technical knowledge of the goods or services to be purchased. In large industrial organizations, a distinction is often drawn be­ tween the work of a buyer or purchasing agent and that of a purchasing manager. Purchasing agents and buyers typically focus on routine purchasing tasks, often specializing in a commodity or group of related commodities—for example, steel, lumber, cotton, fabricated metal products, or petroleum products. This usually re­ quires the purchaser to track such things as market conditions, price trends, or futures markets. Purchasing managers usually handle the more complex or critical purchases and may supervise a group of purchasing agents handling other goods and services. Whether a person is titled purchasing agent, buyer, or manager depends more on specific industry and employer practices than on specific job du­ ties. Changing business practices have altered the traditional roles of purchasing professionals. Manufacturing companies have begun to recognize the importance of purchasing professionals and increas­ ingly involve them at most stages of product development. Their  66  Occupational Outlook Handbook  ability to forecast which materials will be most available, inexpen­ sive, and acceptable for production standards can affect the entire product design. For example, potential problems with the supply of materials may be avoided by consulting the purchasing department in the early stages of product design. In addition, there is a trend toward limited-source, long-term contracting. These contracts increase the importance of supplier se­ lection because agreements are larger in scope and longer in dura­ tion. A major responsibility of most purchasers is to work out problems that may occur with a supplier because the success of the relationship directly affects the buying firm’s performance. Increas­ ingly, purchasing professionals work closely with other employees in their own organization. For example, they may discuss the design of custom-made products with company design engineers, quality problems in purchased goods with quality assurance engineers and production supervisors, or shipment problems with managers in the receiving department. Some purchasing managers who work in the industrial sector and specialize in negotiating and supervising supply contracts are called contract specialists or supply managers. Contract specialists in the Federal Government typically use sealed bidding, but sometimes use negotiated agreements for com­ plex items. Government purchasing agents and managers must fol­ low strict laws, statutes, and regulations in their work. These legal requirements are occasionally changed, so agents and contract spe­ cialists must stay informed about the latest regulations and their ap­ plications. Other professionals, who buy finished goods for resale, are em­ ployed by wholesale and retail establishments where they are com­ monly referred to as “buyers” or “merchandise managers.” Whole­ sale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system of production, distribution, and merchandising that caters to the vast array of consumer needs and desires. Wholesale buyers purchase goods directly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms or to commercial establishments and other organizations. Buyers in retail firms purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. Buyers largely determine which products their establishment will sell. Therefore, it is essential they have the ability to accurately predict what will appeal to consumers. Buyers must constantly stay in­ formed of the latest fashions and trends. Failure to do so could jeop­ ardize profits and the reputation of their company. Buyers also fol­ low ads in newspapers and other media to check competitors’ sales activities and watch general economic conditions to anticipate con­ sumer buying patterns. Buyers working for large and medium sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchan­ dise. However, buyers working for small stores may purchase their complete inventory. The use of private-label merchandise and the consolidation of buying departments have increased the responsibilities of retai buy­ ers. Private-label merchandise, produced for a particular retailer, re­ quires buyers to work closely with vendors to develop and obtain the desired product. The downsizing and consolidation of buying de­ partments is also increasing the demands placed on buyers because, although the amount of work remains unchanged, there are fewer people to accomplish it. The result is an increase in the workloads and levels of responsibility. Many merchandise managers assist in the planning and imple­ mentation of sales promotion programs. Working with merchandis­ ing executives, they determine the nature of the sale and purchase accordingly. They also work with advertising personnel to create the ad campaign. For example, they may determine the media in which the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, television, or some combination of these. In addition, merchandis­ ing managers often visit the selling floor to ensure that the goods are properly displayed. Often, assistant buyers are responsible for plac­ ing orders and checking shipments.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Although purchasers and buyers of farm products may work in manufacturing or wholesale or retail trade, many are self-employed brokers who store grain and sell it for a commission. These individu­ als may also speculate on grain prices. Computers are having a major impact on the jobs of purchasers and buyers. In manufacturing and service industries, computers handle most of the more routine tasks—enabling purchasing profes­ sionals to concentrate mainly on the analytical aspects of the job. Computers are used to obtain up-to-date product and price listings, to track inventory levels, process routine orders, and help determine when to make purchases. Computers also maintain bidders’ lists, re­ cord the history of supplier performance, and issue purchase orders. Computerized systems have dramatically simplified many of the routine buying functions and improved efficiency in determining which products are selling. For example, cash registers connected to computers, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow organizations to maintain centralized, up-to-date sales and inventory records. This information can then be used to produce weekly sales reports that reflect the types of products in demand. As well as monitoring their company’s sales, buyers use computers to gain instant access to the specifications for thousands of commodities, inventory records, and their customers’ purchase records. Some firms are linked with man­ ufacturers or wholesalers by electronic purchasing systems. These systems speed selection and ordering and provide information on availability and shipment. All this allows buyers to better concen­ trate on the selection of goods and suppliers. Working Conditions Most purchasers and buyers work in comfortable, well-lighted of­ fices at stores, corporate headquarters, or production facilities. They frequently work more than a 40-hour week because of special sales, conferences, or production deadlines. Evening and weekend work is common. For those working in retail trade, this is especially true prior to holiday seasons. Consequently, many retail firms discour­ age the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January. Buyers and merchandise managers often work under great pres­ sure since wholesale and retail stores are so competitive; buyers need physical stamina to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Traveling is usually required and most purchasers and buyers spend at least several days a month on the road. High fashion buyers and purchasers for worldwide manufacturing companies often travel outside the United States.  f 'tV*=k-  Purchasers and buyers must stay informed about new products and services.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Employment Purchasers and buyers held about 624,000 jobs in 1992. Purchasing agents and purchasing managers each accounted for slightly more than one-third of the total while buyers accounted for the remain­ der. Almost all worked full time. About one-half of all buyers and purchasers worked in wholesale and retail trade establishments such as grocery or department stores. One-fourth worked in manufacturing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement. Qualified persons usually begin as trainees, purchasing clerks, expe­ diters, junior buyers, or assistant buyers. Retail and wholesale firms prefer to hire applicants who are familiar with the merchandise they sell as well as with wholesaling and retailing practices. Some retail firms promote qualified employees to assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates as assistant buyers. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements tend to vary with the size of the organi­ zation. Large stores and distributors accept applicants who have completed associate or bachelor’s degree programs from any field of study, but prefer individuals with a business background. Manufac­ turing firms tend to put a greater emphasis on formal training and many desire applicants with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in busi­ ness, economics, or technical training such as engineering or one of the applied sciences. Regardless of academic preparation, new em­ ployees must learn the specifics of the employers’ business. Although training periods vary in length, most last several years. In wholesale and retail establishments, most trainees begin by sell­ ing merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping track of stock on hand, although widespread use of computers has simplified some of these tasks. As they progress, retail trainees are given more buying-related respon­ sibilities. In manufacturing, new purchasing employees are often en­ rolled in company training programs and spend a considerable amount of time learning about company operations and purchasing practices. They work with experienced purchasers to learn about commodities, prices, suppliers, and markets. In addition, they may be assigned to production planning to learn about the material re­ quirements system and the inventory system. Persons who wish to become wholesale or retail buyers should be good at planning and decision making and have an interest in mer­ chandising. Anticipating consumer preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self-confidence. Buyers must be able to make decisions quickly and take risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will sell are also very important. Employers often look for leadership ability and communication skills because buyers spend a large portion of their time supervising assistant buy­ ers and dealing with manufacturers’ representatives and store exec­ utives. Purchasing professionals must be able to analyze the technical data in suppliers’ proposals, make buying decisions, and spend large amounts of money responsibly. The job requires the ability to work independently as well as a part of a team. In addition, these workers must be able to get along well with people to balance the needs of de­ partments within the organization with budgetary constraints. They may consult with lawyers, engineers, and scientists when involved in complex procurements. Experienced buyers may advance by moving to a department that manages a larger volume or by becoming a merchandise manager. Others go to work in sales for a manufacturer. An experienced purchasing agent or buyer may become an assis­ tant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing profes­ sionals before advancing to purchasing manager, supply manager, or director of materials management. At the top levels, duties may overlap into other management functions such as production, plan­ ning, and marketing.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  67  In high technology manufacturing firms, continuing education is essential for advancement. Many purchasers participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in purchas­ ing. Although no national standard exists, professional certification is becoming increasingly important. In private industry, the recognized marks of experience and pro­ fessional competence are the designations Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM), conferred by the National Association of Purchas­ ing Management, Inc. and Certified Purchasing Professional (CPP) and Certified Purchasing Executive (CPE), conferred by the Ameri­ can Purchasing Society, Inc. upon candidates who pass examina­ tions and meet specified educational, experience, and related re­ quirements. In Federal, State, and local government, the indications of professional competence are the designations Certified Profes­ sional Public Buyer (CPPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Of­ ficer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc. The CPPB is earned by passing a two-part written examination and meeting certain experience requirements. To earn the CPPO, a candidate must have additional purchasing and super­ visory or management experience, pass a three-part written exam, and undergo an oral interview assessment. As more materials purchasing is conducted on a long-term basis, both private and public purchasing professionals are specializing in the contractual aspects of purchasing. The National Contract Man­ agement Association confers the designations Certified Associate Contract Manager (CACM) or Certified Professional Contract Manager (CPCM). Candidates for these certifications must have re­ lated work experience, complete academic course-work, and pass written exams. These designations primarily apply to contract man­ agers in the Federal Government and its suppliers. Job Outlook Employment of purchasers and buyers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for these workers will not keep pace with the rising level of economic activity; mergers and the resulting consolidations of buy­ ing departments along with other changes such as limited source, long-term contracting will reduce the need for purchasers and buy­ ers. The increased use of point-of-sale inventory control, artificial intelligence systems, electronic data interchange, and other auto­ mated systems will restrict demand further. Consequently, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons who have a bachelor’s degree in business should have the best chance of landing a buyer job. A master’s degree or bachelor’s degree in a technical field will be an advantage for those interested in working for a manufacturing or industrial company. However, graduates of 2-year programs in purchasing/buying should con­ tinue to find good opportunities, especially in small firms. Earnings Median annual earnings of purchasers and buyers were $33,067 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,092 and $44,684. The lowest 10 percent averaged less than $13,959 while the top 10 percent earned more than $56,581. Merchandise managers and purchasing managers generally earned higher salaries than buyers or agents. As a general rule, those with the most education in their field have the highest incomes. Purchasing agents in the Federal Government averaged $24,400 in 1993 and contract specialists averaged $43,800. Purchasers and buyers receive the same benefits package as their coworkers, frequently including vacations, sick leave, life and health insurance, and pension plans. In addition to standard benefits, retail buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise bought from the employer.  68  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess demand are retail sales workers, sales man­ agers, comparison shoppers, manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives, insurance sales agents, services sales representa­ tives, procurement services managers, and traffic managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in retailing is available from: National Retail Federation, 100 West 31st St., New York, NY 10001. Further information about careers in purchasing and certification is available from: 13" American Purchasing Society, Inc., 11910 Oak Trail Way, Port Richey, FL 34668. xw National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285. XW National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 11800 Sunrise Val­ ley Dr., Suite 1050, Reston, VA 22091. O" National Contract Management Association, 1912 Woodford Rd., Vi­ enna, VA 22182. X3" Federal Acquisition Institute (VF), General Services Administration, 18th and F Sts. NW„ Washington, DC 20405.  Restaurant and Food Service Managers (D.O.T. 185.137; 187.161-010 and .167-026, -106, -126, -206, and -210; 319.137-014 and -018)  Nature of the Work Food is consumed outside the home in a variety of settings. Eating places range from restaurants that serve fast food or that emphasize elegant dining, to institutional dining in school and employee cafete­ rias, hospitals, and nursing facilities. The cuisine offered, its price, and the setting in which it is consumed vary greatly, but the manag­ ers of these diverse dining facilities have many responsibilities in common. Efficient and profitable operation of restaurants and insti­ tutional food service facilities requires that managers and assistant managers select and appropriately price interesting menu items, effi­ ciently use food and other supplies, achieve consistent quality in food preparation and service, recruit and train adequate numbers of workers and supervise their work, and attend to the various admin­ istrative aspects of the business. In most restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the manager is assisted by one or more assistant managers, depending on the size and business hours of the establishment. In large estab­ lishments, as well as in many others that offer fine dining, the man­ agement team consists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for the operation of the kitchen, while the assistant managers over­ see service in the dining room and other areas of the operation. In some smaller restaurants, the executive chef may also be the general manager, and sometimes an owner. In fast-food restaurants and other food service facilities that operate long hours, 7 days a week, the manager is aided by several assistant managers, each of whom supervises a shift of workers. (For additional information, see the Handbook statements on general managers and top executives and chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.) Many restaurants rarely change their menu, but other eating es­ tablishments change it frequently. Institutional food service facili­ ties and some restaurants offer a new menu every day. Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers, the past popularity of various dishes, and con­ siderations such as food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety on the menu, and the availability of foods due to seasonal and other factors. They analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and overhead costs and assign  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  prices to the menu items. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that needed supplies may be received in time. Ordering supplies and dealing with suppliers are important as­ pects of the work of restaurant and food service managers. On a daily basis, managers estimate food consumption, place orders with suppliers, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and beverages. They receive and check the content of deliveries, evaluating the quality of meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods. Managers meet or talk with sales representatives of restaurant sup­ pliers to place orders to replenish stocks of tableware, linens, paper, cleaning supplies, cooking utensils, and furniture and fixtures. They also arrange for equipment maintenance and repairs, and for a vari­ ety of services such as waste removal and pest control. Managers interview, hire, and, when necessary, discharge work­ ers. They familiarize newly hired workers with the establishment’s policies and practices and oversee their training. Managers schedule the work hours of employees, insuring that there are enough work­ ers present during busy periods, but not too many during slow peri­ ods. Restaurant and food service managers supervise the kitchen and the dining room. They oversee food preparation and cooking, checking the quality of the food and the sizes of portions to insure that dishes are prepared and garnished correctly and in a timely manner. They also investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. During busy periods, managers may roll up their sleeves and help with the cooking, clearing of tables, or other tasks. They direct the cleaning of the kitchen and dining areas and the washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to maintain company and government sanitation standards. They monitor workers and observe patrons on a continual basis to insure compliance with health and safety standards and local liquor regu­ lations. Managers have a variety of administrative responsibilities. In larger establishments, much of this work is delegated to a book­ keeper, but in others, managers must keep accurate records of the hours and wages of employees, prepare the payroll, and do paperwork to comply with licensing laws and reporting require­ ments of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compensation, and So­ cial Security laws. They also must maintain records of the costs of supplies and equipment purchased and insure that accounts with suppliers are paid on a regular basis. In addition, managers record the number, type, and cost of items sold to weed out dishes that are unpopular or less profitable. Many managers are able to ease the burden of recordkeeping and paperwork through the use of com­ puters. Managers are among the first to arrive and the last to leave at night. At the conclusion of each day, or sometimes each shift, man­ agers must tally the cash received and charge receipts and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s income at the bank, or securing it in a safe place. Managers are also responsible for locking up, checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off, and switching on alarm systems. Working Conditions Since evenings and weekends are popular dining periods, night and weekend work is common. However, many managers of institu­ tional food service facilities work more conventional hours because factory and office cafeterias are often open only on weekdays for breakfast and lunch. Many restaurant and food service managers work 50 hours or more per week. Managers often experience the pressure of simultaneously coordi­ nating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the re­ sponsibility of the manager to resolve them with minimal disruption to customers. The job can be hectic during peak dining hours, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be particularly stressful. Employment Restaurant and food service managers held about 496,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked in restaurants or for contract institutional food  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  Ordering supplies and dealing with suppliers are important aspects of restaurant and food service managers. service companies, but small numbers also were employed by educa­ tional institutions, hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, and civic, social, and fraternal organizations. About two-fifths were self-employed. Jobs are located throughout the country, but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many restaurant and food service manager positions are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers who have demonstrated their potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs when openings occur. Executive chefs need extensive experi­ ence working as a chef, and general managers need experience work­ ing as assistant manager. However, most food service management companies and national or regional restaurant chains also recruit management trainees from among the graduates of 2-year and 4year college programs. Food service and restaurant chains prefer to hire persons with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire graduates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated interest and aptitude. A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service management provides a particularly strong preparation for a career in this occu­ pation. In 1992, more than 160 colleges and universities offered 4year programs in restaurant and hotel management or institutional food service management. For persons who do not want to pursue a 4-year degree, a good alternative is provided by the more than 800 community and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other insti­ tutions that offer programs in these fields leading to an associate de­ gree or other formal award below the bachelor’s degree. Both 2-year and 4-year programs provide instruction in subjects such as ac­ counting, business law and management, food planning and prepa­ ration, and nutrition. Some programs combine classroom and labo­ ratory study with internships that provide on-the-job experience. In addition, many educational institutions offer culinary programs that provide food preparation training which can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advancement to an exec­ utive chef position. Most employers emphasize personal qualities. Restaurant and food service management can be demanding, so good health and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  69  stamina are important. Self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their subordinates. A neat and clean appearance is also required since managers are often in close personal contact with the public. Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for persons hired for management jobs. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operations of a restaurant or institutional food service facil­ ity—food preparation, nutrition, sanitation, security, company poli­ cies and procedures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of reports. Usually after 6 months or a year, trainees re­ ceive their first permanent assignment as an assistant manager. A measure of professional achievement for restaurant and food service managers is to earn the designation of certified Foodservice Management Professional (FMP). Although not a requirement for employment or advancement in the occupation, voluntary certifica­ tion provides recognition of professional competence, particularly for managers who acquired their skills largely on the job. The Edu­ cational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association awards the FMP designation to managers who achieve a qualifying score on a written examination, complete a series of courses that cover a range of food service management topics, and who meet standards of work experience in the field. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to posi­ tions with greater responsibility. Managers advance to larger estab­ lishments, or regional management positions with restaurant chains. Some managers eventually open their own eating and drink­ ing establishments. Others transfer to hotel management positions, since management experience in their restaurant or institutional food service is a good background for food and beverage manager jobs at hotels and resorts. Job Outlook Employment of restaurant and food service managers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to growth in demand for these managers, the need to replace managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working will create many job openings. Job opportunities are expected to be best for persons with bachelor’s or associate degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management. Employment growth is expected to vary by industry. Eating and drinking places will provide the most new jobs as the number of eat­ ing and drinking establishments increases and other industries con­ tinue to contract out their food services. Population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time will continue to pro­ duce growth in the number of meals consumed outside the home. To meet the demand for prepared food, more restaurants will be built, and more managers will be employed to supervise them. In addition, the number of manager jobs will increase in eating and drinking places as schools, hospitals, and other businesses contract out more of their food services to institutional food service companies located in the eating and drinking industry. Employment of wage and salary managers in eating and drinking places is expected to increase more rapidly than self-employed man­ agers. New restaurants are increasingly affiliated with national chains rather than being independently owned and operated. As this trend continues, fewer owners will manage restaurants themselves, and more restaurant managers will be employed to run the estab­ lishments. Employment in eating and drinking establishments is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so restaurant and food service managers are rarely laid off during hard times. However, competition among restaurants is always intense, and many restau­ rants do not survive. Food service manager jobs are expected to increase in other in­ dustries, but growth will be slowed as contracting out becomes more common. Growth in the population of elderly people is expected to  70  Occupational Outlook Handbook  result in growth of food service manager jobs in nursing homes, resi­ dential care facilities, and other health care institutions. Likewise, growth in the population of young people enrolled in educational in­ stitutions should result in growth of food service manager jobs in school and college cafeterias. Earnings Median earnings for restaurant and food service managers were $418 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between about $300 and $600 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $225 a week or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $815 a week. Earnings of restaurant and food service managers vary greatly ac­ cording to their responsibilities and the type and size of establish­ ment. Based on a survey conducted for the National Restaurant As­ sociation, the median base salary of managers in restaurants was estimated to be about $27,900 a year in early 1993, but managers of the largest restaurants and institutional food service facilities often had annual salaries in excess of $45,000. Managers of fast-food res­ taurants had an estimated median base salary of $24,900 a year; managers of full-menu restaurants with table service, almost $30,400; and managers of commercial and institutional cafeterias, nearly $29,300 a year in early 1993. Besides a salary, most managers received an annual bonus or incentive payment based on their per­ formance. In 1993, most of these payments ranged between $2,000 and $8,000 a year. Executive chefs had an estimated median base salary of about $33,600 a year in early 1993, but those employed in the largest res­ taurants and institutional food service facilities often had base sala­ ries over $49,000. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most ex­ ecutive chefs ranged between $2,000 and $4,000 a year. The estimated median base salary of assistant managers was over $23,400 a year in early 1993, but ranged from less than $19,800 in fast-food restaurants to over $31,700 in some of the largest restau­ rants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive pay­ ments of most assistant managers ranged between $1,000 and $4,000 a year. Manager trainees had an estimated median base salary of about $20,200 a year in early 1993, but had salaries of nearly $27,900 in some of the largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most trainees ranged between $ 1,000 and $3,000 a year. Most salaried restaurant and food service managers received free meals, sick leave, health and life insurance, and 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation a year, depending on length of service. Related Occupations Restaurant and food service managers direct the activities of busi­ ness establishments that provide a service to customers. Other man­ agers in service-oriented businesses include hotel managers and as­ sistants, health services administrators, retail store managers, and bank managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about restaurant and food service managers, directories of 2- and 4-year college programs in restaurant and food service, management, and certification as a Foodservice Manage­ ment Professional are available from: O’ The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Suite 1400, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606.  General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from: IW Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Retail Managers (D.O.T. 163.167-018; 184.167-114; 185.117, .137, .157-010, .167-014, -030, -034, -038, -046, -082, and -158; 189.117-022, and -046, .167-014 and -018; 299.137-010 and -026)  Nature of the Work Retail stores sell a wide range of merchandise and provide services directly to the customer. Retail establishments are found every­ where and include shops that sell a wide variety of goods, such as large supermarkets and department and general merchandise stores. Also included are stores that sell specific lines of merchandise, in­ cluding meat and fish markets, bakeries, and clothing, shoe, hard­ ware, electronic, furniture and homefurnishings, and drug and li­ quor stores. Retail stores also provide services directly to the customer, and include restaurants and bars, automotive and boat dealers, and vehicle service stations. Managers who work in these establishments, generally called retail managers, are responsible for the success of retail stores. They insure that retail businesses func­ tion smoothly and efficiently, and provide quality goods and ser­ vices to the customer. (Managers in eating and drinking places, the largest retail trade industry, are discussed in the Handbook state­ ment on restaurant and food service managers.) Retail managers have many responsibilities, depending on the size and type of establishment. Managers coordinate and direct all aspects of retail trade, including ordering, inspection, pricing, and inventorying of goods; monitoring sales activity; developing mer­ chandising plans; maintaining good customer relations; monitoring profits and losses; and coordinating displays, advertisements, and sales announcements. Retail managers supervise, among others, chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, food and beverage service workers, retail sales workers, cashiers, customer service workers, stock and inventory clerks, and grocery clerks. (Some of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Retail managers also are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employees, as well as prepar­ ing work schedules and assigning workers to their specific duties. Because the retail trade industry provides goods and services di­ rectly to customers, the retail manager is ultimately responsible for complete customer satisfaction. Answering customers’ complaints and inquiries, and ensuring that customers receive prompt service and quality goods, is the primary duty of retail managers. As the size of the retail store and the types of goods and services increase, retail managers increasingly specialize in one department or one aspect of merchandising. Larger organizations tend to have many layers of management. Similar to other industries, supervi­ sory level retail managers usually report to their mid-level counter­ parts who, in turn, report to top-level managers. Small stores and stores that carry specialized merchandise typically have fewer levels of management. Supervisory level retail managers, often known as department managers, provide the day-to-day management of individual depart­ ments such as shoe, cosmetic, or housewares in large department stores, produce and meat in grocery stores, and service and sales in automotive dealerships. Department managers commonly are found in large retail stores. These managers establish and implement policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their specific depart­ ment; coordinate activites with other department heads; and strive for a smooth operation within their specific department. They su­ pervise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on dis­ play, clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventory in stock­ rooms, and inspect merchandise to ensure that none is outdated. Department managers also may greet and assist customers to im­ prove customer services and promote sales and good public rela­ tions. Department managers also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coordinate sales promotions.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Mid-level retail managers, often called store managers, have broader responsibilities than supervisory level managers. Mid-level managers set sales goals, create budgets, develop procedures to di­ rect and improve customer services, define department managers’ responsibilities, and delegate authority within their store. Store managers coordinate different departments so that sales promotions and procedures are consistent throughout the store. They also may open and close the store, and may even make bank deposits. Some coordinate other activities within the store, such as safety and secur­ ity, maintenance and cleaning, and meetings, seminars, and pro­ grams for employees. Store managers usually are responsible for im­ plementation and compliance with corporate programs and rules within the store. They plan merchandise demonstrations and coor­ dinate marketing events to promote products. They may implement employee incentive programs, including bonuses and awards, that increase motivation and morale and inspire good customer service. Store managers may review purchasing and sales records and meet with department heads to determine when to restock inventory or announce price-slashing sales. Store managers meet frequently with top management and other store employees to keep the lines of com­ munication open. Senior level retail managers, commonly known as district, area, or regional managers in large chains and franchises, are covered in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives. District managers coordinate sales and distribution operations for a number of stores and franchises in a specific area or district of the country, and choose the wholesalers that can supply the highest quality goods to the stores. They define store managers’ responsibili­ ties and regularly meet with them to make sure that stores attain sales and profit goals, that merchandising and pricing techniques are up to date and comply with company procedures, and that the store and specific departments are clean and follow company guide­ lines. In order to evaluate the productivity of each individual store, district managers make on-site visits, and often report back to the top executive of the company. Working Conditions Most retail managers have offices within the store itself, while senior level managers may have offices at corporate headquarters. Though  71  much of their time is spent in the office completing merchandise or­ ders or arranging work schedules, for example, a large portion of a retail manager’s time is spent on the sales floor of the store. Work hours vary greatly among retail establishments. The work schedule of retail managers usually depends on consumers’ needs. Most retail managers work around 40 hours a week, but longer hours are common, especially during holidays, busy shopping hours and seasons, sales, and store inventory. Retail managers are ex­ pected to work evenings and weekends, but usually are compensated by getting a weekday off. Hours can change weekly, and managers sometimes may have to report to work on short notice, especially when many employees are absent. Independent owners can set their own schedules, but hours must be convenient to their customers. Mid- and senior level managers’ jobs often require substantial travel. District managers travel frequently between national head­ quarters and regional and local store branches. Store managers travel to vendors’ offices and trade shows to order goods. Meetings and conferences sponsored by industries, vendors, and associations occur regularly, and provide opportunities to meet with peers and keep abreast of trends in consumer preferences. Employment Managers who work in retail trade held about 1,070,000 wage and salary jobs in 1992. About 175,000—primarily owners of small re­ tail establishments—were self-employed. Managers are found in every retail trade industry—eating and drinking places, grocery stores, department stores, clothing and shoe stores, automotive dealers, and furniture stores are among the largest industries. The accompanying table shows the distribution of wage and salary em­ ployment by industry. Table 1. Distribution of managers, selected retail establishments, 1992 Total (percent)................................................................................  100.0  Eating and drinking places................................................................ General merchandise stores............................................................... Grocery stores.................................................................................... Department stores ............................................................................. Miscellaneous shopping goods stores............................................... Motor vehicle dealers........................................................................ Building material and garden supplies.............................................. Clothing and accessories................................................................... Furniture and home furnishings stores............................................ Appliance, radio, TV, and music stores............................................ Auto and home supply stores............................................................ Gasoline service stations................................................................... Food stores, other than grocery stores.............................................. Shoestores......................................................................................... Other..................................................................................................  34.7 9.3 9.0 7.6 6.0 5.9 5.7 4.3 3.8 3.1 2.3 2.2 1.6 1.2 3.3  SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Customer service and satisfaction are important duties of retail managers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of management principles and practices is the essential requirement for a management position in retail trade, and such knowledge usually is acquired through work experience. Most man­ agers begin their careers on the sales floor as a sales clerk, cashier, customer service worker, or a food and beverage service worker, for example. In these positions they learn merchandising, customer ser­ vice, and the basic policies and procedures of the store. Those individuals who display leadership skills, self-confidence, motivation, and decisiveness become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or department manager, depending on the size and structure of the store. In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establish­ ments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Larger establish­ ments have more extensive career ladder programs and offer manag­ ers the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Promotion may occur more quickly in larger establishments, but relocation every several years  72  Occupational Outlook Handbook  may be necessary for advancement. Purchasers and buyers (dis­ cussed elsewhere in the Handbook), who purchase merchandise di­ rectly from distributors for resale, is one career step within the cen­ tral office. Other positions within the central office include marketing, advertising, and public relations managers, who coordi­ nate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose advertisments and promotions, and purchasing agents and managers, who purchase goods and supplies for their organization. (Both occupations are covered in other Handbook statements.) Training varies from store to store. Many national chains have formal training programs for management trainees, which include both classroom and in-store training. Training may last from 1 week to 1 year or more, as many retail organizations require their trainees to gain experience during all shopping seasons. Other retail organi­ zations may not have any formal training program at all. Classroom training may include such topics as interviewing and customer service skills, and employee and inventory management and scheduling. Management trainees may be placed in one specific department while training on the job, or they may be rotated among several departments to gather a well-rounded knowledge of the store’s operation. Training programs in franchises generally are ex­ tensive, covering all functions of the operation, including promo­ tion, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product prepa­ ration, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually directly enter management training programs. The educational background of managers in retail trade varies widely. A high school diploma often is required, and a postsecon­ dary degree is preferred for individuals who wish to advance in the profession. Though generally not required, postsecondary educa­ tion is a sign of motivation and maturity, increasingly important qualities as the individual is promoted to more responsible positions. Regardless of the education received, business courses including ac­ counting, administration, marketing, management, and sales, as well as courses in psychology, sociology, and communication, are helpful. Managers also must be computer literate as cash registers and inventory control systems become more computerized. Most managers who have postsecondary education hold an asso­ ciate or a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts, social science, business, or management. Many postsecondary students participate in intern­ ship programs to gain retail experience. Such programs usually are planned between individual schools and retail firms. Many managers who have worked in the retail industry for a long time open their own store. However, retail trade is highly competi­ tive, and although many independent retail owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. Retail own­ ers need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills. Retail managers must get along with all kinds of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others. Patience and a mild temperament are necessary when dealing with rude, angry, or demanding customers. Good judgment and decisiveness are necessary when reacting to competi­ tion from other stores. Retail managers also must be able to moti­ vate subordinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other managers.  earnings, weekly hours, number of employees supervised, and type of goods and services. Since most jobs in retail management do not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Can­ didates who have retail experience will have the best opportunities. Projected employment growth of retail managers reflects pro­ jected industry growth. For example, faster than average growth is expected in appliance, radio, television, and music stores, while av­ erage growth is expected in miscellaneous shopping goods stores. On the other hand, slower than average growth is expected in de­ partment stores, while employment of managers is expected to de­ cline in gasoline service stations. Earnings Salaries of retail managers vary substantially, depending upon the level of responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the firm. According to a survey sponsored by the Association of Conve­ nience Stores, the median salary for assistant store managers ranged between $13,100 and $14,300 a year in 1992, depending on the size of the organization. Store managers earned between $18,400 and $23,700; district managers, $29,800 and $62,700; and regional man­ agers, $47,000 and $128,500. Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer­ chandise sold. Most managers receive a commission or a combina­ tion of salary and commission. Under a commission system, retail managers receive a percentage of department or store sales. These systems offer managers the opportunity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find that their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those managers who sell large amounts of merchandise often are rewarded with bonuses and awards, and receive recognition throughout the store or chain. Retail managers receive typical benefits and, in some cases, stock options. In addition, retail managers generally are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 40 percent below regular prices. In some cases, this privilege is extended to the em­ ployee’s family as well. Related Occupations Retail managers serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment whose aim is to maxi­ mize profits and satisfy the customer. Others with similar responsi­ bilities include managers in wholesale trade, hotels, banks, hospi­ tals, law firms, and a wide range of other industries. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for retail managers may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establish­ ments, or State employment service offices. Information on educational programs for retail managers is avail­ able from: fW American Management Association, 135 W. 50th St., New York, NY 10020.  Job Outlook Employment of salaried retail managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Re­ tail establishments are growing in number and size. However, simi­ lar to other industries, corporate downsizing and restructuring may temper demand for retail managers. In the face of intense competi­ tion, many firms are improving operating efficiency by using com­ puterized registers and inventory control systems, also slowing growth of new retail management jobs. Because retail managers comprise a large occupation, most job openings are expected to occur as experienced managers retire or stop working for other reasons. Many retail managers transfer to other occupations because of high pressure, long hours, and inabil­ ity to meet sales quotas. Jobs in retail management vary greatly in  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  General information on management careers in retail establish­ ments is available from: ts” National Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20004.  Information on management careers in grocery stores, and schools offering related programs, is available from: Food Marketing Institute, 800 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006-2701.  Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: X3■ National Automotive Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102.  Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from: W National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations  73  Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.267-046)  Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume billions of dollars in risks each year by writing policies that transfer the risk of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their com­ pany will insure. An insurance company may lose business to com­ petitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conservatively, or it may have to pay more claims if the underwriting actions are too lib­ eral. Underwriters decide whether an applicant for insurance is an ac­ ceptable risk. They analyze information in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and actuarial studies—reports that describe the probability of insured loss. They then decide whether to issue a policy and may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancellations or other matters. On rare occasions, they accompany sales workers on appointments with prospective cus­ tomers. (Life insurance agents and brokers are increasingly called “life underwriters;” they are included in the statement on insurance agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insur­ ance: Life, property and casualty, or health. They further specialize in group or individual policies. Property and casualty underwriters spe­ cialize by type of risk insured, such as fire, homeowner, automobile, marine, property, or workers’ compensation. In cases where casualty companies insure in a single “package” policy, covering various types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. Some underwriters, called commercial account underwriters, handle business insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a firm’s entire oper­ ation in appraising its insurance application. An increasing proportion of insurance sales are being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures all per­ sons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform pre­ mium rates, generally for life or health insurance protection. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that the total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy provides members of a group—a labor union, for example— with individual policies reflecting their needs. These generally are casualty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activ­ ity. Their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. Although some overtime may be required, the normal workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwriters occasionally may attend meetings away from home for several days. Construction and marine underwriters often travel to inspect work sites and assess risks. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 100,000 jobs in 1992. The fol­ lowing tabulation shows the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. Total...................................................................................................  100  Insurance carriers................................................................................. Fire, marine, and casualty insurance................................................ Life insurance..................................................................................... Medical service plans and health insurance..................................... Pension funds and miscellaneous insurance..................................... Insurance agents, brokers, and service................................................. Banks and credit agencies..................................................................... Other industries.....................................................................................  61 40 14 4 3 32 5 2   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancellations or other matters. The majority of underwriters worked for insurance companies (or carriers). Most of the remaining underwriters worked throughout the country in independent agencies—firms which represent one or more insurance companies—and brokers—firms which may deal with any in­ surance company but represent none. Small numbers of underwriters worked for banks, mortgage companies, and real estate firms. Underwriters in the life insurance industry are most likely to work in an insurance company’s home office. In some large agen­ cies, underwriters help life insurance agents determine if the risk will be accepted or rejected by the home office. However, most re­ gional life insurance offices deal predominantly with sales, not un­ derwriting. Property and casualty underwriters also work in home offices, but more work for agencies or regional branch offices, where they have the authority to underwrite risks and determine an appro­ priate rating without consulting the home office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, many large insurance companies prefer college graduates who have a degree in business administra­ tion or finance, with courses or experience in accounting. However, a degree in almost any field plus courses in business law and ac­ counting provide a good general background. Basic familiarity with computers is also needed. Some companies also hire persons without a college degree for underwriter trainee positions. In addition, some high school gradu­ ates who begin as underwriting clerks may be trained as underwrit­ ers after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. In the property and casualty industry, ratings clerks sometimes advance to under­ writer jobs through their skill and experience in researching risk and setting rates. Underwriter trainee or assistant underwriter is the typical entrylevel position for this occupation. Beginners may help collect infor­ mation on applicants and evaluate routine applications under the close supervision of an experienced risk appraiser. Property and cas­ ualty trainees study claim files to become familiar with factors asso­ ciated with certain types of losses. Many larger insurers offer a training program, lasting from a few months to a year, that com­ bines study with work. As trainees develop the necessary judgment, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and have a greater face value. These often require the use of computers for more efficient processing. Continuing education is necessary for advancement. Insurance com­ panies generally pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees successfully complete; some also offer salary incentives. Independent study programs for experienced property and casualty underwriters are also available. The American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters offers the designations “Associate in Underwriting (AU),” and “Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU).” Earning the AU designation usually requires a year and a half and the  74  Occupational Outlook Handbook  completion of an examination covering course material. Earning the more advanced CPCU designation generally takes about 5 years, and re­ quires passing 10 examinations covering such subjects as personal and commercial risk management, business law, accounting, finance, eco­ nomics, and ethics. Although CPCU’s may be underwriters, the CPCU is intended for prospective managers. An AU designation is sufficient for a career in underwriting. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with detail and enjoy analyzing information. In addition, underwriters must possess good judgment in order to make sound decisions. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, especially when they have to obtain information from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may ad­ vance to chief underwriter or underwriting manager. Some under­ writing managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace underwriters who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. A number of factors underlie the continuing need for underwrit­ ers. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in an increase in the number of people who assume career and family re­ sponsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and property and casualty insurance. A growing demand for insurance coverage for working women also is expected. In addition, ex­ panding long-term healthcare and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population—will increase underwriting requirements. Growing concerns for financial security and liability should also contribute to demand for more insurance protection for homes, automobiles, pleasure craft, and other valuables. New or ex­ panding businesses will need protection for new plants and equip­ ment, product liability, and insurance for workers’ compensation and employee benefits. On the other hand, the trend toward self-insurance is expected to lower the demand for some property and casualty underwriters. Businesses who self-insure set a rate for their own company and pay premiums into a reserve fund. Additionally, many property and cas­ ualty companies are foregoing personal lines of insurance—espe­ cially automobile—and concentrating on commercial lines of busi­ ness. Demand for health insurance underwriters should be lower if national health insurance legislation reduces insurers’ freedom to   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  refuse coverage to high-risk individuals. Underwriters specializing in one particular area of insurance may find it difficult to transfer to another type of insurance if their jobs are threatened. Since insurance is usually regarded as a necessity, regardless of economic conditions, underwriters are unlikely to be laid off be­ cause of a recession. Earnings The following tabulation shows the median salaries of casualty and property underwriters in 1991, according to a survey by the Alliance of American Insurers in collaboration with the American Insurance Association and the National Association of Independent Insurers. Underwriters of personal lines Entry level.................................................................................. Intermediate level ...................................................................... Senior level ................................................................................. Supervisor.................................................................................. Manager.....................................................................................  $25,000 32,200 40,400 45,300 61,000  Underwriters of commercial lines Entry level.................................................................................. Intermediate level ...................................................................... Senior level ................................................................................ Supervisor.................................................................................. Manager.....................................................................................  $28,000 32,800 40,600 45,500 61,000  Most insurance companies have liberal vacation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide employer-financed group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, budget analysts, financial advisors, loan officers, credit managers, real estate appraisers, and risk managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about the insurance business in general and the underwriting function in particular also may be obtained from:  XW Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, Kahler Hall, P.O. Box 3009, 720 Providence Rd., Malvern, PA 19355-0709.  Professional Specialty Occupations ____  Engineers  Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathe­ matics to the economical solution of practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its ap­ plication. Engineers design machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They design in­ dustrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing goods and de­ fense and weapons systems for the Armed Forces. Many engineers design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop consumer products and systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Engineers consider many factors in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine pre­ cisely what function it needs to perform; design and test compo­ nents; fit them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the de­ sign’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as different as computers, gas turbines, genera­ tors, helicopters, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. They supervise production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufac­ tured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering management or in sales, where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installa­ tion or use. (See the statements on engineering, science, and data processing managers and manufacturers’ and wholesale sales repre­ sentatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are rec­ ognized by professional societies. Within the major branches are nu­ merous subdivisions. Structural, environmental, and transportation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engi­ neers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate sections on 10 engineering branches: Aero­ space; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial; mechan­ ical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Branches of engineering not covered in detail, but in which there are established college programs include: Architectural engineering—the design of a building’s internal sup­ port structure; biomedical engineering—the application of engineer­ ing to medical and physiological problems; environmental engineer­ ing—a small but growing discipline involved with identifying, solving, and alleviating environmental problems; and marine engi­ neering—the design and installation of ship machinery and propul­ sion systems. Engineers in each branch have knowledge and training that can be applied to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, and power distribution fields. Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in scientific, other engineering, and business occupations. Engineers often use computers to simulate and test how a ma­ chine, structure, or system operates. Many engineers also use com­ puter-aided design systems to produce and analyze designs. They also spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers. Complex projects require many engineers, each working with a small part of the job. Supervisory engineers are re­ sponsible for major components or entire projects.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Many engineers work in laboratories, industrial plants, or construc­ tion sites, where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite problems. Others work in an office almost all of the time. Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, dead­ lines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job. When this happens, engineers may work long hours and experience con­ siderable stress. Employment In 1992, engineers held 1,354,000 jobs. Just under one-half of all en­ gineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, machinery, scientific instruments, chemicals, motor vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1992, 713,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, primarily in engineering and archi­ tectural services, research and testing services, and business ser­ vices, where firms designed construction projects or did other engi­ neering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy. Engineers also worked in the communications, utili­ ties, and construction industries. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 190,000 engineers. Over half of these were in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government  Electrical engineering accounts for more than one-fourth of all engineers. Electrical Mechanical  Industrial Aerospace Chemical Materials Nuclear Petroleum Mining | All other ^  50  100  150  200  250  300  350  400  Employment (thousands) Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  75  76  Occupational Outlook Handbook  agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Some engineers are self-employed consultants. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in state­ ments later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is usually required for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics may occasionally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engi­ neering specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineer­ ing. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in another. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new tech­ nologies and specialties in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects, or ones that match their interests more closely. In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges of­ fer degrees in engineering technology, which are offered as either 2or 4-year programs. These programs prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical, scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of 4year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. In fact, some em­ ployers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain a master’s degree to learn new technology, to broaden their education, and to enhance promotion opportunities. Nearly 390 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and nearly 300 colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in en­ gineering technology, although not all are accredited programs. Al­ though most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also,  The number of degrees granted in engineering continues its declining trend. Number of degrees (thousands)  I I I 1  111  I  I  I I I  1  I I  1  I  .  1111 1  1982198319841985198619871988198919901991 1992 Source: Engineering Workforce Commission   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in indus­ try, while others are more theoretical and are better for students preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should investi­ gate curriculums and check accreditations carefully before selecting a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include courses in advanced high school mathematics and the physical sciences. Bachelor’s degree programs in engineering are typically designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5 years to complete their studies. In a typical 4-year college curricu­ lum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences (mathematics, physics, and chemistry), introductory engineering, and the humani­ ties, social sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. For example, the last 2 years <jf an aerospace program might include courses such as fluid mechanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynam­ ics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propulsion systems. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. A few engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering educa­ tion and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have ar­ rangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable expe­ rience and finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who of­ fer their services to the public. In 1992, nearly 380,000 engineers were registered. Registration generally requires a degree from an en­ gineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engi­ neering and Technology, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register people with degrees in engineering technology. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger companies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial, management support, or sales jobs. (See the statements under execu­ tive, administrative, and managerial occupations; under sales occu­ pations; and on computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to improve advancement opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Many high level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail. In ad­ dition, engineers should be able to express themselves well—both orally and in writing. Job Outlook Employment opportunities in engineering have been good for a number of years. They are expected to continue to be good through the year 2005 because employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations while the number of degrees granted in engineering is expected to remain near present levels through the year 2005. Many of the jobs in engineering are related to national defense. Defense expenditures will decline in the future, so employment growth and job outlook for engineers may not be as strong as in the  Professional Specialty Occupations 1980’s, when defense expenditures were increasing. However, grad­ uating engineers will continue to be in demand for jobs in engineer­ ing and other areas, possibly even at the same time other engineers, especially defense industry engineers, are being laid off. Employers will need more engineers as they increase investment in plant and equipment to further increase productivity and expand output of goods and services. In addition, competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently. Finally, more engineers will be needed to improve deteriorating roads, bridges, water and pollution control systems, and other public facilities. Freshman engineering enrollments began declining in 1983, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in engineering began declining in 1987. Although it is difficult to project engineering enrollments, this decline may continue through the late 1990’s because the total col­ lege-age population is projected to decline. Furthermore, the pro­ portion of students interested in engineering careers has declined as prospects for college graduates in other fields have improved and in­ terest in other programs has increased. Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profes­ sion each year. Despite this, three-fourths of all job openings will arise from replacement needs. A greater proportion of replacement openings is created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional specialty occupations than by those who leave the labor force. Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and develop­ ment projects or in other activities which may continue even during recessions. In industries such as electronics and aerospace, however, large government cutbacks in defense or research and development have resulted in layoffs for engineers. New computer-aided design systems enable engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly than previously. This in­ creased productivity might have resulted in fewer engineering jobs had engineers not used these systems to improve the design process. They now produce and analyze many more design variations before selecting a final one. Therefore, this technology is not expected to limit employment opportunities. It is important for engineers to continue their education through­ out their careers because much of their value to their employer de­ pends on their knowledge of the latest technology. In 1990, about 110,000 persons, or 7.5 percent of all engineers were enrolled in graduate engineering programs. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-tech­ nology areas such as advanced electronics or aerospace may find that their knowledge becomes obsolete rapidly. Even those who con­ tinue their education are vulnerable to obsolescence if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. Engineers whom employers consider not to have kept up may find themselves passed over for promotions and are particularly vulnera­ ble to layoffs. On the other hand, it is often these high-technology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering spe­ cialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolescence. (The out­ look for 10 branches of engineering is discussed in separate sec­ tions.) Earnings Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor’s degree are signifi­ cantly higher than starting salaries of bachelor’s degree graduates in other fields. According to the College Placement Council, engineer­ ing graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $34,000 a year in private industry in 1992; those with a master’s degree and no experience, $39,200 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $54,400. Start­ ing salaries for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation. Petroleum...................................................................................... Chemical........................................................................................ Mechanical..................................................................................... Nuclear........................................................................................... Electrical........................................................................................  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  $40,679 39,203 34,462 34,447 33,754  Materials....................................................................................... Industrial....................................................................................... Aerospace...................................................................................... Mining............................................................................................ Civil...............................................................................................  77  33,502 32,348 31,826 31,177 29,376  A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that beginning engineers had median annual earnings of about $31,000 in 1992, with the middle half earning between about $28,800 and $37,400 a year. Experienced midlevel engineers with no supervisory responsibilities had median annual earnings of about $52,500, with the middle half earning between about $48,200 and $57,300 a year. Median annual earnings for engineers at senior managerial levels were about $87,000. Median annual earnings for these and other levels of engineers are shown in the following tabulation. Engineer I...................................................................................... Engineer II.................................................................................... Engineer III................................................................................... Engineer IV................................................................................... Engineer V ..................................................................................... Engineer VI ................................................................................... Engineer VII................................................................................. Engineer VIII................................................................................  $32,864 37,232 43,368 52,520 63,596 75,504 87,048 102,544  The average annual salary for engineers in the Federal Govern­ ment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $54,422 in 1993. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include physical scientists, life scientists, computer scien­ tists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and ar­ chitects. Sources of Additional Information A number of engineering-related organizations provide information on engineering careers. JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314, serves high school students as a central dis­ tribution point for information from most of these organizations. To receive information, write JETS-Guidance and enclose a stamped, self-addressed business-size envelope. Societies representing many of the individual branches of engi­ neering are listed in this chapter. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch.  Aerospace Engineers (D.O.T. 002.061 and. 167)  Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help manufacture commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They de­ velop new technologies in commercial aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas like structural de­ sign, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and com­ munication, or production methods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace product, such as commercial transports, helicop­ ters, spacecraft, or rockets. Aerospace engineers may be experts in aerodynamics, propulsion, thermodynamics, structures, celestial mechanics, acoustics, or guidance and control systems. Employment Aerospace engineers held about 66,000 jobs in 1992. Almost 55 per­ cent were in the aircraft and parts and guided missile and space ve­ hicle manufacturing industries. Federal Government agencies, pri­ marily the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, provided more than 1 out of 10 jobs. Business services, engineering and architectural services, research and testing services, and communications equipment manufactur­ ing firms accounted for most of the remainder.  78  Occupational Outlook Handbook  A chemical engineer studies data describing the results of a chemical reaction trial run.  Art aerospace engineer studies technical specifications for the wing of a commercial jet. California, Washington, and Texas, States with large aerospace manufacturers, have the most aerospace engineers. Job Outlook Those seeking employment as aerospace engineers are likely to face keen competition because the number of job opportunities is ex­ pected to be significantly fewer than the relatively large pool of graduates. Defense Department expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace systems are declining. Growth in the civilian sector, which needs to replace the present fleet of airliners with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft, is projected to be much slower than previously anticipated due to the financial problems of airlines. Consequently, employment of aerospace engineers is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Future growth of employment in this field could also be limited because a higher proportion of engineers in aerospace manufacturing may come from the materials, mechani­ cal, or electrical engineering fields. Most job openings will result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because a large proportion of aerospace engineering jobs are de­ fense related, unexpected cancellation of a defense contract and other defense expenditure cutbacks can result in layoffs of aerospace engineers. Sources of Additional Information For information on aerospace careers, send $3 to:  ty American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., AIAA Stu­ dent Programs, The Aerospace Center, 370 L’Enfant Promenade SW., Washington, DC 20024-2518.  (See introductory section of this chapter for information on train­ ing requirements and earnings.)  Many work in the production of chemicals and chemical products. They design equipment and develop processes for manufacturing chemicals in chemical plants, plan and test methods of manufactur­ ing the products, and supervise production. Chemical engineers also work in industries other than chemical manufacturing such as elec­ tronics or aircraft manufacturing. Because the knowledge and du­ ties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, they apply princi­ ples of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering in their work. They frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollution control or the pro­ duction of a specific product like automotive plastics or chlorine bleach.  Employment Chemical engineers held over about 52,000 jobs in 1992. Seventy percent were in manufacturing industries, primarily in the chemical, petroleum refining, and related industries. Most of the rest worked for engineering services, research and testing services, or consulting firms that design chemical plants or do other work on a contract ba­ sis, or worked for government agencies or as independent consul­ tants.  Job Outlook Although employment in the chemical manufacturing industry is projected to grow very little through 2005, chemical engineers should find favorable job opportunities. The number of positions arising from employment growth, which is expected to be as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, and the need to replace those who leave the occupation should be sufficient to ab­ sorb the number of graduates with degrees in chemical engineering and other entrants. Areas relating to the production of industrial chemicals, biotech­ nology, and materials science may provide better opportunities than other portions of the chemical industry. Much of the projected growth in employment, however, will be in nonmanufacturing in­ dustries, especially service industries.  Chemical Engineers Sources of Additional Information (D.O.T. 008.061)  Nature of the Work Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry and engineer­ ing to solve problems involving the production or use of chemicals.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ty American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, NY 10017. iy American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW, Wash­ ington, DC 20036.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Professional Specialty Occupations  Civil Engineers  Electrical and Electronics Engineers  (D.O.T. 005.061, .167-014 and -018; and 019.167-018)  Nature of the Work Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch of engineering, design and supervise the construction of roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major specialties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construc­ tion, transportation, and geotechnical engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative posi­ tions, ranging from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching. Employment Civil engineers held about 173,000 jobs in 1992. Over 40 percent of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Over one-third were in firms that provide engineering consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. The construction industry, public utilities, transportation, and manufac­ turing industries accounted for most of the rest. Civil engineers usually are found working near major industrial and commercial centers, often at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects. Job Outlook Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, spurred by population growth and an expanding economy. More civil engineers will be needed to design and construct higher capacity transporta­ tion, water supply, and pollution control systems, large buildings, and other structures, and repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace civil engineers who transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Because construction and related industries—including those providing design services—employ many civil engineers, employ­ ment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease during economic slowdowns, when construction often is curtailed.  (D.O.T. 003.061,. 167 except -034 and -070, and .187)  Nature of the Work Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and super­ vise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electri­ cal equipment includes power generating and transmission equip­ ment used by electric utilities, and electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and air­ craft. Electronic equipment includes radar, computer hardware, and communications and video equipment. The specialties of electrical and electronics engineers include sev­ eral major areas—such as power generation, transmission, and dis­ tribution; communications; computer electronics; and electrical equipment manufacturing—or a subdivision of these areas—indus­ trial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write per­ formance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held about 370,000jobs in 1992, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in firms that manufacture electrical and electronic equipment, business ma­ chines, professional and scientific equipment, and aircraft and air­ craft parts. Computer and data processing services firms, engineer­ ing and business consulting firms, public utilities, and government agencies accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for electrical and electronics engineers are expected to be good through the year 2005. Most job openings will result from job growth and the need to replace electrical engi­ neers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. These openings should be sufficient to absorb the number of new graduates and other entrants.  Sources of Additional Information  lit' American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) ■Illlllllliiiiii i  ^  ^  is  ^- - - - - - - y  ■. ;  A civil engineer completes plans for a city park recreational complex and roadway system.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  79  An electrical engineer designs the lighting system for a city traffic circle.  80  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment in this engineering specialty is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job growth is ex­ pected to be fastest in industrial sectors other than manufacturing. Increased demand by businesses and government for computers and communications equipment is expected to account for much of the projected employment growth. Consumer demand for electrical and electronic goods and increased research and development on com­ puters, robots, and other types of automation should create addi­ tional jobs. Because many electrical engineering jobs are defense related, cut­ backs in defense spending could result in layoffs of electrical engi­ neers, especially if a defense-related project or contract is unexpect­ edly cancelled. Furthermore, engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in most specialties risk technological obsolescence, which makes them more susceptible to layoffs or, at a minimum, likely to be passed over for advancement. Sources of Additional Information  Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 005.167-026; 012.061 -018, .067, .167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, and -062, and . 187)  Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organ­ ization to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materials, information, and energy—to make or process a product. They are the bridge between management and operations. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the manage­ ment of people and methods of business organization than are engi­ neers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, design manufacturing and information systems, and use mathematical analysis methods such as operations research to meet those requirements. They develop management control sys­ tems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design produc­ tion planning and control systems to coordinate activities and con­ trol product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers conduct surveys to find plant locations with the best combination of raw materials, transportation, and costs. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related. Employment Industrial engineers held about 119,000 jobs in 1992; about 80 per­ cent of jobs were in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distributed among manufacturing industries than other engineers. Their skills can be readily applied outside manufacturing as well. For example, some work for insurance companies, banks, hospitals, and retail organizations. Others work for government agencies or are independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of industrial engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, mak­ ing for favorable opportunities. Most job openings, however, will re­ sult from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation in factories and in offices underlie the pro­ jected employment growth. Because the main function of an indus­ trial engineer is to make a higher quality product as efficiently as  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Industrial engineers determine the most productive way the resources of a business can be used in the production of a product. possible, their services should be in demand in the manufacturing sector as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific management and safety engineering. Sources of Additional Information  O* Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038, and .267-010)  Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical equipment. They design and develop power-pro­ ducing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and de­ velop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-condition­ ing equipment, robots, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment. The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and func­ tion. Specialties include, among others, applied mechanics, design engineering, heat transfer, power plant engineering, pressure vessels and piping, and underwater technology. Mechanical engineers de­ sign tools needed by other engineers for their work. Mechanical engineering is the broadest engineering discipline, ex­ tending across many interdependent specialties. Some mechanical engineers work in production operations, maintenance, and techni­ cal sales. Many are administrators or managers. Employment Mechanical engineers held about 227,000 jobs in 1992. More than 3 out of 5 jobs were in manufacturing—of these, most were in the ma­ chinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, instru­ ments, and fabricated metal products industries. Business and engi­ neering consulting services and government agencies provided most of the remaining jobs.  Professional Specialty Occupations  81  processing metals into final products. Mechanical metallurgists de­ velop and improve metalworking processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics in­ clude all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which require high tem­ peratures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, semiconductors, automobile and aircraft en­ gine components, fiber-optic phone lines, tile, and electric power line insulators. Materials engineers evaluate technical requirements and material specifications to develop materials that can be used, for example, to reduce the weight, but not the strength of an object. Materials engi­ neers also test and evaluate materials and develop new materials, such as the composite materials now being used in “stealth” air­ craft.  A mechanical engineer uses a CAD workstation to design an improved industrial lathe. Job Outlook Employment of mechanical engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Al­ though overall employment in manufacturing is expected to decline, employment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should in­ crease as the demand for machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Employment of mechanical engineers in other sectors of the econ­ omy, such as construction and services, is expected to grow faster than average as firms in these industries learn to apply these engi­ neers’ skills. Job prospects in this field should be favorable through the year 2005. Most of the expected job openings resulting from employment growth and the need to replace those who will leave the occupation should be sufficient to absorb the supply of new graduates and other entrants. Many mechanical engineering jobs are in defense related indus­ tries. Reductions in defense spending has and may continue to result in layoffs in these industries. Sources of Additional Information  *3= The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. tw American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engi­ neers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE., Atlanta, GA 30329.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Employment Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers held nearly 19,000 jobs in 1992. About one-quarter worked in metal-producing and processing industries. They also worked in industries that manufac­ ture aircraft and aircraft parts, machinery, and electrical equip­ ment, and in engineering consulting firms, research and testing ser­ vices, and government agencies. Job Outlook Employment of metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many of the industries in which they are concentrated, such as stone, clay, and glass products, primary met­ als, fabricated metal products, and transportation equipment indus­ tries, are expected to experience little if any employment growth through the year 2005. Anticipated employment growth in service industries such as research and testing services and engineering and architectural services, however, should provide significant job open­ ings as these firms are employed to develop improved materials for their industrial customers. Those seeking to become employed as metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers should find good opportunities, as the antici­ pated growth should be sufficient to absorb the relatively low num­ ber of new graduates in this engineering discipline. Sources of Additional Information *3°The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086-7514. tw ASM International, Student Outreach Program, Materials Park, OH 44073.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers (D.O.T. 006.061; 011.061; and 019.061-014)  Nature of the Work Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers develop new types of metal alloys, ceramics, composites, and other materials which meet special requirements. Examples are graphite golf club shafts that are light but stiff, ceramic tiles on the space shuttle that protect it from overheating during reentry, and the alloy turbine blades in a jet. Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and methods of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mjM.  A materials engineer prepares a thin-film deposition experiment.  82  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except-018)  for mining engineers. In fact, little change in employment is ex­ pected through the year 2005. However, the number of annual open­ ings arising from the need to replace those who transfer out of the occupation or retire should be sufficient to absorb the expected small number of new graduates and other entrants. Sources of Additional Information  Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare metals and minerals for manufacturing industries to use. They design open pit and under­ ground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgi­ cal engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others de­ velop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing opera­ tions to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials they are mixed with. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers have been working to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution. Employment Mining engineers held about 3,600 jobs in 1992. Over two-thirds worked in the mining industry. Other jobs were located in engineer­ ing consulting firms, government agencies, or in manufacturing in­ dustries. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communities. Those in research and de­ velopment, management, consulting, or sales, however, often are lo­ cated in metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Opportunities in the mining industry are closely related to the price of the metals and minerals they produce. If the price of these prod­ ucts is high, it makes it worthwhile for a mining company to invest the many millions of dollars in material moving equipment and ore processing technology necessary to operate the mine and make a profit. In the mid-1980’s, mining engineers experienced poor employ­ ment opportunities because low prices for oil and metals reduced profitability in coal, metal, and other mining. The prices of these commodities, metals in particular, have increased recently to levels high enough to raise output and expand employment opportunities. Although the long-term business environment for mining generally is perceived to be favorable, a mine takes years of research, plan­ ning, and development to become fully operational, and, even then, may not contribute to rapid expansion in employment opportunities  ©" The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80162-5002.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Nuclear Engineers (D.O.T. 015.061, .067, .137, and .167)  Nature of the Work Nuclear engineers conduct research on nuclear energy and radia­ tion. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to generate electricity and power Navy ships. For exam­ ple, they may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, han­ dling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste pro­ duced by nuclear energy—or on fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear weapons; others develop industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials such as equipment to help di­ agnose and treat medical problems. Employment Nuclear engineers held about 17,000 jobs in 1992; one-fifth each were in the Federal Government, research and testing services, and utilities. Nearly half of all federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, about one-third worked for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and most of the rest worked for the Department of Energy or the Tennessee Valley Authority. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting companies. Some worked for defense manufacturers or manufacturers of nuclear power equipment. Job Outlook Because of concerns over the cost and safety of nuclear power, it is unlikely that any new nuclear power plants will be built by the year 2005. Nevertheless, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate ex­ isting plants. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to work in defense-related areas and to improve and enforce safety stan­ dards. Therefore, employment of nuclear engineers is expected to change little through the year 2005. Despite the expected absence of employment growth, good op­ portunities for nuclear engineers should exist because the number of  i [pm if  *mm ip« rTf t  A mining engineer studies a map of a strip mine.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A nuclear engineer assesses the operation of a reactor and its power generating unit.  Professional Specialty Occupations persons graduating with degrees in nuclear engineering is likely to be in rough balance with the number of job openings. Those open­ ings will arise as nuclear engineers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.  ft it®  - -  83  *  Sources of Additional Information  W American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Petroleum Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010, and .167-010 and -014)  paw;'-: Nature of the Work Petroleum engineers explore for and produce oil and natural gas. If a workable reservoir containing oil or natural gas is discovered, pe­ troleum engineers work to achieve the maximum profitable recov­ ery from the reservoir by determining and developing the most effi­ cient production methods. Beacause only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting water, chemicals, or steam into an oil reservoir to force more of the oil out, and horizontal drilling or fracturing to connect more of a gas reservoir to a well. Since even the best methods in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, petroleum engineers work to find ways to increase this proportion. Employment Petroleum engineers held over 14,000 jobs in 1992, mostly in the pe­ troleum industry and closely allied fields. Employers include major oil companies and hundreds of smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and service companies. Engineering consulting firms, government agencies, oil field services, and equipment suppliers also employ petroleum engineers. Others work as independent consul­ tants. Because petroleum engineers specialize in the discovery and pro­ duction of oil and gas, relatively few are employed in the refining, transportation, and retail sectors of the oil and gas industry. Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California, including offshore sites. Also, many American petro­ leum engineers work overseas in oil-producing countries. Job Outlook The price of oil has a major effect on the level of employment oppor­ tunities for petroleum engineers in the United States. A high price of   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  i.  A petroleum engineer checks the flow of crude oil at a pumping unit. oil and gas makes it profitable for oil exploration firms to seek oil and gas reservoirs, and they will hire petroleum engineers to do so. With low oil prices, however, it is cheaper to purchase needed oil from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), such as Saudi Arabia, who have vast oil reserves. Employment of petroleum engineers is expected to decline through the year 2005 unless oil and gas prices unexpectedly in­ crease enough to encourage increased exploration for oil in this country. Even if new job growth doesn’t materialize, employment opportunities for petroleum engineers should be good because the number of degrees granted in petroleum engineering has tradition­ ally been low. So, new graduates are not likely to significantly ex­ ceed the number of job openings that will arise as petroleum engi­ neers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information or Society of Petroleum Engineers, 222 Palisades Creek Dr., Richardson, TX 75080.  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Architects and Surveyors Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-010and .167-010)  Nature of the Work Architects design buildings and other structures. The design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Buildings must also be functional, safe, and economical and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consider­ ation when they design buildings and other structures. Architects provide a wide variety of professional services to indi­ viduals and organizations planning a construction project. They may be involved in all phases of development, from the initial dis­ cussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a number of skills—design, engineering, managerial, communication, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and budget of a project. Based on the discussions, the architect may prepare a program—a report specifying the requirements the design must meet. In some cases, the architect assists in conducting feasi­ bility and environmental impact analyses and selecting a site. The architect then prepares drawings and written information present­ ing ideas for the client to review. After the initial proposals are discussed and accepted, the archi­ tect develops final construction plans. These plans show the build­ ing’s appearance and details for its construction. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system; air-conditioning, heat­ ing, and ventilating systems; electrical systems; plumbing; and pos­ sibly site and landscape plans. Architects also specify the building materials and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In developing designs, architects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire regula­ tions, and other ordinances, such as those that require easy access by disabled persons. Throughout the planning stage, the architect makes necessary changes. While architects have traditionally used pencil and paper to produce design and construction drawings, ar­ chitects are increasingly turning to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) technology for these important tasks. The architect may also assist the client in obtaining construction bids, selecting a contractor, and negotiating the construction con­ tract. As construction proceeds, the architect may be employed by the client to visit the building site to ensure that the contractor is fol­ lowing the design, meeting the schedule, using the specified materi­ als, and meeting the specified standards for the quality of work. The job is not complete until all construction is finished, required tests are made, and construction costs are paid. Architects design a wide variety of buildings, such as office and apartment buildings, schools, churches, factories, hospitals, houses, and airport terminals. They also design multibuilding complexes such as urban centers, college campuses, industrial parks, and entire communities. In addition to designing buildings, architects may ad­ vise on the selection of building sites, prepare cost analysis and landuse studies, and do long-range planning for land development. Architects sometimes specialize in one phase of work. Some spe­ cialize in the design of one type of building—for example, hospitals, schools, or housing. Others specialize in construction management or the management of their firm and do little design work. Archi­ tects often work with engineers, urban planners, interior designers, landscape architects, and others. During a training period leading up to licensure as architects, en­ try-level workers are called intern-architects. This training period gives them practical work experience while they prepare for the Ar­ chitect Registration Examination. Typical duties may include pre­ paring construction drawings on CADD, assisting in the design of one part of a project, or managing the production of a small project. Working Conditions Architects generally work in a comfortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices advising clients, developing reports and 84  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ^gPPi  Architects occasionally work nights and weekends to meet project deadlines. drawings, and working with other architects and engineers. How­ ever, they also often work at construction sites reviewing the pro­ gress of projects. While a 40-hour workweek is usual, architects may occasionally be under great stress, working nights and weekends to meet dead­ lines. Employment Architects held about 96,000 jobs in 1992. Most jobs were in archi­ tecture firms—the majority of which employ fewer than five work­ ers. About one-third were self-employed architects, practicing as partners in architecture firms or on their own. A few worked for builders, real estate developers, and for government agencies re­ sponsible for housing, planning, or community development such as the Departments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and Urban De­ velopment, and the General Services Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be li­ censed (registered) before they may call themselves architects or contract to provide architectural services. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not licensed. How­ ever, a licensed architect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. Three requirements generally must be met for licensure: A professional degree in architecture, a period of practical training or internship (usually for 3 years), and passage of all sections of the Ar­ chitect Registration Examination. In most States, the professional degree in architecture must be from one of the approximately 100 schools of architecture with pro­ grams accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. There are several types of professional degrees in architecture. Over half of all architecture degrees are from 5-year Bachelor of Archi­ tecture programs intended for students entering from high school. Some schools offer a 2-year Master of Architecture program for stu­ dents with a preprofessional undergraduate degree in architecture or a related area, or a 3- or 4-year Master of Architecture program for students with a degree in another discipline. In addition, there are many combinations and variations of these degree programs.  Professional Specialty Occupations The choice of degree type depends upon each individual’s prefer­ ence and educational background. Prospective architecture students should carefully consider the available options before committing to a program. For example, although the 5-year Bachelor of Architec­ ture program offers the fastest route to the professional degree, courses are specialized and, if the student does not complete the pro­ gram, moving to a nonarchitecture program may be difficult. A typ­ ical program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, including its technical and legal aspects, profes­ sional practice, math, physical sciences, and liberal arts. Many ar­ chitecture schools also offer graduate education for those who al­ ready have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in architecture or other areas. Although graduate education beyond the professional degree is not essential for practicing architects, it is normally required for research, teaching, and certain specialties. Architects must be able to visually communicate their ideas to cli­ ents. Artistic and drawing ability is very helpful in doing this, but not essential. More important is a visual orientation and the ability to conceptualize and understand spatial relationships. Good com­ munication skills (both written and oral), the ability to work inde­ pendently or as part of a team, and creativity are important qualities for anyone interested in becoming an architect. Computer literacy is also required as most firms use computers for word processing, specifications writing, two- and three-dimensional drafting, and fi­ nancial management. A knowledge of computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) is helpful and will become more important as ar­ chitecture firms continue to adopt this technology. New graduates usually begin in architecture firms, where they as­ sist in preparing architectural documents or drawings. They also may do research on building codes and materials; or write specifica­ tions for building materials, installation criteria, the quality of fin­ ishes, and other related details. Graduates with degrees in architec­ ture also enter related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design; urban planning; real estate development; civil engineering; or construction management. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or manage­ rial positions. Some architects become partners in established firms; others set up their own practice. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for architects are highly dependent on the level of local construction, particularly of nonresidential struc­ tures such as office buildings and shopping centers. Because the level of construction nationally is not expected to be higher during the 1992-2005 period than the 1980’s, employment growth of archi­ tects is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through 2005. Although the need to replace architects who leave the labor force will provide many job openings in addition to growth openings, and the number of degrees granted in architecture is not expected to increase significantly, prospective architects may still face competition, particularly for jobs in the most prestigious firms. Also, noninstitutional construction is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy, and during recessions architects will face strong com­ petition for jobs or clients, and layoffs may occur. Architects in­ volved in the design of institutional buildings such as schools, hospi­ tals, and nursing homes, will be less affected by fluctuations in the economy. The expected expansion of the population under age 15 and over age 65 should spur the demand for such buildings. Even in times of overall good opportunities, there may be areas of the country with poor opportunities. Architects who are licensed to practice in one State must meet the licensing requirements of other States before practicing elsewhere. These requirements are becom­ ing more standardized, however, facilitating movement to other States. Although the use of computer-aided design and drafting is be­ coming more prevalent in architecture firms, it is not expected to re­ duce the need for architects. Rather, CADD allows architects to vis­ ualize, develop, and present more options, and to make changes in plans and elevations more easily, improving the quality of building designs and increasing productivity and profit margins for firms. Prospective architects who know CADD technology may experi­ ence better opportunities in the future, particularly in a competitive job market.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  85  Earnings According to The American Institute of Architects, the median sal­ ary for intern-architects in architecture firms was $24,500 in 1992. Licensed architects with 8 to 10 years’ experience but who were not managers or principals of a firm earned a median salary of $36,700 in 1992; and principals or partners of firms earned a median salary of $50,000 in 1992. Partners in some large practices earned over $100,000. Most employers of wage and salary architects offer paid vacation and sick leave, and many also provide medical insurance. Employees of very small architecture firms (fewer than 5 employ­ ees) are less likely to receive these benefits. Architects who are partners in well-established architecture firms generally earn much more than their salaried employees, but their income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. Archi­ tects may have difficulty getting established in their own practices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income, requiring substantial financial resources. Related Occupations Architects are concerned with the design and construction of build­ ings and related structures. Others who engage in similar work are landscape architects, building contractors, civil engineers, urban planners, interior designers, industrial designers, drafters, and graphic designers. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and careers in architecture can be ob­ tained from: IS" Director, Careers in Architecture Programs, The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018)  Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residential areas, public parks, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional but beautiful and compatible with the natural environment as well. They may plan the location of build­ ings, roads, and walkways and the arrangement of flowers, shrubs, and trees. They also may redesign streets to limit automobile traffic and to improve pedestrian access and safety. Natural resource con­ servation and historic preservation are other important objectives to which landscape architects may apply their knowledge of the envi­ ronment as well as their design and artistic talents. Landscape architects are hired by many types of organizations— from real estate development firms starting new projects to munici­ palities constructing airports or parks. They are often involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with archi­ tects and engineers, they help determine the best arrangement of roads and buildings. Once these decisions are made, landscape ar­ chitects create detailed plans indicating new topography, vegeta­ tion, walkways, and landscape amenities. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation. They observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from vari­ ous angles. They assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walk­ ways, and utilities on the project. After studying and analyzing the site, they prepare a preliminary design. To account for the needs of the client as well as the condi­ tions at the site, they may have to make many changes before a final design is approved. An increasing number of landscape architects are using computer-aided design (CAD) systems to assist them in preparing their designs. Many landscape architects are also using video simulation as a tool to help clients envision the landscape ar­ chitects’ ideas. Throughout all phases of the design, landscape architects consult with other professionals involved in the project. Once the design is  86  Occupational Outlook Handbook  complete, they prepare a proposal for the client. They draw up de­ tailed plans of the site, including written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost estimates, and submit them for approval by the client and by regulatory agencies. If the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings show­ ing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. Although many landscape architects supervise the installation of their design, some are involved in the construction of the site. How­ ever, this usually is done by the developer or contractor. Some landscape architects work on a wide variety of projects. Others specialize in a particular area, such as residential develop­ ment, historic landscape restoration, waterfront improvement projects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional planning and resource management; feasibility, en­ vironmental impact, and cost studies; or site construction. Some landscape architects teach at the college or university level. Although most landscape architects do at least some residential work, relatively few limit their practice to landscape design for indi­ vidual homeowners because most residential landscape design projects are too small to provide suitable income compared with larger commercial or multiunit residential projects. Some nurseries offer residential landscape design services, but these services often are performed by lesser qualified landscape designers or others with training and experience in related areas. Landscape architects who work for government agencies do simi­ lar work at national parks, government buildings, and other govern­ ment-owned facilities. In addition, they may prepare environmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as pub­ lic land-use planning. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend most of their time in offices creating plans and designs, preparing models and cost estimates, doing re­ search, or attending meetings. The remainder of their time is spent at the site. Before the project is actually begun, landscape architects analyze the site. During the design and planning stage, they may visit the site to verify that the design can be incorporated into the landscape. After the plans and specifications are completed, they spend time at the site observing or supervising the construction. Those who work in large firms may spend considerably more time out of the office because of travel to sites outside the local area. Salaried employees in both government and landscape architec­ tural firms usually work regular hours, although they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-employed land­ scape architects may vary. Employment Landscape architects held about 19,000 jobs in 1992. Three-fifths worked for firms that provide landscape architecture services. Most  A landscape architect prepares final working drawings after a design is approved.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of the rest were employed by architectural firms. The Federal Gov­ ernment also employs these workers; most were found in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and the Interior. About 1 of every 6 landscape architects was self-employed. Most employment for landscape architects is concentrated in ur­ ban and suburban areas in all parts of the country. Some landscape architects work in rural areas, particularly those in the Federal Government who plan and design parks and recreation areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture is usually necessary for entry into the profession. The bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture takes 4 or 5 years to complete. There are two types of master’s degree programs. The master’s degree as a first professional degree is a 3-year program designed for students with an undergraduate degree in another discipline; this is the most com­ mon type. The master’s degree as the second professional degree is a 2-year program for students who have a bachelor’s degree in land­ scape architecture and wish to demonstrate mastery or specialize in some aspect of landscape architecture. In 1992, approximately 50 colleges and universities offered 65 un­ dergraduate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accredited by the Landscape Architecture Accreditation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses required in this field usually include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, land­ scape ecology, structural design, and city and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape architecture, plant and soil science, geology, design and color theory, and general manage­ ment. In addition, most students at the undergraduate level take a year of prerequisite courses such as English, mathematics, and so­ cial and physical science. The design studio is an important aspect of many landscape architecture curriculums. Whenever possible, stu­ dents are assigned real projects to work on, providing them with val­ uable hands-on experience. While working on real projects, students may become more proficient in the use of technologies such as com­ puter-aided design, geographic information systems, and video sim­ ulation. Forty-four States require landscape architects to be licensed. Li­ censing is based on the Landscape Architect Registration Examina­ tion (L. A.R.E.), sponsored by the Council of Landscape Architec­ tural Registration Boards. Admission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experi­ ence, although standards vary from State to State. Nineteen States require additional examinations focusing on laws and/or plant materials indigenous to their State. Because States’ requirements for licensure are not uniform, land­ scape architects may not find it easy to transfer their registration to another State to practice. However, those who meet the national standard of graduating from an accredited program, serving 3 years of internship under the supervision of a registered landscape archi­ tect, and passing of the L.A.R.E. can satisfy requirements in most States. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture. The Federal Government does not require its landscape architects to be licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape architecture should appre­ ciate nature and enjoy working with their hands. Although creativ­ ity and artistic talent are also desirable qualities, they are not abso­ lutely essential to success as a landscape architect. High school courses in mechanical or geometric drawing, art, botany, and math­ ematics are helpful. Good oral communication skills are important, because these workers must be able to convey their ideas to other professionals and to clients and to make presentations before large groups. Those interested in starting their own firm should be skilled in small business management. In States where licensure is required, new hires are technically called intern landscape architects until they become licensed. Intern landscape architects’ duties vary depending on the type and size of employing firm. They may do project research or prepare base maps of the area to be landscaped, while some are allowed to participate in the actual design of a project. However, interns must perform all work under the supervision of a licensed landscape architect. Addi­ tionally, all drawings and specifications must be signed and/or  Professional Specialty Occupations sealed by the licensed landscape architect, who takes legal responsi­ bility for the work. After gaining experience and becoming licensed, landscape architects usually can carry a design through all stages of development. After several years, they may become associates, and eventually they may become partners in a firm or open their own of­ fices. Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The level of new construction plays an important role in determining de­ mand for landscape architects. Anticipated growth in construction is expected to increase demand for landscape architectural services over the long run. An increasing proportion of office and other com­ mercial and industrial development will occur outside cities. These projects are typically located on larger sites with more surrounding land which needs to be designed, in contrast to urban development, which often includes little or no surrounding land. Also, as the cost of land increases, the importance of good site planning and land­ scape design increases. Because employment is linked to new con­ struction, however, landscape architects may face layoffs and com­ petition for jobs when real estate sales and construction slow down, such as during a recession. Increased development of open space into recreation areas, wild­ life refuges, and parks will also require the skills of landscape archi­ tects. Continued concern for the environment should stimulate em­ ployment growth because of the need to design development projects which best fit in with the surrounding environment. In addition to the work related to new development and construc­ tion, landscape architects are expected to be involved in historic preservation, local, city, and regional planning, land reclamation, and refurbishment of existing sites. Although landscape architects are increasingly using computeraided design and other technologies, employment is not expected to be affected because these technologies will be used to create more and better designs rather than reduce the demand for landscape ar­ chitects. In addition to new openings due to job growth, nearly as many openings are expected to result from the need to replace landscape architects who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings According to the limited data available, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture started at about $20,400 in 1992; those with a master’s degree started at about $30,600. Although sal­ aries for experienced landscape architects vary by location and ex­ perience, the median salary for all landscape architects was about $41,900 in 1992. Those who are partners in well-established firms may earn much more than their salaried employees, but their in­ comes may fluctuate with changing business conditions. In 1993, the average annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi­ tions was $46,855. Because many landscape architects work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those of other workers with similar skills who work for large organizations. With the exception of those who are self-employed, however, most land­ scape architects receive health insurance, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design, construction, and land-use planning to develop a landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, interior designers, civil engineers, and urban and regional planners. Landscape architects also know how to grow and use plants in the landscape. Botanists, who study plants in general, and horticulturists, who study orna­ mental plants as well as fruit, vegetable, greenhouse, and nursery crops, do similar work. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is available from: ty American Society of Landscape Architects, 4401 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20008.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  87  General information on registration or licensing requirements is available from: ^Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, 12700 Fair Lakes Circle, Suite 110, Fairfax, VA 22033.  Surveyors (D.O.T. 018 except. 167-022, and 024.061-014)  Nature of the Work This statement covers three groups of workers who measure and map the earth’s surface. Land surveyors establish official land, air space, and water boundaries. They write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents; define air space for air­ ports; and measure construction and mineral sites. They are assisted by survey technicians, who operate surveying instruments and col­ lect information. Mapping scientists and other surveyors collect geo­ graphic information and prepare maps and charts of large areas. Land surveyors manage one or more survey parties that measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s surface. They plan the fieldwork, select known survey reference points, and determine the precise location of all important features of the survey area. They re­ search legal records and look for evidence of previous boundaries. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plats, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish offi­ cial boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work. The information needed by the land surveyor is gathered by a sur­ vey party. A typical survey party is made up of a party chief and sev­ eral survey technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be ei­ ther a land surveyor or a senior survey technician, leads the day-to­ day work activities. The party chief is assisted by survey technicians, who adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic dis­ tance-measuring equipment. Survey technicians or helpers position and hold the vertical rods or targets that the theodolite operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or elevations. They may also hold measuring tapes and chains if electronic distance-measuring equipment is not used. Survey technicians also compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from these instruments into computers. Some survey parties include laborers or helpers to clear brush from sight lines, drive stakes, carry equipment, and perform other less skilled duties. New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and survey technicians. For larger surveying projects, surveyors are increasingly using the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite system which precisely locates points on the earth using radio sig­ nals transmitted by satellites. To use it, a surveyor places a satellite receiver—about the size of a backpack—on a desired point. The re­ ceiver collects information from several differently positioned satel­ lites at once to locate its precise position. Two receivers are gener­ ally operated simultaneously, one at a known point and the other at the unknown point. The receiver can also be placed in a vehicle to trace out road systems, or for other uses. As the cost of the receivers falls, much more surveying work will be done by GPS. Mapping scientists, like land surveyors, measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface but generally cover much larger areas. Unlike land surveyors, however, mapping scientists work mainly in offices and may seldom or never visit the sites they are mapping. Mapping scientists include workers in several occupations. Cartographers pre­ pare maps using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare maps and drawings by measuring and interpreting aerial photographs, us­ ing analytical processes and mathematical formulas. Photogramme­ trists make detailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Map editors develop and verify map con­ tents from aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some surveyors perform specialized functions which are closer to mapping science than traditional surveying. Geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satellite observations, to mea­ sure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting sur­ veyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum re­ lated. Marine surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of  88  Occupational Outlook Handbook  water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features. The work of mapping scientists is also changing due to new tech­ nologies. The technologies include the GPS, Geographic Informa­ tion Systems (GIS)—which are computerized data banks of spatial data—new earth resources data satellites, and improved aerial pho­ tography. From the older specialties of photogrammetrist or cartog­ rapher, a new type of mapping scientist is emerging. The geographic information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and surveying into a broader field concerned with the collection and analysis of geographic spatial information. Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and spend a lot of their time outdoors. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Land surveyors and technicians do active and sometimes strenu­ ous work. They often stand for long periods, walk long distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. They also are exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally, they may commute long distances, stay overnight, or even temporarily relocate near a survey site. Surveyors also spend considerable time in offices, planning surveys, analyzing data, and preparing reports and maps. Most computations and map drafting are done at a computer. Mapping scientists spend almost all their time in offices. Employment Surveyors held about 99,000 jobs in 1992. Engineering, architec­ tural, and surveying firms employed nearly three-fifths of all survey­ ors. Federal, State, and local government agencies employed an ad­ ditional one-fourth. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agen­ cies. Construction firms, mining and oil and gas extraction compa­ nies, and public utilities also employ surveyors. About 10,000 sur­ veyors were self-employed.  Land surveyors measure distances and elevations along the earth’s surface.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare to be a licensed surveyor by combining post­ secondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job training. About 25 universities offer 4-year programs leading to a BS degree in surveying. Junior and community colleges, technical insti­ tutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology. High school students interested in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. All 50 States license land surveyors. For licensure, most State li­ censing boards require that individuals pass two written examina­ tions, one prepared by the State and one given by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying. In addition, they must meet varying standards of formal education and work ex­ perience in the field. In the past, many surveyors started as members of survey crews and worked their way up to licensed surveyor with little formal training in surveying. However, due to advancing tech­ nology and an increase in licensing standards, more formal educa­ tion is now required. Most States at the present time require some formal post-high school education courses and 5 to 12 years of sur­ veying experience to gain licensure. However, requirements vary among the States. Generally, the quickest route is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience (a few States do not re­ quire any), and passing the licensing examinations. An increasing number of States require a bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely related field such as civil engineering or forestry with courses in surveying. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usu­ ally start as a helper. Beginners with postsecondary school training in surveying can generally start as technicians. With on-the-job ex­ perience and formal training in surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—workers may advance to senior survey technician, then to party chief, and finally, in some cases, to licensed surveyor (depending on State licensing require­ ments). The American Congress on Surveying and Mapping has a volun­ tary certification program for survey technicians. Technicians are certified at four levels that require progressive amounts of experi­ ence; technicians who qualify are certified at a higher level after passing a written examination. Although not required for State li­ censure, many employers require certification for promotion to more responsible positions. Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s degree in engineering or a physical science, although it is possible to enter these jobs through experience as a photogrammetric or carto­ graphic technician. Most cartographic and photogrammetry techni­ cians have had some specialized postsecondary school training. With the development of Geographic Information Systems, cartog­ raphers, photogrammetrists, and other mapping scientists now need more education and experience in the use of computers than in the past. The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing has voluntary certification programs for photogrammetrists and mapping scientists. To qualify for these professional distinctions, in­ dividuals must meet work experience standards and pass an oral or written examination. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms and to work precisely and accurately because mistakes can be very costly. Surveying is a cooperative pro­ cess, so good interpersonal skills and the ability to work as part of a team are important. Leadership qualities are important for party chief and other supervisory positions. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate by hand or voice signals. Job Outlook Employment of surveyors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to openings arising from growth in demand for surveyors, many will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force.  Professional Specialty Occupations Growth in construction through the year 2005 should create jobs for surveyors who lay out streets, shopping centers, housing devel­ opments, factories, office buildings, and recreation areas. Road and highway construction and improvement also should create new sur­ veying positions. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year along with construction activity. Some growth in employment of mapping scientists and other sur­ veyors may occur in private firms; little or no growth is expected in the Federal Government. As a result of trends towards more complex technology, upgraded licensing requirements, and the increased demand for geographic spatial data (as opposed to traditional surveying services), opportu­ nities will be best for surveyors and mapping scientists who have at least a bachelor’s degree. New technology such as GPS and GIS may increase productivity for larger projects and may enhance em­ ployment opportunities for surveyors and survey technicians who have the educational background to use it, but limit opportunities for those with less education. Earnings In 1992, the median annual earnings for surveyors were about $26,800. The middle 50 percent earned between about $22,600 and $37,000 a year. The median annual earnings for survey technicians were about $23,700 a year in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,900 and $31,700 a year; 10 percent earned less than $14,500 a year; 10 percent earned more than $38,500 a year. In 1993, The Federal Government hired high school graduates with little or no training or experience at salaries or about $13,400 annually for entry level jobs on survey crews. Those with 1 year of   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  89  related postsecondary training earned about $14,600 a year. Those with an associate degree that included courses in surveying gener­ ally started as instrument assistants with an annual salary of about $16,400. In 1993, persons starting as land surveyors or cartogra­ phers with the Federal Government earned about $18,300 or $22,700 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average an­ nual salary for Federal land surveyors in 1993 was about $41,000, for cartographers, about $44,000, and for geodesists, about $47,600. The average annual salary for Federal surveying technicians was about $24,000, for cartographic technicians, about $30,100, and for geodetic technicians, about $37,300. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil engineers and architects, since an accurate survey is the first step in a construction project. Mapping science and geodetic surveying are related to the work of geologists and geophysicists, who study the earth’s internal compo­ sition, surface, and atmosphere. Mapping science is also related to the work of geographers and urban planners, who study how the earth’s surface is used. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, licensure requirements, and the survey technician certification program is available from:  fW American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda,MD 20814-2122.  General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: tw American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 5410 Gros­ venor Lane, Suite 200, Bethesda, MD 20814.  Computer, Mathematical, and Operations Research Occupations Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010)  Nature of the Work Why do young drivers pay more for automobile insurance than older drivers? How much should an insurance policy cost? How much should an organization contribute each year to its pension fund? Answers to these and similar questions are provided by actua­ ries, who design insurance and pension plans and ensure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis. Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics to calculate probabili­ ties of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemployment, retirement, and property loss. They use this information to determine the ex­ pected insured loss. For example, they may calculate the probability of claims due to automobile accidents, which can vary depending on the insured’s driving history, type of car, and many other factors. They must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. Fi­ nally, this price must be profitable and yet be competitive with other insurance companies. In a similar manner, the actuary calculates premium rates and determines policy contract provisions for each type of insurance offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life, health, or property and casualty insurance; others specialize in pen­ sion plans or in financial planning and investment. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep informed about general economic and social trends and legislative, health, and other developments that may affect insurance practices. Be­ cause of their broad knowledge of insurance, company actuaries may work in investment, underwriting, or pension planning depart­ ments. Actuaries in executive positions help determine company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to other company executives, government offi­ cials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the insurance business, for example, or explain changes in premium rates or contract provi­ sions. They also may help companies develop plans to enter new lines of business, such as environmental risk, or long-term health care. The small number of actuaries who work for the Federal Govern­ ment usually deal with a particular insurance or pension program, such as Social Security or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government are usually em­ ployed by State insurance departments that regulate insurance com­ panies, oversee the operations of State retirement or pension sys­ tems, handle unemployment insurance or workers’ compensation problems, and assess the impact of proposed legislation. They might determine whether the rates charged by an insurance company are proper or whether an employee benefit plan is financially sound. Consulting actuaries provide advice for a fee to various clients in­ cluding insurance companies, corporations, hospitals, labor unions, government agencies, and attorneys. Some consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans, calculate future benefits, and deter­ mine the amount of employer contributions. They also provide ad­ vice to health care and financial services firms. Consultants may be called upon to testify in court regarding the value of potential life­ time earnings lost by a person who has been disabled or killed in an accident, the current value of future pension benefits in divorce cases, or the calculation of automobile insurance rates. Actuaries who are enrolled under the provisions of the Employee Retirement 90   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate the pension plans covered by that act and report on their financial soundness. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity; their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. They usually work at least 40 hours a week. Some actuaries, particularly consult­ ing actuaries, often travel to meet with clients. Consulting actuaries may also be expected to work more than 40 hours per week. Employment Actuaries held about 15,000 jobs in 1992. Some actuaries were selfemployed. Well over one-half of wage and salary actuaries worked in the in­ surance industry. Most worked for life insurance companies; others worked for property, casualty, and health insurance companies, and insurance agents and brokers. Most of the remaining actuaries worked for firms providing services, especially consulting actuarial services. A small number of actuaries worked for government agen­ cies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty company is a bachelor’s degree in a mathematics- or busi­ ness-related discipline, such as actuarial science, mathematics, sta­ tistics, economics, finance, or accounting. Some companies hire ap­ plicants with a liberal arts major, provided the applicant has a working knowledge of mathematics, including calculus, probability, and statistics, and has demonstrated this ability by passing at least the beginning actuarial exams required for professional designation. Courses in accounting, computer science, and insurance also are useful. Companies increasingly prefer well-rounded individuals  \U\ u i  I  Although few in number, actuaries provide essential services to insurance companies.  Professional Specialty Occupations who, in addition to a strong technical background, have some train­ ing in liberal arts and business. Good communication and interper­ sonal skills are important, particularly for prospective consulting actuaries. Although only about 55 colleges and universities offer an actuarial science program, hundreds of schools offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is essential for persons in­ terested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, two or more of the examinations offered by profes­ sional actuarial societies. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in their specialty. The Society of Actuaries gives a series of actuarial examinations for the life and health insur­ ance, pension, and finance and investment fields and the Casualty Actuarial Society gives a series of examinations for the property and casualty field. Because the first parts of the examination series of each society are jointly sponsored and cover the same material, stu­ dents need not commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken the initial examinations. These examinations test competence in subjects such as linear algebra, probability, calculus, statistics, risk theory, and actuarial mathematics. The first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries. Those who pass usually have better opportunities for employment and higher start­ ing salaries. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of exami­ nations as soon as possible; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required to pass the advanced examinations; many actuaries study for several months to prepare for an examination. Actuaries who complete approximately half of the total examinations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examinations in the casualty series are awarded “associate” membership in their society. Those who pass an entire series receive the title “fellow.” The American Society of Pension Actuaries confers several desig­ nations, both actuarial and nonactuarial, for which requirements vary. However, membership status generally requires the passage of some actuarial exams, as well as some pension experience. Pension actuaries who attest to the Federal Government as to the financial status of defined benefit plans must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enrollment must meet certain experience, education, and examination require­ ments as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs to learn various actu­ arial operations and different phases of insurance work, such as marketing, underwriting, or product development. At first, they prepare data for actuarial tables or perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, they may supervise clerks, prepare correspon­ dence and reports, and do research. Advancement to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job performance and the num­ ber of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries with a broad knowl­ edge of the insurance, pension, and employee benefits fields often advance to administrative and executive positions in underwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Actuaries with a busi­ ness background and supervisory ability may advance to manage­ ment positions in other areas, such as marketing, advertising, or planning. Job Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. College graduates who have passed at least two actuarial examinations while still in school, have a strong mathematical and statistical background and strong communication and problem-solving skills, and have gained some practical experience by completing an internship should have the best prospects. Employment growth of consulting actuaries is expected to be faster than growth in life insurance companies, traditionally the ma­ jor employer of actuaries. As companies seek to boost profitability  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  91  by streamlining operations, some actuarial departments may be cut back or eliminated completely. Insurance companies may increas­ ingly turn to consultants to provide actuarial services formerly per­ formed in-house. The need to assess the financial effects of prospective changes in the health care system and health problems such as AIDS or heart disease on insurance companies or government will result in contin­ ued overall employment growth. Also, shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of peo­ ple with established careers and family responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insur­ ance sales. As people live and work longer, they draw health and pension benefits for a longer period, and actuaries are needed to re­ estimate the probabilities of such events as death, sickness, and length of retirement. The liability of companies for damage resulting from their prod­ ucts has received much attention in recent years. Casualty actuaries will continue to be involved in the development of product liability insurance, medical malpractice and workers’ compensation cover­ age, and self-insurance, which may involve internal reserve funds es­ tablished by some large corporations. The growing need to evaluate environmental risks and calculate prices for insuring facilities which carry such risks, such as underground storage tanks, will contribute to the demand for actuaries. Despite expected employment growth, actuaries may face compe­ tition for jobs. Due to favorable publicity about the actuarial profes­ sion, the number of workers entering this small occupation has in­ creased substantially in recent years, while at the same time, demand is expected to slow due to slower growth in the insurance industry. Earnings In 1992, starting salaries for actuaries averaged about $31,800 for those with a bachelor’s degree, according to the College Placement Council. New college graduates entering the actuarial field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged slightly lower salaries. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Some com­ panies also offer cash bonuses for each exam passed. A 1992 salary survey of insurance and financial services companies, conducted by the Life Office Management Association, Inc., indicated that actua­ rial students who have been designated Associate, Society of Actua­ ries, received an average salary of about $46,000. Newly designated Fellows, Society of Actuaries, received an average salary of nearly $65,500. Fellows with additional years of experience can earn sub­ stantially more. Actuaries typically receive other benefits including vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans. Related Occupations Actuaries determine the probability of income or loss from various risk factors. Other workers whose jobs involve related skills include accountants, economists, financial analysts, mathematicians, rate analysts, rate engineers, risk managers, statisticians, and value engi­ neers. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial careers, contact: tw American Academy of Actuaries, 1720 I St. NW, 7th Floor, Washing­ ton, DC 20006.  For information about actuarial careers in life and health insur­ ance, contact: t3= Society of Actuaries, 475 N. Martingale Rd., Suite 800, Schaumburg, IL 60173-2226.  For information about actuarial careers in property and casualty insurance, contact: Casualty Actuarial Society, 1100 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22201.  92  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Career information on actuaries specializing in pensions is availa­ ble from: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 820, Arlington, VA 22203.  Computer Scientists and Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 030.062-010, .162-014, .167-014; 033.167-010, .262-010; and 109.067-010)  Nature of the Work The rapid spread of computers amd computer-based technologies over the past two decades has generated a need for skilled, highly trained workers to design and develop the hardware and software systems and to determine how to incorporate these advances into new or existing systems. Although many narrow specializations have developed and no uniform job titles exist, this professional spe­ cialty group is widely referred to as computer scientists and systems analysts. Computer scientists, including computer engineers conduct re­ search, design computers, and discover and use principles of apply­ ing computers. Computer scientists and engineers may perform many of the same duties as other computer professionals through­ out a normal workday, but their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise they apply to complex problems and in­ novative ideas for the application or creation of new technology. Computer scientists employed by academic institutions work in ar­ eas from theory to hardware to language design, or on multi-disci­ pline projects, for example, developing and advancing uses for artifi­ cial intelligence (AI). Their counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory, developing specialized languages, or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or com­ puter games. Computer engineers often work as part of a team that designs new computing devices or computer-related equipment. Far more numerous than scientists and engineers, systems ana­ lysts define business, scientific, or engineering problems and design their solutions using computers. This process may include planning and developing new computer systems or devising ways to apply ex­ isting systems to operations still completed manually or by some less efficient method. Systems analysts may design entirely new systems, including hardware and software, or add a single new software ap­ plication to harness more of the computer’s power. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system so that it can be broken down into separate programmable procedures. Analysts then use techniques such as structured analysis, data mod­ eling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sam­ pling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They may prepare a cost-benefit and return-on-investment analysis to help management decide whether the proposed system will be sat­ isfactory and financially feasible. Analysts must specify the files and records to be accessed by the system, design the processing steps, and design the format for the output that will meet the users’ needs. They must be sure that the system they design is user-friendly, so that it can be easily learned by the user and any problems encountered can be overcome quickly. Analysts also ensure security of the data by making it inaccessible to those who are not authorized to use it. When the system is accepted, systems analysts may determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set up the system or implement changes to it. They coordinate tests and ob­ serve initial use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  prepare specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to “debug,” or eliminate errors from the system. Some organizations do not employ programmers; instead, a single worker called a programmer-analyst is responsible for both systems analysis and programming. This is becoming more common with the develop­ ment of Computer Assisted Software Engineering (CASE) tools which automate much of the coding process, making programming functions easier to learn. (The work of programmers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) One of the biggest obstacles to wider computer use is the inability of different computers to communicate with each other. Many sys­ tems analysts are involved with connecting all the computers in an individual office, department, or establishment. This “networking” has many variations; it may be called local area network, wide area network, or multiuser system, for example. A primary goal of networking is to allow users of microcomputers (also known as per­ sonal computers or PC’s) to retrieve data from a mainframe com­ puter and use it on their machine. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from the PC. Because up-to-date information—accounting records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—is so important in mod­ em organizations, systems analysts may be instructed to make the computer systems in each department compatible with each other so facts and figures can be shared. Similarly, electronic mail requires open pathways to send messages, documents, and data from one computer “mailbox” to another across different equipment and pro­ gram lines. Analysts must design the gates in the hardware and software to allow free exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. They study the seemingly in­ compatible pieces and create ways to link them so that users can ac­ cess information from any part of the system. Because the possible uses of computers are so varied and complex, analysts usually specialize in either business, scientific, engineering, or microcomputer applications. Previous experience or training in a particular area usually dictates the field in which they are most qualified to develop computer systems.  ^1  SSrf-  |  '  ■ ' Va  Systems analysts design ways to link computers through networks.  Professional Specialty Occupations Working Conditions Computer scientists and systems analysts work in offices or labora­ tories in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office workers. Occasionally, however, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines. Because computer scientists and systems analysts spend long pe­ riods of time in front of a computer terminal typing on a keyboard, they are susceptible to eye strain and back discomfort and hand and wrist problems. Employment Computer scientists and systems analysts held about 666,000 jobs in 1992. Although they are found in most industries, the greatest con­ centration is in computer and data processing service firms. Many others work for government agencies, manufacturers of computer and related electronic equipment, insurance companies, and univer­ sities. A small but growing number of these workers are employed on a temporary basis. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract directly with the systems analysts themselves or with a temporary help agency or consulting firm. The company would contract for their services on a temporary basis; temporary jobs usually are for several months at least, and some last up to 2 years or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a com­ puter professional because employers’ preferences depend on the work being done. Prior work experience is very important. Many persons develop an area of expertise in their jobs which tends to make them more marketable to employers. For example, people move into systems analyst jobs after working as computer program­ mers. Another example is the auditor in an accounting department who becomes a systems analyst specializing in accounting systems development. College graduates almost always are sought for computer profes­ sional positions, and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Generally, a computer scientist working in a research lab or academic institution will hold a Ph.D. or master’s degree in computer science or engineering. Some com­ puter scientists are able to gain sufficient experience for this type of position with only a bachelor’s degree, but this is more difficult. Computer engineers generally have a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering, electrical engineering, or math. Employers usually want systems analysts to have a background in business management or a closely related field for work in a business environment, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Many employers seek applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in computer science, information science, com­ puter information systems, or data processing. Regardless of college major, employers look for people who are familiar with program­ ming languages and have a broad knowledge of computer systems and technologies. Courses in computer programming or systems de­ sign offer good preparation for a job in this field. Systems analysts must be able to think logically, have good com­ munication skills, and like working with ideas and people. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously. The ability to con­ centrate and pay close attention to detail also is important. Al­ though systems analysts often work independently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effec­ tively with technical personnel, such as programmers and manag­ ers, as well as with other staff who have no technical computer back­ ground.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  93  Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Continu­ ing education is usually offered by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, or private training insti­ tutions. Additional training may come from professional develop­ ment seminars offered by professional computing societies. The Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals offers the designation Certified Systems Professional (CSP) to those who have 4 years of experience and who pass a core examination plus ex­ ams in two specialty areas. The Quality Assurance Institute awards the designation Certified Quality Analyst (CQA) to those who meet education and experience requirements, pass an exam, and endorse a code of ethics. Neither designation is mandatory, but either may provide a jobseeker a competitive advantage. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems ana­ lysts after several years of experience. Those who show leadership ability also can advance to management positions such as manager of information systems or chief information officer. Systems ana­ lysts with several years of experience may start their own computer consulting firms. Computer engineers and scientists employed in industry can eventually move into managerial or project leader positions. Those employed in academic institutions can advance to become heads of research departments or published authorities in their field. Some start their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Computer scientists and systems analysts will be among the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005. In addition, tens of thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to re­ place workers who move into managerial positions or other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. The demand for computer scientists and engineers is expected to rise as organizations attempt to maximize the efficiency of their computer systems. As international and domestic competition in­ creases, organizations will face growing pressure to use technologi­ cal advances in areas such as office and factory automation, tele­ communications technology, and scientific research. Computer scientists and engineers will be needed to develop this new technol­ ogy. In addition, the complexity associated with designing new ap­ plications is growing. More computer scientists will be needed to de­ velop innovative and increasingly sophisticated systems. As users develop more sophisticated knowledge of computers, they become more aware of the machine’s potential and are better able to suggest operations that will increase their own productivity and that of the organization. The need to design computer networks that will facilitate the sharing of information will be a major factor in the rising demand for systems analysts. A greater emphasis on problem definition, analysis, and implementation also will guaran­ tee a higher demand for systems analysts. In addition, falling prices of computer hardware and software are inducing more small busi­ nesses to computerize their operations, further stimulating demand for these workers. Individuals with an advanced degree in computer science should enjoy very favorable employment prospects because the number of these degrees has not kept pace with the needs of employers. College graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science, computer engineering, information science, or information systems should also experience good prospects for employment. College graduates with non-computer science majors who have had courses in com­ puter programming, systems analysis, and other data processing ar­ eas as well as training or experience in an applied field should be able to find jobs as systems analysts. Those who are familiar with CASE and other programming tools will have an even greater ad­ vantage. Employers will be more willing to hire someone who can combine programming skills with traditional systems analysis skills.  94  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Earnings Median annual earnings of systems analysts who worked full time in 1992 were about $42,100. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,000 and $52,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,200 and the highest tenth, more than $65,500. Computer scien­ tists with advanced degrees generally earn more than systems ana­ lysts. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for recent college graduates with a bachelor’s degree was about $18,300 a year in 1993; for those with a superior academic record, $22,700. Related Occupations Other workers who use research, logic, and creativity to solve busi­ ness problems are computer programmers, financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, operations research analysts, management ana­ lysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from: W Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036.  Information about certification as a computer professional is available from: O' Institute for the Certification of Computer Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  Information about certification as a Certified Quality Analyst is available from:  O'Quality Assurance Institute, 7575 Dr. Phillips Blvd., Suite 350, Orlando, FL 32819.  Mathematicians (D.O.T. 020.067-014, .167-030; 199.267-014)  Nature of the Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Mathema­ ticians today are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new mathematical theories and techniques in­ volving the latest technology to the solving of economic, scientific, engineering, and business problems using mathematical knowledge and computational tools. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: Theoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathematics. However, these clas­ ses are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical science by de­ veloping new principles and new relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing or furthering many scientific and engineering achievements. Applied mathematicians use theories and techniques, such as mathematical modeling and computational methods, to formulate and solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and the physical, life, and social sciences. For example, they may an­ alyze the mathematical aspects of computer and communications networks, the effects of new drugs on disease, the aerodynamic char­ acteristics of aircraft, or the distribution costs or manufacturing processes of businesses. Applied mathematicians working in indus­ trial research and development may develop or enhance mathemati­ cal methods when confronted with difficult problems. Some mathe­ maticians, called cryptanalysts, analyze and decipher encryption systems designed to transmit national security-related information. Mathematicians use computers extensively to analyze relation­ ships among variables, solve complex problems, develop models, and process large amounts of data.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Much work in applied mathematics, however, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, because mathematics is the foundation upon which many other academic disciplines are built, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is many times greater than the number actually designated as mathe­ maticians. Engineers, computer scientists, and economists are among those who use mathematics extensively but have job titles other than mathematician. Some workers, such as statisticians, ac­ tuaries, and operations research analysts, actually are specialists in a particular branch of mathematics. (See statements on actuaries, op­ erations research analysts, and statisticians elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Working Conditions Mathematicians working for government agencies or private firms usually have structured work schedules. They may work alone, in a small group of mathematicians, or as an integral part of a team that includes engineers, computer scientists, physicists, technicians, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for information or analysis, and travel to attend seminars or conferences may be part of their jobs. Mathematics faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administrative re­ sponsibilities. Employment Mathematicians held about 16,000 jobs in 1992. In addition, about 16,000 persons held mathematics faculty positions in colleges and universities, according to the American Mathematical Society. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most nonfaculty mathematicians work in the government and in service and manufacturing industries. The Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer of mathematicians; more than threefourths of the mathematicians employed by the Federal Govern­ ment work for the Navy, Army, or Air Force. A significant number of mathematicians also work in State governments. In the private sector, major employers within services industries include research  Applied mathematicians often use their knowledge to solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and science.  Professional Specialty Occupations and testing services, educational services, and computer and data processing services. Within manufacturing, the aircraft, chemicals, and computer and office equipment industries are key employers. Some mathematicians also work for banks, insurance companies, and public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is the minimum education needed for prospective mathematicians. A master’s degree in mathe­ matics is sufficient preparation for some research positions and for teaching jobs in many junior or community colleges and in some small 4-year colleges. However, in most 4-year colleges and univer­ sities, as well as in many research and development positions in pri­ vate industry, a doctoral degree is necessary. In the Federal Government, entry-level job candidates usually must have a 4-year degree with a major in mathematics or a 4-year degree with the equivalent of a mathematics major—24 semester hours of mathematics courses. In private industry, job candidates generally need a master’s de­ gree to obtain jobs as mathematicians. The majority of bachelor’s and master’s degree holders in private industry work, not as mathe­ maticians, but in related fields such as computer science, where they are called computer programmers, systems analysts, or systems en­ gineers. A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this de­ gree are calculus, differential equations, and linear and abstract al­ gebra. Additional coursework might include probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, topology, modern algebra, discrete mathematics, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students major­ ing in mathematics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineer­ ing, operations research, a physical science, statistics, or economics. A double major in mathematics and either computer science, statis­ tics, or one of the sciences is particularly desirable. A prospective college mathematics major should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. In 1992, 255 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree as the highest degree in either pure or applied mathematics; 187 of­ fered a Ph.D. in pure or applied mathematics. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually spe­ cializing in a subfield of mathematics. Some areas of concentration are algebra, number theory, real or complex analysis, geometry, to­ pology, logic, and applied mathematics. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which ap­ plied mathematics is used extensively include physics, actuarial sci­ ence, engineering, and operations research; of increasing impor­ tance are computer and information science, business and industrial management, economics, statistics, chemistry, geology, life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. Mathematicians should have substantial knowledge of computer programming because most complex mathematical computation and much mathematical modeling is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability and persistence in order to identify, analyze, and apply basic principles to technical problems. Communication skills are also important, as mathemati­ cians must be able to interact with others, including nonmathemati­ cians, and discuss proposed solutions to problems. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number ofjobs available for workers whose educational background is solely mathematics is not expected to increase significantly. Many firms engaged in civilian research and development that use mathe­ maticians are not planning to expand their research departments  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  95  much, and, in some cases, may reduce them. Expected reductions in defense-related research and development will also affect mathema­ ticians' employment, especially in the Federal Government. Those whose educational background includes the study of a related disci­ pline will have better job opportunities. However, as advancements in technology lead to expanding applications of mathematics, more workers with a knowledge of mathematics will be required. An in­ creasing number of these workers have job titles which reflect the end product of their work rather than the discipline of mathematics used in that work, which will contribute further to the slowdown in positions for mathematicians. Bachelor’s degree holders in mathematics are usually not quali­ fied for jobs as mathematicians. However, those with a strong back­ ground in computer science, electrical or mechanical engineering, or operations research should have good opportunities in industry. Bachelor’s degree holders who meet State certification requirements may become high school mathematics teachers. (For additional in­ formation, see the statement on kindergarten, elementary, and sec­ ondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Holders of a master’s degree in mathematics will face very strong competition for jobs in college teaching or theoretical research. However, job opportunities in applied mathematics and related ar­ eas such as computer programming, operations research, and engi­ neering design in industry and government will be more numerous. Earnings According to a 1992 College Placement Council Survey, starting salary offers for mathematics graduates with a bachelor’s degree av­ eraged about $28,400 a year; for those with a master’s degree, $33,600; and for new doctoral graduates, $41,000. Starting salaries were generally higher in industry and government than in educa­ tional institutions. For example, the American Mathematical Soci­ ety reported that, based on a 1992 survey, median annual earnings for new recipients of doctorates in research were $30,200; for those in teaching or teaching and research (9-10 month academic year), $34,000; for those in government, $53,000; and for those in business and industry, $53,000. In the Federal Government in 1993, the average annual salary for mathematicians in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and managerial po­ sitions was $53,232; for mathematical statisticians, $54,109; and for cryptanalysts, $43,070. Benefits for mathematicians tend to be similar to those offered to most professionals who work in office settings: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan, among others. Related Occupations Other occupations that require a degree in or extensive knowledge of mathematics include actuary, statistician, computer program­ mer, systems analyst, systems engineer, and operations research an­ alyst. In addition, a strong background in mathematics facilitates employment in fields such as engineering, economics, finance, and physics. Sources of Additional Information For more information about the field of mathematics, including ca­ reer opportunities and professional training, contact: ^American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, RI02940. XW Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, con­ tact: tg” Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 3600 University City Science Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688.  For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institu­ tions, contact: ty National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  96  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Per­ sonnel Management’s Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country.  Operations Research Analysts (D.O.T. 020.067-018)  Nature of the Work Efficiently running a complex organization or operation such as a large manufacturing plant, an airline, or a military deployment re­ quires the precise coordination of materials, machines, and people. Operations research analysts help organizations coordinate and op­ erate in the most efficient manner by applying scientific methods and mathematical principles to organizational problems. Managers can then evaluate alternatives and choose the course of action that best meets the organizational goals. Operations research analysts, also called management science analysts, are problem solvers. The problems they tackle are for the most part those encountered in large business organizations: Strat­ egy, forecasting, resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory con­ trol, personnel schedules, and distribution systems. The methods they use generally revolve about a mathematical model or set of equations that explains how things happen within the organization. Models are simplified representations that enable the analyst to break down systems into their component parts, assign numerical values to each component, and examine the mathematical relation­ ships between them. These values can be altered to determine what will happen to the system under different sets of circumstances. Types of models include simulation, linear optimization, networks, waiting lines, and game theory. Operations research analysts use computers extensively in their work. They are typically highly proficient in database management, programming, and in the development and use of sophisticated software programs. Most of the models built by operations research analysts are so complicated that only a computer can solve them ef­ ficiently. The type of problem they usually handle varies by industry. For example, an analyst for an airline would coordinate flight and main­ tenance scheduling, passenger level estimates, and fuel consumption to produce a schedule that optimizes all of these factors to ensure safety and produce the most profits. An analyst employed by a hos­ pital would concentrate on a different set of problems—scheduling admissions, managing patient flow, assigning shifts, monitoring use of pharmacy and laboratory services, or forecasting demand for new hospital services. The role of the operations research analyst varies according to the structure and management philosophy of the firm. Some centralize operations research in one department; others disperse operations research personnel throughout all divisions. Some operations re­ search analysts specialize in one type of application; others are gen­ eralists. The degree of supervision varies by organizational structure and experience. In some organizations, analysts have a great deal of pro­ fessional autonomy; in others, analysts are more closely supervised. Operations research analysts work closely with senior managers, who have a wide variety of support needs. Analysts must adapt their work to reflect these requirements. Regardless of the industry or structure of the organization, opera­ tions research entails a similar set of procedures. Managers begin the process by describing the symptoms of a problem to the analyst. The analyst then defines the problem, which sometimes is general in nature and at other times specific. For example, an operations re­ search analyst for an auto manufacturer may be asked to determine  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the best inventory level for each of the materials for a new produc­ tion line or, more specifically, to determine how many windshields should be kept in inventory. After analysts define the problem, they learn everything they can about it. They study the problem, then break it into its component parts. Then they gather information about each of these parts. Usu­ ally this involves consulting a wide variety of people. To determine the most efficient amount of steel to be kept on hand, for example, operations research analysts might talk with engineers about pro­ duction levels; discuss purchasing arrangements with industrial buyers; and examine data on storage costs provided by the account­ ing department. With this information in hand, the operations research analyst is ready to select the most appropriate analytical technique. There may be several techniques that could be used, or there may be one standard model or technique that is used in all instances. In a few cases, the analyst must construct an original model to examine and explain the system. In almost all cases, the selected model must be modified to reflect the specific circumstances of the situation. A model for airline flight scheduling, for example, might include variables for the amount of fuel required to fly the routes, several projected levels of passenger demand, varying ticket prices, pilot scheduling, and maintenance costs. The analyst chooses the values for these variables, enters them into a computer, which has already been programmed to make the calculations required, and runs the program to produce the best flight schedule consistent with several sets of assumptions. The analyst would probably design a model that would take into account wide variations in the different vari­ ables. At this point, the operations research analyst presents the final work to management along with recommendations based on the re­ sults of the analysis. Additional runs based on different assumptions may be needed to help in making the final decision. Once a decision has been reached, the analyst works with others in the organization to ensure its successful implementation.  4  The field of operations research is growing rapidly due to the success of applying statistical techniques to business problems.  Professional Specialty Occupations Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an of­ fice environment. Because they work on projects that are of immedi­ ate interest to management, analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and may work more than a 40-hour week. Employment Operations research analysts held about 45,000 jobs in 1992. They are employed in most industries. Major employers include com­ puter and data processing services, commercial banks and savings institutions, insurance agencies, engineering and management ser­ vices firms, manufacturers of transportation equipment, airlines, and the Federal Government. Some analysts work for management consulting agencies that conduct operations research for firms that do not have an in-house operations research staff. Most analysts in the Federal Government work for the Armed Forces. In addition, many operations research analysts who work in private industry do work directly or indirectly related to national defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers strongly prefer applicants with at least a master’s degree in operations research or management science, or other quantitative disciplines. A high level of computer skills is also required. Employers often sponsor skill-improvement training for exper­ ienced workers, helping them keep up with new developments in op­ erations research techniques as well as advances in computer sci­ ence. Some analysts attend advanced university classes on these subjects. Operations research analysts must be able to think logically and work well with people, so employers prefer workers with good oral and written communication skills. The computer is the most impor­ tant tool for quantitative analysis, and training or experience in pro­ gramming is a must. Beginning analysts usually do routine work under the supervision of experienced analysts. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more complex tasks, with greater autonomy to de­ sign models and solve problems. Operations research analysts ad­ vance by assuming positions as technical specialists or supervisors. The skills acquired by operations research analysts are useful for higher level jobs, and experienced analysts with leadership potential often leave the field altogether to assume nontechnical managerial or administrative positions. Job Outlook Organizations are increasingly using operations research and man­ agement science techniques to improve productivity and quality and to reduce costs. This reflects growing acceptance of a systematic ap­ proach to decisionmaking as well as more affordable computers, which give even small firms access to operations research applica­ tions. The interplay of these two trends should greatly stimulate de­ mand for these workers in the years ahead. Those seeking employment as operations research or manage­ ment science analysts who hold a master’s or Ph.D. degree should find good opportunities through the year 2005. The number of openings generated each year as a result of employment growth and the need to replace those leaving the occupation, is expected to ex­ ceed the number of persons graduating with master’s and Ph.D. de­ grees from management science or operations research programs. Graduates with only a bachelors degrees in operations research or management science should find good opportunities as research as­ sistants or analyst assistants in a variety of related fields; only the most highly qualified are likely to find employment as operations re­ search or management science analysts. Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the increasing importance of quantitative analysis in  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  97  decisionmaking and the increasing availability of computing re­ sources. Much of the job growth is expected to occur in the trans­ portation, manufacturing, finance, and services sectors. Firms in these sectors recognize that quantitative analysis can achieve dra­ matic improvements in operating efficiency and profitability. More airlines, for example, are using operations research to determine the best flight and maintenance schedules, select the best routes to ser­ vice, analyze customer characteristics, and control fuel consump­ tion, among other things. Motel chains are beginning to use opera­ tions research to improve their efficiency by, for example, analyzing automobile traffic patterns and customer attitudes to determine lo­ cation, size, and style of new motels. Like other management sup­ port functions, operations research grows by its own success. When one firm in an industry increases productivity by adopting a new procedure, its competitors usually follow. This competitive pressure will contribute to demand for operations research analysts. Demand also should be strong in the manufacturing sector as firms expand existing operations research staffs in the face of grow­ ing domestic and foreign competition. More manufacturers are us­ ing mathematical models to study the operations of the organization for the first time. For example, analysts will be needed to determine the best way to control product inventory, distribute finished prod­ ucts, and to decide where sales offices should be based. In addition, increasing factory automation will require more operations research analysts to alter existing models or develop new ones for production layout, robotics installation, work schedules, and inventory control. The Department of Defense and defense contractors employ many operations research analysts. For example, operations re­ searchers helped plan the 1990 military deployment to Saudi Ara­ bia. Not only did they determine the best air and water transport schedules to move the maximum number of personnel and amount of equipment in the shortest time, making optimal use of people, ships, aircraft, and fuel, but they were also central to the planning and command decisions made during combat. Because defense ex­ penditures will be cut in the future, there will be fewer jobs available in the military and defense-related industries for these workers. However, high demand outside the military should more than offset reductions in defense-related demand. Earnings According to recruiters and national operations research associa­ tions, operations research analysts with a master’s degree generally earned starting salaries of about $30,000 to $35,000 a year in 1992. Experienced operations research analysts earned about $50,000 a year in 1992, with top salaries exceeding $90,000. The average annual salary for operations research analysts in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage­ rial positions was $57,419 in 1993. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply mathematical principles to orga­ nizational problems. Workers in other occupations that stress quan­ titative analysis include computer scientists, applied mathemati­ cians, statisticians, and economists. Operations research is closely allied to managerial occupations in that its goal is improved organi­ zational efficiency. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for operations research ana­ lysts is available from: (3° The Operations Research Society of America, 1314 Guilford Ave., Balti­ more, MD 21202. The Institute of Management Sciences, 290 Westminster St., Providence, RI 02903.  For information on careers in the Armed Forces and Department of Defense, contact: t3= Military Operations Research Society, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 202, Alexandria, VA 22304.  98  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-022, .167-026)  Nature of the Work Statistics is the collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data. Statisticians design, implement, compile, and interpret the nu­ merical results of surveys and experiments. In doing so, they often apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a particular subject area, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, or psychol­ ogy. They may use statistical techniques to predict population growth or economic conditions, develop quality control tests for manufactured products, assess the nature of environmental problems, analyze legal and social problems, or help business man­ agers and government officials make decisions and evaluate the re­ sults of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, of the group. For example, to determine the size of the total audience for particular programs, television rating services ask only a few thou­ sand families, rather than all viewers, which programs they watch. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey question­ naire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Statisticians use computers extensively to process large amounts of data for statistical modeling and graphic analysis. Because statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is diffi­ cult to distinguish statisticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on eco­ nomic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians may travel occasionally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statistical data. Some may have fairly repetitive tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks, such as in designing experiments. Employment Statisticians held about 16,000 jobs in 1992. About one-fourth of these jobs were in the Federal Government, where statisticians were concentrated in the Departments of Commerce (especially the Bu­ reau of the Census); Agriculture; and Health and Human Services.  A statistician compiles and analyzes large amounts of data with the aid of a personal computer.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most of the remaining jobs were in private industry, especially in the insurance, transportation equipment, research and testing services, management and public relations, and computer and data process­ ing services industries. Others worked in colleges and universities, and business and professional organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs in sta­ tistics. The training required for employment as an entry level statis­ tician in the Federal Government is a college degree including at least 15 semester hours of statistics—or a combination of 15 hours of mathematics and statistics if at least 6 semester hours are in statis­ tics. An additional 9 semester hours in another academic discipline, such as economics, physical or biological science, medicine, educa­ tion, engineering, or social science, are also required. To qualify as a mathematical statistician in the Federal Government requires 24 se­ mester hours of mathematics and statistics with a minimum of 6 se­ mester hours in statistics and 12 semester hours in mathematics at the calculus level or higher. Teaching and research positions in insti­ tutions of higher education and many positions in private industry require a graduate degree, often a doctorate, in statistics. Over 80 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees in sta­ tistics in 1992. Many other schools also offered degrees in mathe­ matics, operations research, and other fields which included a suffi­ cient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for some beginning positions, particularly in the Federal Government. Re­ quired subjects for statistics majors include mathematics through differential and integral calculus, statistical methods, mathematical modeling, and probability theory. Additional courses that under­ graduates should take include linear algebra, design and analysis of experiments, applied multivariate analysis, and mathematical statis­ tics. Because computers are used extensively for statistical applica­ tions, a strong background in computer science is highly recom­ mended. For positions involving quality and productivity improvement, training in engineering or physical science is useful. A background in biological or health science is important for positions involving the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical or agricul­ tural products. For many jobs in market research, business analysis, and forecasting, courses in economics and business administration are helpful. In 1992, approximately 110 universities offered a master’s degree program in statistics, and about 70 had statistics departments which offered a doctoral degree program. Many other schools also offered graduate level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in biology, business, economics, education, engineering, psychology, and other fields. Acceptance into graduate statistics programs does not require an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Good communications skills are important for prospective statis­ ticians, not only for those who plan to teach, but also to qualify for many positions in industry, where the need to explain statistical processes to nonstatisticians is common. A solid understanding of business and management is also important for those who plan to work in private industry. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time doing routine work supervised by an ex­ perienced statistician. With experience, they may advance to posi­ tions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, opportunities for promotion are best for those with advanced de­ grees. Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders enjoy greater indepen­ dence in their work and are qualified to engage in research, to de­ velop statistical methodology, or, after several years of experience in a particular area of technological application, to become statistical consultants.  Professional Specialty Occupations Job Outlook Although employment of statisticians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, job opportunities should remain favorable. Many statistics majors, particularly at the bachelor’s degree level, but also at the master’s degree level, may find positions in which they do not have the title of statistician. This is especially true for those involved in analyzing and interpreting data from other disciplines such as economics, bio­ logical science, psychology, or engineering. Among graduates with a bachelor’s degree in statistics, those with a strong background in mathematics, engineering, or physical or computer science should have the best prospects of finding jobs related to their field of study in private industry or government. Federal Government agencies will need statisticians in fields such as agriculture, demography, consumer and producer surveys, trans­ portation, Social Security, health, education, energy conservation, and environmental quality control. However, competition for entry level positions in the Federal Government is expected to be strong for those just meeting the minimum qualification standards for stat­ isticians. Those who meet State certification requirements may be­ come high school statistics teachers, a newly emerging field. (For additional information, see the statement on kindergarten, elemen­ tary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Private industry, in the face of increasing competition and strong government regulation, will continue to require statisticians, espe­ cially at the master’s and Ph.D. degree levels, to not only monitor but improve productivity and quality in the manufacture of various products including pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, chemicals, and food products. For example, pharmaceutical firms will need more statisticians to assess the safety and effectiveness of the rapidly ex­ panding number of drugs. To meet growing competition, motor ve­ hicle manufacturers will need statisticians to monitor the quality of automobiles, trucks, and their components. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs in research and development, working with scientists and engineers to help improve design and production processes in order to ensure consistent quality of newly developed products. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on workers with a background in   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  99  statistics to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, and help solve management problems. In addition, sophisticated statistical services will increasingly be contracted out to consulting firms. Earnings The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Govern­ ment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $51,893 in 1993; mathematical statisticians averaged $54,109. According to a 1992 American Statistical Association salary sur­ vey of statisticians in departments with statistics programs, the me­ dian starting salary for assistant professors was $40,000; for associ­ ate professors, $43,500; and for professors, $54,500. Statisticians who hold advanced degrees and work in private in­ dustry generally earn higher starting salaries than their counter­ parts in academic settings and in government. Benefits for statisticians tend to resemble those offered most pro­ fessionals who work in an office setting: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan, among others. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with statistics. Among them are actuaries, mathematicians, operations research analysts, com­ puter programmers, computer systems analysts, engineers, econo­ mists, financial analysts, information scientists, life scientists, math­ ematicians, operations research analysts, physical scientists, and social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: fg’ American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, con­ tact:  Idf Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hay­ ward, CA 94545.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Per­ sonnel Management or from Federal Job Information Centers lo­ cated in various large cities throughout the country.  Life Scientists Agricultural Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058; 041.061-014, -018, -046, and -082; and 041.081)  Nature of the Work The work agricultural scientists do has played an important part in the Nation’s sharply rising agricultural productivity. Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals and develop ways of im­ proving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to improve crop yield and quality with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. They research methods of converting raw agricultural commodities into attractive and healthy food products for consumers. Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology, chemistry, and other sciences to solve problems in agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and in apply­ ing to agriculture the advances in knowledge brought about by bio­ technology. Many agricultural scientists manage or administer research and development programs or manage marketing or production opera­ tions in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Many work in basic or applied research and development. Some agricultural scientists are consul­ tants to business firms, private clients, or to government. Depending on the agricultural scientist’s area of specialization, the nature of the work performed varies. Food science. Food scientists or technologists are usually employed in the food processing industry, universities, or the Federal Govern­ ment, and help meet consumer demand for food products that are healthful, safe, palatable, and convenient. To do this, they use their knowledge of chemistry, microbiology, and other sciences to de­ velop new or better ways of preserving, processing, packaging, stor­ ing, and delivering foods. Some engage in basic research, discover­ ing new food sources; analyzing food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, or protein; or searching for substitutes for harmful or undesirable additives, such as nitrites. Many food tech­ nologists work in product development. Others enforce government regulations, inspecting food processing areas and ensuring that sani­ tation, safety, quality, and waste management standards are met.  how to avoid or correct problems such as erosion. They may also consult with engineers and other technical personnel working on construction projects about the effects of, and solutions to, soil problems. Since soil science is closely related to environmental sci­ ence, persons trained in soil science also apply their knowledge to ensure environmental quality and effective land use. Animal science. Animal scientists develop better, more efficient ways of producing and processing meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Dairy scientists, poultry scientists, animal breeders, and other re­ lated scientists study the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Some animal scientists inspect and grade livestock food products, purchase livestock, or work in technical sales or marketing. As extension agents or consul­ tants, animal scientists advise agricultural producers on how to up­ grade animal housing facilities properly, lower mortality rates, or increase production of animal products, such as milk or eggs. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists involved in management or basic research tend to work regular hours in offices and laboratories. The working environment for those engaged in applied research or product devel­ opment varies, depending on the discipline of agricultural science and the type of employer. For example, food scientists in private in­ dustry may work in test kitchens while investigating new processing techniques. Animal scientists working for Federal or State research stations may spend part of their time at dairies, farrowing houses, feedlots, farm animal facilities, or outdoors conducting research as­ sociated with livestock. Soil and crop scientists also spend time out­ doors conducting research on farms or agricultural research sta­ tions. Employment Agricultural scientists held about 29,000 jobs in 1992. In addition, several thousand persons held agricultural science faculty positions  Plant science. Another important area of agricultural science is plant science, which includes the disciplines of agronomy, crop sci­ ence, entomology, and plant breeding, among others. These scien­ tists study plants and their growth in soils, helping producers of food, feed, and fiber crops to continue to feed a growing population while conserving natural resources and maintaining the environ­ ment. Agronomists and crop scientists not only help increase pro­ ductivity, but also study ways to improve the nutritional value of crops and the quality of seed. Some crop scientists study the breed­ ing, physiology, and management of crops and use genetic engineer­ ing to develop crops resistant to pests and drought. Soil science. Soil scientists study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. They study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Many soil scientists who work for the Federal Government conduct soil surveys, classifying and mapping soils. They provide information and recommendations to farmers and other landowners regarding the best use of land and 100  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Agricultural scientists who specialize in agronomy work to improve crop yield and quality.  Professional Specialty Occupations in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and uni­ versity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About two-fifths of all nonfaculty agricultural scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. Nearly 3 out of 10 worked for the Federal Government in 1992, mostly in the Department of Agri­ culture. In addition, large numbers worked for State governments at State agricultural colleges or agricultural research stations. Some worked for agricultural service companies; others worked for com­ mercial research and development laboratories, seed companies, pharmaceutical companies, wholesale distributors, and food prod­ ucts companies. About 5,000 agricultural scientists were self-em­ ployed in 1992, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on spe­ cialty and the type of work they perform. A bachelor’s degree in ag­ ricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or in assisting in basic research, but a master’s or doctoral degree is re­ quired for basic research. A Ph.D. degree in agricultural science is usually needed for college teaching and for advancement to admin­ istrative research positions. Degrees in related sciences such as biol­ ogy, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may qualify persons for some agricultural science jobs. All States have at least one land-grant college which offers agri­ cultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural science degrees or some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. A typical undergraduate agricultural science curriculum includes communi­ cations, economics, business, and physical and life sciences courses, in addition to a wide variety of technical agricultural science courses. For prospective animal scientists, these technical agricul­ tural science courses might include animal breeding, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and meats and muscle biology; students pre­ paring as food scientists take courses such as food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, and food processing operations; and those preparing as crop or soil scientists take courses in plant pa­ thology, soil chemistry, entomology, plant physiology, and bio­ chemistry, among others. Advanced degree programs include class­ room and Fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Most agricultural scientists also need an understanding of basic business principles. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agri­ culture-related activities. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Addi­ tionally, the need to replace agricultural scientists who retire or oth­ erwise leave the occupation permanently will account for even more job openings than projected growth. Although enrollments in agri­ cultural science programs have begun to increase again after declin­ ing for several years during the 1980’s, opportunities should still be available in most major subfields of agricultural science. Animal and plant scientists with a background in molecular biology, microbiology, genetics, or biotechnology, soil scientists with an in­ terest in the environment, and food technologists may find the best opportunities. Generally speaking, those with advanced degrees will be in the best position to enter jobs as agricultural scientists. However, com­ petition for teaching positions in colleges or universities and for  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  101  some basic research jobs may be keen, even for doctoral holders. Federal and State budget cuts may limit funding for these positions through the year 2005. It is possible for bachelor’s degree holders to work in some ap­ plied research and product development positions, but usually only in certain subfields, such as food science and technology. Also, the Federal Government hires bachelor’s degree holders to work as soil scientists in the Soil Conservation Service. Despite the more limited opportunities for those with only a bachelor’s degree to obtain jobs as agricultural scientists, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farmers such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment manu­ facturers; retailers or wholesalers; and farm credit institutions. Four-year degrees may also help persons enter occupations such as farmer or farm manager, cooperative extension service agent, agri­ cultural products inspector, technician, landscape architect, or purchasing or sales agent for agricultural commodities or farm sup­ plies.  Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary of­ fers in 1992 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in animal science averaged $20,189 a year, and for graduates in plant science, $22,150. Average Federal salaries for employees in nonsupervisory, super­ visory, and managerial positions in certain agricultural science spe­ cialties in 1993 were as follows: Animal science, $55,631; agronomy, $45,911; soil science, $43,033; horticulture, $44,492; entomology, $53,889.  Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of biolo­ gists and other natural scientists such as chemists and physicists. It is also related to agricultural production occupations such as farmer and farm manager and cooperative extension service agent as well as to the work of foresters and conservation scientists. Certain special­ ties of agricultural science are also related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is related to that of veterinari­ ans; horticulturists, to landscape architects; and soil scientists, to soil conservationists.  Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: Office of Higher Education Programs, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Room 350A, Administration Bldg., 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20250. XW American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711. Food and Agricultural Careers for Tomorrow, Purdue University, 1140 Agricultural Administration Bldg., West Lafayette, IN 47907-1140.  For information on careers in food technology, write to: Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 300, 221 N. LaSalle St., Chicago IL 60601.  For information on careers in animal science, write to: @*The American Society of Animal Science, 309 West Clark St., Cham­ paign, IL 61820.  For information on careers in soil science in the Federal Govern­ ment, write to: ®=Soil Conservation Service, 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Wash­ ington, DC 20013.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment security agencies or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan ar­ eas.  102  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Biological and Medical Scientists (DOT. 022.081-010; 041.061, except -014, -018, -046, and -082; 041.067-010; 041.261-010)  Nature of the Work Biological and medical scientists study living organisms and their relationship to their environment. Most specialize in some area of biology such as zoology (the study of animals) or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms). Many biological scientists and virtually all medical scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase knowledge of living organisms. Others, in applied research, use knowledge provided by basic research to develop new medicines, increase crop yields, and improve the environment. Bio­ logical and medical scientists who conduct research usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers, thermal cy­ clers, or a wide variety of other equipment. Some may conduct ex­ periments on laboratory animals or greenhouse plants. For some kinds of biological scientists, a good deal of research is performed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in tropical rain forests to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Some biological and medical scientists work in management or administration. They may plan and administer programs for testing foods and drugs, for example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some biological scientists work as consultants to business firms or to government, while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products or write for technical publications. Some work in sales and service jobs for companies manufacturing chemicals or other technical products. (See the statement on manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) In recent years, advances in basic biological knowledge, especially at the genetic level, have spurred the field of biotechnology. Biologi­ cal and medical scientists using this technology manipulate the ge­ netic material of animals or plants, attempting to make organisms more productive or disease resistant. The first application of this technology has been in the medical and pharmaceutical areas. Many substances not previously available in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Advances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, in­ cluding commercial applications in agriculture and the food and chemical industries. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cellu­ lar level have blurred some traditional classifications. Aquatic biologists study plants and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Marine biologists are sometimes called oceanographers, but oceanography usually refers to the study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the state­ ment on geologists and geophysicists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They try to understand the complex chemical combinations and re­ actions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by biochemists and mo­ lecular biologists because this technology involves understanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all as­ pects of plant life; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, or the causes and cures of plant diseases.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of mi­ croscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Medical mi­ crobiologists study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiolo­ gists may specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or indus­ trial microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiolo­ gists are using biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell repro­ duction and human disease. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Zoologists study animals—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natu­ ral surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpe­ tologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationship among organisms and between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as biological scientists, are included in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. Biological scientists who do biomedical research are usually called medical scientists. Medical scientists working on basic re­ search into normal biological systems often do so in order to under­ stand the causes of and to discover treatment for disease and other health problems. Medical scientists may try to identify the kinds of changes in a cell, chromosome, or even gene that signal the develop­ ment of medical problems, such as different types of cancer. After identifying structures of or changes in organisms that provide clues to health problems, medical scientists may then work on the treat­ ment of problems. For example, a medical scientist involved in can­ cer research might try to formulate a combination of drugs which will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical scientists who have a medical degree might then administer the drugs to patients in clinical trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the results. (Medical scientists who do not have a medical degree normally col­ laborate with a medical doctor who deals directly with patients.) The medical scientist might then return to the laboratory to ex­ amine the results and, if necessary, adjust the dosage levels to reduce negative side effects or to try to induce even better results. In addi­ tion to using basic research to develop treatments for health problems, medical scientists attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems from developing, such as affirming the link be­ tween smoking and increased risk of lung cancer, or alcoholism and liver disease. Working Conditions Biological and medical scientists generally work regular hours in of­ fices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un­ healthy conditions. Some work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory, so strict safety procedures must be fol­ lowed to avoid contamination. Medical scientists also spend time working in clinics and hospitals administering drugs and treatments to patients in clinical trials. Many biological scientists such as bota­ nists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips which involve strenu­ ous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Employment Biological and medical scientists held about 117,000 jobs in 1992. In addition, many biological and medical scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)  Professional Specialty Occupations  'v',.  ________ Research biological scientists use a variety of sophisticated laboratory equipment, such as scanning electron microscopes. Almost 4 in 10 nonfaculty biological scientists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists worked mainly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, the Interior, and Defense, and in the National Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in the pharmaceutical industry, hospitals, or research and testing laboratories. About one-fifth of medical scientists worked in research and testing laboratories, with most of the re­ mainder found in hospitals and the pharmaceutical industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For biological scientists, the Ph.D. degree generally is required for college teaching, independent research, and for advancement to ad­ ministrative positions. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and for jobs in management, inspection, sales, and service. The bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. Some graduates with a bachelor’s degree start as biological scientists in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to biological science such as technical sales or service representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor’s degree are able to work in a labo­ ratory environment on their own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research assistants. Others become biological techni­ cians, medical laboratory technologists or, with courses in educa­ tion, high school biology teachers. (See the statements on clinical laboratory technologists and technicians; science technicians; and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Some enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to biology. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in biologi­ cal science and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for ad­ vanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany but not all universities offer all curriculums. Advanced de­ gree programs include classroom and field work, laboratory re­ search, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With expe­ rience, they may become managers or administrators within biol­ ogy; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administra­ tive, and sales jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  103  Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those doing field research in remote ar­ eas must have physical stamina. The Ph.D. degree in a biological science is the minimum educa­ tion required for prospective medical scientists because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely research oriented. A Ph.D. de­ gree qualifies one to do research on basic life processes or on partic­ ular medical problems or diseases, and to analyze and interpret the results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists who adminis­ ter drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who otherwise inter­ act medically with patients (such as drawing blood, excising tissue, or performing other invasive procedures) must have a medical de­ gree. It is particularly helpful for medical scientists to earn both Ph.D. and medical degrees. In addition to the formal education, medical scientists are usually expected to spend several years in a post-doctoral position before they are offered permanent jobs. Post-doctoral work provides valua­ ble laboratory experience, including experience in specific processes and techniques (such as gene splicing) which are transferable to other research projects later on. In some institutions, the post-doc­ toral position can lead to a permanent position. Job Outlook Employment of biological and medical scientists is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Biological and medical scientists will continue to conduct ge­ netic and biotechnological research and help develop and produce products developed by new biological methods. In addition, efforts to clean up and preserve the environment will continue to add to growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry and government actions and to correct past environmental problems. Expected expansion in re­ search related to health issues, such as AIDS, cancer, and the Human Genome project, should also result in growth. However, much research and development, including many areas of medical research, is funded by the Federal Government. Anticipated budget tightening should lead to slower employment growth of biological and medical scientists in the public sector and in some private indus­ try research laboratories as the number and amount of government grants increases more slowly than in the past. Many persons with a bachelor’s degree in biological science find jobs as science or engineering technicians or health technologists and technicians. Some become high school biology teachers, where they are usually regarded as teachers rather than biologists. Those with a doctorate in biological science may become college and uni­ versity faculty. (See statements on science and engineering techni­ cians, health technologists and technicians, high school teachers, and college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological and medical scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than those in many other occupations since most are employed on long-term research projects or in agricultural re­ search. However, a recession could influence the amount of money allocated to new research and development efforts, particularly in areas of risky or innovative research. A recession could also limit the possibility of extension or renewal of existing projects. Earnings Median annual earnings for biological and life scientists were about $34,500 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $26,000 and $46,800. Ten percent earned less than $20,400, and 10 percent earned over $56,900. For medical scientists, median annual earnings were about $32,400; the middle 50 percent earned between $25,800 and $52,200. Ten percent earned less than $20,000, and 10 percent earned over $77,600. According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1992 averaged $21,850 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science.  104  Occupational Outlook Handbook  In the Federal Government in 1993, general biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average salary of $45,155; microbiologists averaged $49,440; ecolo­ gists, $44,657; physiologists, $55,326; and geneticists, $55,709. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of biological and medical scientists. These include the conservation occupations of forester, range man­ ager, and soil conservationist; animal breeders, horticulturists, soil scientists, and most other agricultural scientists; and life science technicians. Many health occupations are also related to those in the biological sciences, such as medical doctors, dentists, and veterinari­ ans. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in physiology, contact: W American Physiological Society, Membership Services Dept., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814.  For information on careers in biochemistry, contact: W American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 9650 Rock­ ville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814.  For information on careers in botany, contact: ry Business Office, Botanical Society of America, 1725 Neil Ave., Colum­ bus, OH 43210-1293.  For information on careers in microbiology, contact: W American Society for Microbiology, Office of Education and Training— Career Information, 1325 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas.  Foresters and Conservation Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-030, -046, -050, -054, and -062; .167-010; 049.127)  Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands serve a variety of needs: They supply wood products, livestock forage, minerals, and water; serve as sites for recreational activities; and provide habitats for wildlife. Foresters and conservation scientists manage, develop, use, and help protect these and other natural resources. Foresters manage timberland, which involves a variety of duties. Those working in private industry may procure timber from private landowners. To do this, foresters contact local forest owners and gain permission to take inventory of the type, amount, and location of all standing timber on the property, a process known as timber cruising. Foresters then appraise the timber’s worth, negotiate the purchase of timber, and draw up a contract for procurement. Next, they subcontract with loggers or pulpwood cutters for tree removal, aid in road layout, and maintain close contact with the subcontrac­ tor’s workers and the landowner to ensure that the work is per­ formed to the landowner’s, as well as federal, state, and local envi­ ronmental specifications. Forestry consultants often act as agents for the forest owner, performing the above duties and negotiating timber sales with industrial procurement foresters. Throughout the process, foresters consider the economics of the purchase as well as the environmental impact on natural resources, a function which has taken on added importance in recent years. To do this, they determine how best to preserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability and how best to comply with environmental regulations. Foresters must balance the desire to conserve forested ecosystems for future generations with the need to use forest resources for recreational or economic purposes. Foresters also supervise the planting and growing of new trees, a process called regeneration. They choose and prepare the site, using controlled burning, bulldozers, or herbicides to clear weeds, brush, and logging debris. They advise on the type, number, and placement  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of trees to be planted. Foresters then monitor the trees to ensure healthy growth and to determine the best time for harvesting. If they detect signs of disease or harmful insects, they decide on the best course of treatment to prevent contamination or infestation of healthy trees. Foresters who work for State and Federal governments manage public parks and forests and also work with private landowners to protect and manage forest land outside of the public domain. They may also design campgrounds and recreation areas. Foresters use a number of tools to perform their jobs: Clinometers measure the heights, diameter tapes measure the diameter, and in­ crement borers and bark gauges measure the growth of trees so that timber volumes can be computed and future growth estimated. Photogrammetry and remote sensing (aerial photographs taken from airplanes and satellites) are often used for mapping large forest areas and for detecting widespread trends of forest and land use. Com­ puters are used extensively, both in the office and in the field, for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of information required to manage the forest land and its resources. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecolo­ gists, or range scientists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damaging the environment. Rangelands cover about 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the west­ ern States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources, in­ cluding grass and shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valuable mineral and energy resources. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the number and kind of ani­ mals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, they maintain soil stability and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recre­ ation. Soil conservationists provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, and others concerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They develop programs designed to get the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil con­ servationists do most of their work in the field. Conservationists visit areas with erosion problems, find the source of the problem, and help landowners and managers develop management practices to combat it. Foresters and conservation scientists often specialize in one area such as forest resource management, urban forestry, wood technol­ ogy, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions for foresters and conservation scientists vary considerably. Although some of the work is solitary, they also deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry technicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, government officials, special interest groups, and the public in general. Some work regular hours in offices or labs.  A forester consults a map to locate a client’s property.  Professional Specialty Occupations The work can still be physically demanding, though. Many forest­ ers and conservation scientists often work outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in isolated areas. Some foresters may need to walk long distances through densely wooded land to carry out their work. Foresters and conservation scientists also may work long hours fighting fires or in other emergencies. Employment Foresters and conservation scientists held about 35,000jobs in 1992. About one-third of the salaried workers were in the Federal Gov­ ernment, primarily in the Department of Agriculture’s Forest Ser­ vice and Soil Conservation Service and in the Department of the In­ terior’s Bureau of Land Management. The Forest Service alone employed over 5,000 foresters and over 400 range conservationists in 1992. Another 25 percent worked for State governments, and 8 percent worked for local governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly in the forestry industry. Other significant employers included logging and lumber companies and sawmills. Some were self-employed as consultants for private landowners, State and Federal governments, and forestry-related businesses. Most soil conservationists work for the Department of Agricul­ ture’s Soil Conservation Service. Others are employed by State and local governments in their soil conservation districts. Although foresters and conservation scientists work in every State, employment is concentrated in the western and southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks are, and where most of the lumber and pulpwood-producing forests are. Range managers work almost entirely in the western States, where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum educational require­ ment for professional careers in forestry. In the Federal Govern­ ment, a combination of experience and appropriate education can occasionally substitute for a 4-year forestry degree, but job competi­ tion makes this difficult. Thirteen States have mandatory licensing or registration require­ ments which a forester must meet in order to acquire the title “pro­ fessional forester.”Becoming licensed or registered usually requires a 4-year degree in forestry, a minimum period of training time, and passing an exam. Foresters who wish to perform specialized research or teach should have an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. In 1993, about 55 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry; 45 of these were accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress science, mathematics, communications skills, and computer science, as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business adminis­ tration supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Prospective foresters should also have a strong grasp on policy is­ sues and on the increasingly numerous and complex environmental regulations which affect many forestry-related activities. Many col­ leges require students to complete a field session in a camp operated by the college. All schools encourage students to take summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conservation work. A bachelor’s degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum educational requirement for range managers; grad­ uate degrees generally are required for teaching and research posi­ tions. In 1992, 31 colleges and universities offered degrees in range management or range science or in a closely related discipline with a range management or range science option. A number of other schools offered some courses in range management or range science. Specialized range management courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, forestry, hydrology, agron­ omy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conserva­ tion. Most soil conservationists have degrees in agronomy, general agriculture, or crop or soil science; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  105  Programs of study generally include 30 semester hours in natural re­ sources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soil science. In addition to meeting the demands of forestry and conservation research and analysis, foresters and conservation scientists generally must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to move to where the jobs are. They must also work well with people and have good communications skills. Recent forestry and range management graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced foresters or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible po­ sitions. In the Federal Government, most entry level foresters work in forest resource management. An experienced Federal forester may supervise a ranger district, and may advance to regional forest supervisor or to a top administrative position. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administrative aspects of the business and acquiring comprehensive technical training. They are then introduced to contract writing, timber harvesting, and deci­ sion making. Some foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Foresters in management usually leave the fieldwork behind, spending more of their time in an office, working with teams to develop management plans and supervising others. After gaining several years of experience, many foresters be­ come consulting foresters, working alone or with one or several partners. They advise State or local governments, private landown­ ers, private industry, or other forestry consulting groups. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and with experience may advance to the area, State, regional, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations such as farm or ranch management advisor or land appraiser. Job Outlook Employment of foresters and conservation scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, partly due to budgetary constraints in the Federal Government, where employment is concentrated. However, an expected wave of retirements in the Federal Government should create additional job openings for both foresters and range conservationists. Job opportunities for foresters outside of the Federal Government are expected to be better. Demand will continue to increase at the State and local government level in re­ sponse to the emphasis on environmental protection and responsible land management. For example, urban foresters are increasingly needed to do environmental impact studies in urban areas, and to help regional planning commissions make land use decisions, particularly in the Northeast and in other major population centers of the country. At the State level, more numerous and complex environmental regulations have created demand for more foresters to deal with these issues. Also, the nationwide Stewardship Incentive Program, funded by the Federal Government, provides money to the States to encourage landowners to practice multiple-use forest management. Foresters will be needed to as­ sist landowners in making decisions about how to manage their forested property. In private industry, more foresters should be needed to im­ prove forest and logging practices and increase output and profitability. Certain areas of the country offer greater job opportunities for foresters and range conservationists than others. Employment for range conservationists is concentrated in the West and Midwest, and most forestry-related employment is in the South and West. Earnings Most graduates entering the Federal Government as foresters, range managers, or soil conservationists with a bachelor’s degree started at $18,340 or $22,717 a year, in 1993, depending on academic achieve­ ment. Those with a master’s degree could start at $22,717 or $27,789. Holders of doctorates could start at $33,623 or, in research positions, at $40,298. In 1993, the average Federal salary for foresters in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $42,440; for soil conser­ vationists, $39,448; and for forest products technologists, $56,559. In private industry, starting salaries for students with a bachelor’s degree were comparable to starting salaries in the Federal Govern­ ment, but starting salaries in State and local governments were gen­ erally lower.  106  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Foresters and conservation scientists who work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms generally re­ ceive more generous benefits—for example, pension and retirement plans, health and life insurance, and paid vacations—than those working for smaller firms.  13* Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814.  Related Occupations Foresters and conservation scientists are not the only workers who manage, develop, and protect natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities include agricultural scientists, agricultural engineers, biological scientists, environmental scientists, farmers, farm managers, ranchers, ranch managers, soil scientists and soil conservation technicians, and wildlife managers.  Soil and Water Conservation Society, 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd., RR #1, Ankeny, IA 50021-9764.  Sources of Additional Information Information about the forestry profession and lists of schools offer­ ing education in forestry are available from:   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training is available from: Society for Range Management, 1839 York St., Denver, CO 80206.  Information about a career as a soil conservationist is available from: For information about career opportunities in the Federal Gov­ ernment, contact:  Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, Room 3619, 1849 C St. NW, Washington, DC 20240. XW Chief, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090-6090. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20013.  Physical Scientists  Chemists (D.O.T. 022.061-010, -014, and .137-010)  Nature of the Work Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about chemicals. Although chemicals are often thought of as artificial or toxic substances, all physical things, whether naturally occurring or of human design, are composed of chemicals. Chemists have devel­ oped a tremendous variety of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, electronic components, lubricants, and other products. They also develop processes which save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refining and petrochemical processing methods. Research on the chemistry of living things spurs advances in medicine, agriculture, food processing, and other areas. Many chemists work in research and development. In basic re­ search, chemists investigate the properties, composition, and struc­ ture of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and development, they create new products and processes or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research on small mole­ cules uniting to form large ones (polymerization). Chemists also work in production and quality control in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers which specify ingredients, mixing times, and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to en­ sure proper product yield, and they test samples to ensure they meet industry and government standards. Chemists also record and re­ port on test results. Others are marketing or sales representatives who sell and provide technical information on chemical products. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. Analytical chemists deter­ mine the structure, composition, and nature of substances and de­ velop analytical techniques. They also identify the presence and concentration of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon com­ pounds. Many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers, have been developed by organic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those in electronic components. Physical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and inves­ tigate how chemical reactions work. Their research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemis­ try, are included under biological scientists elsewhere in the Hand­ book. Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Re­ search chemists spend much time in laboratories, but also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their lab research. Although some laboratories are small, others are large and may incorporate prototype chemical manufacturing facilities as well as advanced equipment. Chemists may also do some of their research in a chemical plant or outdoors—while gathering samples of pollutants, for example. Some chemists are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  t 4  Chemists contribute to the development of a variety ofpractical products, including pharmaceuticals, paints, and synthetic fibers and materials. Employment Chemists held about 92,000 jobs in 1992. The majority of chemists are employed in manufacturing firms—mostly in the chemical man­ ufacturing industry, which includes firms that produce plastics and synthetic materials, drugs, soap and cleaners, paints, industrial or­ ganic chemicals, and other miscellaneous chemical products. Chem­ ists also work for State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly in the Depart­ ments of Defense, Health and Human Services, and Agriculture. Others work for research and testing services. In addition, thousands of persons held chemistry faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are mainly concentrated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline is usually the minimum education necessary to work as a chemist. However, most research and college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in chemistry, about 602 of which are approved by the American Chemical Society. Approximately 325 colleges and universities also offer advanced degree programs in chemistry. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying sci­ ence and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experiments. Persever­ ance, curiosity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essential. In addition to required courses in ana­ lytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduate chemistry majors usually study biological sciences, mathematics, and physics. Computer courses are also important, as chemists in­ creasingly use computers as a tool in their everyday work. 107  108  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Because research and development chemists are increasingly ex­ pected to work on interdisciplinary teams, some understanding of other disciplines, including business and marketing, is desirable, along with leadership ability and good oral and written communica­ tion skills. Experience, either in academic laboratories or through internships or co-op programs in industry, also is useful. Although graduate students typically specialize in a subfield of chemistry, such as analytical chemistry or polymer chemistry, stu­ dents usually need not specialize at the undergraduate level. In fact, undergraduates who are broadly trained have more flexibility when job hunting or changing jobs than if they narrowly define their inter­ ests. Some employers provide new bachelor’s degree chemists with additional training or education. In government or industry, beginning chemists with a bachelor’s degree work in technical sales or services, quality control, or assist senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Some may work in research positions, analyzing and testing products, but these are often technicians’ positions, with limited upward mobility. Many employers prefer chemists with a Ph.D. to work in basic and applied research. A Ph.D. is also generally required for a 4-year col­ lege faculty position and for advancement to many administrative positions. Chemists who work in sales, marketing, or professional research positions often move into management eventually. Many people with a bachelor’s degree in chemistry enter other oc­ cupations in which a chemistry background is helpful, such as tech­ nical writers or sales representatives in chemical marketing. Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Others choose from a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to chemistry. Chemistry graduates may become high school teachers. How­ ever, they usually are then regarded as science teachers rather than chemists. Others may qualify as engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering. Job Outlook Employment of chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005. The chemical in­ dustry should face continued demand for goods such as new and better pharmaceuticals and personal care products, as well as more specialty chemicals designed to address specific problems or appli­ cations. To meet these demands, research and development expend­ itures will continue to increase, contributing to employment growth for chemists. However, employment will not grow as rapidly as in the past be­ cause, overall, research and development budgets are expected to grow more slowly compared to those of the 1980’s as firms restruc­ ture and streamline their operations. Also, temporary slowdowns in automobile manufacturing and construction, end users of many of the products of the chemical industry, will have a short-term damp­ ening effect on chemists’ employment. Regardless of the outlook, hiring may slow and layoffs occur during periods of economic reces­ sion, especially in the oil and industrial chemicals industries. Earnings According to a 1992 survey by the American Chemical Society, the median starting salary for recently graduated chemists with a bache­ lor’s degree was about $24,000 a year; with a master’s degree, $32,000; with a Ph.D., $48,000. The American Chemical Society also reports that the median sal­ ary of their members of all experience levels with a bachelor’s degree was $42,000 a year in 1992; with a master’s degree, $50,000; and with a Ph.D., $60,000. In 1993, chemists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government earned an average salary of $51,537.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations The work of chemical engineers, agricultural scientists, biological scientists, and chemical technicians is closely related to the work done by chemists. The work of other physical and life science occu­ pations may also be similar to that of chemists. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chem­ ists is available from:  American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW„ Wash­ ington, DC 20036.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas.  Geologists and Geophysicists (D.O.T. 024.061 except -014, and .161)  Nature of the Work Geologists and geophysicists study the physical aspects and history of the earth. They identify and examine rocks, study information collected by remote sensing instruments in satellites, conduct geo­ logical surveys, construct maps, and use instruments to measure the earth’s gravity and magnetic field. They also analyze information collected through seismic prospecting, which involves bouncing sound waves off buried rock layers. Many geologists and geophysi­ cists search for oil, natural gas, minerals, and underground water. Increasingly, geologists, geophysicists, and other earth scientists are becoming known as geological scientists or geoscientists, terms which better describe their role in studying all aspects of the earth. Geoscientists play an increasingly important part in studying, preserving, and cleaning up the environment. Many design and monitor waste disposal sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim contaminated land and water to comply with stricter Federal envi­ ronmental rules. They also help locate safe sites for hazardous waste facilities and landfills. Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories, sometimes under controlled temperature and pressure. They may study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Some geoscientists use two- or three-dimensional computer modeling to portray water layers and the flow of water or other fluids through rock cracks and porous materials. A large variety of sophisticated laboratory instruments is used, including x-ray dif­ fractometers, which determine the crystal structure of minerals, and petrographic microscopes, for study of rock and sediment samples. The locations and intensities of earthquakes are determined using seismographs, instruments which measure energy waves resulting from movements in the earth’s crust. Geologists and geophysicists also apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams, tun­ nels, and highways. Some administer and manage research and ex­ ploration programs, and others become general managers in petro­ leum and mining companies. Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are some major differences. Geologists study the composition, struc­ ture, and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geophysicists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study not only the earth’s surface but its internal composition, ground and surface waters, atmosphere, and oceans as well as its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Both, however, com­ monly apply their skills to the search for natural resources and to solve environmental problems. Geologists and geophysicists often specialize. Geological oceanog­ raphers study and map the ocean floor. They collect information us­ ing remote sensing devices aboard surface ships or underwater re­ search craft. Physical oceanographers study the physical aspects of  Professional Specialty Occupations oceans such as currents and the interaction of the surface of the sea with the atmosphere. Chemical oceanographers study the chemical composition, dissolved elements, and nutrients of oceans. Although biological scientists who study ocean life are also called oceanogra­ phers (as well as marine biologists), the work they do and the train­ ing they need are related to biology rather than geology or geophys­ ics. (See the statement on biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Hydrologists study the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters. They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. Petroleum geolo­ gists explore for oil and gas by studying and mapping the subsurface of the ocean or land. They use sophisticated geophysical instrumen­ tation, well log data, and computers to collect information. Mineral­ ogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fossils found in ge­ ological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the earth. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other geophysical instruments to detect earthquakes and locate earthquake-related faults. Stratigraphers help to locate minerals by studying the distribution and arrange­ ment of sedimentary rock layers and by examining the fossil and mineral content of such layers. Working Conditions Some geoscientists spend the majority of their time in an office, others divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. Geologists often travel to remote field sites by helicopter or four-wheel drive vehicles and cover large areas by foot. Exploration geologists and geophysicists often work overseas or in remote areas, and job relocation is not unusual. Geological and physical oceanog­ raphers may spend considerable time at sea. Employment Geologists and geophysicists held about 48,000 jobs in 1992. In ad­ dition, thousands of persons held geology, geophysics, and oceanog­ raphy faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the state­ ment on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 1 in 4 were employed in oil and gas companies or oil and gas field service firms. Many other geologists worked for consulting firms and business services, especially engineering services, which often provide services to oil and gas companies. About 1 geologist in 10 was self-employed; most of these were consultants to industry or government. The Federal Government employed about 6,400 geologists, geo­ physicists, oceanographers, and hydrologists in 1992. Over one-half worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological  mm  -  Geologists and geophysicists often apply their knowledge of the physical aspects of the earth to solve or prevent environmental problems.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  109  Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Minerals Manage­ ment Service, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclamation. Others worked for the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, Com­ merce, and Energy, and the Environmental Protection Agency. Some worked for State agencies such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. Geologists and geophysicists also worked for nonprofit research institutions. Some were em­ ployed by American firms overseas for varying periods of time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good ad­ vancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree in ge­ ology or geophysics. Persons with strong backgrounds in physics, chemistry, mathematics, or computer science also may qualify for some geophysics or geology jobs. A Ph.D. degree is essential for most college or university teaching positions, and is important for work in Federal agencies that involves basic research. Over 500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in ge­ ology, geophysics, oceanography, or other geoscience. Other pro­ grams offering related training for beginning geological scientists in­ clude geophysical technology, geophysical engineering, geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geology, and geochem­ istry. In addition, more than 300 universities award advanced de­ grees in geology or geophysics. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. Computer modeling, data processing, and effective oral and written communication skills are important, as well as the ability to think independently and creatively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic methods and concepts (such as mineralogy, paleontology, stra­ tigraphy, and structural geology) are important for all geoscientists. However, those students interested in working in the environmental or regulatory fields should take courses in hydrology, hazardous waste management, environmental legislation, chemistry, fluid mechanics, and geologic logging. Geologists and geophysicists often begin their careers in field ex­ ploration or as research assistants in laboratories. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or other management and research positions. Job Outlook Employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many jobs for geologists and geophysicists are in or related to the petroleum industry, especially the exploration for oil and gas. This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations. Low oil prices, higher production costs, improvements in energy efficiency, and re­ strictions on potential drilling sites have caused exploration activi­ ties to be curtailed in the United States. If these conditions continue, there will be few openings in the petroleum industry for geoscien­ tists working in the United States. As a result of generally poor job prospects in the past few years, the number of students enrolling in geology and geophysics has dropped considerably. Although enrollments are rising again, the number of students trained in petroleum geology is likely to be so low that even a small increase in openings in the oil industry will be greater than the number of petroleum geologists and geophysicists available to fill them, creating good employment opportunities if ex­ ploration activities increase. Despite the generally poor job prospects encountered by geo­ scientists in recent years in the petroleum industry, the demand for these professionals in environmental protection and reclamation has been growing rapidly. Geologists and geophysicists will be needed to help clean up contaminated sites in the United States, and to help private companies and government comply with more numerous and complex environmental regulations. In particular, jobs requir­ ing training in engineering geology, hydrology and geochemistry should be in demand. However, if the number of geo-scientists who  110  Occupational Outlook Handbook  obtain training in these areas increases very rapidly, they may expe­ rience competition despite the increasing number ofjobs available. Earnings Surveys by the College Placement Council indicate that graduates with bachelor’s degrees in the geological sciences received an aver­ age starting offer of $25,704 a year in 1992. According to a 1991 American Geological Institute survey, the average starting salaries for inexperienced geoscientists were about $23,100 for those with a bachelor’s degree, $28,100 for those with a master’s degree, and $33,600 for those with a Ph.D. However, the starting salaries can vary widely depending on the employing indus­ try. For example, the oil and gas industry offered an average starting salary of $36,250 for bachelor’s degree holders, while in research in­ stitutions, colleges, and universities, new hires with a bachelor’s de­ gree averaged about $21,000. Although the petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer higher salaries, the competition in these areas is normally intense, and the job security less than in other areas. In 1993, the Federal Government’s average salary for geologists in managerial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $51,800; for geophysicists, $57,929; for hydrologists, $47,793; and for oceanographers, $54,552. Related Occupations Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natu­ ral gas industry. This industry also employs many other workers in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas ex­ ploration and extraction, including engineering technicians, science technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors. Also, some life scientists, physicists, chemists, and meteorologists, as well as mathe­ maticians, computer scientists, soil scientists, and mapping scien­ tists, do related work in both petroleum and natural gas exploration and extraction and in environment-related activities. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from:  XW American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302­ 1507.  XW Geological Society of America, P.O. Box 9140, 3300 Penrose PI., Boul­ der, CO 80301. Xir American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Communications De­ partment, P.O. Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101.  Information on training and career opportunities for geophysi­ cists is available from: XW American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW., Washington, DC  Meteorologists who forecast the weather, known professionally as operational meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They study information on air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, and they apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Their data come from weather satellites, weather radar, and remote sensors and ob­ servers in many parts of the world. Meteorologists use sophisticated computer models of the world’s atmosphere to help forecast the weather and interpret the results of these models to make long-term, short-term, and local-area forecasts. These forecasts inform not only the general public, but also those who need accurate weather infor­ mation for both economic and safety reasons, as in the shipping, avi­ ation, agriculture, fishing, and utilities industries. The use of weather balloons, launched twice a day, to measure wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper atmosphere, is being supplemented by more sophisticated weather equipment which transmits data as frequently as every few minutes. Doppler radar, for example, can detect rotational patterns in violent storm systems, allowing forecasters to better predict thunderstorms, tornadoes, flash floods, as well as their direction and intensity. Some meteorologists engage in research. Physical meteorologists, for example, study the atmosphere’s chemical and physical proper­ ties; the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the trans­ fer of energy in the atmosphere. They also study factors affecting formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena, such as severe storms. Climatologists collect, analyze, and interpret past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or regions. Their studies are used to design buildings and to plan heating and cooling systems, effective land use, and agricul­ tural production. Other research meteorologists may examine the most effective ways to control or diminish air pollution or improve weather forecasting using mathematical models. Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, most of which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often involve night, weekend, and holiday work and ro­ tating shifts. Operational meteorologists are often under pressure to meet forecast deadlines. Weather stations are found all over the country: At airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote ar­ eas. Meteorologists in smaller weather offices often work alone; in  ^fR-88D Leather  20009. tjf Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 70240, Tulsa, OK 74170.  Information on training and career opportunities in oceanogra­ phy is available from: t*- Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management located in major metropolitan areas.  Meteorologists (D.O.T. 025.062-010)  Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, the air that covers the earth. Meteorologists study the atmosphere’s physical characteris­ tics, motions, and processes, and the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our environment. The best-known application of this knowl­ edge is in forecasting the weather. However, weather information and meteorological research also are applied in air-pollution con­ trol, agriculture, air and sea transportation, defense, and the study of trends in the earth’s climate such as global warming or ozone de­ pletion.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Meteorologists involved in weather forecasting sometimes work evenings, weekends, or holidays.  Professional Specialty Occupations larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists not doing forecasting work regular hours, usually in offices. Employment Meteorologists held about 6,100 jobs in 1992. The largest employer of civilian meteorologists is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which employs about 2,400 meteorolo­ gists. The majority of NOAA’s meteorologists work in the National Weather Service at stations in all parts of the United States. The re­ mainder of NOAA’s meteorologists work mainly in research or in program management. The Department of Defense employs about 280 civilian meteorologists. Others work for private weather consul­ tants, research and testing services, and computer and data process­ ing services. Hundreds of people teach meteorology and related courses in col­ lege and university departments of meteorology or atmospheric sci­ ence, physics, earth science, and geophysics. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to civilian meteorologists, thousands of members of the Armed Forces do forecasting and other meteorological work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology or a closely related field with coursework in meteorology is the usual minimum require­ ment for a beginning job as a meteorologist. The preferred educational requirement for entry level meteorolo­ gists in the Federal Government is a bachelor’s degree—not neces­ sarily in meteorology—with at least 20 semester hours of meteorol­ ogy courses, including 6 hours in weather analysis and forecasting and 6 hours in dynamic meteorology. In addition to meteorology coursework, differential and integral calculus and 6 hours of college physics are required. These requirements will probably be upgraded soon, and most likely will include coursework in computer science and additional coursework appropriate for a physical science major, such as statistics, chemistry, physical oceanography, or physical cli­ matology. Sometimes, a combination of experience and education may be substituted for a degree. Although positions in operational meteorology are available for those with only a bachelor’s degree, obtaining a graduate degree en­ hances advancement potential. A master’s degree is usually neces­ sary for conducting research and development, and a Ph.D. is usu­ ally required for college teaching. Students who plan a career in teaching or research and development need not necessarily major in meteorology as an undergraduate. In fact, a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, physics, or engineering is excellent preparation for graduate study in meteorology. Because meteorology is a small field, relatively few colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology or atmospheric science, al­ though many departments of physics, earth science, geography, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. Prospec­ tive students should make certain that courses required by the Na­ tional Weather Service and other employers are offered at the col­ lege they are considering. Computer science courses, additional meteorology courses, and a strong background in mathematics and physics are expected to become more important to prospective em­ ployers as new, sophisticated weather equipment and radar systems become operational. Many programs combine the study of meteor­ ology with another field, such as agriculture, engineering, or phys­ ics. For example, hydrometeorology is the blending of hydrology (the science of the earth’s water) and meteorology, and this is an emerging field concerned with the impact of precipitation on the hy­ drologic cycle and the environment. Beginning meteorologists often do routine data collection, com­ putation, or analysis and some basic forecasting. Entry level meteo­ rologists in the Federal Government are usually placed in intern po­ sitions for training and experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to various supervisory or administrative jobs, or may han­ dle more complex forecasting jobs. Increasing numbers of meteorol­ ogists establish their own weather consulting services.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  111  Job Outlook Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow as fast as the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005. The National Weather Service, which employs many meteorologists, expects to increase its employment of meteorologists, mainly in its field offices, to improve short-term and local-area weather forecasts. Although some of these additional jobs are being filled internally through the upgrading of meteorological technicians, there still should be more openings in the National Weather Service in the next 5 years than there have been in the past. Employment of meteorologists in other parts of the Federal Government is not expected to increase. Addi­ tional jobs will be created in private industry with the increased use of private weather forecasting and meteorological services by farm­ ers, commodity investors, utilities, transportation and construction firms, and radio and TV stations. For people in these and other ar­ eas, even a slight improvement in the detail and accuracy of weather information and forecasts over the general information provided by the National Weather Service can yield significant benefits. How­ ever, because many customers for private weather services are in in­ dustries sensitive to fluctuations in the economy, the sales and growth of private weather services depend on the health of the econ­ omy. Along with the projected average growth, many of the job open­ ings in this very small occupation will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings The average salary for meteorologists in nonsupervisory, supervi­ sory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Govern­ ment was $48,266 in 1993. In 1993, meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received a starting salary of $18,340 or $22,717 a year, depending on their col­ lege grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $22,717 or $27,790; those with the Ph.D. degree, at $33,623 or $40,299. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environ­ ment include oceanographers, geologists and geophysicists, hydrol­ ogists, and civil and environmental engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities in meteorology is available from: fw American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, MA 021 OS-  3693. Eg" National Weather Service, Personnel Branch, 1335 East West Hwy., SSMC1, Silver Spring, MD 20910.  Physicists and Astronomers (D.O.T. 015.021-010; 021.067-010; 023.061-010, -014, and .067; 079.021-014)  Nature of the Work Physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the struc­ ture and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the ori­ gin of the universe, while others work in practical areas such as the development of advanced materials, electronic and optical devices, and medical equipment. Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclo­ trons, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Based on observations and analysis, they attempt to discover the laws that describe the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions. They also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, optics, materi­ als, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instru­ mentation.  112  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. Astron­ omers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They apply their knowledge to problems in navigation and space flight. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do ba­ sic research to increase scientific knowledge. For example, they in­ vestigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discover­ ies made through basic research and work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For instance, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then to the inte­ grated circuits used in computers. Physicists also design research equipment. This equipment often has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers are used in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measuring in­ struments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. Much physics research is done in small or medium-size laborato­ ries. However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, high energy, and some other areas of physics require extremely large, expensive equipment such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research. Almost all astronomers do research. They analyze large quanti­ ties of data gathered by observatories and satellites and write scien­ tific papers or reports on their findings. Most astronomers spend only a few weeks each year making observations with optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. Contrary to the popular image, astronomers almost never make observations by looking directly through a telescope because enhanced photo­ graphic and electronic detecting equipment can see more than the human eye. Most physicists specialize in one of many subfields—elementary particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic and molecular physics; physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics); optics; acoustics; plasma physics; or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivi­ sion of one of these subfields; for example, within condensed matter physics, specialties include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, all physics involves the same fundamen­ tal principles, so specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Also, growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics.  Research and development work is an integral part of most physicists' jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Physicists often work regular hours in laboratories and offices. At times, however, those who are deeply involved in research may work long or irregular hours. Most do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists work away from home tem­ porarily at national or international facilities with unique equipment such as particle accelerators. Astronomers who make observations may travel to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and routinely work at night. Employment Physicists and astronomers held nearly 21,000 jobs in 1992. Also, a significant number held physics or astronomy faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and univer­ sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About two-fifths of all nonfaculty physicists worked for research, development, and testing laboratories in industry. The Federal Government employed almost one-fifth, mostly in the Departments of Defense and Commerce and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Others worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty positions and for aerospace firms, noncommercial research laboratories, electrical equipment manufacturers, engineering services firms, and the trans­ portation equipment industry. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, most work in areas that have universities and large research and de­ velopment laboratories. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is the usual educational requirement for physi­ cists and astronomers, because most jobs are in research and devel­ opment or in teaching at large universities or 4-year colleges. Those having bachelor’s or master’s degrees in physics are gener­ ally qualified to work in an engineering-related area or other scien­ tific fields, to work as technicians, or to assist in setting up laborato­ ries. Some may qualify for applied research jobs in private industry or nonresearch positions in the Federal Government, and a master’s degree often suffices for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges. Astronomy bachelor’s degree holders often enter a field unrelated to astronomy, but they are also qualified to work in planetariums running science shows or to assist astronomers doing research. (See statements on engineers, geologists and geophysicists, computer programmers, and computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. The undergraduate program provides a broad background in the natural sciences and mathematics. Typical physics courses in­ clude mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic physics, and quantum mechanics. About 180 colleges and universities have physics departments which offer Ph.D. degrees in physics. Graduate students usually concentrate in a subfield of physics such as elementary particles or condensed matter. Many begin studying for their doctorate immedi­ ately after their bachelor’s degree. About 72 universities offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy, either through an astronomy department, a physics department, or a com­ bined physics/astronomy department. Applicants to astronomy doctoral programs face keen competition for available slots. Those planning a career in astronomy should have a very strong physics background—in fact, an undergraduate degree in physics is excel­ lent preparation, followed by a Ph.D. in astronomy. Mathematical ability, computer skills, an inquisitive mind, imagi­ nation, and the ability to work independently are important traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy. Prospective physicists who hope to work in industrial laboratories applying physics knowledge to practical problems should broaden their edu­ cational background to include courses outside of physics, such as economics, computer technology, and current affairs. Good oral and written communication skills are also becoming increasingly important. Most Ph.D. physics and astronomy graduates choose to take a postdoctoral position, which is helpful for those who want to con­ tinue research in their specialty and for those who plan a career  Professional Specialty Occupations teaching at the university level. Beginning physicists, especially those without a Ph.D., often do routine work under the close super­ vision of more senior scientists. After some experience, they are as­ signed more complex tasks and given more independence. Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook A large proportion of physicists and astronomers are employed on research projects, many of which, in the past, were defense related. Expected reductions in defense-related research and an expected slowdown in the growth of civilian physics-related research will cause employment of physicists and astronomers to decline through the year 2005. Since the number of doctorates granted in physics is not expected to decrease much from present levels, competition is expected for the kind of research and academic jobs that those with new doctorates in physics have traditionally sought. Although research and development budgets in private industry will continue to grow, many research laboratories in private indus­ try are expected to reduce basic research, which is where much physics research takes place, in favor of applied research and prod­ uct and software development. Furthermore, although the number of retiring academic physicists is expected to increase in the late 1990’s, it is possible that many of them will not be replaced or will be replaced by faculty in other disciplines. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics are not qualified to enter most physicist jobs. However, many find jobs as high school physics teachers and in engineering, technician, mathematics, and computer- and environment-related occupations. (See the state­ ments on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Also, those with advanced degrees in physics will find their skills transferrable to many other occupations.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  113  Earnings Starting salaries for physicists averaged about $30,000 a year in 1992 for those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and about $41,000 for those with a doctoral degree, according to the College Placement Council. The American Institute of Physics reported a median salary of $65,000 in 1992 for its members with Ph.D.’s. Those working in 4year colleges (9-10 months a year) earned the least—$43,000— while those employed in industry and hospitals earned the most— $71,500 and 78,000, respectively. Average earnings for physicists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government in 1993 were $61,956 a year, and for astronomy and space scientists, $65,709. Related Occupations The work of physicists and astronomers relates closely to that of other scientific and mathematic occupations such as chemist, geolo­ gist, geophysicist, and mathematician. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: 0s American Institute of Physics, American Center for Physics, 1 Physics  Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740. O" American Physical Society, American Center for Physics, 1 Physics El­ lipse, College Park, MD 20740.  For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, send your request to: 13* American Astronomical Society, Education Office, University of Texas, Department of Astronomy, Austin, TX 78712-1083.  Lawyers and Judges  (D.O.T. 110; 111; 119.107, .117, .167-010, .267-014; 169.267-010)  Nature of the Work Lawyers. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act as both advocates and advisors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the op­ posing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting evidence that support their client in court. As advisors, lawyers counsel their cli­ ents as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as advocates or advisors, all attorneys interpret the law and apply it to specific situations. This requires research and communication abilities. Lawyers perform in-depth research into the purposes behind the applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have been applied to those laws under circumstances similar to those currently faced by the client. While all lawyers continue to make use of law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement their search of the conventional printed sources with computer software packages that automati­ cally search the legal literature and identify legal texts that may be relevant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many sup­ porting documents, lawyers may also use computers to organize and index the material. Tax lawyers are also increasingly using com­ puters to make tax computations and explore alternative tax strate­ gies for clients. Lawyers then communicate to others the information obtained by research. They advise what actions clients may take and draw up le­ gal documents, such as wills and contracts, for clients. Lawyers must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner and not dis­ close matters discussed in confidence with clients. They hold posi­ tions of great responsibility, and are obligated to adhere to strict rules of ethics. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field of specialization and position. Even though all lawyers are allowed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more fre­ quently than others. Some lawyers specialize in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thoroughly familiar with court­ room rules and strategy. Trial lawyers still spend most of their time outside the courtroom conducting research, interviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Besides trials, lawyers may specialize in other areas, such as bank­ ruptcy, probate, or international law. Environmental lawyers, for example, may represent public interest groups, waste disposal com­ panies, or construction firms in their dealings with the Environmen­ tal Protection Agency (EPA) and other State and Federal agencies. They help clients prepare and file for licenses and applications for approval before certain activities can occur. They also represent cli­ ents’ interests in administrative adjudications and during drafting of new regulations. Some lawyers concentrate in the emerging field of intellectual property. These lawyers help protect clients’ claims to copyrights, art work under contract, product designs, and computer programs. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insurance transactions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent the companies in court. The majority of lawyers are in private practice where they may concentrate on criminal or civil law. In criminal law, lawyers re­ present persons who have been charged with crimes and argue their cases in courts of law. In civil law, attorneys assist clients with litiga­ tion, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some 114   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  manage a person’s property as trustee or, as executor, see that provi­ sions of a client’s will are carried out. Others handle only public in­ terest cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential impact ex­ tending well beyond the individual client. Lawyers sometimes are employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as “house counsel” and usually advises the company about legal questions that arise from its business activities. These questions might involve patents, government regulations, contracts with other companies, property interests, or collective bargaining agreements with unions. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government make up still another category. Lawyers that work for State attorneys gen­ eral, prosecutors, public defenders, and courts play a key role in the criminal justice system. At the Federal level, attorneys investigate cases for the Department of Justice or other agencies. Also, lawyers at every government level help develop programs, draft laws, inter­ pret legislation, establish enforcement procedures, and argue civil and criminal cases on behalf of the government. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private, nonprofit or­ ganizations established to serve disadvantaged people. These law­ yers generally handle civil rather than criminal cases. A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects, and others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional informa­ tion, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some lawyers become judges, although not all judges have practiced law. Judges. Judges apply the law. They oversee the legal process that in courts of law resolves civil disputes and determines guilt in criminal cases according to Federal and State laws and those of local jurisdic­ tions. They preside over cases touching on virtually every aspect of society, from traffic offenses to disputes over management of profes­ sional sports, from the rights of huge corporations to questions of disconnecting life support equipment for terminally ill persons. They must insure that trials and hearings are conducted fairly and that the court administers justice in a manner that safeguards the le­ gal rights of all parties involved. Judges preside over trials or hearings and listen as attorneys rep­ resenting the parties present and argue their cases. They rule on the admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony, and settle disputes between the opposing attorneys. They insure that rules and procedures are followed, and if unusual circumstances arise for which standard procedures have not been established, judges direct how the trial will proceed based on their knowledge of the law. Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to allega­ tions and, based on the evidence presented, determine whether they have enough merit for a trial to be held. In criminal cases, judges may decide that persons charged with crimes should be held in jail pending their trial, or may set conditions for release through the trial. In civil cases, judges may impose restrictions upon the parties until a trial is held. When trials are held, juries are often selected to decide cases. However, judges decide cases when the law does not require a jury trial, or when the parties waive their right to a jury. Judges instruct juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdict. Judges sentence those convicted in criminal cases in many States. They also award relief to litigants including, where appropriate, compensation for damages in civil cases.  Professional Specialty Occupations Judges also work outside the courtroom “in chambers.” In their private offices, judges read documents on pleadings and motions, re­ search legal issues, hold hearings with lawyers, write opinions, and oversee the court’s operations. Running a court is like running a small business, and judges manage their courts’ administrative and clerical staff, too. Judges’ duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions and powers. General trial court judges of the Federal and State court systems have jurisdiction over any case in their system. They gener­ ally try civil cases that transcend the jurisdiction of lower courts, and all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appellate court judges, although few in number, have the power to overrule decisions made by trial court or administrative law judges if they de­ termine that legal errors were made in a case, or if legal precedent does not support the judgement of the lower court. They rule on fewer cases and rarely have direct contacts with the people involved. The majority of State court judges preside in courts in which ju­ risdiction is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of ti­ tles are assigned to these judges, but among the most common are municipal court judge, county court judge, magistrate, or justice of the peace. Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small claims cases, and pretrial hearings constitute the bulk of the work of these judges, but some States allow them to handle cases involving domestic rela­ tions, probate, contracts, and selected other areas of the law. Administrative law judges, formerly called hearing officers, are employed by government agencies to rule on appeals of agency ad­ ministrative decisions. They make decisions on a person’s eligibility for various Social Security benefits or worker’s compensation, pro­ tection of the environment, enforcement of health and safety regula­ tions, employment discrimination, and compliance with economic regulatory requirements. Working Conditions Lawyers and judges do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. Lawyers sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They frequently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to ap­ pear before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations gener­ ally have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may work irregular hours while conducting research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and about half regularly work 50 hours or more per week. They are under particularly heavy pressure, for ex­ ample, when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions.  Lawyers and judges do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  115  Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Because lawyers in pri­ vate practice can often determine their own workload and when they will retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retire­ ment age. Many judges work a standard 40-hour week, but a third of all judges work over 50 hours per week. Some judges with limited juris­ diction are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial responsibilities and other careers. Employment Lawyers and judges held about 716,000 jobs in 1992. About fourfifths of the 626,000 lawyers practiced privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in government, the greatest number at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Jus­ tice, Treasury, and Defense, but they work for other Federal agen­ cies as well. Other lawyers are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufac­ turing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other business firms and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried lawyers also have part-time independent practices; others work as lawyers part time while working full time in another occupation. Judges held 90,000 jobs in 1992. All worked for Federal, State, or local governments, with about half holding positions in the Federal Government. The majority of the remainder were employed at the State level. Many people trained as lawyers are not employed as lawyers or judges; they work as law clerks, law school professors, managers and administrators, and in a variety of other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Lawyers. To practice law in the courts of any State or other jurisdic­ tion, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules established by the jurisdiction’s highest court. Nearly all require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examina­ tion. Most jurisdictions also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one jurisdiction occasionally may be admitted to the bar in another without taking an examination if they meet that jurisdic­ tion’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own quali­ fications for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school—particularly its library and faculty—meets certain stan­ dards developed by the Association to promote quality legal educa­ tion.) In 1992, the American Bar Association approved 177 law schools. Others were approved by State authorities only. With cer­ tain exceptions, graduates of schools not approved by the ABA are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State or other jurisdiction in which the school is located; most of these schools are in California. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only Cali­ fornia accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualifying for taking the bar examination. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 46 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands require the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the bar examination; the MBE is not required in Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Washington, and Puerto Rico. The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given in addition to a locally pre­ pared 6-hour State bar examination. The 3-hour Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is used as part of the State bar examination in a few States. States vary in their use of MBE and MEE scores.  116  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1991, about one 1 of 6 students in ABA-approved schools were part time. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Al­ though there is no recommended “prelaw” major, the choice of an undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to suc­ ceed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills—pro­ ficiency in writing, reading and analyzing, thinking logically, and communicating verbally—are learned during high school and col­ lege. An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view of the world is desirable. Courses in English, a foreign language, public speaking, government, philoso­ phy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Whatever the major, students should not specialize too narrowly. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for example, many law schools with patent law tracks require bachelor’s degrees, or at least several courses, in engi­ neering and science. Future tax lawyers should have a strong under­ graduate background in accounting. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s abil­ ity to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work experience, and sometimes a personal interview. How­ ever, law schools vary in the weight that they place on each of these factors. All law schools approved by the American Bar Association re­ quire that applicants take the LSAT. Nearly all law schools require that applicants have certified transcripts sent to the Law School Data Assembly Service. This service then sends applicants’ LSAT scores and their standardized records of college grades to the law schools of their choice. Both this service and the LSAT are adminis­ tered by the Law School Admission Services. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. Enroll­ ments rose very rapidly during the 1970’s, with applicants far out­ numbering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have remained relatively unchanged, and the number of applicants has fluctuated. However, the number of applicants to most law schools still greatly exceeds the number that can be admitted. Enrollments are expected to remain at about their present level through the year 2005, and competition for admission to the more prestigious law schools will remain keen. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students generally study fundamental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, property law, torts, civil procedure, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Law students often acquire practi­ cal experience by participation in school sponsored legal aid or legal clinic activities, in the school’s moot court competitions in which students conduct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers and judges, and through re­ search and writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. In 1992, law students in 36 States and 2 other jurisdictions were required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Exami­ nation (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after completing a course on legal ethics. A number of law schools have clinical programs where students gain legal experience through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clin­ ics, for-example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corpo­ rate legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valuable later on. Such training can provide references or lead di­ rectly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an impor­ tant source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree ofjuris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees may be desirable for those planning to specialize, do research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which gen­ erally require an additional year. Joint degree programs are offered in a number of areas, including law and business administration and law and public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practice. Thirty-seven States and jurisdictions mandate Continuing Legal Education (CLE). Fur­ thermore, many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent developments. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the public. Integrity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Persever­ ance and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and reach sound conclusions. Lawyers also need creativity when handling new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants to experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively more respon­ sible salaried employment, some lawyers are admitted to partner­ ship in their firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become full-time law school faculty or ad­ ministrators; a growing number have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some persons use their legal training in administrative or mana­ gerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to another depart­ ment often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Judges. Most judges, although not all, have been lawyers first. All Federal judges and State trial and appellate court judges are re­ quired to be lawyers or “learned in law.” About 40 States presently allow nonlawyers to hold limited jurisdiction judgeships, but oppor­ tunities are better with law experience. Federal administrative law judges must be lawyers and pass a competitive examination admin­ istered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Many State ad­ ministrative law judges and other hearing officials are not required to be lawyers, but law degrees are preferred for most positions. Federal judges are appointed for life by the President, with the consent of the Senate. Federal administrative law judges are ap­ pointed by the various Federal agencies with virtually lifetime ten­ ure. About half of all State judges are appointed, while the remain­ der are elected in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Most State and local judges serve fixed terms, which range from 4 or 6 years for most limited jurisdiction judgeships to as long as 14 years for some appellate court judges. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of the bar and the public, are used to screen candidates for judgeships in many States, as well as for Federal judgeships. All States have some type of orientation for newly elected or ap­ pointed judges. Thirteen States also require judges to take continu­ ing education courses while serving on the bench. Job Outlook Persons seeking positions as lawyers or judges should encounter keen competition through the year 2005. Law schools still attract large numbers of applicants and are not expected to decrease their enrollments, so the supply of persons trained as lawyers should con­ tinue to exceed job openings. As for judges, the prestige associated with serving on the bench should insure continued intense competi­ tion for openings.  Professional Specialty Occupations  117  Lawyers. Employment of lawyers has grown very rapidly since the early 1970’s, and is expected to continue to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. New j'obs created by growth should exceed job openings that arise from the need to replace lawyers who stop working or leave the profession. The strong growth in demand for lawyers will result from growth in the population and the general level of business activities. Demand also will be spurred by growth of le­ gal action in such areas as employee benefits, consumer protection, criminal prosecution, the environment, and finance, and an anticipated increase in the use of legal services by middle-income groups through le­ gal clinics and prepaid legal service programs. Even though jobs for lawyers are expected to increase rapidly, competition for job openings should continue to be keen because of the large numbers graduating from law school each year. During the 1970’s, the annual number of law school graduates more than doubled, outpacing the rapid growth of jobs. Growth in the yearly number of law school graduates tapered off during the 1980’s, but again increased in the early 1990’s. The high number of graduates will strain the economy’s capacity to absorb them. Although gradu­ ates with superior academic records from well-regarded law schools will continue to enjoy good opportunities, most graduates will en­ counter competition for jobs. As in the past, some graduates may have to accept positions in areas outside their field of interest or for which they feel they are overqualified. They may have to enter jobs for which legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, govern­ ment agencies, and other organizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mo­ bility and work experience assume greater importance. The willing­ ness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be li­ censed in a new State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Employment growth of lawyers will continue to be concentrated in salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a growing number of staff attorneys, and as employment in the legal services industry is increasingly concentrated in larger law firms. The number of self-employed lawyers is expected to continue to in­ crease slowly, reflecting the difficulty of establishing a profitable new practice in the face of competition from larger, established law firms. Also, the growing complexity of law—which encourages spe­ cialization—and the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal research materials both favor larger firms. For lawyers who nevertheless wish to work independently, estab­ lishing a new practice probably will continue to be easiest in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such communities, competition from larger established law firms is likely to be less than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Neverthe­ less, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky un­ dertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried positions will remain in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary le­ gal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Although few lawyers actually lose their jobs during these times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves. Sev­ eral factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers. During recessions, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal action. Furthermore, new laws and legal interpre­ tations will create new opportunities for lawyers.  the demand for judges. Pushing up demand are public concerns about crime, safety, and efficient administration of justice; on the other hand, tight public funding should slow job growth. Competition for judgeships should remain keen. Most job open­ ings will arise as judges retire. Traditionally, many judges have held their positions until late in life. Now, early retirement is becoming more common, creating more job openings; however, becoming a judge will still be difficult. Besides competing with other qualified people, judicial candidates must gain political support in order to be elected or appointed.  Judges. Employment ofjudges is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Contradictory social forces affect  tw Member Services, American Bar Association, 541 North Fairbanks   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Annual salaries of beginning lawyers in private industry averaged about $36,600 in 1992, but top graduates from the Nation’s best law schools started in some cases at over $80,000 a year. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys in 1993 were about $27,800 or $33,600, depending upon academic and personal qualifications. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new gradu­ ates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employer; and the specialized educational background desired. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and location of their employer. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private industry in 1992 was over $134,000, but some senior lawyers who were partners in the Na­ tion’s top law firms earned over $1 million. General attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $62,200 a year in 1993; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Govern­ ment averaged around $71,600. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater re­ sponsibility. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Their incomes usually grow as their practices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Federal district court judges had salaries of $133,600 in 1993, as did judges in the Court of Federal Claims. Circuit court judges earned $141,700 a year. Federal judges with limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges, had salaries of $122,900 in 1993. Full-time Federal administrative law judges had average salaries of $94,800 in 1993. The Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court earned $171,500 in 1993, and the Associate Justices earned $ 164,100. Annual salaries of associate justices of States’ highest courts averaged nearly $89,570 in 1992, according to a survey by the National Center for State Courts, and ranged from about $62,500 to $121,207. Salaries of State intermediate appellate court judges averaged $88,435, but ranged from $79,975 to $113,632. Salaries of State judges with limited jurisdic­ tion varied widely; many salaries are set locally. Most salaried lawyers and judges were provided health and life in­ surance, and contributions were made on their behalf to retirement plans. Lawyers who practiced independently were only covered if they arranged and paid for such benefits themselves. Related Occupations Legal training is useful in many other occupations. Some of these are paralegal, arbitrator, journalist, patent agent, title examiner, leg­ islative assistant, lobbyist, FBI special agent, political office holder, and corporate executive. Sources of Additional Information The American Bar Association annually publishes A Review of Le­ gal Education in the United States, which provides detailed informa­ tion on each of the 177 law schools approved by the ABA, State re­ quirements for admission to legal practice, a directory of State bar examination administrators, and other information on legal educa­ tion. Single copies are free from the ABA, but there is a fee for mul­ tiple copies. Free information on the bar examination, financial aid for law students, and law as a career may also be obtained from: Court, Chicago, IL 60611-3314.  118  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Ser­ vice, applying to law school, and financial aid for law students may be obtained from: Law School Admission Services, P.O. Box 40, Newtown, PA 18940. Phone: (215) 968-1001.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State or other jurisdiction may also be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State Board of Bar Examiners.  Social Scientists and Urban Planners (D.O.T. 029.067; 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, -046; 050.067; 051; 052 except .067-014; 054; 055; 059; 188.167-110; and 199.167-040)  Nature of the Work Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distri­ bution of goods and services to the beliefs of newly formed religious groups to modern mass transportation systems. Social science re­ search provides insights that help us understand the different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scien­ tists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, busi­ ness leaders, and others in solving social, economic, and environ­ mental problems. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use es­ tablished or newly discovered methods to assemble facts and theory that contribute to human knowledge. Applied research usually is designed to produce information that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other infor­ mation. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including living and working among the people studied; archaeological and other field investigations; the analysis of historical records and doc­ uments; experiments with human subjects or animals in a psycho­ logical laboratory; the administration of standardized tests and questionnaires; and the preparation and interpretation of maps and graphic materials. Social sciences are interdisciplinary in nature. Specialists in one field often find that the research they are performing overlaps work that is being conducted in another social science discipline. Regard­ less of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned with some aspect of society, culture, or personality. Anthropologists study the origin and the physical, social, and cul­ tural development and behavior of humans. They may study the way of life, remains, language, or physical characteristics of people in various parts of the world; they compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthropologists generally con­ centrate in sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, or biological-physical anthropology. Sociocultural anthropologists study the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized societies to modem urban cultures. Archaeologists engage in the systematic recovery and ex­ amination of material evidence, such as graves, buildings, tools, and pottery, remaining from past human life and culture, to determine the history, customs, and living habits of earlier civilizations. Lin­ guistic anthropologists study the role of language in various cul­ tures. Biological-physical anthropologists study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evidences of human life. Economists study the production, distribution, and consumption of commodities and services. They may conduct surveys and ana­ lyze data to determine public preferences for these goods and ser­ vices. Most economists are concerned with the practical applica­ tions of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. Others develop theo­ ries to explain economic phenomena such as unemployment or in­ flation. Marketing research analysts research market conditions in localities, regions, the Nation, or the world to determine potential sales of a product or service; they examine and analyze data on past sales and trends to develop forecasts. Geographers study the distribution of both physical and cultural phenomena on local, regional, continental, and global scales. Geog­ raphers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers study the re­ gional distribution of resources and economic activities. Political ge­ ographers are concerned with the relationship of geography to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  political phenomena—local, national, and international. Physical geographers study the distribution of climates, vegetation, soil, and land forms. Urban and transportation geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the physical, climatic, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions, ranging in size from a congressional district, to a State, country, continent, or the entire world. Medical geographers study health care delivery systems, epidemiology, and the effect of the environ­ ment on health. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)—a relatively new spe­ cialty—combines computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and high-speed communication to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze, and map geographic data. GIS is widely used in weather forecasting, emergency management, resource analysis and management, and other activities. (Some occupational classification systems include geographers under physical scientists rather than social scientists.) Historians research and analyze the past. They use many sources of information during their research, including government and in­ stitutional records, newspapers and other periodicals, photographs, interviews, films, and unpublished manuscripts such as diaries and letters. Historians usually specialize in a specific country or region; in a particular time period; or in a particular field, such as social, in­ tellectual, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect de­ tailed information on individuals. Genealogists trace family histo­ ries. Other historians help study and preserve archival materials, artifacts, and historic buildings and sites. Political scientists study the origin, development, and operation of political systems. They conduct research on a wide range of subjects such as relations between the United States and foreign countries, the beliefs and institutions of foreign nations, for example those in Asia and Africa, the politics of small towns or a major metropolis, or the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and ideology, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as well as informal po­ litical entities. Depending on the topic under study, a political scien­ tist might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, or analyze public documents. Psychologists, who constitute over half of all social scientists, study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also assists business advertis­ ers, politicians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people. While clinical psychology is the largest specialty, psycholo­ gists specialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimen­ tal, social, or industrial psychology. Sociologists analyze the development, structure, and behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. Sociologists may specialize in a particular field such as criminology, rural sociology, or medical sociology. Urban and regional planners develop comprehensive plans and programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of popula­ tion growth or social and economic change. Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. Generally working behind a desk, either alone or in collaboration with other social scientists, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes they must work overtime, for which they generally are not reimbursed. Social scien­ tists often work as an integral part of a research team. Their routine may be interrupted frequently by telephone calls, letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Social 119  120  Occupational Outlook Handbook  scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures and climates. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropolo­ gists, archaeologists, and geographers often must travel to remote areas, live among the people they study, and stay for long periods at the site of their investigations. They may work under primitive con­ ditions, and their work may involve strenuous physical exertion. Social scientists employed by colleges and universities generally have flexible work schedules, often dividing their time among teach­ ing, research, consulting, or administrative responsibilities. Employment Social scientists held about 258,000 jobs in 1992. Over half of all so­ cial scientists are psychologists. About one-third of all social scien­ tists—overwhelmingly psychologists—are self-employed, involved in counseling, consulting, or research. Salaried social scientists worked for a wide range of employers. Nearly 4 out of 10 worked for Federal, State, and local govern­ ments; 3 out of 10 worked in health, research, and management ser­ vices firms; and 2 out of 10 worked in educational institutions, as re­ searchers, administrators, and counselors. Other employers include social service agencies, international organizations, associations, museums, historical societies, computer and data processing firms, and business firms. In addition, many persons with training in a social science disci­ pline teach in colleges and universities, and in secondary and ele­ mentary schools. (For more information, see the Handbook state­ ments on college and university faculty, and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers.) The proportion of so­ cial scientists who teach varies by occupation—for example, the ac­ ademic world generally is a more important source of jobs for grad­ uates in sociology than for graduates in psychology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum re­ quirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is im­ portant for advancement to many top level nonacademic research and administrative posts. Graduates with master’s degrees generally have better professional opportunities outside of colleges and uni­ versities, although the situation varies by field. For example, job prospects for master’s degree holders in urban or regional planning are brighter than for master’s degree holders in history. Graduates with a master’s degree in a social science discipline qualify for teach­ ing positions in junior colleges. Bachelor’s degree holders have lim­ ited opportunities and in most social science occupations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of entry level jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management trainee. With the addition of sufficient education courses, social science graduates also can qualify for teaching posi­ tions in secondary and elementary schools. Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for many social scientists. Mathematical and other quantitative research methods are increasingly used in economics, geography, political science, ex­ perimental psychology, and other fields. The ability to use com­ puters for research purposes is mandatory in most disciplines. Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they con­ stantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intel­ lectual curiosity and creativity are fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various forms of government. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying pro­ posals to reduce Federal budget deficits. Objectivity, openminded­ ness, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is essential for an anthropologist,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civi­ lization. Emotional stability and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental patients. Written and oral com­ munication skills are essential to all these workers. Job Outlook Employment of social scientists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, spurred by rising concern over the environment, crime, communicable disease, mental illness, the growing elderly and homeless populations, the in­ creasingly competitive global economy, and a wide range of other is­ sues. Psychologists, the largest social science occupation, is ex­ pected to grow much faster than average. Economists and marketing research analysts, urban and regional planners, and all other social scientists combined, including anthropologists, geogra­ phers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists, should experi­ ence average growth. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other occupa­ tions or stop working altogether. Prospects are best for those with advanced degrees, and generally are better in disciplines such as economics, psychology, and urban and regional planning, which offer many opportunities in nonaca­ demic settings. However, graduates in all social science fields are ex­ pected to find enhanced job opportunities in applied fields due to the excellent research, communication, and quantitative skills they de­ velop in school. Government agencies, health and social service or­ ganizations, marketing, research and consulting firms, and a wide range of businesses seek social science graduates. Social scientists currently face stiff competition for academic po­ sitions. However, competition may ease in the future due to a wave of retirements expected among college and university faculty. The growing importance and popularity of social science subjects in sec­ ondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science teach­ ers at this level as well. Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations include specific skills and technical expertise, de­ sired work setting, salary requirements, and geographic mobility. In addition, experience acquired through internships can prove invalu­ able later in obtaining a full-time position in a social science field. Earnings Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $36,700 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,700 and $51,300 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned under $17,800, while the highest 10 percent earned over $68,700. According to a 1993 survey by the College Placement Council, people with a bachelor’s degree in a social science field received starting offers averaging about $19,000 a year in 1993, those with a master’s degree in a social science field received starting offers aver­ aging about $28,400 a year in 1993, and the average salary offer for doctoral social scientists was $30,000. In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s de­ gree and no experience could start at $18,300 or $22,700 a year in 1993, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s de­ gree could start at $27,800, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $33,600, while some individuals with experience and an ad­ vanced degree could start at $40,300. The average salary of all social scientists working for the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $43,000 in 1993. Social scientists entering careers in higher education may receive benefits such as summer research money, computer access, student research assistants, and secretarial support. Related Occupations A number of fields that require training and personal qualities simi­ lar to those of the various social science fields are covered elsewhere  Professional Specialty Occupations in the Handbook. These include lawyers, statisticians, mathemati­ cians, computer programmers, computer scientists and systems ana­ lysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers, religious work­ ers, college and university faculty, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information More detailed information about economists and marketing re­ search analysts, psychologists, sociologists, and urban and regional planners is presented in the Handbook statements that follow this introductory statement. Anthropology For information about careers, job openings, grants and fellow­ ships, and schools that offer training in anthropology, and for a copy of Getting a Job Outside the Academy (special publication no. 14), contact: tw The American Anthropological Association, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203.  Archaeology For information about careers in archaeology, contact: tw Society for American Archaeology, 900 2nd St. NE., #12, Washington, DC 20002. tw Archaeological Institute of America, 675 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215.  Geography Two publications that provide information on careers and job openings for geographers—Geography—Today’s Career for To­ morrow, available free of charge, and Careers in Geography, availa­ ble for $3—and the annual publication listing schools offering vari­ ous programs in geography—A Guide to Programs of Geography in the U.S. and Canada—may be obtained from: tw Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  History Information on careers for students of history is available from: O’ American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003.  General information on careers for historians is available from: O’Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Blooming­ ton, IN 47408.  For additional information on careers for historians, send a selfaddressed, stamped envelope to: O’American  Association for State and Local History, 530 Church St., 6th Floor, Nashville, TN 37219.  Political Science Information on careers and job openings, including Careers and the Study of Political Science: A Guide for Undergraduates, available for $3.50 plus $1.00 postage and handling, with bulk rates for multi­ ple copies, may be purchased from: O American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a biennial direc­ tory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be purchased from: tw National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 730, Washington, DC 20005.  Economists and Marketing Research Analysts (D.O.T. 050.067)  Nature of the Work Economists. Economists study the ways a society uses scarce re­ sources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to pro­ duce goods and services. They analyze the costs and benefits of dis­ tributing and consuming these goods and services. Economists conduct research, collect and analyze data, monitor economic trends, and develop forecasts. Their research might focus on topics  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  121  such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, farm prices, rents, im­ ports, or employment. Most economists are concerned with practical applications of ec­ onomic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agricul­ ture, transportation, real estate, environment, natural resources, en­ ergy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relationships to advise business firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry and trade associations, labor unions, gov­ ernment agencies, and others. On the other hand, economists who are primarily theoreticians may use mathematical models to develop theories on the causes of business cycles and inflation, or the effects of unemployment and tax legislation. Depending on the topic under study, economists devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. For example, sam­ pling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and econometric modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing re­ ports usually is an important part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, pre­ pare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, concise lan­ guage. Being able to present economic and statistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose re­ search is policy directed. Economists who work for government agencies assess economic conditions in the United States and abroad and estimate the eco­ nomic effects of specific changes in legislation or public policy. For example, they may study how the dollar’s fluctuation against for­ eign currencies affects import and export markets. Most govern­ ment economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, finance, labor, transportation, utilities, urban economics, or international trade. Economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce study do­ mestic production, distribution, and consumption of commodities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commission prepare indus­ try analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes designed to elimi­ nate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices in interstate com­ merce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on prices, wages, employment, productivity, and safety and health. An economist working for a State or local government might analyze regional or local data on trade and commerce, industrial and com­ mercial growth, and employment and unemployment, and project labor force trends. Marketing Research Analysts. Marketing research analysts are concerned with the design, promotion, price, and distribution of a product or service. They provide information which is used to iden­ tify and define marketing opportunities; generate, refine, and evalu­ ate marketing actions; and monitor marketing performance. Like economists, marketing research analysts devise methods and proce­ dures for obtaining data they need. Marketing research analysts often design surveys and questionnaires; conduct telephone, per­ sonal, or mail interviews; and sometimes offer product samples to assess consumer preferences and indicate current trends. Once the data are compiled, marketing research analysts code, tabulate, and evaluate the data. They then make recommendations to manage­ ment based upon their findings and suggest a course of action. They may provide management with information to make decisions on the promotion, distribution, design, and pricing of company prod­ ucts or services; or to determine the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the com­ pany’s operations. Analysts also conduct public opinion research to familiarize the media, government, lobbyists, and others with the needs and attitudes of the public. This can help political leaders and others assess public support for new taxes or spending on health, ed­ ucation, welfare, or defense, for example. Marketing research analysts employed by large organizations may have a strong background in statistics or they may work with statisticians to select a group of people to be interviewed who accu­ rately represent prospective customers of a product or service. Under an experienced marketing research analyst’s direction, trained interviewers conduct surveys and office workers tabulate the  122  Occupational Outlook Handbook  results. The researchers must maintain confidentiality, accuracy, and good scientific methods in order to obtain useful results. Working Conditions Economists and marketing research analysts working for govern­ ment agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may work alone writing reports, preparing statistical charts, and using computers and calculators. Or they may be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, letters, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend con­ ferences. Economics and marketing faculty have flexible work schedules, and may divide their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administration. Employment Economists and marketing research analysts held about 51,000 jobs in 1992. Private industry—particularly economic and marketing re­ search firms, management consulting firms, banks, securities and commodities brokers, and computer and data processing compa­ nies—employed 7 out of 10 salaried workers. The remainder, prima­ rily economists, were employed by a wide range of government agencies, primarily in the Federal Government. The Departments of State, Labor, Agriculture, and Commerce are the largest Federal employers of economists. A number of economists and marketing research analysts combine a full-time job in government or business with part-time or consulting work in academia or another setting. Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is concentrated in large cities—for example, New York City, Wash­ ington, D.C., and Chicago. Some economists work abroad for com­ panies with major international operations; for the Department of State and other U.S. Government agencies; and for international or­ ganizations, including the World Bank and the United Nations. Besides the jobs described above, many economists and market­ ing research analysts held economics and marketing faculty posi­ tions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or marketing is suffi­ cient for many entry-level research, administrative, management trainee, and sales jobs. Economics majors can choose from a variety of courses, ranging from those which are intensly mathematical like  Economists and marketing research analysts use computers to prepare reports, develop surveys, and analyze data.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  microeconomics, macroeconomics, and econometrics, to more phil­ osophical courses like the history of economic thought. In addition to courses in business, marketing, and consumer behavior, market­ ing majors should take courses in related disciplines, including eco­ nomics, political science, psychology, organizational behavior, soci­ ology, finance, business law, and international relations. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to economists and marketing researchers, courses in mathematics, statistics, econometrics, sam­ pling theory and survey design, and computer science are highly recommended. Aspiring economists and marketing research analysts can gain experience gathering and analyzing data, conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings while in college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time posi­ tion in the field, since much of their work in the beginning centers around these duties. Beginning workers also may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data, editing and coding questions, and tabulating survey results. With further experience, economists and marketing research analysts eventually are assigned their own research projects. Graduate training increasingly is required for many economist and marketing research analyst jobs, and for advancement to more responsible positions. Economics includes many specialties at the graduate level, such as advanced economic theory, mathematical ec­ onomics, econometrics, history of economic thought, international economics, and labor economics. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are interested. Marketing research analysts may earn a master’s degree in business administra­ tion, marketing, statistics, or some related discipline. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, economic consulting firms, financial institu­ tions, or marketing research firms. Like undergraduate students, work experience and contacts can be useful in testing career prefer­ ences and learning about the job market for economists and market­ ing research analysts. In the Federal Government, candidates for beginning economist positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21 se­ mester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. Competition is keen, however, and additional education or experience may be required for some jobs. For a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and some 4-year schools, a master’s degree is the minimum requirement. In most colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for ap­ pointment as an instructor. Similar to other disciplines, a Ph.D. and extensive publication are required for a professorship and for ten­ ure. In government, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms, economists and marketing research analysts who have a grad­ uate degree usually can qualify for more responsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong background in economics or marketing. Persons considering careers as economists or marketing research analysts should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analysis. Patience and persistence are neces­ sary qualities since economists and marketing research analysts may spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. At the same time, they must be able to work well with others, especially marketing research analysts, who often interview a wide variety of people. Economists and marketing research analysts must be objec­ tive and systematic in their work and be able to present their find­ ings, both orally and in writing, in a clear, meaningful way. Creativ­ ity and intellectual curiosity are essential for success in these fields, just as they are in other areas of scientific endeavor. Job Outlook Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations  Professional Specialty Occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, are likely to re­ sult from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other rea­ sons. Opportunities for economists should be best in private industry and in research and consulting firms, as some companies contract out for economic research services rather than support a staff of full­ time economists. The growing complexity of the global economy and increased reliance on quantitative methods of analyzing busi­ ness trends, forecasting sales, and planning purchasing and produc­ tion should spur demand for economists. The continued need for ec­ onomic analyses by lawyers, accountants, engineers, health services administrators, education administrators, urban and regional plan­ ners, environmental scientists, and others also should result in addi­ tional jobs for economists. Other organizations, including trade as­ sociations, unions, and nonprofit organizations, may offer job opportunities for economists. Employment of economists in the Federal Government should decline in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal workforce as a whole. Slower than average employment growth is expected among economists in State and lo­ cal government. A strong background in economic theory, mathematics, statistics, and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting and marketing research, including the use of computers, should have the best job opportunities. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in economics through the year 2005 should face keen competition for the limited number of economist positions for which they qualify. Related work experience—conducting research, developing surveys, or analyzing data, for example—while in school is a major asset in this competi­ tive job market. Many graduates will find employment in govern­ ment, industry, and business as management or sales trainees, or as research or administrative assistants. Economists with good quanti­ tative skills are qualified for research analyst positions in a broad range of fields. Those with strong backgrounds in mathematics, sta­ tistics, survey design, and computer science may be hired by private firms for marketing research work. Those who meet State certifica­ tion requirements may become high school economics teachers. The demand for secondary school economics teachers is expected to grow as economics becomes an increasingly important and popular course. (See the statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secon­ dary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates who hold a master’s degree in economics have better employment prospects than bachelor’s degree holders. Some busi­ nesses and research and consulting firms seek master’s degree hold­ ers who have strong computer and quantitative skills and can per­ form complex research, but do not command the high salary of a Ph.D. Master’s degree holders are likely to face competition for teaching positions in colleges and universities; however, some may gain positions in junior and community colleges. Opportunities will be best for Ph.D.’s. Ph.D. graduates should have opportunities to work as economists in private industry, re­ search and consulting firms, and government. In addition, employ­ ment prospects for economists in colleges and universities should improve due to an expected wave of retirements among college faculty. Demand for marketing research analysts should be strong due to an increasingly competitive global economy. Marketing research provides organizations valuable feedback from purchasers, allowing companies to evaluate consumer satisfaction and more effectively plan for the future. As companies seek to expand their market and consumers become better informed, the need for marketing profes­ sionals is increasing. Opportunities for marketing research analysts should be good in a wide range of employment settings, particularly  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  123  in marketing research firms, as companies find it more profitable to contract out for marketing research services rather than supporting their own marketing department. Other organizations, including fi­ nancial services organizations, health care institutions, advertising firms, manufacturing firms that produce consumer goods, and in­ surance companies may offer job opportunities for marketing re­ search analysts. Like economists, graduates with related work expe­ rience or an advanced degree in marketing or a closely related business field should have the best job opportunities. Earnings According to a 1993 salary survey by the College Placement Coun­ cil, persons with a bachelor’s degree in economics received offers averaging 325,200 a year; in marketing, $24,100. The median base salary of business economists in 1992 was $65,000, according to a survey by the National Association of Busi­ ness Economists. Ninety percent of the respondents held advanced degrees. The highest salaries were reported by those who had a Ph.D., with a median salary of $78,000. Master’s degree holders earned a median salary of $58,000, while bachelor’s degree holders earned $51,000. The highest paid business economists were in the nondurable manufacturing, securities and investment, mining, banking, and real estate industries. The lowest paid were in academia and government. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en­ trance salary for economists having a bachelor’s degree averaged about $18,300 a year in 1993; however, those with superior aca­ demic records could begin at $22,700. Those having a master’s de­ gree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $27,800. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at $33,600, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $40,300. Economists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervi­ sory, and managerial positions averaged around $53,500 a year in 1993. Like other college faculty, economists and marketing research analysts entering careers in higher education may receive benefits such as summer research money, computer access, money for stu­ dent research assistants, and secretarial support. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting fi­ nancial matters, among other subjects. Others with jobs in this area include financial managers, financial analysts, accountants and au­ ditors, underwriters, actuaries, securities and financial services sales workers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers. Marketing research analysts are involved in social research, in­ cluding the planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys to de­ termine people’s needs and preferences. Other jobs using these skills include social welfare research workers, employment research and planning directors, sociologists, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in economics and business, contact: t3“ National Association of Business Economists, 28790 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 300, Cleveland, OH 44122. t3*The Margin Magazine, University of Colorado, 1420 Austin Bluffs Pkwy., Colorado Springs, CO 80918.  For information about careers and salaries in marketing research, contact: XW American Marketing Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 200, Chicago, IL 60606.  tw Marketing Research Association, 2189 Silas Deane Hwy., Suite 5, Rocky Hill, CT 06067. 13= Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 3 Upper Devon, Port Jefferson, NY 11777.  124  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Psychologists (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046)  Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to under­ stand, explain, and change people’s behavior. They may study the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves. Research psychologists inves­ tigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Pychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct train­ ing programs; do market research; apply psychological treatments to a variety of medical and surgical conditions; or provide mental health services in hospitals, clinics, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods depend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through controlled laboratory experiments; personality, perform­ ance, aptitude, and intelligence tests; observation, interviews, and questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys. Computers are widely used to record and analyze this information. Since psychology deals with human behavior, psychologists apply their knowledge and techniques to a wide range of endeavors includ­ ing human services, management, education, law, and sports. In ad­ dition to the variety of work settings, psychologists specialize in many different areas. Clinical psychologists—who constitute the largest specialty—generally work in independent or group practice or in hospitals or clinics. They may help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life and are increasingly helping all kinds of med­ ical and surgical patients deal with their illnesses or injuries. They may work in physical medicine and rehabilitation settings, treating patients with spinal cord injuries, chronic pain or illness, stroke, and arthritis and neurologic conditions, such as multiple sclerosis. Others help people deal with life stresses such as divorce or aging. Clinical psychologists interview patients; give diagnostic tests; pro­ vide individual, family, and group psychotherapy; and design and implement behavior modification programs. They may collaborate with physicians and other specialists in developing treatment pro­ grams and help patients understand and comply with the prescribed treatment. Some clinical psychologists work in universities, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health and be­ havioral medicine services. Others administer community mental health programs. Counseling psychologists use several techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday living—personal, social, educational, or vocational. (Also see the statements on counselors and social work­ ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of be­ havioral change as people progress through life from infancy to adulthood. Some concern themselves with behavior during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, while others study changes that take place during maturity and old age. The study of developmental disa­ bilities and how they affect a person and others is a new area within developmental psychology. Educational psychologists evaluate stu­ dent and teacher needs, and design and develop programs to en­ hance the educational setting. Experimental psychologists study be­ havior processes and work with human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of experimental re­ search include motivation, thinking, attention, learning and reten­ tion, sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance use and abuse, and genetic and neurological factors in behavior. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psychological techniques to personnel administration, management, and market­ ing problems. They are involved in policy planning, applicant screening, training and development, psychological test research, counseling, and organizational development and analysis. For ex­ ample, an industrial psychologist may work with management to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity or quality of worklife. School psy­ chologists work with students, teachers, parents, and administrators to resolve students’ learning and behavior problems. Social psychol­ ogists examine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and interpersonal perception. Some relatively new specialties include cognitive psychology, health psychology, neuropsychology, and geropsychology. Cogni­ tive psychologists deal with the brain’s role in memory, thinking, and perceptions; some are involved with research related to computer programming and artificial intelligence. Health psychologists pro­ mote good health through health maintenance counseling programs that are designed, for example, to help people stop smoking or lose weight. Neuropsychologists study the relation between the brain and behavior. They often work in stroke and head injury programs. Geropsychologists deal with the special problems faced by the elderly. The emergence and growth of these specialties reflects the increas­ ing participation of psychologists in providing direct services to spe­ cial patient populations. Other areas of specialization include psychometrics, psychology and the arts, history of psychology, psychopharmacology, and com­ munity, comparative, consumer, engineering, environmental, fam­ ily, forensic, population, military, and rehabilitation psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine working conditions. For example, clinical, school, and counseling psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often have evening hours to accommodate their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities often work evenings and week­ ends, while others in schools and clinics work regular hours. Psy­ chologists employed by academic institutions divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Some maintain part-time consulting practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, most in gov­ ernment and private industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing research reports, they often work alone. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment Psychologists held about 144,000 jobs in 1992. Educational institu­ tions employed nearly 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists in positions  Psychologists counsel their clients on how to best deal with a variety of life's problems.  Professional Specialty Occupations involving counseling, testing, special education, research, and ad­ ministration; hospitals, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities employed 3 out of 10; and government agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels employed one-sixth. The Department of Veterans Affairs, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service employ the overwhelming majority of psychologists working for Federal agencies. Govern­ ments employ psychologists in hospitals, clinics, correctional facili­ ties, and other settings. Psychologists also work in social service or­ ganizations, research organizations, management consulting firms, marketing research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some psychologists—usually those with doctoral degrees—enter private practice or set up their own research or consulting firms. A growing proportion of psychol­ ogists are self-employed. Besides the jobs described above, many persons held positions as psychology faculty at colleges and universities, and as high school psychology teachers. (See the statements on college and university faculty and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teach­ ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree generally is required for employment as a psy­ chologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and govern­ ment. Psychologists with a Psy.D.—Doctor of Psychology—qualify mainly for clinical positions. Persons with a master’s degree in psychology can administer tests as psychological assistants. Under the supervision of doctoral level psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories, conduct psychological evaluations, counsel patients, or perform administra­ tive duties. They may teach in high schools or 2-year colleges or work as school psychologists or counselors. A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psy­ chologists and other professionals in community mental health cen­ ters, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as trainees in government or business. However, without additional ac­ ademic training, their advancement opportunities in psychology are severely limited. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semes­ ter hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an internship; vocational and gui­ dance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counsel­ ing and 1 year of counseling experience. In most cases, 2 years of full-time graduate study are needed to earn a master’s degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting or a master’s thesis based on a research project. A master’s degree in school psychology re­ quires about 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship. Five to 7 years of graduate work usually are required for a doc­ toral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study and usually necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. usu­ ally is based on practical work and examinations rather than a dis­ sertation. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include a year or more of internship or supervised experience. Competition for admission into most graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  125  Most colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in psychology; several hundred offer a master’s and/or a Ph.D. pro­ gram. A relatively small number of professional schools of psychol­ ogy—some affiliated with colleges or universities—offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accred­ its doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Ed­ ucation, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, also is involved in the accreditation of advanced de­ gree programs in school psychology. APA also accredits institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. Although financial aid is difficult to obtain, some universities award fellowships or scholarships or arrange for part-time employ­ ment. The Veterans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral traineeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related training agencies. The National Science Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services, and many other organizations also provide grants to psychology departments to help fund student sti­ pends. Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care, including clinical, counseling, and school psycholo­ gists, must meet certification or licensing requirements. All States and the District of Columbia have such requirements. Licensing laws vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in psychology, completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of profes­ sional experience. In addition, most States require that applicants pass an examination. Most State boards administer a standardized test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay examinations. Very few States certify those with a master’s degree as psychological assistants or associates. Some States require continuing education for license renewal. Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their practice to those areas in which they have developed profes­ sional competence through training and experience. The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes pro­ fessional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic, in­ dustrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and profes­ sional endorsements; they also must pass an examination. Even more so than in other occupations, aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compas­ sion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly im­ portant for clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to communicate treat­ ment and research findings. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in coming. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Largely be­ cause of the substantial investment in training required to enter this specialized field, psychologists have a strong attachment to their oc­ cupation—only a relatively small proportion leave the profession each year. Nevertheless, replacement needs are expected to account for most job openings, similar to most occupations. Programs to combat the increase in alcohol abuse, drug depen­ dency, marital strife, family violence, crime, and other problems plaguing society should stimulate employment growth. Other fac­ tors spurring demand for psychologists include increased emphasis on mental health maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical illness; public concern for the development of human re­ sources, including the growing elderly population; increased testing and counseling of children; and more interest in rehabilitation of  126  Occupational Outlook Handbook  prisoners. Changes in the level of government funding for these kinds of services could affect the demand for psychologists. Job opportunities in health care should remain strong—particu­ larly in health care provider networks, such as health maintenance and preferred provider organizations, that specialize in mental health, and in nursing homes and alcohol and drug abuse rehabilita­ tion programs. Job opportunities will arise in businesses, nonprofit organizations, and research and computer firms. Companies will use psychologists’ expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to provide personnel testing, program evaluation, and statistical analysis. The increase in employee assistance programs—in which psychologists help people stop smoking, control weight, or alter other behaviors—also should spur job growth. The expected wave of retirements among college faculty, beginning in the late 1990’s, should result in job openings for psychologists in colleges and uni­ versities. Other openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the ef­ fectiveness of changes in health, education, military, law enforce­ ment, and consumer protection programs. Psychologists also are in­ creasingly studying the effects on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the conservation and use of nat­ ural resources, and industrial and office automation. Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree. Per­ sons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as school, clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and educa­ tional psychology should have particularly good prospects. Psychol­ ogists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science may have a competitive edge over applicants with­ out this background. Graduates with a master’s degree in psychology may encounter competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Graduates of master’s degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase stu­ dent counseling and mental health services. Some master’s degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in community mental health centers—these positions often require direct supervi­ sion by a licensed psychologist. Others may find jobs involving re­ search and data collection and analysis in universities, government, or private companies. Bachelor’s degree holders can expect very few opportunities di­ rectly related to psychology. Some may find jobs as assistants in re­ habilitation centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may be­ come high school psychology teachers. Earnings According to a 1991 survey by the American Psychological Associ­ ation, the median annual salary of psychologists with a doctoral de­ gree was $48,000 in counseling psychology; $50,000 in research po­ sitions; $53,000 in clinical psychology; $55,000 in school psychology; and $76,000 in industrial/organizational psychology. In university psychology departments, median annual salaries ranged from $32,000 for assistant professors to $55,000 for full professors. The median annual salary of master’s degree holders was $35,000 for faculty; $37,000 in counseling psychology; $40,000 in clinical psychology; $48,000 in research positions; $50,000 in indus­ trial/organizational psychology; and $52,000 in school psychology. Some psychologists have much higher earnings, particularly those in private practice. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the aver­ age starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor’s degree was about $18,300 a year in 1993; those with superior academic records could begin at $22,700. Counseling and school psychologists with a master’s degree and 1 year of counseling experience could start at $27,800. Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $33,600; some individuals could start at $40,300. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi­ tions was about $54,400 a year in 1993. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind of work include psychiatrists, social work­ ers, sociologists, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational requirements, financial as­ sistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: tw American Psychological Association, Education in Psychology and Ac­ creditation Offices, Education Directorate, 750 1st St. NE., Washington, DC 20002.  For information on careers, educational requirements, and licens­ ing of school psychologists, contact: W National Association of School Psychologists, 8455 Colesville Rd., Suite 1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910.  Information about State licensing requirements is available from: 13= Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389, Montgomery, AL 36103.  Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from colleges and universities that have graduate departments of psychol­ ogy-  Sociologists (D.O.T. 054)  Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions that people form—families, com­ munities, and governments, as well as various social, religious, polit­ ical, and business organizations. They also study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. They are con­ cerned with the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong, and the impact of social traits such as gender, age, or race on a person’s daily life. As a rule, sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as so­ cial organization, stratification, and mobility; revolution, war, and peace; racial and ethnic relations; education; family; social psychol­ ogy; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; gender roles and relations; and sociological practice. Other specialties include medical sociology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; gerontology—the study of aging and the special problems of aged persons; environmental sociology—the study of the effects of the physical environment and technology on people; clinical sociology—therapy, analysis, and in­ tervention for individuals, groups, organizations, and communities; demography—the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of populations; criminology—the study of factors producing devi­ ance from accepted legal and cultural norms; and industrial sociol­ ogy—the study of work and organizations. Other sociologists specialize in research design and data analysis. Sociologists usually conduct surveys or engage in direct observation to gather data. For example, after providing for controlled condi­ tions, an organizational sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small work group. A medical sociologist might study the effects of terminal illness on family inter­ action. Sociological researchers also evaluate the efficacy of differ­ ent kinds of social programs. They might examine and evaluate par­ ticular programs of income assistance, job training, health care, or  Professional Specialty Occupations remedial education. Sociologists extensively use statistical and com­ puter techniques in their research, along with qualitative methods such as focus group research and social impact assessment. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, ad­ ministrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. For example, sociologists study issues re­ lated to abortion rights, AIDS, high school dropouts, homelessness, and latch-key children. Sociologists often work closely with com­ munity groups and members of other professions, including psy­ chologists, physicians, economists, statisticians, urban and regional planners, political scientists, anthropologists, law enforcement and criminal justice officials, and social workers. Some sociologists are primarily administrators. They apply their professional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, family counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, educa­ tion, personnel administration, public relations, regional and com­ munity planning, and health services planning. They may, for exam­ ple, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies, or develop social policies and programs for government, community, youth, or religious organizations. A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill; counseling prisoners and ex-offenders; mediating labor-manage­ ment disputes; or improving efficiency and flexibility in large corpo­ rations. Sociologists in business may consult with management to solve a wide range of problems and improve productivity and profit­ ability. Sociologists can help companies plan for the future, deal with organizational restructuring and downsizing, and conduct market research for advertisers and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare pro­ grams. Sociologists often are confused with social workers, and in fact they do contribute to one another’s discipline. While most sociolo­ gists conduct research on organizations, groups, and individuals, clinical sociologists, like social workers, may directly help people who are unable to cope with their circumstances. (See the statement on social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most sociologists read, conduct research, and write reports, articles, and books. Sociologists working in government organizations, pri­ vate firms, and nonprofit agencies generally have structured work schedules, and many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. They devote their time  Training in quantitative research methods is important for sociologists.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  127  to research and the application of sociological knowledge and skills to solve organizational, community, and family problems. They often work as an integral part of a team. Some sociologists create their own private consulting firms and may work evenings or week­ ends to accommodate clients or complete a project. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or to attend profes­ sional conferences. Sociology faculty have more flexible work schedules, dividing their time between teaching, research, consulting, and administra­ tive responsibilities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) All sociologists engage in analyzing ideas and data on how society works. Mental efforts can be tiring and stressful. Employment Outside of academia, where most sociologists are employed, sociolo­ gists held several thousand jobs in 1992. Some of these jobs were with government agencies, which employ sociologists to deal with such subjects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population growth, education, social rehabilitation, community development, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, drug abuse, school droputs, and environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Fed­ eral Government work primarily for the Departments of Health and Human Services, Agriculture, Education, Commerce (Bureau of the Census), Defense, and the General Accounting Office. The also may work in special government agencies such as the Peace Corps, Na­ tional Institute of Health, and the National Institute of Aging. Those specializing in demography, international development, or health may work for international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Sociologists specializing in criminology work primarily for law en­ forcement agencies in State and local government. Sociologists also hold managerial, research, personnel, and plan­ ning positions in research firms, consulting firms, educational insti­ tutions, corporations, professional and trade associations, hospitals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting. Most sociologists hold positions as sociology faculty in colleges and universities, or as high school sociology teachers. (See the state­ ments on college and university faculty and kindergarten, elemen­ tary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in sociology usually is the minimum requirement for employment in applied research or community college teaching. The Ph.D. degree is essential for most senior level positions in re­ search institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and government agencies, and is required for appointment to permanent teaching and research positions in colleges and universities. Sociologists holding a master’s degree can qualify for administra­ tive and research positions in public agencies and private businesses. Training in research, statistical, and computer methods is an advan­ tage in obtaining such positions. Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology often get jobs in related fields. Their training in research, statistics, and human behavior qualifies them for entry level positions in social services, manage­ ment, sales, personnel, and marketing. Many work in social service agencies as counselors or child-care, juvenile, or recreation workers. Others are employed as interviewers or as administrative or re­ search assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statis­ tical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agencies. Regardless of a sociologist’s level of educational attainment, com­ pletion of an internship while in school can prove invaluable in find­ ing a position in sociology or a related field. In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work  128  Occupational Outlook Handbook  in theory and methods of social research. However, since competi­ tion for the limited number of positions is keen, advanced study in the field is highly recommended. In 1992 about 190 colleges and universities offered doctoral de­ gree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s de­ gree. The master’s is the highest degree offered in over 150 schools; another approximately 860 schools have bachelor’s degree pro­ grams. Most colleges have core requirements for sociology degrees, in­ cluding courses in statistics, research methodology, and sociological theory. Other courses cover a wide range of topics such as aging (gerontology), criminal justice, delinquency, deviance and social control, family and society, gender roles, social psychology, rural sociology, organizational behavior and analysis, mental health, and science and technology. Some institutions offer courses in peace and war, conflict resolution, or world systems theory. Many offer stud­ ies focused on sociological analysis of such areas of Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, or Asia. Programs also may in­ clude internships or field experiences. Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs, while others are relatively unstructured and leave most course selec­ tion up to the individual student. Departments have different re­ quirements regarding foreign language skills and completion of a thesis or dissertation for the master’s and doctoral degrees. The choice of a graduate school is important. Students should se­ lect a school that has adequate research facilities and course offer­ ings in their areas of interest. Opportunities to gain practical experi­ ence also may be available, and sociology departments may help place students in teaching or research assistantships, business or re­ search firms, or government agencies. Certification by the Sociological Practice Association (SPA) is re­ quired for some positions in clinical sociology and applied sociol­ ogy, especially at the doctoral level. Candidates for certification must have at least one year of relevant experience, an advanced de­ gree from an accredited school, and demonstrate competence at SPA-sponsored workshops and conferences. Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait for sociologists; research­ ers must have an inquiring mind and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they observe. They must have an open mind to new ideas and unfamiliar social patterns. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior and need keen analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions. They must get along well with people, especially in research, teaching, or interven­ tion situations, and should have good oral and writing skills. Job Outlook Most job openings in sociology are expected to result from the need to replace sociologists who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Additional positions for soci­ ologists will stem from the increasing demand for research in vari­ ous fields such as demography, criminology, gerontology, and medi­ cal sociology, and the need to evaluate and administer programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. Growing recog­ nition of the research and statistical skills of sociologists and the role they can play in solving a wide range of problems in business and in­ dustry may spur more job growth. Opportunities in academia should be best for sociologists with a doctoral degree. The expected wave of retirements among college faculty, beginning in the late 1990’s, should result in job openings for sociologists in colleges and universities. Those with master’s de­ grees may find positions in community colleges. Sociologists interested in practice (applied and clinical) settings will find that positions outside of academia are rapidly expanding. Some Ph.D.’s may take research and administrative positions in government, research organizations, and business firms. Those welltrained in quantitative research methods—including survey tech­ niques, advanced statistics, and computer science—will have the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the government to evaluate social programs and conduct other re­ search increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantitative skills. Demand is expected to be stronger for sociologists with training in practical rather than theoretical sociology. Such practical areas include clinical sociology, criminology, environmental sociology, medical sociology, gerontology, evaluation research, and demogra­ phy. For example, the growing need for family counseling and drug and alcohol abuse prevention and therapy should spur demand for clinical sociologists. Additional demographers may be sought to help businesses plan marketing and advertising programs and to help developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population pro­ jections, and formulate long-range public planning programs. Ger­ ontologists may be needed to help formulate programs for our ex­ panding elderly population. Persons with a master’s degree face keen competition for aca­ demic positions, but the master’s is the most marketable degree for entering sociological practice. Opportunities for employment exist in government agencies, industry or business, and research firms. They may obtain positions doing market research, policy building, administration, or quantitative research. Often the title of “sociolo­ gist” is not used—but program analysts, social science researchers, trainers, and maketing specialists are often titles appropriate for master’s level sociology graduates. Bachelor’s degree holders will find their degree provides a solid basis for further study or for entry level employment in a broad range of fields—media, public relations, corrections, social welfare, community activism, and even business. As in the past, these gradu­ ates will compete with other liberal arts graduates for positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and government. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning ca­ reers in law, journalism, business, social work, recreation, counsel­ ing, and other related disciplines, sociology provides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school sociology teachers. Earnings Earnings vary with work settings. Experienced sociologists with a doctoral degree tend to earn the highest salaries in academia. Those employed in business, industry, and private consulting may earn more than those in academia or in government. The master’s degree may be as lucrative as a doctorate in some settings outside of academia. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the aver­ age entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor’s degree was about $18,300 or $22,700 a year in 1993, depending upon the appli­ cant’s academic record. The starting salary for those with a master's degree was $27,800 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., $33,600, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $40,300. The average annual salary for all sociologists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was around $53,300 a year in 1993. In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those with a lesser degree. Some sociologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as consulting, counseling, or writing articles and books. Those who create their own consulting practice find that earnings vary ac­ cording to how much time they devote to their practice, the type of clients they serve, and the region of the country. Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an under­ standing of social processes and institutions. Others whose work de­ mands such expertise include anthropologists, economists, geogra­ phers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, urban and regional planners, reporters and correspondents, social workers, and intelligence specialists.  Professional Specialty Occupations Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers, certification, and graduate de­ partments of sociology is available from: O’American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-2981.  For information about careers in demography, contact: O’Population  Association of America, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC  20036.  For information about careers and certification in clinical and ap­ plied sociology, contact: O’ Sociological Practice Association, Department of Pediatrics/Human De­ velopment, B240 Life Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1317.  For information about careers in rural sociology, contact: O* Rural Sociology Society, Department of Sociology, Montana State Uni­ versity, Bozeman, MT 59715.  Urban and Regional Planners (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014)  Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called community or city plan­ ners, develop programs to provide for growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communities and their regions. Planners help local officials make decisions on social, economic, and environ­ mental problems. Planners usually devise plans outlining the best use of a com­ munity’s land—where residential, commercial, recreational, and other human services should take place. Planners also are involved in various other planning activities, including social services, trans­ portation, and resource development. They address such issues as central city redevelopment, traffic congestion, air pollution, and the impact of growth and change on an area. They formulate capital im­ provement plans to construct new school buildings, public housing, and sewage systems. Planners are involved in environmental issues including pollution control, wetland preservation, and landfills. Planners also help find solutions to social issues such as the needs of an aging population, sheltering the homeless, and meeting the de­ mand for drug and alcohol treatment centers, correctional facilities, and abortion and AIDS patient clinics. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them, and help resolve differences over their location. They keep abreast of the economic and legal issues involved in community de­ velopment or redevelopment and changes in zoning codes, building codes, or environmental regulations. They ensure that builders and developers follow these codes and regulations. Planners also deal with land use and environmental issues created by population move­ ments. For example, as suburban growth has increased the need for traveling between suburbs and the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transportation systems and parking fa­ cilities. In conjunction with these new systems and facilities, plan­ ners also may develop transportation management plans designed to control traffic, not just accommodate it. For example, developers may be required to provide public transportation facilities, or cities may be required to set up van pool transportation systems. Urban and regional planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They estimate, for example, the community’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for long-range community development, ur­ ban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the current  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  129  use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. These re­ ports include such information as the location of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also provide information on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and eco­ nomic trends. With this information, along with input from citizens’ ad­ visory committees, urban and regional planners propose ways of using undeveloped or underutilized land and design the layout of recom­ mended buildings and other facilities such as subway lines and stations. They also prepare materials that show how their programs can be car­ ried out and what they will cost. As in many other fields, planners increasingly use computers to record and analyze information and to communicate their findings and recommendations to government leaders and others. For exam­ ple, computers are widely used to determine program costs, map land areas, and forecast future trends in employment, housing, transportation, or population. Computerized geographic informa­ tion systems enable planners to overlay maps depicting different ge­ ographic variables, and to combine and manipulate the data to pro­ duce alternative plans for land use or development. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and other public planning officials. They may function as mediators in community disputes by presenting alternatives that are acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare materials for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and ap­ pear before legislative committees to explain their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, transportation, housing supply and demand, com­ munity relations, historic preservation, environmental and regula­ tory issues, or economic development. In small organizations, plan­ ners must be generalists, able to do various kinds of planning. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners spend a great deal of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they peri­ odically spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under consideration for development, its current use, and the types of struc­ tures on it. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour work­ week, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Planners may experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules, as well as opposition from interest groups affected by their land use proposals.  °—..... ^  Urban and regional planners deal with land use and environmental issues created by population movements.  130  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Urban and regional planners held about 28,000 jobs in 1992. Local government planning agencies—city, county, or regional—em­ ployed 2 out of 3. An increasing proportion of public agency plan­ ners work in smaller suburban jurisdictions—reflecting population movements in recent years. Others are employed in State agencies that deal with housing, transportation, or environmental protection. Federal employers include the Departments of Defense, Housing and Urban Development, and Transportation. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to private developers or government agencies. Private sector employers in­ clude architectural and surveying firms, management and public re­ lations firms, educational institutions, large land developers, and law firms specializing in land use. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually prefer workers who have advanced training in urban or regional planning. Most entry level jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or re­ gional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. A bachelor’s de­ gree from an accredited planning program, coupled with a master’s de­ gree in landscape architecture or civil engineering, for example, also is good preparation for entry level planning jobs. A master’s degree from an accredited planning program provides the best training. Although graduates having an accredited bachelor’s degree in planning qualify for many beginning positions, their advancement opportunities may be lim­ ited. Courses in related disciplines such as demography, economics, fi­ nance, health administration, and management are highly recom­ mended. In addition, familiarity with computer models and statistical techniques is critical because of the increasing use of computerized mod­ eling and geographic information systems in urban and regional plan­ ning analyses. In 1992, about 80 colleges and universities offered an accredited master’s and about 10 offered an accredited bachelor’s degree pro­ gram in urban or regional planning. These programs are accredited by the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representa­ tives of the American Institute of Certified Planners and the Associ­ ation of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Most graduate programs in planning require 2 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in studios, workshops, or laboratory courses learning to ana­ lyze and solve urban and regional planning problems and often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the sum­ mer. Local government planning offices offer students internships that provide experience that often proves invaluable in obtaining a full-time planning position after graduation. The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP), a profes­ sional institute within the American Planning Association (APA), grants certification to individuals who have the appropriate combi­ nation of education and professional experience and who pass an ex­ amination. Data on AICP membership indicate that certified plan­ ners tend to hold the more responsible, better paying positions in their field. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. Planners should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints to make con­ structive policy recommendations. The ability to communicate ef­ fectively, both orally and in writing, also is necessary for anyone in­ terested in this field. After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may advance to assignments requiring a high degree of independent judgment such as designing the physical layout of a large develop­ ment or recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are promoted to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other professionals. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a large city with more complex  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  problems and greater responsibilities, or into related occupations, such as director of community or economic development. Job Outlook A master’s degree from an accredited planning program, or a mas­ ter’s degree in civil engineering or landscape architecture coupled with training in transportation or environmental planning, provide the most marketable background. Certified planners have the best job prospects. Graduates with only an accredited bachelor’s degree in planning may have more difficulty finding a job in this field, but their employment prospects still are relatively good. Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, are likely to arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The continuing importance of transportation, environmental, housing, economic, and energy production planning will spur de­ mand for urban and regional planners. Specific factors contributing to job growth include commercial development to support suburban areas with rapidly growing populations; legislation related to the en­ vironment, transportation, housing, and land use and development, such as the Clean Air Act; historic preservation and rehabilitation activities; central city redevelopment; the need to replace the Na­ tion’s infrastructure, including bridges, highways, and sewers; and interest in zoning and land use planning in undeveloped and nonme­ tropolitan areas, including coastal and agricultural areas. Most new jobs for urban and regional planners will arise in rap­ idly expanding communities. Local governments need planners to address an array of problems associated with population growth. For example, new housing developments require roads, sewer sys­ tems, fire stations, schools, libraries, and recreation facilities that must be planned while considering budgetary constraints. Job growth also is expected to occur in smaller cities and towns in estab­ lished areas—for example, in the Northeast—undergoing preserva­ tion and redevelopment, and in tourist resorts. Changes in the level of government funding for planning services could greatly affect de­ mand for these workers. Earnings Salaries of planners vary by educational attainment, type of em­ ployer, experience, size of community in which they work, and geo­ graphic location. According to a 1991 survey by APA, urban and regional planners earned a median annual salary of $42,000. Plan­ ners with a Ph.D. in planning earned a median salary of $57,000; those with a master’s degree earned $43,000; and bachelor’s degree holders earned $39,200. The median annual salary of planners in city governments was $40,100; in county governments, $38,000; in joint city/county gov­ ernments, $36,000; and in State governments, $43,000; Planners in land development firms earned $65,500; in colleges and universities, $51,900; in private consulting firms, $49,000; and in nonprofit foun­ dations, $42,000. For planners with over 10 years’ experience, local government agencies paid $47,700 annually, while private busi­ nesses and consulting firms paid $58,000. Directors of public plan­ ning agencies within local governments earned 13 percent more than staff members at comparable levels of experience, while direc­ tors or chief executive officers of private consulting firms earned only 7 percent more than staff members. Salaries of planners in large jurisdictions may be as much as $6,000 a year higher than their counterparts in small jurisdictions. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Gov­ ernment at a starting average salary of $27,800 a year in 1993. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $18,300 or $22,700. Salaries of urban and regional planners employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage­ rial positions averaged about $52,400 a year in 1993.  Professional Specialty Occupations Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. Others whose work is similar to the work of planners include architects, landscape architects, city man­ agers, civil engineers, environmental engineers, and geographers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers, salaries, and certification in ur­ ban and regional planning, as well as job referrals, are available from:   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  131  W American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Wash­ ington, DC 20036.  General information on urban and regional planning, and on schools offering training in urban and regional planning prepared by the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning is available from: O” American Planning Association, Planners’ Bookstore, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, IL 60637.  Social and Recreation Workers  Human Services Workers (D.O.T. 195.367 except -026 and -030)  Nature of the Work “Human services worker” is a generic term for people with various job titles, such as social service technician, case management aide, social work assistant, residential counselor, alcohol or drug abuse counselor, mental health technician, child abuse worker, commu­ nity outreach worker, and gerontology aide. They generally work under the direction of social workers or, in some cases, psycholo­ gists. The amount of responsibility and supervision they are given varies a great deal. Some are on their own most of the time and have little direct supervision; others work under close direction. Human services workers help clients obtain benefits or services. They assess the needs and establish the eligibility of clients for ser­ vices. They examine financial documents such as rent receipts and tax returns to determine whether the client is eligible for food stamps, Medicaid, or other welfare programs, for example. They also inform clients how to obtain services; arrange for transporta­ tion and escorts, if necessary; and provide emotional support. Human services workers monitor and keep case records on clients and report progress to supervisors. Human services workers may transport or accompany clients to group meal sites, adult daycare programs, or doctors’ offices; tele­ phone or visit clients’ homes to make sure services are being re­ ceived; or help resolve disagreements, such as those between tenants and landlords. Human services workers play a variety of roles in community set­ tings. They may organize and lead group activities, assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention, or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. In halfway houses and group homes, they oversee adult residents who need some supervision or support on a daily basis, but who do not need to live in an institution. They review clients’ records, talk with their families, and confer with medical personnel to gain better insight into their background and needs. Human services workers may teach residents to prepare their own meals and to do other housekeeping activities. They also pro­ vide emotional support and lead recreation activities. In mental hospitals and psychiatric clinics, they may help clients master everyday living skills and teach them how to communicate more effectively and get along better with others. They also assist with music, art, and dance therapy and with individual and group counseling and lead recreational activities. Working Conditions Working conditions of human services workers vary. Many spend part of their time in an office or group residential facility and the rest in the field—visiting clients or taking them on trips, or meeting with people who provide services to the clients. Most work a regular 40-hour week, although some work may be in the evening and on weekends. Human services workers in residential settings generally work in shifts because residents need supervision around the clock. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under­ staffing and lack of equipment may add to the pressure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field. 132  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Human services workers help clients obtain benefits and services. Employment Human services workers held about 189,000 jobs in 1992. About one-fourth were employed by State and local governments, prima­ rily in public welfare agencies and facilities for the mentally re­ tarded and developmentally disabled. Another fourth worked in pri­ vate social services agencies offering a variety of services, including adult daycare, group meals, crisis intervention, and counseling. Still another fourth supervised residents of group homes and halfway houses. Human services workers also held jobs in clinics, commu­ nity mental health centers, and psychiatric hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While some employers hire high school graduates, most prefer ap­ plicants with some college preparation in human services, social work, or one of the social or behavioral sciences. Some prefer to hire persons with a 4-year college degree. The level of formal education of human service workers often influences the kind of work they are assigned and the amount of responsibility entrusted to them. Work­ ers with no more than a high school education are likely to perform clerical duties, while those with a college degree might be assigned to do direct counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. Employers may also look for experience in other occu­ pations or leadership experience in school or in a youth group. Some enter the field on the basis of courses in social work, psychology, so­ ciology, rehabilitation, or special education. Most employers pro­ vide in-service training such as seminars and workshops. Because so many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are vulnerable to exploitation or mistreatment, employ­ ers try to select applicants with appropriate personal qualifications. Relevant academic preparation is generally required, and volunteer or work experience is preferred. A strong desire to help others, pa­ tience, and understanding are highly valued characteristics. Other important personal traits include communication skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Hiring requirements in group homes tend to be more stringent than in other settings. In 1992, 375 certificate and associate degree programs in human services or mental health were offered at community and junior col­ leges, vocational-technical institutes, and other postsecondary insti­ tutions. In addition, 390 programs offered a bachelor’s degree in human services. A small number of programs leading to master’s degrees in human services administration were offered as well.  Professional Specialty Occupations Generally, academic programs in this field educate students for specialized roles—work with developmental^ disabled adults, for example. Students are exposed early and often to the kinds of situa­ tions they may encounter on the job. Programs typically include courses in psychology, sociology, crisis intervention, social work, family dynamics, therapeutic interviewing, rehabilitation, and ger­ ontology. Through classroom simulation internships, students learn interview, observation, and recordkeeping skills; individual and group counseling techniques; and program planning. Formal education is almost always necessary for advancement. In group homes, completion of a 1-year certificate in human services along with several years of experience may suffice for promotion to supervisor. In general, however, advancement requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in counseling, rehabilitation, social work, or a re­ lated field. Job Outlook Opportunities for human services workers are expected to be excel­ lent for qualified applicants. The number of human services workers is projected to more than double between 1992 and the year 2005— making it among the most rapidly growing occupations. Also, the need to replace workers who retire or stop working for other reasons will create additional job opportunities. However, these jobs are not attractive to everyone because the work is responsible and emotion­ ally draining and most offer relatively poor pay, so qualified appli­ cants should have little difficulty finding employment. Opportunities are expected to be best in job training programs, residential settings, and private social service agencies, which in­ clude such services as adult daycare and meal delivery programs. Demand for these services will expand with the growing number of older people, who are more likely to need services. In addition, human services workers will continue to be needed to provide ser­ vices to the mentally impaired and developmentally disabled, those with substance abuse problems, and a wide variety of others. Faced with rapid growth in the demand for services, but slower growth in resources to provide the services, employers are expected to rely in­ creasingly on human services workers rather than other occupations that command higher pay. Job training programs are expected to require additional human services workers as the economy grows and businesses change their mode of production and workers need to be retrained. Human ser­ vices workers help determine workers’ eligibility for public assis­ tance programs and help them obtain services while unemployed. Residential settings should expand also as pressures to respond to the needs of the chronically mentally ill persist. For many years, chronic mental patients have been deinstitutionalized and left to their own devices. Now, more community-based programs and group residences are expected to be established to house and assist the homeless and chronically mentally ill, and demand for human services workers will increase accordingly. Although overall employment in State and local governments will grow only as fast as the average for all industries, jobs for human services workers will grow more rapidly. State and local govern­ ments employ most of their human services workers in correctional and public assistance departments. Correctional departments are growing faster than other areas of government, so human services workers should find their job opportunities increase along with other corrections jobs. Public assistance programs have been rela­ tively stable within governments’ budgets, but they have been em­ ploying more human services workers in an attempt to employ fewer social workers, who are more educated and higher paid. Earnings According to limited data available, starting salaries for human ser­ vices workers ranged from about $12,000 to $20,000 a year in 1992. Experienced workers generally earned between $15,000 and $25,000 annually, depending on their education, experience, and employer.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  133  Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of human services workers include social workers, community out­ reach workers, religious workers, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assistants and aides, psychiatric aides, and activity leaders. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, con­ tact: (3= National Organization for Human Service Education, Brookdale Com­ munity College, Lyncroft, NJ 07738. 13" Council for Standards in Human Service Education, Montgomery Com­ munity College, 340 Dekalb Pike, Blue Bell, PA 19422.  Information on job openings may be available from State employ­ ment service offices or directly from city, county, or State depart­ ments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources.  Recreation Workers (D.O.T. 153.137-010; 159.124-010; 187.167-238; 195.227-010 and-014; and 352.167-010)  Nature of the Work Many people spend some of their leisure time participating in organ­ ized recreation ranging from aerobics or crafts to hiking or softball. Recreation programs as diverse as the people they serve are offered at local playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community cen­ ters, health clubs, churches and synagogues, camps, theme parks and tourist attractions, correctional institutions, and a variety of other places. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct the ac­ tivities these places offer. Recreation workers organize and lead programs and watch over recreational facilities and equipment. They help people to pursue their interest in crafts, art, or sports. They enable people to share common interests in basketball, basket weaving, or body building for their mutual entertainment, physical fitness, and self-improve­ ment. Recreation workers organize teams and leagues so young peo­ ple and adults can practice fair play and good sportsmanship through competitive sports. They also teach people the correct use of equipment and facilities so maximum benefit can be derived from their use without injury. Recreation workers at workplaces organize and direct leisure ac­ tivities and athletic programs for employees and their families, such as bowling and softball leagues, social functions, travel programs, discount services, and, to an increasing extent, exercise and fitness programs. These activities are generally for adults. Camp counselors lead and instruct child and teenage campers in outdoor-oriented forms of recreation, such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as camping. Activities often are in­ tended to enhance campers’ appreciation of nature and responsible use of the environment. In addition, counselors provide campers with specialized instruction in activities such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, or computers. In resident camps, counselors also provide guidance and supervise daily living tasks and general socialization. Recreation workers occupy a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders are responsible for a rec­ reation program’s daily operation and organize and direct partici­ pants. They may lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; schedule use of facilities and keep records of equipment use; and monitor the use of recreation facilities and  134  Occupational Outlook Handbook  equipment to make sure they are used properly. Workers who pro­ vide instruction in specialties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. They often conduct clas­ ses and coach teams in the activity in which they specialize. Recreation supervisors plan programs to meet the needs of the population they serve and supervise recreation leaders and activity specialists, sometimes over a large region. They may also direct spe­ cialized activities and special events. A growing number of supervi­ sors are using computers in their work. In a related occupation, recreational therapists who help individu­ als recover or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Recreation workers must work while others engage in leisure time activities. While the majority of recreation workers worked about 40 hours a week, people entering this field should expect some night work, weekend work, and irregular hours. About one-fifth worked part time. Also, many jobs are seasonal. The work setting for recrea­ tion workers may be anywhere from a vacation cruise ship to a woodland recreational park. Recreation workers often spend much of their time outdoors and may work under a variety of weather con­ ditions. Recreation supervisors may spend most of their time in an office. Since full-time recreation workers spend more time acting as managers than hands-on activities leaders, they engage in less physi­ cal activity. However, as is the case for anyone engaged in physical activity, recreation workers risk injuries, and the work can be physi­ cally tiring. Employment Recreation workers held about 204,(XX) jobs in 1992, and many ad­ ditional workers held summer jobs in the occupation. Of those who held full-time jobs as recreation workers, about half worked for gov­ ernment agencies, primarily in park and recreation departments at the municipal and county levels. About 15 percent worked in mem­ bership organizations with a civic, social, fraternal, or religious ori­ entation—the Boy Scouts, the YWCA, and Red Cross, for example.  Recreation workers who work at pools conduct swimming and exercise classes.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Another 12 percent were in programs run by social service organiza­ tions (senior centers and adult daycare programs, for example) or in residential care facilities such as halfway houses, group homes, and institutions for delinquent youth. An additional 10 percent worked for nursing and other personal care facilities. Other employers included commercial recreation establishments, amusement parks, sports and entertainment centers, wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excursion compa­ nies, hotels and resorts, summer camps, health and athletic clubs, and apartment complexes. The recreation field has an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. These jobs include summer camp counselors, lifeguards, craft specialists, and after-school and week­ end recreation program leaders. Teachers and college students take many jobs as recreation workers when school is not in session. Many unpaid volunteers assist paid recreation workers. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day-camp programs, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes, hospi­ tals, senior centers, YMCA’s, and other settings. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commissions. Volun­ teer experience, part-time work during school, or a summer job may lead to a full-time job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education needed for recreation worker jobs ranges from a high school diploma, or sometimes less, for many summer jobs to gradu­ ate education for some administrative positions in large public sys­ tems. Full-time career professional positions usually require a col­ lege degree with a major in parks and recreation or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial recreation, or “em­ ployee services” as it is more commonly called, companies prefer to hire persons with a bachelor’s degree in recreation or leisure studies and a strong background in business administration. A background with specialized training or experience in a partic­ ular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require a special certificate, such as a lifesaving certificate when there are water related activities. Graduates of asso­ ciate degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines also enter some career recreation positions. Occasionally high school graduates are able to enter ca­ reer positions, but this is not common. Some college students work part time as recreation workers while earning degrees. Persons with academic preparation in parks and recreation, lei­ sure studies, physical education, fitness management, and related fields generally have better prospects for career advancement, al­ though this varies from one employer to another. In some organiza­ tions, it is possible to reach the top of the career ladder without a college education, but this is becoming increasingly difficult. A bachelor’s degree and experience are preferred for most recrea­ tion supervisor jobs and required for most higher level administra­ tor jobs. However, increasing numbers of recreation workers who aspire to administrator positions are obtaining master’s degrees in parks and recreation or related disciplines. Also, many persons in other disciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource man­ agement, pursue graduate degrees in recreation. Programs leading to an associate or bachelor’s degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are offered at about 350 colleges and universities. Many also offer master’s or doctoral degrees in this field. In 1993, 90 bachelor’s degree programs in parks and recreation were accredited by the Council on Accreditation, sponsored by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) in cooperation with the American Association for Leisure and Recreation (AALR). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the his­ tory, theory, and philosophy of park and recreation management. Courses offered include community organization; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations such as  Professional Specialty Occupations older adults or the disabled; and supervised fieldwork. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. The American Camping Association has developed a curriculum for camp director education. Many national youth associations offer training courses for camp directors at the local and regional levels. Persons planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Good health and physical fitness are required. Activity planning calls for creativ­ ity and resourcefulness. Willingness to accept responsibility and the ability to exercise good judgment are important qualities since recre­ ation personnel often work without close supervision. Part-time or summer recreation work experience while in high school or college may help students decide whether their interests really point to a human services career. Such experience also may increase their leadership skills and understanding of people. Individuals contemplating careers in recreation at the supervisory or administrative level should develop managerial skills. College courses in management, business administration, accounting, and personnel management are likely to be useful. Certification for this field is offered by the NRPA National Certi­ fication Board and the American Camping Association. The Na­ tional Recreation and Parks Association, along with its State chap­ ters, offers certification as a Certified Leisure Professional (CLP) for those with a college degree in recreation, and as a Certified Leisure Technician (CLT) for those with less than 4 years of college. The American Camping Association offers a certification program for camp directors. Continuing education is necessary to remain certi­ fied in either field. Certification is not usually required for employment or advance­ ment in this field, but it is an asset. Employers choosing among qual­ ified job applicants may opt to hire the person with a demonstrated record of professional achievement represented by certification. Job Outlook Employment of recreation workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as growing numbers of people possess both leisure time and the money to purchase leisure services. Growth in these jobs will also be due to in­ creased interest in fitness and health and rising demand for recrea­ tional opportunities for older adults in senior centers and retirement communities. Opportunities for part-time and seasonal jobs are ex­ pected to be plentiful, but competition is likely for full-time career positions. Overall job growth in local government—where half of all recrea­ tion workers are employed—is expected to be slow due to budget constraints, and local park and recreation departments are expected to do less hiring for permanent, full-time positions than in the past. As a result, this sector’s share of recreation worker employment will shrink by the end of the century. Nonetheless, opportunities will vary widely by region, since resources as well as priorities for public services differ from one community to another. Thus, hiring pros­ pects for recreation workers will be much better in some park and recreation departments than overall projections would suggest, but worse in others. Recreation worker jobs should also increase in the fast-growing social services industry. More recreation workers will be needed to develop and lead activity programs in senior centers, halfway houses, children’s homes, and daycare programs for the mentally re­ tarded or developmentally disabled. Recreation worker jobs in employee services and recreation will continue to increase as more businesses recognize the benefits to their employees of recreation programs and other services such as wellness programs and elder care. Job growth will also occur in the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  135  commercial recreation industry, composed of amusement parks, athletic clubs, camps, sports clinics, and swimming pools. Full-time career jobseekers will face keen competition. All college graduates can enter recreation worker jobs, regardless of major, as well as some high school and junior college graduates, so applica­ tions for career positions in recreation often greatly exceed the num­ ber of job openings. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for persons with job experience gained in part-time or seasonal rec­ reation jobs, together with formal recreation training. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. Prospects are much better for the very large number of temporary seasonal jobs. Demand for seasonal recreation workers is great, and job opportunities should be good. These positions, typically filled by high school or college students, do not generally have formal educa­ tion requirements and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force, and while salaries in recreation are often lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors is nevertheless attractive to many. Seasonal employ­ ment prospects should be very good for applicants with specialized training and certification in an activity like swimming. These work­ ers may obtain jobs as program directors. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time in 1992 were about $14,900. The middle 50 percent earned between about $10,700 and $19,900. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,700 or less, while the top 10 percent earned about $27,200 or more. However, earnings of recreation directors and others in su­ pervisory or managerial positions can be much higher—anywhere from $22,000 to $95,000, depending on the level of responsibility and the size of the staff. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time rec­ reation workers with vacation and other benefits such as paid vaca­ tion and sick leave and health insurance. Part-time workers receive few, if any, benefits. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity in deal­ ing with people. Other occupations that require similar personal qualities include recreational therapists, social workers, parole of­ ficers, human relations counselors, school counselors, clinical and counseling psychologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on local government jobs in recreation, contact the nearest department of parks and recreation. Ordering information for materials describing careers and aca­ demic programs in recreation is available from: fST National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Ser­ vices, 2775 South Quincy St., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206.  The American Association for Leisure and Recreation publishes information sheets on 25 separate careers in parks and recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: Ef-AALR, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  For information on careers in employee services and recreation, contact: fw National Employee Services and Recreation Association, 2211 YorkRd., Suite 207, Oakbrook, IL 60521.  For information on careers in camping and summer counselor op­ portunities, contact: fw American Camping Association, 5000 State Rd. 67 North, Martinsville, IN 46151.  For information on careers with the YMCA, contact: \3= YMCA of the USA, 101 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606.  136  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Social Workers (D.O.T. 045.107-058; 189.267-010; 195.107, .137, .164, .167-010 and -014, .267-018 and -022, and .367-026)  Nature of the Work Social workers help people. They help individuals cope with problems such as inadequate housing, unemployment, lack of job skills, financial mismanagement, serious illness, disability, sub­ stance abuse, unwanted pregnancy, or antisocial behavior. They also work with families that have serious conflicts, including those involving child or spousal abuse. Through direct counseling, social workers help clients identify their real concerns and help them to consider solutions and find re­ sources. Often, social workers provide concrete information such as: Where to go for debt counseling; how to find child care or elder care; how to apply for public assistance or other benefits; or how to get an alcoholic or drug addict admitted to a rehabilitation pro­ gram. Social workers may also arrange for services in consultation with clients and then follow through to assure the services are actu­ ally helpful. They may review eligibility requirements, fill out forms and applications, arrange for services, visit clients on a regular basis, and step in during emergencies. Most social workers specialize in a clinical field such as child wel­ fare and family services, mental health, medical social work, school social work. Clinical social workers offer psychotherapy or counsel­ ing and a range of services in public agencies, clinics, as well as in private practice. Other social workers are employed in community organization, administration, or research. Social workers in child welfare or family services may counsel children and youths who have difficulty adjusting socially, advise parents on how to care for disabled children, or arrange for home­ maker services during a parent’s illness. If children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, and counselors to identify underlying causes and develop plans for treatment. Some social workers assist single parents, ar­ range adoptions, and help find foster homes for neglected or aban­ doned children. Child welfare workers also work in residential insti­ tutions for children and adolescents. Social workers in child or adult protective services investigate re­ ports of abuse and neglect and intervene if necessary. They may in­ stitute legal action to remove children from homes and place them temporarily in an emergency shelter or with a foster family. Mental health social workers provide services for persons with mental or emotional problems, such as individual and group ther­ apy, outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday living. They may also help plan for supportive services to ease patients’ return to the community. (Also see the statements on counselors and psychologists elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Medical social workers help patients and their families cope with chronic, acute, or terminal illnesses and handle problems that may stand in the way of recovery or rehabilitation. They may organize support groups for families of patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, or other illnesses. They also advise family caregivers, and counsel patients and help plan for their needs after discharge by arranging for at-home services—from meals-on-wheels to oxygen equipment. Some work on interdisciplinary teams that evaluate certain kinds of patients—geriatric or transplant patients, for example. School social workers diagnose students’ problems and arrange needed services, counsel children in trouble, and help integrate dis­ abled students into the general school population. School social workers deal with problems such as student pregnancy, misbehavior in class, and excessive absences. They also advise teachers on how to deal with problem students.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Social workers in criminal justice make recommendations to courts, do pre-sentencing assessments, and provide services for prison inmates and their families. Probation and parole officers pro­ vide similar services to individuals on parole or sentenced by a court to probation. Industrial or occupational social workers generally work in an employer’s personnel department or health unit. Through employee assistance programs, they help workers cope with job-related pres­ sures or personal problems that affect the quality of their work. They offer direct counseling to employees, often those whose per­ formance is hindered by emotional or family problems or substance abuse. They also develop education programs and refer workers to specialized community programs. Some social workers specialize in gerontological services. They run support groups for family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents; advise elderly people or family members about the choices in such areas as housing, transportation, and long-term care; and coordinate and monitor services. Working Conditions Most social workers have a standard 40-hour week. However, they may work some evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies. Some, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. They may spend most of their time in an office or residential facility, but may also travel locally to visit clients or meet with service providers. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under­ staffing and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. Employment Social workers held about 484,000jobs in 1992. Nearly 40 percent of the jobs were in State, county, or municipal government agencies, primarily in departments of human resources, social services, child welfare, mental health, health, housing, education, and corrections. Most in the private sector were in voluntary social service agencies, community and religious organizations, hospitals, nursing homes, or home health agencies. Although most social workers are employed in cities or suburbs, some work in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for most positions. Besides the bachelor’s in social work (BSW), undergraduate majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields satisfy hiring require­ ments in some agencies, especially small community agencies. A  Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sensitive to people and their problems.  Professional Specialty Occupations master’s degree in social work (MSW) is generally necessary for po­ sitions in health and mental health settings. Jobs in public agencies may also require an MSW. Supervisory, administrative, and staff training positions usually require at least an MSW. College and Uni­ versity teaching positions and most research appointments normally require a doctorate in social work. In 1991, the Council on Social Work Education accredited 297 BSW programs and 103 MSW programs. There were 49 doctoral programs for Ph.D. in Social Work and for DSW (Doctor of Social Work). BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service posi­ tions such as caseworker or group worker. They include courses in social work practice, social welfare policies, human behavior and the social environment, and social research methods. Accredited BSW programs require at least 400 hours of supervised field experi­ ence. An MSW degree prepares graduates to perform assessments, to manage cases, and to supervise other workers. Master’s programs usually last 2 years and include 900 hours of supervised field in­ struction, or internship. Entry into an MSW program does not re­ quire a bachelor’s in social work, but courses in psychology, biology, sociology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, urban studies, and social work are recommended. Some schools of­ fer an accelerated MSW program for those with a BSW. Social workers may advance to supervisor, program manager, as­ sistant director, and finally to executive director of an agency or de­ partment. Advancement generally requires an MSW, as well as ex­ perience. Other career options for social workers are teaching, research, and consulting. Some help formulate government policies by analyzing and advocating policy positions in government agen­ cies, in research institutions, and on legislators’ staffs. Some social workers go into private practice. Most private practi­ tioners are clinical social workers who provide psychotherapeutic counseling, usually paid through health insurance. Private practi­ tioners must have completed an MSW and a period of supervised work experience. A network of contacts for referrals is also essen­ tial. In 1993, all States and the District of Columbia had licensing, cer­ tification, or registration laws regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. In addition, voluntary certification is offered by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), which grants the titled ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Work­ ers) or ACBSW (Academy of Certified Baccalaureate Social Work­ ers) to those who qualify. For clinical social workers, professional credentials include listing in the 1VASIT Register of Clinical Social Workers or in the Directory of American Board of Examiners in Clinical Social Work. These credentials are particularly important for those in private practice; some health insurance providers re­ quire them for reimbursement. Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sen­ sitive to people and their problems. They must be able to handle re­ sponsibility, work independently, and maintain good working rela­ tionships with clients and coworkers. Volunteer or paid jobs as a social work aide offer ways of testing one’s interest in this field. Job Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of older people, who are more likely to need social services, is growing rapidly. In addition, requirements for social workers will grow with increases in the need for and concern about services to the mentally ill, the mentally retarded, and individuals and families in crisis. Many job openings will also arise due to the need to replace social workers who leave the occupation. Employment of social workers in hospitals is projected to grow much faster than the average for the economy as a whole due to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  137  greater emphasis on discharge planning, which facilitates early dis­ charge of patients by assuring that the necessary medical services and social supports are in place when individuals leave the hospital. Employment of social workers in private social service agencies is projected to grow about as fast as the average. Although demand for their services is expected to increase rapidly, agencies will increas­ ingly restructure services and hire more lower paid human services workers instead of social workers. Employment in government should also grow about as fast as the average in response to increas­ ing needs for public welfare and family services. Social worker employment in home health care services is grow­ ing, not only because hospitals are moving to release patients more quickly, but because a large and growing number of people have im­ pairments or disabilities that make it difficult to live at home with­ out some form of assistance. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will expand because of the anticipated availability of funding from health insur­ ance and from public sector contracts. Also, with increasing afflu­ ence, people will be more willing to pay for professional help to deal with personal problems. The growing popularity of employee assis­ tance programs is also expected to spur demand for private practi­ tioners, some of whom provide social work services to corporations on a contract basis. Employment of school social workers is expected to grow, due to expanded efforts to respond to the adjustment problems of immi­ grants, children from single-parent families, and others in difficult situations. Moreover, continued emphasis on integrating disabled children into the general school population—a requirement under the Education for All Handicapped Children Act—will probably lead to more jobs. The availability of State and local funding will dictate the actual increase in jobs in this setting, however. Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities where training programs for social workers abound; rural areas often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Earnings The median earnings of social workers with MSW degrees were $30,000 in 1992, according to a membership survey of the National Association of Social Workers. For those with BSW degrees, me­ dian earnings were $20,000 according to the same survey. In hospitals, social workers who worked full-time averaged about $30,850 in 1993, according to a survey performed by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Salaries ranged from a minimum of about $25,600 to a maximum of nearly $38,700. Social workers employed by the Federal Government averaged $41,400 in 1993. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social work­ ers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occu­ pations with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, counsel­ ing psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work, contact: ^National Association of Social Workers, 750 First St. NE., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20002-4241. tw National Network For Social Work Managers, Inc., 6501 North Federal Highway, Suite 5, Boca Raton, FL 33487.  An annual Directory of Accredited BSW and MSW Programs is available for $10.00 from: ty Council on Social Work Education, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3421.  Religious Workers Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and administer the various rites of the church, such as baptism, con­ firmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver ser­ mons and give religious instruction. They also perform marriages; conduct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and serve church members in other ways. Many Prot­ estant ministers write articles for publication, give speeches, and en­ gage in interfaith, community, civic, educational, and recreational activities sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries, colleges and universities, and church- affiliated preparatory or high schools. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant de­ nominations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of wor­ ship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denomina­ tions, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congregations generally work personally with parishioners. Those serving large congregations have greater administrative responsibilities and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides other duties. They may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more as­ sociates or assistants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of mu­ sic.  wmm  Many Protestant denominations now allow women to be ordained.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Ministers are “on call” for any serious troubles or emergencies that affect members of their churches. They also may work long and ir­ regular hours in administrative, educational, and community ser­ vice activities. Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary, such as reading or doing research in a study or a library to prepare sermons or write ar­ ticles. In some denominations, ministers are reassigned by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Employment In 1992, there were an estimated 290,000 Protestant ministers who served individual congregations. Thousands of others served with­ out a regular congregation, or worked in closely related fields, such as chaplains in hospitals, the Armed Forces, universities, and cor­ rectional institutions. While there are numerous denominations, most ministers are employed by the five largest Protestant bodies— Baptist, Episcopalian, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Although most minis­ ters are located in urban areas, many serve two or more small con­ gregations in less densely populated areas. Some small churches in­ creasingly are employing part-time ministers who may be seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pas­ tors serve other churches with meager funds. Some churches em­ ploy specially trained members of the laity to conduct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Many denominations require—or at least strongly pre­ fer—a college bachelor’s degree followed by study at a theological school. However, some denominations have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain persons having various types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. Many denominations now allow women to be ordained, but others do not. Persons considering a career in the ministry should verify the entrance requirements with their particular denomination before deciding on a career as a minister. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other de­ nominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. In 1992, over 200 American Protestant theological schools were accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent in liberal arts from an accredited college. After college graduation, many denominations require a 3year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries for the degree of master of divinity. College students considering theological study should prepare by taking courses that will aid them later. At the earliest possible date, they should contact their denominations and the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they hope to enter. Recommended preseminary or undergraduate college courses generally include English, history, philosophy, natural sci­ ences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign lan­ guages. These courses provide a knowledge of modern social, cul­ tural, and scientific institutions and problems. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools con­ sists of four major categories: Biblical, historical, theological, and  Professional Specialty Occupations practical. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accred­ ited schools require that students work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry degrees to students who have completed addi­ tional study, usually 2 or more years, and served at least 2 years as a minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theo­ logical institutions. Persons who have denominational qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serv­ ing a probationary pastoral period. Denominations that do not re­ quire seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. Some evangelical churches may ordain ministers with only a high school education. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook Competition is expected to continue for paid Protestant ministers through the year 2005 due to slow growth of church membership and the large number of qualified candidates. Opportunities are ex­ pected to be best for graduates of theological schools. The amount of competition for paid positions will vary among denominations and geographic regions. Competition will still be strong for more re­ sponsible positions serving large, urban congregations. Relatively favorable prospects are expected for ministers in evangelical churches. Ministers willing to work part time or for smaller, rural congregations also should have relatively favorable opportunities. Most of the openings for ministers through the year 2005 will arise from the need to replace retirees and, to a lesser extent, those who die or leave the ministry. Employment alternatives for newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find positions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and welfare organizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; and serving as chap­ lains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on age, experience, denomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geo­ graphic location. Based on limited information, the estimated aver­ age annual income of Protestant ministers was about $27,000 in 1992. Including benefits such as housing, insurance, and transporta­ tion, average compensation was an estimated $44,000. In large, wealthier denominations, ministers often earned significantly higher salaries. Increasingly, ministers with modest salaries earn additional income from employment in secular occupations.  139  Rabbis (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations, and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the bereaved, supervise relig­ ious education programs, engage in interfaith activities, and involve themselves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, or Recon­ structionist congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jewish re­ ligious worship. Congregations differ in the extent to which they fol­ low the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of instrumental music or a choir. The format of the worship ser­ vice and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbi uses may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and counsel those who seek it. Community and educa­ tional activities may also require long or irregular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and sedentary, such as study­ ing religious texts, researching and writing sermons and articles for publication, and preparing lectures for adult education. Rabbis have a good deal of independent authority, since they have no formal hierarchy. They are responsible only to the board of trust­ ees of the congregations they serve. Employment  In 1992, there were approximately 1,600 Reform, 1,300 Conserva­ tive, 850 Orthodox, and 160 Reconstructionist rabbis. Although the  Related Occupations Protestant ministers advise and counsel individuals and groups re­ garding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational de­ velopment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who'are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Theological schools can supply information on admission require­ ments. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination su­ pervision body of their particular denomination for information on special requirements for ordination.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties.  140  Occupational Outlook Handbook  majority served congregations, many rabbis functioned in other set­ tings. Some taught in Jewish Studies programs at colleges and uni­ versities. Others served as chaplains in the military services, in hos­ pitals, in college settings, and other institutions, or in one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Na­ tion, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas with large Jewish populations. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must com­ plete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the sem­ inary is associated. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries pro­ vide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Tal­ mud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Students get extensive practical training in dealing with social problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leader­ ship in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in such fields as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. About 35 seminaries educate and ordain Orthodox rabbis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are representative of the two basic kinds of Or­ thodox seminaries. The former requires a bachelor’s degree for en­ try and has a formal 4-year ordination program. The latter has no formal admission requirements but may require more years of study for ordination. The training is rigorous. When students have be­ come sufficiently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other relig­ ious studies, they may be ordained with the approval of an author­ ized rabbi, acting either independently or as a representative of a rabbinical seminary. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America educates rabbis for the Conservative branch. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish In­ stitute of Religion educates rabbis for the Reform branch. For ad­ mission to their rabbinical programs leading to ordination, both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies. The Conservative seminary usually requires 5 years to complete the course of study. Normally, 5 years of study are also required to complete the rabbinical course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Je­ rusalem. Exceptionally well- prepared students can shorten this 5year period to a minimum of 3 years. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College educates rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. A bachelor’s degree is required for ad­ mission. The rabbinical program is based on a 5-year course of study which emphasizes, in each year, a period in the history of Jewish civ­ ilization. A preliminary preparatory year is required for students without sufficient grounding in Hebrew and Jewish studies. Gradu­ ates are awarded the title “Rabbi” and the Master of Arts in Hebrew Letters and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of Hebrew Let­ ters degree. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as spiritual leaders of small congregations, assistants to experienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in educational institu­ tions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, experienced rabbis fill the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congrega­ tions. Job Outlook Job opportunities for rabbis are expected to be generally favorable in the four major branches of Judaism through the year 2005. Present unmet needs for rabbis, together with the need to replace the many rabbis approaching retirement age, should insure that the numbers of persons completing rabbinical training in the years ahead will en­ counter good job prospects. Since most rabbis prefer to serve in large, urban areas, employment opportunities generally are best in nonmetropolitan areas, particularly in smaller communities in the South, Midwest, and Northwest.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Graduates of Orthodox seminaries who seek pulpits should have good opportunities as growth in enrollments slows and as many graduates choose not to seek pulpits. Orthodox rabbis willing to work in small communities should have particularly good pros­ pects. Conservative and Reform rabbis are expected to have good em­ ployment opportunities throughout the country. Reconstructionist rabbis are expected to have very good employ­ ment opportunities since membership is expanding rapidly. Earnings Income varies widely, depending on the size and financial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geo­ graphic location. Rabbis may earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs and wed­ dings. Based on limited information, annual average earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $38,000 to $60,000 in 1992, including bene­ fits. Benefits may include housing, health insurance, and a retire­ ment plan. Related Occupations Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious, personal, social, and vocational development. Others in­ volved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and coun­ seling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: fS" Rabbinical Council of America, 275 7th Ave., New York, NY 10001. (Orthodox) O’The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, NY 10027. (Conservative) 0° Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion, Director of Place­ ment, at any one of three campuses: 1 W. 4th St., New York, NY 10012; 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45220; 3077 University Mall, Los Ange­ les, CA 90007. (Reform) X>T Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Church Rd. and Greenwood Ave., Wyncote, PA 19095.  Roman Catholic Priests (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. They deliver ser­ mons, administer the sacraments, and preside at liturgical functions such as marriages, baptisms, and funerals. They also comfort the sick, console and counsel those in need of guidance, and assist the poor. Some priests are involved in nonliturgical concerns such as human rights and social welfare. A priest’s day usually begins with morning meditation and mass and may end with an individual counseling session or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. The two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious—have the same powers, acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differences lie in their way of life, their type of work, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Di­ ocesan priests commit their lives to serving the people of a diocese and generally work in parishes assigned by the bishop of their dio­ cese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary work, as­ signed by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administra­ tive posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high  Professional Specialty Occupations schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the church’s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the pa­ rochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Working Conditions Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the community. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some religious priests serve as missionaries in for­ eign countries, where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Some live a communal life in monasteries, where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests are “on call” at all hours to serve their parishio­ ners in emergencies. They also have many intellectual duties, in­ cluding study of the scriptures and keeping abreast of current relig­ ious and secular events in order to prepare sermons and teach effectively. Diocesan priests are responsible to the bishop of the dio­ cese. Employment There were approximately 53,000 priests in 1992, about two-thirds of them diocesan priests, according to the Official Catholic Direc­ tory. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many ru­ ral communities. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in com­ munities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school in one of about 230 seminaries. Preparatory study may begin in the first year of high "school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. Today, most candidates for the priesthood take a 4-year degree at a conventional college or university. After graduation from college, candidates gen­ erally receive 2 years of “Pre-theology” preparatory study (philoso­ phy, religious studies, and prayer) before entering the seminary. Theology coursework in the seminary includes sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preach­ ing); church history; liturgy (sacraments); and canon (church) law. Fieldwork experience usually is required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences in their duties. Priests commit  Catholic priests who are part of a religious order may specialize in teaching.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  141  themselves to celibacy, remaining unmarried. Only men are or­ dained as priests; women, however, may serve in many other church positions. Alternatively, high school seminaries provide a college prepara­ tory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social studies. Latin may be required, and modern languages are encouraged. In Hispanic communities, knowledge of Spanish is mandatory. Candidates may also choose to enter a seminary college that offers a liberal arts program stressing philosophy and religion, the study of humankind through the behavioral sciences and his­ tory, and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may concentrate in any one of these fields. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious seminaries are financed by contribu­ tions of benefactors. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of Ameri­ can Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catho­ lic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordi­ nation. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. A newly ordained secular priest usually works as an assistant pas­ tor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Depending on the talents, interests, and experience of the individual, many oppor­ tunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook The job outlook for Roman Catholic priests is expected to be very favorable through the year 2005. Many priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to continue—even if the recent modest increase in seminary enrollments continues—as an increasing proportion of priests ap­ proach retirement age. In response to the shortage of priests, certain traditional functions increasingly are being performed by permanent deacons and by teams of clergy and laity. Presently about 10,300 permanent dea­ cons have been ordained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as baptisms, distributing Holy Communion, and reading the gospel at the mass. The only services a deacon cannot perform are saying mass and hearing confessions. Teams of clergy and laity un­ dertake nonliturgical functions such as hospital visits and religious teaching. Priests will continue to perform mass, administer sacra­ ments, and hear confession, but may be less involved in teaching and administrative work. Earnings Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to diocese. Based on limited information, salaries averaged about $9,000 in 1992. In ad­ dition to a salary, diocesan priests received a package of benefits that could include a car allowance, free room and board in the parish rectory, health insurance, and a retirement plan. Including fringe benefits, the total value of a priest’s compensation package averages about $29,000 a year. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Any personal earnings are given to the order. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teach­ ing, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The difference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contributed service.” In some of these situations, housing and re­ lated expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing special work receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive.  142  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Related Occupations Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational development. Other occupations involved in this type of work in­ clude social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teach­ ers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For information re­ garding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priest­ hood, contact the diocesan director of vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Information about a career as a diocesan or a religious Roman Catholic priest can also be obtained from:  National Conference of Diocesan Vocation Directors, 1603 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 400, Chicago, IL 60616. 13= National Religious Vocation Conference, 1603 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 400, Chicago, IL 60616.  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors Adult Education Teachers (D.O.T. 075.127-010; 090.222, .227-018; 097.221, .227; 099.223, .224-014 .227-014,-018,-026,-030,-038; 149.021; 150.027-014; 151.027-014; 152.021; 153.227-014; 159.227; 166.221, .227; 235.222; 239.227; 375.227' 522.264­ 621.221; 683.222; 689.324; 715.221; 740.221; 788.222; 789.222; 919.223- and 955.222)  Nature of the Work Adult education teachers work in three main areas—adult voca­ tional-technical, adult basic, and adult continuing education. Some adult education teachers instruct people who have graduated or left school for occupations that do not require a college degree, such as welder, dental hygeinist, automated systems manager, x-ray techni­ cian, farmer, and cosmetologist. Other instructors help people up­ date their job skills or adapt to technological advances. For exam­ ple, an adult education teacher may train students how to use new computer software programs. Other teachers provide instruction in basic education courses for school dropouts or others who need to upgrade their skills to find a job. Adult education teachers also teach courses which students take for personal enrichment, such as cooking, dancing, writing, exercise and physical fitness, photogra­ phy, and finance. Adult education teachers may lecture in classrooms and also give students hands-on experience. Increasingly, adult vocational-tech­ nical education teachers integrate academic and vocational curriculums so that students obtain a variety of skills. For example, an elec­ tronics student may be required to take courses in principles of mathematics and science in conjunction with hands-on electronics skills. Generally, teachers demonstrate techniques, have students apply them, and critique the students’ work so that they can learn from their mistakes. For example, welding instructors show stu­ dents various welding techniques, including the use of tools and equipment, watch students use the techniques, and have them re­ peat procedures until students meet specific standards required by the trade. Adult education teachers who instruct in adult basic education programs may work with students who do not speak English; teach adults reading, writing, and mathematics up to the 8th-grade level; or teach adults through the 12th-grade level in preparation for the General Educational Development Examination (GED). The GED offers the equivalent of a high school diploma. These teachers may refer students for counseling or job placement. Because many people who need adult basic education are reluctant to seek it, teachers also may recruit participants. Adult education teachers also prepare lessons and assignments, grade papers and do related paperwork, attend faculty and profes­ sional meetings, and stay abreast of developments in their field. (For information on vocational education teachers in secondary schools, see the Handbook statement on kindergarten, elementary, and sec­ ondary school teachers.) Working Conditions Since adult education teachers work with adult students, they do not encounter some of the behavioral or social problems sometimes found when teaching younger students. The adults are there by choice, and usually are highly motivated—attributes that can make teaching these students rewarding and satisfying. However, teachers in adult basic education deal with students at different levels of de­ velopment who may lack effective study skills and self-confidence, and who may require more attention and patience than other stu­ dents.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Adult education teachers often work at night or on weekends. Many adult education teachers work part time. To accommodate students who may have job or family responsibilities, many courses are offered at night or on weekends, and range from 2- to 4-hour workshops and 1-day minisessions to semester-long courses. Employment Adult education teachers held about 540,000 jobs in 1992. About 4 out of 10 taught part time, a larger proportion than for other teach­ ers, and many taught only intermittently. However, many of them also held other jobs, in many cases doing work related to the subject they taught. Many adult education teachers are self-employed. Adult education teachers are employed by public school systems; community and junior colleges; universities; businesses that provide formal education and training for their employees; automotive re­ pair, bartending, business, computer, electronics, medical technol­ ogy, and similar schools and institutes; dance studios; health clubs; job training centers; community organizations; labor unions; and re­ ligious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary widely by State and by subject. In gen­ eral, teachers need work or other experience in their field, and a li­ cense or certificate in fields where these usually are required for full professional status. In some cases, particularly at educational insti­ tutions, a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree is required, espe­ cially to teach courses which can be applied toward a 4-year degree program. In other cases, an acceptable portfolio of work is required. For example, to secure a job teaching a flower arranging course, an applicant would need to show examples of previous work. Most States and the District of Columbia require adult basic edu­ cation teachers to have a bachelor’s degree from an approved teacher training program, and some require teacher certification. Adult education teachers update their skills through continuing education to maintain certification—requirements vary among in­ stitutions. Teachers may take part in seminars, conferences, or grad­ uate courses in adult education, training and development, or human resources development, or may return to work in business or industry for a limited time. Adult education teachers should communicate and relate well with students, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. Adult basic education instructors, in particular, must be pa­ tient, understanding, and supportive to make students comfortable, 143  144  Occupational Outlook Handbook  develop trust, and help them better understand their needs and aims. Some teachers advance to administrative positions in depart­ ments of education, colleges and universities, and corporate training departments. Such positions may require advanced degrees, such as a doctorate in adult and continuing education. (See statement on ed­ ucation administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of adult education teachers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the de­ mand for adult education programs continues to rise. Participation in continuing education increases as the educational attainment of the population increases. More people are realizing that life-long learning is important to success in their careers. To keep abreast of changes in their fields and advances in technology, an increasing number of adults are taking courses for career advancement, skills upgrading, and personal enrichment, spurring demand for adult ed­ ucation teachers. In addition, enrollment in adult basic education programs is increasing because of changes in immigration policy that require basic competency in English and civics, and an in­ creased awareness of the difficulty in finding a good job without ba­ sic academic skills. Employment growth of adult vocational-technical education teachers will result from the need to train young adults for entry level jobs, and experienced workers who want to switch fields or whose jobs have been eliminated due to changing technology or business reorganization. In addition, increased cooperation between businesses and educational in­ stitutions to insure that students are taught the skills employers desire should result in greater demand for adult education teachers, particu­ larly at community and junior colleges. Since adult education programs receive State and Federal funding, employment growth may be affected by government budgets. Many job openings for adult education teachers will stem from the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Many teach part time and move into and out of the occupation for other jobs, family responsibilities, or to retire. Opportunities will be best in fields such as computer technology, automotive mechanics, and medical technology, which offer very attractive, and often higher paying, job opportunities outside of teaching. Earnings In 1992, salaried adult education teachers who usually worked full time had median earnings around $26,900 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,700 and $38,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,500, while the top 10 percent earned more than $49,200. Earnings varied widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Part-timers generally are paid hourly wages and do not receive benefits or pay for preparation time outside of class. Related Occupations Adult education teaching requires a wide variety of skills and apti­ tudes, including the power to influence, motivate, and train others; organizational, administrative, and communication skills; and crea­ tivity. Workers in other occupations that require these aptitudes in­ clude other teachers, counselors, school administrators, public rela­ tions specialists, employee development specialists and interviewers, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on adult basic education programs and teacher certifi­ cation requirements is available from State departments of educa­ tion and local school districts. For information about adult vocational-technical education teaching positions, contact State departments of vocational-techni­ cal education.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information on adult continuing education teaching posi­ tions, contact departments of local government, State adult educa­ tion departments, schools, colleges and universities, religious orga­ nizations, and a wide range of businesses that provide formal training for their employees. General information on adult education is available from: O’ American Association for Adult and Continuing Education, 1101 Con­ necticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036. 13” American Vocational Association, 1410 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. O’ ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1900 Kenny Rd., Columbus, OH 43210-1090.  Archivists and Curators (D.O.T. 099.167-030; 101; 102 except .261-014 and .367-010; 109.067-014, .267-010, .281, .361,.364)  Nature of the Work Archivists, curators, museum and archives technicians, and conser­ vators search for, acquire, appraise, analyze, describe, arrange, cata­ log, restore, preserve, exhibit, maintain, and store items of lasting value so that they can be used by researchers or for exhibitions, pub­ lications, broadcasting, and other educational programs. These may consist of historical documents, audiovisual materials, institutional records, works of art, coins, stamps, minerals, clothing, maps, living and preserved plants and animals, buildings, computer records, or historic sites. Archivists and curators plan and oversee the work of maintaining collections and, along with technicians and conservators, work di­ rectly on collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educa­ tional and public outreach programs, such as tours, workshops, lec­ tures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. They also may conduct research on topics or items relevant to their collections. Although some duties of archivists and curators are similar, the types of items they deal with differ. Curators usually handle three-dimensional objects, such as sculptures, textiles, and paintings, while archivists mainly handle documents, or objects that are retained because they originally ac­ companied and relate specifically to the document. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of records maintained by various organizations, such as government agencies, corporations, or educational institutions, or by families and individ­ uals, should be made part of permanent historical holdings, and which of these records should be put on exhibit. They maintain records in their original arrangement according to the creator’s or­ ganizational scheme, and describe records so they can be located easily. Records may be saved on any medium, including paper, mi­ crofilm, or computer. They also may be copied onto some other for­ mat to protect the original from repeated handling, and to make them more accessible to researchers who use the records. Archives may be part of a library, museum, or historical society, or may exist as a distinct archival unit within an organization. Ar­ chivists consider any medium containing information as documents, including letters, books, and other paper documents, photographs, blueprints, audiovisual materials, and computer records, among others. Any document which reflects organizational transactions, hierarchy, or procedures can be considered a record. Archivists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can better determine what records in that area qualify for retention and should become part of the archives. Archivists also may work with special­ ized forms of records—for example, manuscripts, electronic records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pictures, and sound recordings. Curators, sometimes called collections managers, oversee collec­ tions in museums, zoos, aquariums, botanic gardens, nature centers,  Professional Specialty Occupations  145  and historic sites. They acquire items through purchases, gifts, field exploration, intermuseum loans, or, in the case of some plants and animals, hybridization and breeding. Curators also plan and prepare exhibits. In natural history museums, curators collect and observe specimens in their natural habitat. Much of their work involves describing and classifying species. They conduct more research than other curators, who spend much of their time managing collections. Most curators specialize in fields such as botany, art, paleontol­ ogy, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural history museum, for example, would have specialists in birds, fishes, insects, and mollusks. Furthermore, in large institutions, most curators specialize in particular functions. Some maintain the collection while others perform administrative tasks. Registrars, for example, are responsible for keeping track of and moving objects in the collection. In small institutions, with only one or a few curators, they are responsible for almost everything, from maintaining collections to directing the affairs of museums. Museum directors formulate policies, plan budgets, and raise funds for their museum. They coordinate activities of their staff to establish and maintain collections. Conservators oversee, manage, examine, care for, and preserve works of art, artifacts, and specimens. They coordinate the activities of workers engaged in the examination, repair, and conservation of museum objects. This may require substantial historical and archaeological research. They use xrays, microscopes, special lights, and other laboratory equipment in examining objects to determine their condition, the need for repair, and the appropriate method for preservation. Conservators usually specialize in treating various items—paintings, objects and sculptures, architectural material, glass, or furniture, for example. Museum technicians assist curators and conservators by perform­ ing various preparatory and maintenance tasks on museum items. Archives technicians help archivists organize and classify records. Archivists, curators, and conservators increasingly use com­ puters to catalog and organize collections, as well as to perform original research. Working Conditions The working conditions of archivists and curators vary. Some spend most of their time working with the public, providing reference as­ sistance and educational services. Others perform research or pro­ cess records, which often means working alone or in offices with only one or two other persons. Those who restore and install exhib­ its or work with bulky, heavy record containers may climb, stretch, or lift, and those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor mu­ seums or historic sites frequently walk great distances. Curators may travel extensively to evaluate potential additions to the collection, to organize exhibitions, and to conduct research in their area of expertise. Employment Archivists and curators held about 19,000 jobs in 1992. About 3 out of 10 were employed in museums, botanical gardens, and zoos, and approximately 1 in 5 was in public and private education, particu­ larly in college and university libraries. Over one-third worked in Federal, State, and local government. Most Federal archivists work for the National Archives and Records Administration; others man­ age military archives in the Department of Defense. Most Federal Government curators work at the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in archaeo­ logical and other museums managed by the Department of Interior. All State governments have archival or historical records sections employing archivists. State and local governments have numerous historical museums, parks, libraries, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations have archives or records centers, em­ ploying archivists to manage the growing volume of records created  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Archivists and curators preserve and maintain articles of lasting value. or maintained as required by law or necessary to the firms’ opera­ tions. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associa­ tions, conservation organizations, and research firms also employ archivists and curators. Conservators may work under contract to treat particular items, rather than work as a regular employee of a museum or other insti­ tution. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist, conservator, or curator generally re­ quires graduate education and substantial practical or work experi­ ence. Many archivists and curators work in archives or museums while completing their formal education, in order to gain the “hands-on” experience that many employers seek when hiring. Employers generally look for archivists with undergraduate and graduate degrees in history or library science, with courses in archi­ val science. Some positions may require knowledge of the discipline related to the collection, such as business or medicine. An increasing number of archivists have a double master’s degree in history and li­ brary science. Approximately 65 colleges and universities offer courses or practical training in archival science as part of history, li­ brary science, or other discipline; some also offer a master’s degree in archival studies. The Academy of Certified Archivists offers vol­ untary certification for archivists. Certification requires the appli­ cant to have experience in the field and to pass an examination of­ fered by the Academy.  146 Occupational Outlook Handbook Archivists need analytical ability to understand the content of documents and the context in which they were created, and to deci­ pher deteriorated or poor quality printed matter, handwritten man­ uscripts, or photographs and films. Archivists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. Many archives are very small, including one-person shops, with limited promotion opportunities. Advancement generally is through transferring to a larger unit with supervisory positions. A doctorate in history, library science, or a related field may be needed for some advanced positions, such as director of a State archives. In most museums, a master’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum’s specialty—for example, art, history, or archaeol­ ogy—or museum studies is required for employment as a curator. Many employers prefer a doctoral degree, particularly for curators in natural history or science museums. In small museums, curato­ rial positions may be available to individuals with a bachelor’s de­ gree. For some positions, an internship of full-time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Museum technicians generally need a bachelor’s degree in an appro­ priate discipline of the museum’s specialty, museum studies training, or previous museum work experience, particularly in exhibit design. Simi­ larly, archives technicians generally need a bachelor’s degree in library science or history, or relevant work experience. Technician positions often serve as a stepping stone for individuals interested in archival and curatorial work. With the exception of small museums, a master’s de­ gree is needed for advancement. When hiring conservators, employers look for a master’s degree in conservation, with an undergraduate background in science and art. There are only a few graduate programs in the United States. Competition for entry to these programs is keen; to qualify for these programs, a student must have a background in chemistry, studio art, and art history. These graduate programs last 3 to 4 years; the latter years include internship training. A few individuals may enter the profession through apprenticeship programs, available through museums, nonprofit organizations, and private practice conserva­ tors. In order to advance, those who enter the profession through apprenticeship programs usually must take courses in chemistry, art history, and studio art. The length of apprenticeship training varies widely, depending upon one’s specialty. Students interested in museum work may take courses or obtain a bachelor’s or master’s degree in museum studies. Colleges and uni­ versities throughout the country offer bachelor’s and master’s de­ grees in museum studies. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum’s specialty and museum work experience are more important. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and art are desirable. Since curators—particularly those in small museums—may have administrative and managerial responsi­ bilities, courses in business administration and public relations also are recommended. Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties. They need an aesthetic sense to design and present exhibits, and, in small museums, manual dexterity is needed to erect exhibits or re­ store objects. Leadership ability is important for museum directors, while public relations skills are valuable in increasing museum at­ tendance and fundraising. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, eventually to museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Individual research and pub­ lications are important for advancement. Continuing education, which enables archivists, curators, mu­ seum technicians, and conservators to keep up with developments in the field, is available through meetings, conferences, and workshops sponsored by archival, historical, and curatorial associations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of archivists and curators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Al­ though the rate of turnover among archivists and curators is rela­ tively low, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or stop working will create some additional job openings. While Federal Government archival jobs are not expected to grow, new archival jobs are expected in other areas, such as educa­ tional services and State and local government. Archival jobs also will become available as institutions put more emphasis on estab­ lishing archives and organizing records and information. Museums and botanical and zoological gardens, where curators are concen­ trated, are expected to grow in response to increased public interest in science, art, history, and technology. Despite the anticipated increase in the employment of archivists and curators, competition for jobs is expected to be keen. Graduates with highly specialized training, such as a master’s degree in library science with a concentration in archives or records management, may have the best opportunities for jobs as archivists. A job as a cu­ rator is attractive to many people, and many have the necessary sub­ ject knowledge; yet there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, or as an intern, or even as a volunteer assistant curator or research associate after completing their formal education, and substantial work experience in collec­ tion management, exhibit design, or restoration will be necessary for permanent status. Job opportunities for curators should be best in art and history museums, since these are the largest employers in the museum industry. The job outlook for conservators may be more favorable, particu­ larly for graduates of conservator programs. However, competition is stiff for the limited number of openings in these programs, and ap­ plicants need a technical background. Students who qualify and suc­ cessfully complete the program, and who are willing to relocate, usually find a job.  Earnings Earnings of archivists and curators vary considerably by type and size of employer. Average salaries in the Federal Government, for example, are generally higher than those in religious organizations. Salaries of curators in large, well-funded museums may be several times higher than those in small ones. Salaries in the Federal Government depend upon education and experience. In 1993, inexperienced archivists and curators with a bachelor’s degree started at about $18,300, while those with some experience started at $22,700. Those with a master’s degree started at $27,800, and with a doctorate, $33,600 or $40,300. In 1993, the average annual salary for archivists employed by the Federal Gov­ ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $46,000 a year, curators averaged $48,000, museum specialists and technicians averaged $29,800, and archives technicians aver­ aged $26,700. According to a survey by the Association of Art Museum Direc­ tors, salaries generally are highest for museum workers in Western and Mid-Atlantic States and in metropolitan areas with populations over 2 million. The following tabulation shows average salaries for employees in art museums in 1993:  Director.................................................. Chief curator.................................................................................. Curator........................................................................................... Curatorial assistant Senior conservator  $91,300 49,800 45,100  Professional Specialty Occupations Related Occupations Archivists’ and curators’ interests in preservation and display are shared by anthropologists, arborists, archaeologists, artifacts con­ servators, botanists, ethnologists, folklorists, genealogists, histori­ ans, horticulturists, information specialists, librarians, paintings re­ storers, records managers, and zoologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on archivists and on schools offering courses in ar­ chival science, contact: 13= Society of American Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chi­ cago, IL 60605.  For information about certification for archivists, contact: Academy of Certified Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chi­ cago, IL 60605.  For general information about careers as a curator and schools of­ fering courses in museum studies, contact: American Association of Museums, 1225 I St. NW„ Suite 200, Washing­ ton, DC 20005.  For information about curatorial careers and internships in bo­ tanical gardens, contact: 13= American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 786 Church Rd., Wayne, PA 19087.  For information about conservation and preservation careers and education programs, contact: 13= American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1400 16th St. NW., Suite 340, Washington, DC 20036.  For information on curatorial and other positions in natural his­ tory museums, contact: 13= Association of Systematics Collections, 730 11th St. NW., Second Floor, Washington, DC 20001.  College and University Faculty (D.O.T. 090.227-010)  Nature of the Work College and university faculty teach and advise over 14 million full­ time and part-time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation’s research. They also study and meet with colleagues to keep up with developments in their field and consult with govern­ ment, business, nonprofit, and community organizations. Faculty generally are organized into departments or divisions, based on subject or field. They usually teach several different courses in their department—algebra, calculus, and differential equations, for example. They may instruct undergraduate or gradu­ ate students, or both. College and university faculty may give lectures to several hun­ dred students in large halls, lead small seminars, and supervise stu­ dents in laboratories. They also prepare lectures, exercises, and lab­ oratory experiments, grade exams and papers, and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they also counsel, advise, teach, and supervise graduate student research. They may use closed-circuit and cable television, computers, videotapes, and other teaching aids. Faculty keep abreast of developments in their field by reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and participating in pro­ fessional conferences. They also do their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They experiment, collect and analyze data, and examine original documents, literature, and other source mate­ rial. From this, they develop hypotheses, arrive at conclusions, and write about their findings in scholarly journals and books. Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative com­ mittees which deal with the policies of their institution, departmen­ tal matters, academic issues, curricula, budgets, equipment  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  147  purchases, and hiring. Some work with student organizations. De­ partment heads generally have heavier administrative responsibili­ ties. The amount of time spent on each of these activities varies by in­ dividual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at universities generally spend a significant part of their time doing re­ search; those in 4-year colleges, somewhat less; and those in 2-year colleges, relatively little. However, the teaching load usually is heav­ ier in 2-year colleges. Working Conditions College faculty generally have flexible schedules. They must be pre­ sent for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours a week, and for faculty and committee meetings. Most establish regular office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours per week. Otherwise, they are rel­ atively free to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course preparation, grading papers and exams, study, research, and other activities. They may work staggered hours and teach classes at night and on weekends, particularly those faculty who teach older students who may have full-time jobs or family responsibilities on weekdays. They have even greater flexibil­ ity during the summer and school holidays, when they may teach or do research, travel, or pursue nonacademic interests. Most colleges and universities have funds used to support faculty research or other professional development needs, including travel to conferences and research sites. Part-time faculty generally spend little time on campus, since they usually don’t have an office. In addition, they may teach at more than one college, requiring travel between their various places of employment. Faculty may experience a conflict between their responsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research. This may be a partic­ ular problem for young faculty seeking advancement. Increasing emphasis on undergraduate teaching performance, particularly at small liberal arts colleges, in tenure decisions may alleviate some of this pressure, however. Employment College and university faculty held about 812,000 jobs in 1992, mostly in public institutions. About 3 out of 10 college and university faculty members work part time. Some part-timers, known as “adjunct faculty,” have pri­ mary jobs outside of academia—in government, private industry, or in nonprofit research—and teach “on the side.” Others want full­ time jobs but can’t find them. Some work part time in more than one institution.  College faculty generally have flexible schedules.  148  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most college and university faculty are in four academic ranks: Pro­ fessor, associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor. A small number are lecturers. Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant profes­ sors. Four-year colleges and universities generally hire doctoral de­ gree holders for full-time, tenure-track positions, but may hire mas­ ter’s degree holders or doctoral candidates for certain disciplines, such as the arts, or for part-time and temporary jobs. In 2-year col­ leges, master’s degree holders often qualify for full-time positions. Doctoral programs usually take 4 to 7 years of full-time study be­ yond the bachelor’s degree. Candidates usually specialize in a sub­ field of a discipline, for example, organic chemistry, counseling psy­ chology, or European history, but also take courses covering the whole discipline. Programs include 20 or more increasingly special­ ized courses and seminars plus comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field. They also include a dissertation. This is a re­ port on original research to answer some significant question in the field; it sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published material. The dissertation, done under the gui­ dance of one or more faculty advisors, usually takes 1 or 2 years of full-time work. In some fields, particularly the natural sciences, some students spend an additional 2 years on postdoctoral research and study before taking a faculty position. A major step in the traditional academic career is attaining ten­ ure. Newly hired faculty serve a certain period (usually 7 years) under term contracts. Then, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable and positions are available. With tenure, a professor cannot be fired without just cause and due process. Those denied tenure usually must leave the institution. Tenure protects the faculty’s academic freedom—the ability to teach and conduct re­ search without fear of being fired for advocating unpopular ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effec­ tive research and teaching, and provides financial stability for faculty members. About 60 percent of full-time faculty are tenured, and many others are in the probationary period. Some faculty—based on teaching experience, research, publica­ tion, and service on campus committees and task forces—move into administrative and managerial positions, such as departmental chairperson, dean, and president. At 4-year institutions, such ad­ vancement requires a doctoral degree. At 2-year colleges, a doctor­ ate is helpful but not generally required, except for advancement to some top administrative postitions. (Deans and departmental chairpersons are covered in the Handbook statement on education administrators, while college presidents are included in the Hand­ book statement on general managers and top executives.) College faculty need intelligence, inquiring and analytical minds, and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. They must be able to communicate clearly and logically, both orally and in writing. They should be able to establish rapport with students and, as models for them, be dedicated to the principles of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Finally, they must be able to work in an environment where they receive little direct supervision. Job Outlook Employment of college and university faculty is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as enrollments in higher education increase. Many additional openings will arise as faculty members retire. Faculty retirements should increase significantly from the late 1990’s through 2005 as a large number of faculty who entered the profession during the 1950’s and 1960’s reach retirement age at this time. Enrollments increased in the early and mid-1980’s despite a de­ cline in the traditional college-age (18-24) population. This resulted  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The traditional college age population will begin to increase in 1997. Population 18 to 24 years of age (millions)  29 r  1993  1995  1997  1999  2001  2003  2005  Source: Bureau of the Census  from a higher proportion of 18- to 24-year-olds attending college, along with a growing number of part-time, female, and older stu­ dents. Enrollments are expected to continue to grow through the year 2005, particularly as the traditional college-age population be­ gins increasing after 1996, when the leading edge of the baby-boom “echo” generation (children of the baby boomers) reaches college age. In the past two decades, keen competition for faculty jobs forced some applicants to accept part-time or short-term academic ap­ pointments that offered little hope of tenure, and others to seek non­ academic positions. This trend of hiring adjunct or part-time faculty should continue through the mid-1990s due to financial difficulties universities and colleges are facing. Many States have reduced fund­ ing for higher education. As a result, colleges increased the hiring of part-time faculty to save money on pay and benefits. Once enrollments and retirements increase in the late 1990’s, op­ portunities should improve for college faculty positions and for ten­ ure, and fewer faculty should have to take part-time or short-term appointments. Job prospects will continue to be better in certain fields—business, engineering, health science, computer science, physical sciences, and mathematics, for example—largely because very attractive nonacademic jobs will be available for many poten­ tial faculty. Employment of college faculty also is related to the nonacademic job market through an “echo effect.” Excellent job prospects in a field—for example, computer science from the late 1970’s to the mid-1980’s—cause more students to enroll, increasing faculty needs in that field. On the other hand, poor job prospects in a field, such as history in recent years, discourages students and reduces demand for faculty. Earnings Earnings vary according to faculty rank and type of institution and, in some cases, by field. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher sal­ aries, on the average, than those in 2-year schools. According to a  Professional Specialty Occupations 1992-93 survey by the American Association of University Profes­ sors, salaries for full-time faculty on 9-month contracts averaged $46,300. By rank, the average for professors was $59,500; associate professors, $44,100; assistant professors, $36,800; and instructors, $27,700. Those on 11- or 12-month contracts obviously earned more. In fields where there are high-paying nonacademic alterna­ tives—notably medicine and law but also engineering and business, among others—earnings exceed these averages. In others—the fine arts, for example—they are lower. Many faculty members have added earnings, both during the aca­ demic year and the summer, from consulting, teaching additional courses, research, writing for publication, or other employment. Most college and university faculty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to campus facilities, tuition waivers for dependents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Part-time faculty have fewer benefits than full-time faculty. Related Occupations College and university faculty function both as teachers and re­ searchers. They communicate information and ideas. Related occu­ pations include elementary and secondary school teachers, librari­ ans, writers, consultants, lobbyists, trainers and employee development specialists, and policy analysts. Faculty research activ­ ities often are similar to those of scientists, project managers, and administrators in industry, government, and nonprofit research or­ ganizations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally provide information on academic and nonacademic employment opportunities in their fields. Names and addresses of these societies appear in statements elsewhere in the Handbook. For information about faculty union activities on 2- and 4-year college campuses, contact: O’American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20001.  For information on college teaching careers, contact: tw American Association of University Professors, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Special publications on higher education, available in libraries, list specific employment opportunities for faculty.  Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -018, -038, -042 -050, -054, .117- 090.107- and 169.267-026)  Nature of the Work Counselors assist people with personal, family, social, educational, and career decisions, problems, and concerns. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and the settings in which they work. School and college counselors help students understand their abili­ ties, interests, talents, and personality characteristics so that the stu­ dent can develop realistic academic and career options. Counselors use interviews, counseling sessions, tests, or other tools to assist them in evaluating and advising students. They may operate career information centers and career education programs. High school counselors advise on college majors, admission requirements, en­ trance exams, and financial aid, and on trade, technical school, and apprenticeship programs. They help students develop jobfinding skills such as resume writing and interviewing techniques. Counselors also help students understand and deal with their so­ cial, behavioral, and personal problems. They emphasize preventive and developmental counseling to provide students with the life skills  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  149  needed to deal with problems before they occur, and to enhance per­ sonal, social, and academic growth. Counselors provide special ser­ vices, including alcohol and drug prevention programs, and classes that teach students to handle conflicts without resorting to violence. Counselors work with students individually, in small groups, or with entire classes. Counselors consult and work with parents, teachers, school administrators, school psychologists, school nurses, and social workers. Elementary school counselors do more social and personal counseling, and less vocational and academic counseling than secondary school counselors. They observe younger children during classroom and play activities and confer with their teachers and parents to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. They also help students develop good study habits. College career planning and placement counselors help students and alumni with career development and job hunting. They may as­ sist with writing resumes and improving job interviewing tech­ niques. Rehabilitation counselors help persons deal with the personal, so­ cial, and vocational impact of their disabilities. They evaluate the strengths and limitations of individuals, provide personal and voca­ tional counseling, and may arrange for medical care, vocational training, and job placement. Rehabilitation counselors interview in­ dividuals with disabilities and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer and plan with physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists, employers, and others. Conferring with the client, they develop and implement a rehabilitation program, which may include training to help the person become more independent and employable. They also work toward increasing the client’s ca­ pacity to adjust and live independently. Employment counselors help individuals make wise career deci­ sions. They help clients explore and evaluate their education, train­ ing, work history, interests, skills, personal traits, and physical ca­ pacities, and may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests. They also work with individuals in developing jobseeking skills and assist clients in locating and applying for jobs. Mental health counselors emphasize prevention and work with in­ dividuals and groups to promote optimum mental health. They help individuals deal with addictions and substance abuse, family, parenting, and marital problems, suicide, stress management, problems with self-esteem, issues associated with aging, job and ca­ reer concerns, educational decisions, and issues of mental and emo­ tional health. Mental health counselors work closely with other mental health specialists, including psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, and school counselors. (See the statements on psychologists and social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some counselors specialize in a particular social issue or popula­ tion group, such as marriage and family, multicultural, and geronto­ logical counseling. A gerontological counselor may provide services to elderly persons who face changing lifestyles due to health problems, as well as help families cope with these changes. A mul­ ticultural counselor might help employers adjust to an increasingly diverse workforce. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the traditional 9- to 10- month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, although an increasing number are employed on 10 1/2- or 11-month contracts. They generally have the same hours as teachers. Rehabilitation and employment counselors generally work a stan­ dard 40-hour week. Self-employed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. College career planning and placement counselors may work long and irregular hours dur­ ing recruiting periods. Since privacy is essential for confidential and frank discussions with clients, counselors usually have private offices.  150  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Counselors must inspire respect, trust, and confidence. Employment Counselors held about 154,000 jobs in 1992. About 7 out of 10 were school counselors. In addition to elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities, counselors worked in a wide variety of public and pri­ vate establishments. These include health care facilities; job train­ ing, career development, and vocational rehabilitation centers; so­ cial agencies; correctional institutions; and residential care facilities, such as halfway houses for criminal offenders and group homes for children, the aged, and the disabled. Counselors also worked in or­ ganizations engaged in community improvement and social change, as well as drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs and State and local government agencies. A growing number of counselors work in health maintenance organizations, insurance companies, group practice, and private practice, spurred by laws allowing counselors to receive payments from insurance companies, and requiring em­ ployers to provide rehabilitation services to injured workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, counselors have a master’s degree in college student af­ fairs, elementary or secondary school counseling, gerontological counseling, marriage and family counseling, substance abuse coun­ seling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, mental health counseling, counseling psychology, career counsel­ ing, or a related field. Graduate level counselor education programs in colleges and uni­ versities usually are in departments of education or psychology. Courses are grouped into eight core areas: Human growth and de­ velopment; social and cultural foundations; helping relationships; groups; lifestyle and career development; appraisal; research and evaluation; and professional orientation. In an accredited program, 48 to 60 semester hours of graduate study, including a period of su­ pervised clinical experience in counseling, are required for a mas­ ter’s degree. The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Re­ lated Educational Programs (CACREP) accredits graduate counseling programs in counselor education, and in community, gerontological, mental health, school, student affairs, and marriage and family counseling. In 1993, 39 States and the District of Columbia had some form of counselor credentialing legislation—licensure, certification, or reg­ istry—for practice outside schools. Requirements vary from State to State. In some States, credentialing is mandatory; in others, volun­ tary. Many counselors elect to be nationally certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which grants the general practice credential, “National Certified Counselor.” In order to be  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  certified, a counselor must hold a master’s degree in counseling, have at least 2 years of professional counseling experience, and pass NBCC’s National Counselor Examination. This national certifica­ tion is voluntary and distinct from State certification. However, in some States those who pass the national exam are exempt from tak­ ing a State certification exam. NBCC also offers specialty certifica­ tion in career, gerontological, school, and clinical mental health counseling. All States require school counselors to hold State school counsel­ ing certification; however, certification varies from State to State. Some States require public school counselors to have both counsel­ ing and teaching certificates. Depending on the State, a master’s de­ gree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience may be re­ quired for a counseling certificate. Vocational and related rehabilitation agencies generally require a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, counseling and gui­ dance, or counseling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, may accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services, counseling, psychology, or related fields. A bachelor’s degree in counseling qualifies a person to work as a coun­ seling aide, rehabilitation aide, or social service worker. Experience in employment counseling, job development, psychology, educa­ tion, or social work may be helpful. The Council on Rehabilitation Education (CORE) accredits graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. A minimum of 2 years of study—including a period of supervised clinical experi­ ence—are required for the master’s degree. Some colleges and uni­ versities offer a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services educa­ tion. In most State vocational rehabilitation agencies, applicants must pass a written examination and be evaluated by a board of examin­ ers. Many employers require rehabilitation counselors to be certi­ fied. To become certified by the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, counselors must graduate from an accred­ ited educational program, complete an internship, and pass a writ­ ten examination. They are then designated as “Certified Rehabilita­ tion Counselors.” Some States require counselors in public employment offices to have a master’s degree; others accept a bachelor’s degree with ap­ propriate counseling courses. Mental health counselors generally have a master’s degree in mental health counseling, another area of counseling, or in psychol­ ogy or social work. They are voluntarily certified by the National Board of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors. Generally, to receive this certification as a mental health counselor, a counselor must have a master’s degree in counseling, 2 years of post-master’s experience, a period of supervised clinical experience, a taped sam­ ple of clinical work, and a passing grade on a written examination. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Many have work-study programs so that employed counselors can earn graduate degrees. Counselors must participate in graduate studies, workshops, institutes, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confi­ dence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Prospects for advancement vary by counseling field. School coun­ selors may move to a larger school; become directors or supervisors of counseling or pupil personnel services; or, usually with further graduate education, become counselor educators, counseling psy­ chologists, or school administrators. (See the statements on psychol­ ogists and education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors may become supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some coun­ selors move into research, consulting, or college teaching, or go into private practice.  Professional Specialty Occupations Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition, replacement needs should increase significantly by the end of the decade as a large number of counselors reach retirement age. Employment of school counselors is expected to grow because of increasing enrollments, particularly in secondary schools, State leg­ islation requiring counselors in elementary schools, and the ex­ panded responsibilities of counselors. Counselors increasingly are becoming involved in crisis and preventive counseling, helping stu­ dents deal with issues ranging from drug and alcohol abuse to death and suicide. Despite the increasing use of counselors, however, em­ ployment growth may be dampened by budgetary constraints— some counselors serve more than one school. Rehabilitation and mental health counselors should be in strong demand. Insurance companies increasingly provide for reimburse­ ment of counselors, enabling many counselors to move from schools and government agencies to private practice. The number of people who need rehabilitation services will rise as advances in medical technology continue to save lives that only a few years ago would have been lost. In addition, legislation requiring equal employment rights for persons with disabilites will spur demand for counselors. Counselors not only will help individuals with disabilities with their transition into the work force, but also will help companies comply with the law. More rehabilitation and mental health counselors also will be needed as the elderly population grows, and as society fo­ cuses on ways of developing mental well-being, such as controlling stress associated with job and family responsibilities. Similar to other government jobs, the number of employment counselors, who work primarily for State and local governments, could be limited by budgetary constraints. Employment counselors working in private job training services, however, should grow rap­ idly as counselors provide skill training and other services to a grow­ ing number of laid-off workers, experienced workers seeking a new or second career, full-time homemakers seeking to enter or reenter the work force, and workers who want to upgrade their skills. Earnings Median earnings for full-time educational and vocational counsel­ ors were about $30,000 a year in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,000 and $41,500 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $17,800 a year, while the top 10 percent earned over $51,900 a year. The average salary of school counselors in the 1992-93 academic year was about $40,400, according to the Educational Research Ser­ vice. Some school counselors earn additional income working sum­ mers in the school system or in other jobs. Self-employed counselors who have well-established practices generally have the highest earnings, as do some counselors working for private companies, such as insurance companies and private re­ habilitation companies. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and disabil­ ities, and deal with personal, social, academic, and career problems. Others who help people in similar ways include college and student personnel workers, teachers, personnel workers and managers, human services workers, social workers, psychologists, psychia­ trists, members of the clergy, occupational therapists, training and employee development specialists, and equal employment opportu­ nity/affirmative action specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counseling, as well as information on specialties such as school, college, mental health, rehabilitation, multicultural, career, marriage and family, and gerontological counseling, contact:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  151  XW American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304.  For information on accredited counseling and related training programs, contact: X3“ Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Pro­ grams, American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexan­ dria, VA 22304.  For information on national certification requirements and pro­ cedures for counselors, contact: National Board for Certified Counselors, 3-D Terrace Way, Greensboro, NC 27403.  For information about rehabilitation counseling, contact: X3° National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1910 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. O” National Council on Rehabilitation Education, Department of Special Education, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-2870.  For information on certification requirements for rehabilitation counselors, contact: ty Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, 1835 Rohlwing Rd., Suite E, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008.  For general information about school counselors, contact: XW American School Counselor Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexan­ dria, VA 22304.  State departments of education can supply information on col­ leges and universities that offer approved guidance and counseling training for State certification and licensure requirements. State employment service offices have information about job op­ portunities and entrance requirements for counselors.  Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except .367-018; 109.267-014)  Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to people. They manage staff, oversee the collection and cataloging of library materials, and develop and direct information programs for the public. They help users find information from printed and other materials. Library work is divided into three basic functions: User services, technical services, and administrative services. Librarians in user services—for example, reference and children’s librarians—work directly with users to help them find the information they need. This may involve analyzing users’ needs to determine what information is appropriate, and searching for, acquiring, and providing the infor­ mation to users. Librarians in technical services, such as acquisi­ tions librarians and catalogers, acquire and prepare materials for use and may not deal directly with the public. Librarians in administra­ tive services oversee the management of the library, supervising li­ brary employees, preparing budgets, and directing activities to see that all parts of the library function properly. Depending on the em­ ployer, librarians may perform a combination of user, technical, and administrative services. In small libraries or information centers, librarians generally han­ dle all aspects of the work. They read book reviews, publishers’ an­ nouncements, and catalogs to keep up with current literature and other available resources, and select and purchase materials from publishers, wholesalers, and distributors. Librarians prepare new materials for use by classifying them by subject matter, and describe books and other library materials in a way that users can easily find them. They supervise assistants who prepare cards, computer records, or other access tools that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher, date of publication, and location in the library. In large li­ braries, librarians often specialize in a single area, such as acquisi­ tions, cataloging, bibliography, reference, special collections, circu­ lation, or administration.  152  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Librarians also compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects, and recommend mater­ ials to be acquired. They may collect and organize books, pam­ phlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. In addition, they coordinate pro­ grams such as storytelling for children and book talks for adults; publicize services; provide reference help; supervise staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other administrative matters. Librarians may be classified according to the type of library in which they work: Public libraries, school library/media centers, ac­ ademic libraries, and special libraries. They may work with specific groups, such as children, young adults, adults, or disadvantaged in­ dividuals. In school library/media centers, librarians help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for classroom instruction, and sometimes team teach. Librarians may also work in information centers or libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, adver­ tising agencies, museums, professional associations, medical cen­ ters, religious organizations, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization’s information resources, usually lim­ ited to subjects of special interest to the organization. These special librarians can provide vital information services by preparing ab­ stracts and indexes of current periodicals, organizing bibliographies, or analyzing background information on areas of particular interest. For instance, a special librarian working for a corporation may pro­ vide the sales department with information on competitors or new developments affecting their field. Many libraries are tied into remote data bases through their com­ puter terminals, and many also maintain their own computerized data bases. The widespread use of automation in libraries makes data base searching skills important to librarians. Librarians de­ velop and index data bases and help users develop searching skills to obtain the information they need. Libraries may employ automated systems librarians who plan and operate computer systems, and in­ formation scientists who design information storage and retrieval systems and develop procedures for collecting, organizing, inter­ preting, and classifying information. (See statement on computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) The in­ creasing use of automated information systems enables some librari­ ans to spend more time analyzing future information needs as well as on administrative and budgeting responsibilities, and to delegate more technical and user services to technicians. (See statement on li­ brary technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.)  Librarians are using automated information systems to collect, organize, and classify information.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Working conditions in user services are different from those in tech­ nical services. Assisting users in obtaining the information for their jobs or for recreational and other needs can be challenging and satis­ fying. When working with users under deadlines, the work may be busy, demanding, and stressful. In technical services, selecting and ordering new materials can be stimulating and rewarding. However, librarians may sit at desks or at computer terminals all day. Ex­ tended work at video display terminals may cause eyestrain and headaches. They may also have their performance monitored for er­ rors or for quantity of tasks completed each hour or day. Nearly 1 out of 4 librarians works part time. Public and college li­ brarians often work weekends and evenings. School librarians gen­ erally have the same workday schedule as classroom teachers and similar vacation schedules. Special librarians usually work normal business hours. Librarians in fast-paced industries, such as advertis­ ing or legal services, may work over 40 hours a week under stressful conditions. Employment Librarians held about 141,000jobs in 1992. Most were in school and academic libraries; others were in public libraries and special librar­ ies. A small number of librarians worked for hospitals and religious organizations. Others worked for governments at all levels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for libra­ rian positions in most public, academic, and special libraries, and in some school libraries. In the Federal Government, an M.L.S. or the equivalent in education and experience is needed. Many colleges and universities offer M.L.S. programs, but many employers prefer graduates of the approximately 60 schools accredited by the Ameri­ can Library Association. Most M.L.S. programs require a bache­ lor’s degree; any liberal arts major is appropriate. Some programs take 1 year to complete; others take 2. A typical graduate program includes courses in the foundations of library and information science, including the history of books and printing, in­ tellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries and in­ formation in society. Other basic courses cover material selection and processing; the organization of information; reference tools and strategies; and user services. Course options include resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloging, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automation. The M.L.S. provides general, all-round preparation for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as archives, media, or library automation. A Ph.D. degree in library and information science is advantageous for a college teaching or top administrative position, particularly in a college or university li­ brary or in a large library system. In special libraries, a knowledge of the subject specialization, or a master’s, doctoral, or professional degree in the subject is highly de­ sirable. Subject specializations include medicine, law, business, engi­ neering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, a libra­ rian working for a law firm may also be a licensed attorney, holding both library science and law degrees. In some jobs, knowledge of a foreign language is needed. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require that school librarians—often called li­ brary media specialists—be certified as teachers and have courses in library science. In some cases, an M.L.S., perhaps with a library me­ dia specialization, or a master’s in education with a specialty in school library media or educational media is needed. Some States re­ quire certification of public librarians employed in municipal, county, or regional library systems. Experienced librarians may advance to administrative positions, such as department head, library director, or chief information of­ ficer.  Professional Specialty Occupations Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The limited growth in employment of librarians during the 1980’s is expected to continue. However, the number of job openings resulting from the need to replace librarians who leave the occupation is expected to in­ crease by 2005, as many workers reach retirement age. Willingness to relocate will greatly enhance job prospects. Budgetary constraints will likely contribute to the slow growth in employment of librarians in school, public, and college and univer­ sity libraries. The increasing use of computerized information stor­ age and retrieval systems may also dampen the demand for librari­ ans. For example, computerized systems make cataloging easier, and this task can now be handled by other library staff. In addition, many libraries are equipped for users to access library computers di­ rectly from their homes or offices. These systems allow users to by­ pass librarians and conduct research on their own. However, librari­ ans will be needed to help users develop data base searching techniques and to define users’ needs. Childrens’ librarians will be the least affected by information technology since children need spe­ cial assistance. Opportunities will be best for librarians outside traditional set­ tings. Nontraditional library settings include information brokers, private corporations, and consulting firms. Many companies are turning to librarians because of their excellent research and organi­ zational skills, and knowledge of library automation systems. Li­ brarians can review the vast amount of information that is available and analyze, evaluate, and organize it according to a company’s spe­ cific needs. Librarians working in these settings are often classified as systems analysts, data base specialists, managers, and research­ ers. Earnings Salaries of librarians vary by the individual’s qualifications and the type, size, and location of the library. Based on a survey published in the Library Journal, starting sala­ ries of graduates of library school master’s degree programs accred­ ited by the American Library Association averaged $25,900 in 1992, and ranged from $23,800 in public libraries to $27,400 in school li­ braries. In college and university libraries, they averaged $25,400, and in special libraries, they averaged $27,700. According to the Educational Research Service, experienced school librarians averaged about $37,900 during the 1992-93 school year. According to the Special Libraries Association, 1992 salaries for special librarians with 1 to 2 years of library experience averaged $29,200, and those with 3 to 5 years of experience average $31,800. Salaries for special library managers averaged $45,200. The average annual salary for all librarians in the Federal Gov­ ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $44,500 in 1993. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organizational, and communicative skills include archivists, information scientists, mu­ seum curators, publishers’ representatives, research analysts, infor­ mation brokers, and records managers. The management aspect of a librarian’s work is similar to the work of managers in a variety of business and government settings. School librarians have many du­ ties similar to those of school teachers. Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, including a listing of accredited edu­ cation programs and information on scholarships or loans,is availa­ ble from:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  153  ©' American Library Association (ALA), Office for Library Personnel Re­ sources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.  For information on a career as a special librarian, write to: ©“Special Libraries Association, 1700 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  Material about a career in information science is available from: ©"American Society for Information Science, 8720 Georgia Ave., Suite 501, Silver Spring, MD 20910.  Information on graduate schools of library and information sci­ ence can be obtained from: ©Association for Library and Information Science Education, 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201, Raleigh, NC 27607.  Information on schools receiving Federal financial assistance for library training is available from: ©" Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, Library Development Staff, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Room 402, Washington, DC 20208-5571.  For information on a career as a law librarian, as well as a list of ALA accredited library schools offering programs in law librarianship and scholarship information, contact: ©"American Association of Law Libraries, 53 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 940, Chicago, IL 60604.  For information on employment opportunities as a health science librarian, contact: ©" Medical Library Association, 6 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60602.  Those interested in a position as a librarian in the Federal service should write to: ©"Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: ©"Personnel Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE., Washington, DC 20540.  State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships available through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job “hotlines” which report openings for li­ brarians. State departments of education can furnish information on certifi­ cation requirements and job opportunities for school librarians.  School Teachers—Kindergarten, Elementary, and Secondary (D.O.T. 091.221, .227; 092.227-010, -014; 094.224, .227, .267; 099.224-010, .227-022,-042; 187.134-010; 195.227-018)  Nature of the Work The role of a teacher is changing from that of a lecturer or presenter to one of a facilitator or coach. Interactive discussions and “handson” learning are replacing rote memorization. For example, rather than merely telling students about science, mathematics, or psychol­ ogy, a teacher might ask students to help solve a mathematical prob­ lem or perform a laboratory experiment and discuss how these ap­ ply to the real world. Similarly, a teacher might arrange to bring 3and 4-year-olds into the classroom to demonstrate certain concepts of child psychology. As teachers move away from the traditional repetitive drill ap­ proaches, they are using more “props” or “manipulatives” to help children understand abstract concepts, solve problems, and develop critical thought processes. For example, young students may be taught the concept of numbers or adding and subtracting by playing board games. As children get older, they may use more sophisti­ cated materials such as tape recorders, science apparatus, or cam­ eras. Classes are becoming less structured, and students are working in groups to discuss and solve problems together. Preparing students  154  Occupational Outlook Handbook  for the future work force is the major stimulus generating the changes in education. To be prepared, students must be able to in­ teract with others, adapt to new technology, and logically think through problems. Teachers provide the tools and environment for their students to develop these skills. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What children learn and experience during their early years can shape children’s views of themselves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school, work, and their personal lives. Kindergarten and elementary school teach­ ers introduce children to numbers, language, science, and social studies. They may use games, music, artwork, films, slides, com­ puters, and other instructional technology to teach basic skills. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers teach as a team and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special sub­ ject—usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical education—to a number of classes. A small but growing number of teachers instruct multilevel classrooms—those with students at sev­ eral different learning levels. Secondary school teachers help students delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and learn more about the world and about themselves. They specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology, in junior high/middle school or high school. They may teach a variety of re­ lated courses—for example, American history, contemporary American problems, and world geography. Special education teachers, who are found in lower grades and high schools, instruct students with a variety of disabilities, such as visual and hearing impairments, learning disablilities, and physical disabilities. Special education teachers design and modify instruc­ tion to meet a student’s special needs. Teachers also work with stu­ dents who have other special instructional needs, such as those who are very bright or “gifted” or those who have limited English profi­ ciency. Teachers may use films, slides, overhead projectors, and the latest technology in teaching, such as computers, telecommunication sys­ tems, and video discs. Telecommunication technology can bring the real world into the classroom. Through telecommunications, Amer­ ican students can communicate with students in other countries to share personal experiences or research projects of interest to both groups. Computers are used in many classroom activities, from helping students solve math problems to learning English as a sec­ ond language. Teachers must continually update their skills to use the latest technology in the classroom. Teachers design their classroom presentations to meet student needs and abilities. They also may work with students individually. Teachers assign lessons, give tests, hear oral presentations, and maintain classroom discipline. Teachers observe and evaluate a stu­ dent’s performance and potential. Teachers increasingly are using new assessment methods, such as examining a portfolio of a stu­ dent’s artwork or writing to measure student achievement. Teachers assess the portfolio at the end of a learning period to judge a stu­ dent’s overall progress. They may then provide additional assistance in areas where a student may need help. In addition to classroom activities, teachers plan and evaluate les­ sons, sometimes in collaboration with teachers of related subjects. They also prepare tests, grade papers, prepare report cards, oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and meet with parents and school staff to discuss a student’s aca­ demic progress or personal problems. Secondary school teachers may assist a student in choosing courses, colleges, and careers. Spe­ cial education teachers may help students with their transition into special vocational training programs, colleges, or a job. Teachers also participate in education conferences and workshops. In recent years, site-based management, which allows teachers and parents to participate actively in management decisions, has  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  gained popularity. In many schools, teachers help make decisions regarding the budget, personnel, textbook choices, curriculum de­ sign, and teaching methods. Working Conditions Seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching may be frustrating when dealing with unmotivated and disrespectful stu­ dents. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Most teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. Teachers on the 10-month schedule may teach in sum­ mer sessions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue other personal inter­ ests. Many enroll in college courses or workshops in order to con­ tinue their education. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. Most States have tenure laws that prevent teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain ten­ ure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure is not a guarantee of a job, but it does provide some security. Employment Teachers held about 3,255,000 jobs in 1992; more than 9 out of 10 were in public schools. Employment was distributed as follows: Elementary.................................................................................. Secondary................................................................................... Special education.........................................................................  1,634,000 1,263,000 358,000  Employment is distributed geographically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be certified. Certification is generally for one or several related subjects. Usually certification is granted by the State board of education or a certification advisory committee. Teachers may be certified to teach the early childhood grades (usually nursery school through grade 3; the elementary grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8); or a special subject, such as reading or music. In most States, special education teachers receive a credential to teach kindergarten through grade 12. These teachers train in the specialty that they  Helping students develop new skills and gain appreciation of learning can be rewarding.  Professional Specialty Occupations want, such as teaching children with learning disabilities or behav­ ioral disorders. Requirements for regular certificates vary by State. However, all States require a bachelor’s degree and completion of an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching. Traditional education programs for kindergarten and elementary school teachers include courses—designed specifically for those pre­ paring to teach—in mathematics, physical science, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as prescribed professional educa­ tion courses, such as philosophy of education, psychology of learn­ ing, and teaching methods. Aspiring secondary school teachers ei­ ther major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking education courses, or major in education and take subject courses. Some States require specific grade point averages for teacher certifi­ cation. Many States offer alternative teacher certification programs for people who have college training in the subject they will teach but do not have the necessary education courses required for a regular certificate. Alternative certification programs were originally de­ signed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects, such as mathe­ matics and science. The programs have expanded to attract other people into teaching, including recent college graduates and mid­ career changers. In some programs, individuals begin teaching im­ mediately under provisional certification. After working under the close supervision of experienced educators for 1 or 2 years while tak­ ing education courses outside school hours, they receive regular certification if they have progressed satisfactorily. Under other programs, college graduates who do not meet certification require­ ments take only those courses that they lack, and then become certi­ fied. This may take 1 or 2 semesters of full-time study. Aspiring teachers who need certification may also enter programs that grant a master’s degree in education, as well as certification. States also is­ sue emergency certificates to individuals who do not meet all re­ quirements for a regular certificate when schools cannot hire enough teachers with regular certificates. Almost all States require applicants for teacher certification to be tested for competency in basic skills such as reading and writing, teaching skills, or subject matter proficiency. Almost all require continuing education for renewal of the teacher’s certificate—some require a master’s degree. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers certified in one State to become certified in another. Teach­ ers may become board certified by successfully completing the Na­ tional Board for Professional Teaching Standards certification pro­ cess. This certification is voluntary, but may result in a higher salary. In addition to being knowledgeable in their subject, the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand their educational and emotional needs, is es­ sential for teachers. They also should be organized, dependable, pa­ tient, and creative. With additional preparation and certification, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance counselors. Teachers may become adminis­ trators or supervisors, although the number of positions is limited. In some systems, highly qualified, experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsi­ bilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keep­ ing most of their teaching responsibilities. Job Outlook Overall employment of kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, fueled by dramatic growth among special education teachers. However, projected employment growth varies among individual teaching occupations. Job openings for all teachers are expected to increase substantially by the end of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  155  the decade as the large number of teachers now in their forties and fifties reach retirement age. Employment of special education teachers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to legislation emphasizing training and employment for in­ dividuals with disabilities; technological advances resulting in more survivors of accidents and illnesses; and growing public interest in individuals with special needs. Qualified persons should have little trouble finding a job, due to increased demand for these workers combined with relatively high turnover among special education teachers. Many special education teachers switch to general educa­ tion teaching or change careers altogether, often because of job stress associated with teaching special education, particularly exces­ sive paperwork, and inadequate administrative support. Employment of secondary school teachers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, and average employment growth is projected for kindergarten and elementary school teachers. Assuming relatively little change in av­ erage class size, employment growth of teachers depends on the rates of population growth and corresponding student enrollments. The population of 14- to 17-year-olds is expected to experience rela­ tively strong growth through the year 2005, spurring demand for secondary school teachers. The population of 5- to 13-year olds also is projected to increase, but at a slower rate, resulting in divergent growth rates for individual teaching occupations. The supply of teachers also is expected to increase in response to reports of improved job prospects, more teacher involvement in school policy, greater public interest in education, and higher sala­ ries. In fact, enrollments in teacher training programs already have increased in recent years. In addition, more teachers should be avail­ able from alternative certification programs. Some central cities and rural areas have difficulty attracting enough teachers, so job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban districts. Mathematics, science, and special education teachers remain in short supply. Concerns over a  The population of 5 to 13 year olds will increase until the year 2002. Population 5 to 13 years of age (millions)  Source: Bureau of the Census  156  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The high school age population will increase throughout the 1992-2005 period. Population 14 to 17 years of age (millions)  Many public school teachers belong to unions, such as the Ameri­ can Federation of Teachers and the National Education Associa­ tion, that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teach­ ers earn extra income during the summer working in the school sys­ tem or in other jobs. Related Occupations Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including a talent for working with children; organizational, administrative, and recordkeeping abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; patience; and creativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these aptitudes include college and university faculty, counselors, education administrators, em­ ployment interviewers, librarians, preschool workers, public rela­ tions specialists, sales representatives, social workers, and trainers and employee development specialists. Special education teachers work with students with disabilities and special needs. Other occupations that help people with disabili­ ties include school psychologists, speech pathologists, and occupa­ tional, physical, and recreational therapists.  2003 Source: Bureau of the Census  future work force that may not meet employers’ needs could spur demand for teachers who specialize in basic skills instruction— reading, writing, and mathematics. With enrollments of minorities increasing, efforts to recruit minority teachers may intensify. The number of teachers employed depends on State and local ex­ penditures for education. Pressures from taxpayers to limit spend­ ing could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to spend more to improve the quality of education could mean more. Earnings According to the National Education Association, public secondary school teachers averaged about $36,000 a year in 1992-93; public el­ ementary school teachers averaged $34,800. Earnings for special ed­ ucation teachers are comparable. Earnings in private schools gener­ ally are lower.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues may be obtained from: IS” American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW, Washing­ ton, DC 20001. t3“ National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  A list of institutions with teacher education programs accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: fg* National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010 Massa­ chusetts Ave. NW., 2nd Floor, Washington, DC 20036.  For information on voluntary teacher certification requirements, contact:  13= National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 300 River PI., De­  troit, MI 48207.  A list of institutions offering training programs in special educa­ tion may be obtained from: XW Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Health Diagnosing Occupations Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010)  Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as chiropractic doctors, diagnose and treat patients whose health problems are associated with the body’s muscular, nervous, and skeletal systems, especially the spine. Inter­ ference with these systems is believed to impair normal functions and lower resistance to disease. Chiropractors hold that misalign­ ment of spinal vertebrae or irritation of the spinal nerves can alter many important body functions by affecting the nervous system. The chiropractic approach to health care is holistic, stressing the patient’s overall well-being. It recognizes that many factors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors use natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments, and rely on the body’s inherent recuperative abilities. They also rec­ ommend lifestyle changes—in eating and sleeping habits, for exam­ ple—to their patients. When appropriate, chiropractors consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard routine to secure the information needed for diagnosis and treat­ ment: They take the patient’s medical history, conduct physical, neurological, and orthopedic examinations, and may order labora­ tory tests. X rays are an important diagnostic tool because of the emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors also employ a postural and spinal analysis unique to chiropractic diagno­ sis. In cases where difficulties can be traced to involvement of muscu­ loskeletal structures, chiropractors manually manipulate or adjust the spinal column. Many chiropractors also use water, light, mas­ sage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy and may apply supports such as straps, tapes, and braces. They may also counsel about nutri­ tion, exercise, and stress management, but do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Some chiropractors specialize in athletic injuries, neurology, or­ thopedics, nutrition and internal disorders. Others specialize in tak­ ing and interpreting x rays and other diagnostic images. Almost all chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are re­ sponsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keep­ ing records. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in clean, comfortable offices. The average workweek is about 43 hours. Chiropractors who work for them­ selves set their own hours, but may work evenings or weekends to accommodate patients. Chiropractors who take x rays must take appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Employment Chiropractors held about 46,000 jobs in 1992. About 70 percent of active chiropractors are in solo practice. The remainder are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chiropractic colleges, or work in hospitals and HMO’s. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. There are geographic imbalances in the distribution of chiropractors, in part because many establish practices close to colleges of chiropractic.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  X rays are an important diagnostic tool. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chi­ ropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Chiropractors can only practice in States where they are licensed. Some States have reciprocity agreements that permit chiropractors licensed in an­ other State to obtain a license without further examination. Most State licensing boards require completion of a 4-year chiro­ practic college course following at least 2 years of undergraduate ed­ ucation, although a few States require a 4-year bachelors’ degree. All State boards recognize academic training in chiropractic col­ leges accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the three-part test administered by the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. To maintain licensure, almost all States require completion of a specified number of hours of continuing education each year. Con­ tinuing education programs are offered by accredited chiropractic colleges and chiropractic associations. Special councils within some chiropractic associations also offer programs leading to clinical spe­ cialty certification, called “diplomate” certification, in areas such as orthopedics, neurology, sports injuries, occupational and industrial health, nutrition, radiology, thermography, and internal disorders. In 1992, 14 of the 17 chiropractic colleges in the United States were accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. All chi­ ropractic colleges require applicants to have at least 2 years of un­ dergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelors’ degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiropractic colleges offer prechiropractic study, as well as a bache­ lors’ degree program. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic colleges emphasize classroom and laboratory work in basic science subjects such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years stress courses in skeletal manipula­ tion and spinal adjustments and provide clinical experience in physi­ cal and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.). 157  158  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnor­ malities. It also takes considerable hand dexterity to perform ma­ nipulations, but not unusual strength or endurance. Chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are desirable qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors have a number of options: They can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, enter into part­ nership with an established practitioner, take a salaried position with an established chiropractor to acquire the experience and the funds needed to equip and open an office, or apply for a residency program.  Job Outlook Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health insurance, and to public awareness of the profession, which is growing. The rapidly expanding older population, with their increased likelihood of mechanical and struc­ tural problems, will also increase demand. As a result, employment of chiropractors is expected to grow faster than the average through the year 2005. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements and deaths. Chiropractors generally remain in the occu­ pation until they retire; few transfer to other occupations.  Earnings In 1992, median income for chiropractors was about $70,000, after expenses, according to the American Chiropractic Association. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning, and increase as the practice grows. In 1992, the lowest 10 percent of chiropractors had median net in­ comes of $21,000 or less, and the highest 10 percent earned $190,000 or more. Earnings are also influenced by the characteris­ tics and qualifications of the practitioner, and geographic location. Self-employed chiropractors must provide for their own health in­ surance and retirement.  Dentists (D.O.T. 072, except .117)  Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose, prevent, and treat problems of the teeth and tis­ sues of the mouth. They remove decay and fill cavities, examine xrays, place protective plastic sealants on children’s teeth, straighten teeth, and repair fractured teeth. They also perform corrective sur­ gery of the gums and supporting bones to treat gum diseases. Den­ tists extract teeth and make molds and measurements for dentures to replace missing teeth. Dentists provide instruction in diet, brush­ ing, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care, as well. They also administer anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. Dentists use a variety of equipment including X-ray machines, drills, and instruments such as mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping, and buying equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and receptionists. (These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dentists are general practitioners who handle a wide variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in one of eight specialty ar­ eas. Orthodontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in pediatric dentistry (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums and the bone supporting the teeth); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal therapy); dental public health; and oral pathology (studying diseases of the mouth). Working Conditions Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some dentists work evenings and weekends to meet their patients’ needs. Most full-time dentists work about 40 hours a week; some worked more. Younger dentists  Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent bodily disorders and injuries. So do physicians, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, veterinarians, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. ’Jax1' Sources of Additional Information General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: O'American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. XW International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22201. ©"World Chiropractic Alliance, 2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1, Chandler, AZ 85224-1802.  For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact:  ik 2 „ I 5  XW Council on Chiropractic Education, 4401 Westown Pky., Suite 120, West Des Moines, IA 50266.  For information on State education and licensure requirements, contact: ©"Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 901 54th Ave., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634.  For information on requirements for admission to a specific chi­ ropractic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, con­ tact the admissions office of the individual college.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Dentists wear protective garments to avoid transmission of diseases.  Professional Specialty Occupations may work fewer hours as they build up their practice, while estab­ lished dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older. A consid­ erable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Most dentists are “solo practitioners,” that is they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some dentists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Dentists wear masks, gloves, and safety glasses to protect them­ selves and their patients from infectious diseases like hepatitis. Employment Dentists held about 183,000 jobs in 1992. About 9 out of 10 dentists are in private practice. Others work in private and public hospitals and clinics, and in dental research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be li­ censed. To qualify for a license in most States, a candidate must graduate from a dental school accredited by the American Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Accreditation and pass writ­ ten and practical examinations. Candidates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing by passing the National Board Dental Ex­ aminations. Individual States or regional testing agencies give the written and/or practical examinations. Currently, about 15 States require dentists to obtain a specialty li­ cense before practicing as a specialist. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of post graduate education and, in some cases, completion of a special State examination. Most State licenses permit dentists to en­ gage in both general and specialized practice. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in ad­ vanced dental training in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental education. However, most dental students have at least a bachelor’s degree. Predental education includes courses in both the sciences and humanities. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Admis­ sions Test (DAT). They consider scores earned on the DAT, the ap­ plicants’ overall grade point average (GPA), science course GPA, and information gathered through recommendations and interviews when selecting students. Dental school generally lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences includ­ ing anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Begin­ ning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory technique courses, also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, stu­ dents treat patients, usually in dental clinics under the supervision of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Sur­ gery (D.D.S). The rest award an equivalent degree, Doctor of Den­ tal Medicine (D.M.D.). Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, communiciation skills, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathemat­ ics. Some recent dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for a year or two in order to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new practice immediately after graduation. Each year about one-fourth to onethird of new graduates enroll in postgraduate training programs to prepare for a dental specialty.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  159  Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Nevertheless, job prospects should continue to improve, because the number of dental school graduates has dropped sharply since the early 1980’s and is not likely to increase through 2005. Dental school enrollments be­ gan dropping in 1979, as it became clear that keen competition for patients had developed. This surplus of dentists was attributable to the very large numbers of dental graduates that resulted from a Fed­ eral decision during the 1960’s to support expansion of the Nation’s dental schools. Demand for dental care should grow substantially through 2005. As members of the baby boom generation advance into middle age, a large number will need maintenance on complicated dental work like bridges. Plus, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than their predecessors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive check-ups despite treatments like fluoridation of the water supply which decrease the incidence of dental caries. Furthermore, many people, who presently can not afford the dental care they need, will seek more dental care as disposable income rises. However, the employment of dentists is not expected to grow as rapidly as the demand for dental services. Many dentists do not have as many patients as they would like and could take on more. Also, as their practices expand, dentists are likely to hire more dental hy­ gienists and dental assistants to handle routine services that they now perform themselves. Replacement needs create relatively few job openings for dentists since dentists tend to remain in the profession beyond the usual re­ tirement age. Earnings The net median income of dentists in private practice was about $90,000 a year in 1992, according to the American Dental Associa­ tion. Net median income of those in specialty practices was about  The decline of dental school enrollments points to better opportunities for young practitioners. First-year enrollments  6,301  4,001 3,996  Source: American Dental Association  160  Occupational Outlook Handbook  $130,000 a year, and for those in general practice, $85,000 a year. Dentists in the beginning years of their practice often earn less, while those in mid-careers earn more. A relatively large proportion of dentists are self-employed. Like other business owners, these dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and abnor­ malities. So do clinical psychologists, optometrists, physicians, chi­ ropractors, veterinarians, and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited den­ tal schools, contact: W SELECT Program, Department of Career Guidance, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interested in practicing den­ tistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student fi­ nancial aid at the schools to which they apply for information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid.  Optometrists (D.O.T. 079.101-018)  Nature of the Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of optometry, also known as O.D.’s) provide most of the primary vision care people need. Optometrists examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision problems and eye disease. They treat vision problems, and in most States, they treat certain eye diseases such as conjunctivitis or corneal infections, as well. Optometrists use instruments and observation to examine eye health and to test patients’ visual acuity, depth and color percep­ tion, and their ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. They analyze test results and develop a treatment plan. Optometrists prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, vision therapy, and low vision aids. They use drugs for diagnosis in all States and, as of 1993, they may use topical and oral drugs to treat some eye diseases in 37 States. Op­ tometrists often provide postoperative care to cataract patients. When optometrists diagnose conditions that require care beyond the optometric scope of practice such as diabetes or high blood pres­ sure, they refer patients to other health practitioners. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who diag­ nose and treat eye diseases and injuries. They perform surgery and prescribe drugs. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and pre­ scribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and ad­ just eyeglasses and in some States may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See statements on physicians and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, with children, or with partially sighted per­ sons who use specialized visual aids. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Some specialize in contact lenses, sports vision, or vision therapy. A few teach optometry or do research. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate franchise optical stores may also have some of these duties. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week, but a substantial number work more than 50 hours a week. Many work Saturdays and evenings to suit the needs of patients, but emergency calls are few. Employment Optometrists held about 31,000 jobs in 1992. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may have a private practice, but also work in another practice, clinic, or vision care center. Although many optometrists are in solo practice, a growing num­ ber are in partnership or group practice. Some optometrists work as salaried employees of other optometrists or of ophthalmologists. Others work in hospitals, health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), or retail optical stores. Some optometrists are consultants for industrial safety programs, insurance companies, manufacturers of ophthalmic products, HMO’s, and others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass both a written and a clinical State board examination. In many States, applicants can substitute the examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, usually taken during the student’s academic career, for part or all of the written examination. Licenses are renewed every 1 to 2 years and in most States, continuing education credits are needed for renewal. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a 4-year program at an accredited optometry school preceded by at least 3  Optometrists provide most of the primary vision care people need.  Professional Specialty Occupations years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor’s degree). In 1993, 17 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry were accredited by the Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric As­ sociation. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology, history, sociology, speech, or business. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test (OAT), which measures academic ability and sci­ entific comprehension. Most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year. Competition for admission is keen. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as well as clinical training in the diagno­ sis and treatment of eye disorders. Included are courses in pharma­ cology, optics, biochemistry, and systemic disease. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. Optometrists wishing to teach or do research may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health infor­ mation and communication, or health education. One-year post­ graduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in family practice optometry, pediatric op­ tometry, geriatric optometry, low vision rehabilitation, vision ther­ apy, contact lenses, hospital based optometry, and primary care op­ tometry. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. The maturing of the baby-boom generation, together with rapid growth in the eld­ erly population will drive this growth. Persons over the age of 45 visit optometrists and ophthalmologists more frequently because of the onset of vision problems in middle age and the increased likeli­ hood of cataracts, glaucoma, diabetes, and hypertension in old age. Employment of optometrists will also grow due to greater recogni­ tion of the importance of vision care, rising personal incomes, and growth in employee vision care plans. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly were it not for anticipated productivity gains which will allow each optom­ etrist to see more patients. These gains will result from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, and the intro­ duction of new equipment. Replacement needs are low. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements and deaths. Optome­ trists generally remain in practice until they retire; few transfer to other occupations.  Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career, and a listing of accredited optometric educational institutions, as well as required preoptome­ try courses write to: American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141-7881.  The Board of Optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officer of individual optome­ try schools.  Physicians (D.O.T. 070 and 071)  Nature of the Work Physicians examine patients; obtain medical histories; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They diagnose illnesses, and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or disease. Physicians counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preven­ tive health care. Those in private practices may handle or oversee the business aspects of running an office. There are two types of physicians: The M.D.—Doctor of Medicine—and the D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathy. M.D.’s are also known as allopathic physicians. While M.D.’s and D.O.’s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.’s place special emphasis on the body’s musculoskeletal system. They believe that good health requires proper alignment of bones, muscles, ligaments, and nerves. Most M.D.’s specialize. (See table 1.) Pediatricians, general and family practitioners, and general internists are often called primary care physicians since they are the first health professionals patients usually consult. They tend to see the same patients on a regular basis for a variety of ailments and preventive treatment. When appropri­ ate, they refer patients to other specialists. D.O.’s are more likely to be primary care providers than allopathic physicians, although they can be found in all specialties. Working Conditions Physicians often work long, irregular hours. One-half of all full-tim­ ers in 1992 worked 60 hours a week or more; 2 out of 10 typically worked 50-59 hours a week. In general, as doctors approach retire­ ment age, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work  Earnings According to the American Optometric Association, new optome­ try graduates in their first year of practice earned median net in­ come of about $45,000 in 1992. Overall, optometrists earned median net income of about $75,000. Optometrists in private practice gener­ ally earned more than salaried optometrists. Incomes vary depending upon location, specialization, and other factors. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than op­ tometrists who set up their own independent practice. However, in the long run, those in private practice generally earn more. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiroprac­ tors, dentists, physicians, podiatrists, veterinarians, speech-lan­ guage pathologists, and audiologists.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  161  Physicians often work long, irregular hours.  162  Occupational Outlook Handbook  shorter hours. Physicians who are on-call may make emergency vis­ its to hospitals. Many physicians must travel frequently between of­ fice and hospital to care for their patients. Employment Physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s) held about 556,000 jobs in 1992. About 2 out of 3 were in office-based practice, including clinics and HMO’s; about one-fifth were employed in hospitals. Others prac­ ticed in the Federal Government, most in Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals and clinics or in the Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Human Services. While physicians have traditionally been solo practitioners, a growing number are partners or salaried employees of group prac­ tices. Organized as clinics or as groups of physicians, medical groups can afford expensive medical equipment and realize other business advantages. Table 1. Percent distribution of M.D.’s by specialty, 1992  Total...............................................................................................  100.0  General and family practice...............................................................  11.0  Medical specialties Allergy............................................................................................ Cardiovascular diseases................................................................. Dermatology................................................................................... Gastroenterology........................................................................... Internal medicine........................................................................... Pediatrics....................................................................................... Pediatric cardiology....................................................................... Pulmonary diseases........................................................................  0.5 2.5 1.2 1.2 16.7 6.9 0.2 1.0  Surgical specialties Colon and rectal surgery ............................................................... General surgery.............................................................................. Neurological surgery..................................................................... Obstetrics and gynecology.............................................................. Ophthalmology.............................................................................. Orthopedic surgery........................................................................ Otalaryngology.............................................................................. Plastic surgery................................................................................ Thoracic surgery ........................................................................... Urological surgery..........................................................................  0.1 6.0 0.7 5.4 2.5 3.2 1.3 0.7 0.3 1.4  Other specialties Aerospace medicine....................................................................... Anesthesiology .............................................................................. Child psychiatry............................................................................. Diagnostic radiology..................................................................... Emergency medicine ..................................................................... Forensic pathology........................................................................ General preventive medicine......................................................... Neurology ...................................................................................... Nuclear medicine........................................................................... Occupational medicine.................................................................. Pathology....................................................................................... Physical medicine and rehabilitation............................................. Psychiatry...................................................................................... Public health................................................................................... Radiology....................................................................................... Radiation oncology........................................................................ Other specialty................................................................................ Unspecified/unknown/inactive....................................................  0.1 4.3 0.7 2.6 2.4 0.1 0.2 1.5 0.2 0.4 2.6 0.7 5.6 0.3 1.2 0.5 1.5 12.6  SOURCE: American Medical Association  The Northeast and West have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South, the lowest. D.O.’s tend to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.’s, on the other hand, tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers. Some rural areas remain underserved, although the situation is im­ proving somewhat.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in States that have os­ teopathic schools and hospitals. In 1993, 3 out of 4 D.O.’s were practicing in 12 States. Michigan had the most D.O.’s, followed by Pennsylvania, Ohio, Florida, New Jersey, and Texas. Training and Other Qualifications All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories require physicians to be licensed. Licensure requirements for both D.O.’s and M.D.’s include graduation from an accredited medical school (usually 4 years), completion of a licensing examination, and be­ tween 1 and 7 years of graduate medical education, that is, a resi­ dency for M.D.’s and an internship and residency for D.O.’s. Al­ though physicians licensed in one State can usually get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Graduates of foreign medical schools can generally be­ gin practice in the United States after passing an examination and completing a U.S. hospital residency training program. The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical or osteopathic school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. A few medical schools offer a combined college and medical school program that lasts 6 years instead of the customary 8 years. Required premedical study includes undergraduate work in phys­ ics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students should also take courses in English, other humanities, mathematics, and the social sciences. Applicants should also consider volunteering at a local hospital or clinic to gain practical experience in the health professions. There are 141 medical schools in the United States—125 teach al­ lopathic medicine and award a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.); 16 teach osteopathic medicine and award the Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). Acceptance to medical school is very competitive. Applicants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), and letters of recommendation. An interview with an ad­ missions officer may also be necessary. Character, personality, lead­ ership qualities, and participation in extracurricular activities also are considered. Students spend the first 2 years of medical school primarily in lab­ oratories and classrooms taking courses such as anatomy, biochem­ istry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathol­ ogy, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and recognize symptoms. During the last 2 years, students work with patients under the su­ pervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics to learn acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through rota­ tions in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gynecol­ ogy, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Following medical school, almost all M.D.’s go directly on to graduate medical education, called a residency. The National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) gives a standard examination for all students, including foreign medical school graduates, applying for an M.D. residency. Most D.O.’s serve a 12-month rotating intern­ ship after graduation. The National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners gives an examination for internship application. Follow­ ing their internship, many D.O.’s take a residency program in a spe­ cialty area. M.D.’s and D.O.’s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years—depending on the specialty—in residency training. A final examination immediately after residency, or after 1 or 2 years of practice, is also necessary for board certification by the American Board of Medical Specialists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). There are certifications in 23 spe­ cialties: Allergy and immunology; anesthesiology; colon and rectal surgery; dermatology; emergency medicine; family practice; inter­ nal medicine; neurological surgery; nuclear medicine; obstetrics and gynecology; ophthalmology; orthopaedic surgery; otolaryngology; pathology; pediatrics; physical medicine and rehabilitation; plastic  Professional Specialty Occupations surgery; preventive medicine; psychiatry and neurology; radiology; surgery; thoracic surgery; and urology. For those training in a sub­ specialty, another 1 to 2 years of residency is usual. To teach or do research, physicians may acquire a master’s or Ph.D. in such fields as biochemistry or microbiology. They may otherwise spend 1 year or more in research or in an advanced clinical training fellowship. A physician’s training is costly. While education costs have in­ creased, student financial assistance has not. Scholarships have be­ come harder to find. Loans are available, but subsidies to reduce in­ terest rates are limited. People who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pressures and long hours of medical education. For example, medical residents often work 24-hour shifts and 80 hours a week or more. Efforts, however, are being made to limit the hours residents work. Prospec­ tive physicians must also be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Physicians should have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make deci­ sions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of physicians is expected to grow faster than the aver­ age for all occupations through the year 2005 due to continued ex­ pansion of the health industry. New technologies permit more in­ tensive care: Physicians can do more tests, perform more procedures, and treat conditions previously regarded as untreatable. In addition, the population is growing and aging, and health care needs increase sharply with age. The need to replace physicians is lower than for most occupations because almost all physicians re­ main in the profession until they retire. Job prospects are good for primary care physicians such as family practitioners and internists, and for geriatric and preventive care specialists. Some shortages have been reported in the specialty areas of general surgery and psychiatry, and in some rural and low income areas. This is because physicians find these areas unattractive due to low earnings potential, isolation from medical colleagues, or other reasons, not because of any overall shortage. Some health care analysts believe that there is, or that there soon could be a general oversupply of physicians; others disagree. In ana­ lyzing job prospects, it should be kept in mind that an oversupply may not necessarily limit the ability of physicians to find employ­ ment or to set up and maintain a practice. It could result in physi­ cians performing more procedures than otherwise and delegating fewer tasks, or it could result in their providing more time to each patient, giving more attention to preventive care, and providing more services in rural and poor areas. It is also possible that where surpluses are due to specialty imbalances, physicians in surplus spe­ cialities would provide services outside of their specialty area. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. Many new physi­ cians are likely to avoid solo practice and take salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and HMO’s in order to have regular work hours and the opportunity for peer consultation. Others will take salaried positions simply because they cannot afford the high costs of establishing a private practice while paying off student loans. Earnings Physicians have among the highest earnings of any occupation. Ac­ cording to the American Medical Association, average (mean) in­ come, after expenses, for allopathic physicians was about $170,600 in 1991, and median income was $139,000. The middle 50 percent earned between $95,000 and $210,000. Earnings vary according to specialty; the number of years in practice; geographic region; hours worked; and skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self- em­ ployed physicians—those who own or are part owners of their medi­ cal practice—had a median income of $155,000, while those who were employed by others had a median of $ 110,000 a year.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  163  As shown in table 2, median income of allopathic physicians, af­ ter expenses, varies by specialty. Salaries of medical residents averaged $28,618 in 1992-93 for those in their first year of residency to $36,258 for those in their sixth year, according to the Association of American Medical Col­ leges. Physicians who enter private practice usually make a sizable fi­ nancial investment. Table 2. Median net income of M.D.’s after expenses, 1991  All physicians.............................................................................  SI39,000  Radiology................................................................................... Surgery ...................................................................................... Obstetrics/gynecology ............................................................. Anesthesiology .......................................................................... Pathology................................................................................... Emergency medicine................................................................ Internal medicine....................................................................... Psychiatry................................................................................. Pediatrics................................................................................... General/Family practice..........................................................  223,000 200,000 200,000 210,000 153,000 135,000 125,000 110,000 105,000 98,000  SOURCE: American Medical Association  Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Professionals in other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include acupuncturists, audiolo­ gists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, speech pa­ thologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of allopathic medical schools, as well as general informa­ tion on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a ca­ reer, contact: tw American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610.  O'Association of American Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20037-1131.  For general information on osteopathic medicine as a career, con­ tact:  American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. tew American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 6110 Execu­ tive Blvd., Suite 405, Rockville, MD 20852.  Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of allopathic and os­ teopathic medicine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of examin­ ers.  Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022)  Nature of the Work The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones—plus muscles, nerves, ligaments, and blood vessels—and is designed for balance and mobility. Podiatrists, also known as doctors of podiatric medicine (DPM’s), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases and injuries of the foot and lower leg to keep this part of the body work­ ing properly. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, deformities, and infections; and foot complaints associated with diseases such as dia­ betes. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs, order  164  Occupational Outlook Handbook  physical therapy, set fractures, and perform surgery. They also fit corrective inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strap­ pings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podia­ trists may use a force plate to help design the orthotics and shoes. Patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that “reads” the patients’ feet. From the computer readout, podiatrists may order the correct design. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists may order x rays and lab­ oratory tests. Podiatrists consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners when they spot systemic diseases, such as ar­ thritis, diabetes, and heart disease, of which first symtoms may ap­ pear in the foot. For example, diabetics are prone to foot ulcers and infections due to their poor circulation. Most podiatrists have a general practice. Some specialize in sur­ gery, orthopedics, or public health. Besides these certified special­ ties, podiatrists may practice a subspecialty such as sports medicine, pediatrics, dermatology, radiology, geriatrics, and diabetic foot care. Podiatrists generally are in private practice, which means that they run a small business. They may hire employees, order supplies, and keep records. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. They may also spend time visiting patients or performing surgery at a hos­ pital. Those with private practices set their own hours, but to meet the needs of their patients, they may have some evening and week­ end hours. Employment Podiatrists held about 14,700 jobs in 1992. Most podiatrists are solo practitioners, although more are entering partnerships and group practices. Others are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and of­ fices and clinics of physicians. Public health departments employ podiatrists, too. Geographic imbalances are pronounced in podiatric medicine. Most podiatry graduates establish their practices in or near one of the seven States that have colleges of podatric medicine—Califor­ nia, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Large areas of the country—particularly the South, the Southwest, and nonmetropolitan areas—have few podiatrists. In these areas, foot care is typically provided by primary care physicians and ortho­ pedists.  Most podiatrists are solo practitioners.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each defines its own licensing re­ quirements. Generally, the applicant must be a graduate of an ac­ credited college of podiatric medicine and pass written and oral ex­ aminations. Twenty-five States also require completion of an accredited residency program. Some States permit applicants to substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Ex­ aminers, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Certain States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Thirty-one States require continuing education for licensure renewal. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine in­ clude the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). All require 8 semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and 6 hours of English. Over 90 percent of podiatric stu­ dents have a bachelor’s degree. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. Class­ room instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology, is given during the first 2 years. Third- and fourth-year students have clinical rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physi­ cal examinations, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic procedures. Graduates are awarded the doctor of podiatric medicine (DPM) degree. Most graduates complete a hospital residency program after re­ ceiving a DPM. Residency programs usually last 1 year. Residents receive advanced training in podiatric medicine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pathol­ ogy, radiology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than 1 year provide more exten­ sive training in specialty areas. There are three recognized certifying boards for four specialty ar­ eas: The American Board of Podiatric Surgery, the American Board of Podiatric Orthopedic and Primary Podiatric Medicine, and the American Board of Podiatric Public Health. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licen­ sure. Each board requires advanced training, completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific apti­ tude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and good business sense. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department chiefs of hospitals, or general health administrators. They may also enter a higher degree program. Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow faster than the aver­ age for all occupations through the year 2005. More people will turn to podiatrists for foot care as the elderly population grows. The eld­ erly have more years of wear and tear on their feet and lower legs than most younger people, so they are more prone to foot ailments. Like dental services, podiatric care is more dependent on disposa­ ble income than other medical services. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic x rays and leg braces. However, rou­ tine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is ordi­ narily not covered. Because disposable income is expected to rise, more people are expected to pay for podiatric care out-of- pocket. Establishing a new podiatric practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding the seven colleges of podiatric medicine and in the Northeast since podiatrists are concentrated in these locations.  Professional Specialty Occupations  165  Because replacement needs result mainly from retirements and deaths, they are low. Most podiatrists continue to practice until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Earnings According to a 1993 survey by the American Association of Col­ leges of Podiatric Medicine, average net income of podiatrists was $100,287, but it varied greatly with years of experience. Podiatrists with 1 to 2 years of experience netted $35,578; those with 10 to 15 years of experience, $119,674.  ' c.  Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiroprac­ tors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on podiatric medicine as a career, contact: American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621.  Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance require­ ments, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: tw American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 1350 Piccard Dr., Suite 322, Rockville, MD 20850-4307.  Veterinarians usually treat pets in hospitals and clinics.  Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010)  Nature of the Work Veterinarians care for pets, livestock, sporting and laboratory ani­ mals, and protect humans against diseases carried by animals. Vet­ erinarians diagnose medical problems, dress wounds, set broken bones, perform surgery, prescribe and administer medicines, and vaccinate animals against diseases. They also advise owners on care and breeding. Most veterinarians are in private practice. Some have a general practice, treating all kinds of animals. The majority, however, just treat small companion animals such as dogs, cats, and birds. Others treat both small and larger animals, and some treat only large ani­ mals, such as cattle and horses. Veterinarians in companion animal medicine provide services in 20,000 animal hospitals or clinics. Veterinarians for large animals treat and care for cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. They also advise ranchers and farmers on the care, breeding, and management of livestock. Others specialize in fish and poultry. Veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians engage in research, food safety inspection, or education. Some work with physicians and scientists on research to prevent and treat diseases in humans. Veterinarians are also in regulatory medicine or public health. Those who are livestock in­ spectors check animals for disease, advise owners on treatment, and may quarantine animals. Veterinarians who are meat inspectors ex­ amine slaughtering and processing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce government food purity as well as sanitation regulations. Some veterinarians care for zoo or aquarium animals or for laboratory animals. Veterinarians help prevent the outbreak and spread of animal dis­ eases, some of which—like rabies—can be transmitted to humans, and perform autopsies on diseased animals. Some specialize in epi­ demiology or animal pathology to control diseases transmitted through food animals and to deal with problems of residues from herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics in animals used for food.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Veterinarians usually treat pets in hospitals and clinics. Often these facilities are noisy. Those in large animal practice usually work out of well-equipped mobile clinics and may drive considerable dis­ tances to farms and ranches. They may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Veterinarians can be exposed to disease and infection and may be kicked, bitten, or scratched. Most veterinarians work 50 or more hours a week, however, about a fifth worked 40 hours. Those in private practice may work nights and weekends. Employment Veterinarians held about 44,000jobs in 1992. About a third was selfemployed, in solo or group practices. Most others were employees of a practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,000 civilian veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, De­ fense, and Health and Human Services. Other employers of veteri­ narians are State and local governments, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, animal food com­ panies, and pharmaceutical companies. A few veterinarians work for zoos. Most veterinarians caring for zoo animals are private prac­ titioners who contract with zoos to provide services, usually on a part-time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed. To obtain a license, applicants must have a Doctor of Vet­ erinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass a State board examination. The majority of States allow an individual to apply for licensure upon receiving the D.V.M. degree without a residency and without completing a prescribed number of hours of practice. Some States is­ sue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already li­ censed by another State. For research and teaching jobs, a master’s or Ph.D. degree usu­ ally is required. Veterinarians who seek specialty certification in a field such as opthalmology, pathology, surgery, radiology, or labo­ ratory animal medicine must complete 3-year residency program, and pass an examination.  166  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The D.V.M. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college con­ sisting of at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences and a 4-year veterinary program. Most successful applicants to veterinary programs have completed 4 years of college. In addition to academic instruction, training in­ cludes clinical experience in diagnosing and treating animal dis­ eases, performing surgery, and performing laboratory work in anat­ omy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1992, all 27 colleges of veterinary medicine were accredited by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical As­ sociation (AVMA). Admission is highly competitive. Applicants usually have grades of “B” or better, especially in sciences. Appli­ cants must take the Veterinary Aptitude Test, Medical College Ad­ mission Test, or the Graduate Record Examination and submit evi­ dence they have experience working with animals. Colleges usually give preference to in-State applicants, because most are State sup­ ported. There are regional educational agreements in which States without veterinary schools send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, schools give preference to applicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. To meet State licensure requirements, foreign-trained veterinari­ ans must fulfill the English language and clinical evaluation require­ ments of the Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Grad­ uates. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. With experience, they may set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians may become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, re­ search assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A State license may be required. Veterinarians need good manual dexterity. They should be able to calm animals that are upset, and get along with animal owners, and be able to make decisions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is expected to grow faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of pets is expected to show a steady increase because of rising incomes and the movement of baby boomers into the 34-59 year age group, for which pet ownership is highest. Pet owners may also more willingly   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pay for more intensive care than in the past. In addition, emphasis on scientific methods of breeding and raising livestock and poultry, and continued support for public health and disease control pro­ grams will contribute to the demand for veterinarians. Jobs will also open as veterinarians retire. The outlook is good for veterinarians with specialty training. De­ mand for specialists in toxicology, laboratory animal medicine, and pathology is expected to increase. Most jobs for specialists will be in metropolitan areas. Prospects for veterinarians who specialize in farm animals are also good, because most veterinarians prefer work­ ing in metropolitan areas. Earnings The average starting salary of 1991 veterinary medical college grad­ uates was $27,858, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association. The average income of veterinarians in private practice was $63,069 in 1991. The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Gov­ ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $50,482 in 1993. Related Occupations Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals. Workers who do this for humans include audi­ ologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podia­ trists, and speech pathologists. Other occupations that involve working with animals include animal trainers, zoologists, marine bi­ ologists, naturalists, and veterinary technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information on careers in veterinary medicine and veteri­ nary technology write to: tw American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360.  For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the fi­ nancial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to ap­ ply. For information on veterinary education, write to: Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005.  Health Assessment and Treating Occupations Dietitians and Nutritionists (D.O.T. 077 except .117-010 and .124-010)  Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan nutrition programs and supervise the preparation and serving of meals. They help prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits. They scientifically evaluate clients’ diets and suggest modifications such as less salt for those with high blood pressure or reduced fat and sugar intake for those who are overweight. Dietitians run food service systems for institutions such as hospi­ tals and schools and promote sound eating habits through education and research. Major areas of practice are clinical, community, and administrative (management) dietetics. Dietitians also work as edu­ cators and researchers. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services for patients in insti­ tutions such as hospitals and nursing homes. They assess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutrition programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also confer with doctors and other health care professionals in order to coordinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in the manage­ ment of overweight patients, care of the critically ill, or care of renal (kidney) and diabetic patients. In addition, clinical dietitians in nursing homes or small hospitals may also manage the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutri­ tional practices designed to prevent disease and to promote good health. Working in such places as public health clinics, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations, they evaluate indi­ vidual needs, establish nutritional care plans, and instruct individu­ als and their families. Dietitians working in home health may also provide instruction on grocery shopping and preparation of special infant formulas. Popular interest in nutrition has led to opportunities in food man­ ufacturing, advertising, and marketing, where dietitians analyze foods, prepare literature for distribution, or report on issues such as dietary fiber or vitamin supplements. Administrative or management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in such places as health care facilities, company cafeterias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and di­ rect other dietitians and food service workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Working Conditions Most dietitians work a regular 40-hour week, although some work weekends. About 1 dietitian in 5 works part time. Dietitians and nutritionists spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. However, some dietitians spend time in hot, steamy kitchens. Dietitians and nutritionists may be on their feet for most of the workday. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 50,000 jobs in 1992. About half were in hospitals and nursing homes. State and local governments provided about 1 job in 6—in pris­ ons, health departments, and other public health related areas. Other jobs were in social service agencies, residential care facilities, diet workshops, physical fitness facilities, school systems, colleges and universities, and the Federal Government—mostly in the De­ partment of Veterans Affairs. Others were employed by firms that  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Dietitians promote healthy eating habits. provide food services on contract to such facilities as colleges and universities, airlines, and company cafeterias. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to fa­ cilities like hospitals and nursing homes and seeing individual cli­ ents. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The basic educational requirement is a bachelor’s degree with a ma­ jor in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems manage­ ment, or a related area. Students take courses in foods, nutrition, in­ stitution management, chemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology. Other courses are business, mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. Thirty States have laws governing dietetics—19 require licensure, 10 require certification, and 1 requires registration. The Commis­ sion on Dietetic Registration of the American Dietetic Association (ADA) awards the Registered Dietitian credential to those who pass a certification exam after completing their academic education and supervised experience. As of 1993, there were 240 ADA-approved bachelor’s degree pro­ grams. Supervised practice experience can be acquired in two ways. There are 51 ADA-accredited coordinated programs that combine academic and supervised practice experience in a 4-year program. The second option requires completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience—either in one of the 95 ADA-accredited intern­ ships or in one of the 139 ADA-approved preprofessional practice programs. Internships and preprofessional practice programs may be full-time programs lasting 9 to 12 months or part time programs lasting 2 years. Graduate programs are available for those interested in research, advanced clinical positions, or public health—where a graduate degree is usually needed. Recommended high school courses include biology, chemistry, mathematics, health, and home economics. 167  168  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Experienced dietitians may advance to assistant, associate, or di­ rector of a dietetic department or become self-employed. Some dieti­ tians specialize in areas such as renal or pediatric dietetics. Other di­ etitians leave the occupation and become sales representatives for equipment or food manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as demand grows for meals and nutritional counseling in nursing homes, schools, prisons, community health programs, home health care agencies, diet work­ shops, and health clubs. Public interest in nutrition and the empha­ sis on health education and prudent lifestyles will add to the de­ mand. Many job openings will also result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Employment of dietitians in hospitals is expected to grow slowly because of anticipated slow growth in the number of inpatients (those who stay overnight), and as hospitals contract out food ser­ vice operations. On the other hand, rapid growth in employment is expected in nursing homes as the number of very old people rises sharply; in contract providers of food services; in residential care fa­ cilities; in offices and clinics of physicians; and in other social ser­ vices. Earnings According to the American Dietetic Association, full-time regis­ tered dietitians with 5 years or less experience earned a median an­ nual salary of $28,500 a year in 1991; those with 6-10 years of expe­ rience, $32,900; 11-15 years, $36,000; 16-20 years, $38,400; and 20 years or more, $40,000. Management and self-employed dietitians earned more than clinical and community dietitians. Salaries also vary by educational level, geographic region, and size of commu­ nity. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of dieti­ tians, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differen­ tials, was $29,973 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $25,122 and the average maximum was $37,467. Related Occupations Dietitians and nutritionists apply the principles of nutrition in a va­ riety of situations. Workers with duties similar to those of adminis­ trative dietitians include home economists and food service manag­ ers. Nurses and health educators often provide services related to those of community dietitians.  Occupational therapists use activities of all kinds ranging from using a computer to caring for daily needs, such as dressing, cook­ ing, and eating. Practical activities increase strength and dexterity, while paper and pencil games may be used to improve visual acuity and the ability to discern patterns. A patient suffering short-term memory loss, for instance, might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall. One with coordination problems might be given extra tasks to improve eye-hand coordination. Computer programs have been de­ signed to help patients improve decisionmaking, abstract reasoning, problem solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequenc­ ing, and coordination—all of which are important for independent living. For those with permanent functional disabilities, such as spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, therapists pro­ vide such adaptive equipment as wheelchairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing. They also design or make special equipment needed at home or at work. Therapists develop and teach patients to operate computer-aided adaptive equipment, such as microproces­ sing devices that permit individuals with severe limitations to com­ municate, walk, operate telephones and television sets, and control other aspects of their environment. Some occupational therapists, called industrial therapists, help patients find and hold a job. They arrange employment, plan work activities and evaluate the patient’s progress. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individuals in a particular age group or with particular disabilities. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s abilities, recommend therapy, modify classroom equipment, and in general, help children partici­ pate as fully as possible in school programs and activities. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat mentally ill, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed individuals. To treat these problems, therapists choose activities that help people learn to cope with daily life. Activities include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and use of public transporta­ tion. They may also work with patients suffering from alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, and stress related disor­ ders. Recording patient’s activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating patients, billing, and reporting to physicians. Working Conditions Occupational therapists in hospitals and other health care settings generally work a regular 40-hour week. Those in schools may also participate in meetings and other activities, during and after the school day. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in  Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other informa­ tion about dietetics, contact: ®=The American Dietetic Association, 216 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60606-6995.  Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010,076.167-010)  Nature of the Work Occupational therapists help individuals with mentally, physically, developmentally, or emotionally disabling conditions to develop, re­ cover, or maintain daily living and work skills. They not only help patients improve basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, but also to compensate for permanent loss of function. Their goal is to help patients have independent, productive, and satisfying lifestyles.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  r /  Occupational therapists need warmth and the ability to inspire patients to progress.  Professional Specialty Occupations spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices that may generate noise. The job can be tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Those providing home health care may spend several hours a day driving from appointment to ap­ pointment. Therapists also face hazards such as backstrain from lift­ ing and moving patients and equipment. Employment Occupational therapists held about 40,000 jobs in 1992. The largest number of jobs were in hospitals, including many in rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals. School systems are the second largest em­ ployer of occupational therapists. Other major employers include offices of occupational therapists and other health practitioners, nursing homes, community mental health centers, adult daycare programs, job training services, and residential care facilities. A small but rapidly growing number of occupational therapists are in private practice. Some are solo practitioners, while others are in group practices. They see patients referred by physicians or other health professionals, or provide contract or consulting services to nursing homes, adult daycare programs, and home health agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy is the minimal require­ ment for entry into this field. In addition, 36 states and the District of Columbia require a license to practice occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must have a degree or a post-bachelor’s certificate from an accredited educational program and pass a na­ tional certification examination given by the American Occupa­ tional Therapy Certification Board. Those who pass the test are awarded the title of registered occupational therapist. In 1992, entry level education was offered in 67 bachelor’s degree programs; 10 post-bachelor’s certificate programs, for students with a degree other than occupational therapy; and 15 entry level-mas­ ter’s degree programs. Most schools have full-time programs, al­ though a growing number also offer weekend or part-time pro­ grams. Occupational therapy coursework includes physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. Completion of 6 months of supervised clinical in­ ternship is also required. Persons considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the social sci­ ences. College admissions offices also look with favor on paid or vol­ unteer experience in the health-care field. Warmth and patience are needed to inspire both trust and re­ spect. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Individuals working in home health care must be able to successfully adapt to a variety of settings. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated growth in demand for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Several factors are increasing the need for rehabilitative services. Medical advances are now making it possible for more patients with critical problems to survive. These patients, however, may need ex­ tensive therapy. Also, there is the anticipated demand generated by the baby-boom generation’s move into middle age, a period during which the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases. Additional services will also be demanded by the population 75 years of age and above, a rapidly growing age group that suffers from a very high in­ cidence of disabling conditions. Finally, additional therapists will be needed to help prepare handicapped children to enter special educa­ tion programs, as required by recent Federal legislation. Due to industry growth and more intensive care, hospitals will continue to employ the largest number of occupational therapists.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  169  Hospitals will also need occupational therapists to staff their grow­ ing home health care and outpatient rehabilitation programs. Moderate growth in schools will result from expansion of the school-age population and extended services for handicapped stu­ dents. The field of private practice will continue to provide opportuni­ ties for occupational therapists. Movement into private practice has been abetted by a legislative change which permits occupational therapists to bill Medicare directly for services provided. Previ­ ously, billings were submitted through a hospital, home health agency, or other Medicare-approved facility. Employment of occupational therapists in the home health field is expected to grow very fast. The rapidly growing number of people age 75 and older who are more likely to need home health care, and the greater use of at-home followup care will encourage this growth. Earnings According to a national survey of hospitals and medical centers con­ ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the median an­ nual salary for occupational therapists, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $35,625 in October 1992. The average minimum was $30,470 and the average maxi­ mum was $44,958. Some States classify occupational therapists em­ ployed in public schools as teachers and pay accordingly. According to the National Education Association, elementary school teachers earned an average of about $34,777 during the 1992-93 school year, and secondary school teachers earned an average of about $36,509. Therapists in private practice generally earned more than salaried workers. Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help individu­ als perform daily living skills and achieve maximum independence. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, pros­ thetists, physical therapists, chiropractors, speech pathologists and audiologists, rehabilitation counselors, recreational therapists, art therapists, music therapists, dance therapists, horticultural ther­ apists, and manual arts therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, a list of education programs, and requirements for certification, write to: ty American Occupational Therapy Association, P.O. Box 1725, 1383 Pic­ card Dr., Rockville, MD 20849-1725.  Pharmacists (D.O.T. 074.161 -010 and -014)  Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense drugs prescribed by physicians and other health practitioners and provide information to patients about medications and their use. They advise physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages, and side effects of medica­ tions. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and ef­ fects of drugs. Compounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is only a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and form. Pharmacists in community (retail) pharmacies answer customers’ questions about prescription drugs, such as possible adverse reac­ tions and interactions. They answer questions about over-thecounter drugs and make recommendations after asking a series of  170  Occupational Outlook Handbook  health questions, such as whether the customer is on any other med­ ication. They also give advice about durable medical equipment and home health care supplies. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may buy and sell nonhealth-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense medications and ad­ vise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs, in some cases making rounds with them. They may make sterile solutions and buy medical supplies. They also monitor drug regimens, advise patients on the use of drugs when they are discharged from the hos­ pital, and evaluate drug use patterns in the hospital. Pharmacists who work in home health care prepare medications for use in the home and monitor drug therapy. Most pharmacists keep computerized records of patients’ drug therapies to insure that harmful drug interactions do not occur. They may also teach health professions students. Some pharmacists specialize in specific aspects of drug therapy, such as drugs for psychiatric disorders, intravenous nutrition, or the diagnostic use of radiopharmaceuticals. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous or sterile pharmaceutical products, pharmacists wear gloves and masks and work with special protective equipment. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open long hours or around the clock, so pharmacists may work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Pharmacists who consult may travel to nursing homes or other facilities. About 1 out of 7 pharmacists worked part time in 1992. Most full­ time salaried pharmacists worked about 40 hours a week. Some however, worked more than 50 hours a week. Most self-employed pharmacists worked more than 50 hours a week. Employment Pharmacists held about 163,000 jobs in 1992. Three out of 5 worked in community pharmacies, either independently owned, part of a drug store chain, or part of a grocery or department store. Most community pharmacists were salaried, but a substantial number were self employed. More than one- quarter worked in hospitals, and some worked for health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), clinics, nursing homes, and the Federal Government. Some pharmacists hold more than one job. They may work a standard week in their primary work setting and also work part time elsewhere.  Pharmacists keep computerized records ofpatients' drug therapies.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy (a few States allow graduation from certain foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State examination, and serve an internship under a licensed pharmacist. In 1993, all States except California and Florida usually granted a li­ cense without extensive reexamination to qualified pharmacists al­ ready licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Most States require continuing edu­ cation for license renewal. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to grad­ uate from programs accredited by the American Council on Phar­ maceutical Education. Five years are needed for a Bachelor of Sci­ ence (B.S.) in Pharmacy, the degree received by most graduates. A Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) normally requires at least 6 years, during which an intervening bachelor’s degree may not be awarded. Those who already hold the bachelor’s degree may enter Pharm.D. programs, but the combined period of study is usually longer than 6 years. Of the 75 colleges of pharmacy that conferred degrees in 1992-93, 61 conferred the B.S. in Pharmacy and 58 awarded the Pharm.D., either as a first irofessional or postbaccalaureate degree. Requirements for admission to colleges of pharmacy vary. A few colleges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require 1 or 2 years of college-level prepharmacy education. Entry requirements usually include mathe­ matics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social sciences. Some col­ leges require the applicant to take the Pharmacy College Admis­ sions Test (P-CAT). All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, de­ signed to teach students to dispense prescriptions, communicate with patients and other health professionals, and to strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and practice management re­ sponsibilities. Pharmacists’ training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health profes­ sionals. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is generally acceptable for most positions in community pharmacies. However, a growing number of hospital employers prefer that a pharmacist have a Pharm.D. degree. A master’s or Ph.D. degree in pharmacy or a re­ lated field usually is required to do research, and a Pharm.D. with additional residency or fellowship training, master’s, or Ph.D. usu­ ally is necessary for administrative or faculty positions. In 1992-93, 61 colleges of pharmacy awarded the Master of Sci­ ence degree or the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy graduates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter 1- or 2-year resi­ dency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are organ­ ized, directed, postgraduate training programs in a defined area of pharmacy practice, such as pediatrics, cardiology, oncology, or hos­ pital pharmacy management. Pharmacy fellowships are directed, highly individualized programs designed to prepare participants to do independent research. Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceuti­ cal chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), and pharmacy administration, including social- behavioral aspects of patient care. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and good interpersonal skills. In community pharmacies, pharmacists usually begin as employ­ ees. After they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, many become owners or part owners of pharmacies. Pharmacists in chain drug stores may be promoted to supervisory pharmacist at the store level and then at the district level, and later to an executive po­ sition within the chain’s headquarters.  Professional Specialty Occupations Hospital pharmacists may advance to director of pharmacy ser­ vices or to other administrative positions. Pharmacists in the phar­ maceutical industry may advance in marketing, sales, research, quality control, production, packaging, and other areas.  171  Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-014)  Job Outlook Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005, due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population and greater use of medication. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the need to replace pharmacists who leave the profes­ sion. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people will spur demand in all practice settings. Projected rapid growth in the elderly population is especially important because the number of prescriptions influences demand for pharmacists, and the elderly use more prescription drugs, on the average, than younger people. Other factors likely to increase demand for pharmacists through the year 2005 include the likelihood of scientific advances that will make more drug products available; new developments in adminis­ tering medication; and increasingly sophisticated consumers seek­ ing more information about drugs. The number of pharmacists in hospitals is expected to grow as pharmacists consult more and become more actively involved in pa­ tient drug therapy decision-making. The increased severity of the typical hospital patient’s illness, together with rapid strides in drug therapy, is likely to heighten demand for pharmacists in hospitals, HMO’s, and other health care settings. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time, salaried pharmacists were $45,000 in 1992. Half earned between $37,600 and $51,400. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,100 and the top 10 percent more than $59,500. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores had an average base salary of $49,800 per year in 1992, while pharmacists working in in­ dependent drug stores averaged $45,300, discount stores averaged $53,200, supermarkets averaged $51,200, health maintenance orga­ nizations (HMO’s) averaged $52,300, and hospital pharmacists av­ eraged $50,300, according to a survey by Drug Topics magazine published by Medical Economics Publishing, Inc. The same survey showed that pharmacists employed in the West earned higher in­ comes than pharmacists in other regions of the country. Also, phar­ macists employed by chain drug stores, supermarkets, discount stores, and HMO’s receive more benefits than those in independent drug stores. Pharmacists who were owners of pharmacies often earn considerably more than salaried pharmacists.  Nature of the Work Physical therapists improve the mobility, relieve the pain, and pre­ vent or limit the permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. Their patients include accident victims and disabled individuals with conditions such as multiple sclerosis, cere­ bral palsy, nerve injuries, burns, amputations, head injuries, frac­ tures, low back pain, arthritis, and heart disease. Therapists evaluate a patient’s medical history; test and measure their strength, range of motion, and ability to function; and develop written treatment plans. These plans, which may be based on physi­ cian’s orders, describe the treatments to be provided, their purpose, and their anticipated outcomes. As treatment continues, they docu­ ment progress, conduct periodic re-evaluations, and modify treat­ ments, if necessary. Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have been im­ mobilized and lack flexibility. Using a technique known as passive exercise, therapists increase the patient’s flexibility by stretching and manipulating stiffjoints and unused muscles. Later in the treat­ ment, they encourage patients to use their own muscles to further increase flexibility and range of motion before finally advancing to weights and other exercises to improve strength, balance, coordina­ tion, and endurance. Physical therapists also use electricity, heat, cold, or ultrasound to relieve pain or improve the condition of muscles or related tissues or to reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue massage to relieve pain and restore function. Therapists also teach and moti­ vate patients to use crutches, prostheses, and wheelchairs to per­ form day-to-day activities and show them exercises to do at home. Physical therapists document evaluations, daily progress, medical team conferences, and reports to referring practitioners and insur­ ance companies. Such documentation is used to track the patient’s progress, identify areas requiring more or less attention, justify bill­ ings, and for legal purposes. Some physical therapists treat a wide variety of problems; others specialize in such areas as pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopedics, sports physical therapy, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical ther­ apy.  Related Occupations Persons in other professions who work with pharmaceutical com­ pounds are pharmaceutical chemists and pharmacologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and pro­ fessional requirements, programs offered by all the colleges of phar­ macy, and student financial aid, contact: W American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alexan­ dria, VA 22314.  Information on requirements for licensure in a particular State is available from the Board of Pharmacy of the State or from: O” National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 700 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  Information on specific college entrance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Physical therapists treat and rehabilitate persons with injuries and disabilities.  172  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Working Conditions Physical therapists work in hospitals, clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities, or they treat patients in hospital rooms, homes, or schools. Most physical therapists work a 40-hour week, which may in­ clude some evenings and weekends. The job can be physically de­ manding because therapists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods of time. In addition, therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. Employment Physical therapists held about 90,000 jobs in 1992; about 1 in 4 worked part time. Hospitals employed one-third and offices of other health practi­ tioners, including those of physical therapists, one-quarter of all sal­ aried physical therapists in 1992. Other jobs were in offices of physi­ cians, home health agencies, nursing homes, and schools. Some physical therapists are in private practice, providing services to indi­ vidual patients or contracting to provide services in hospitals, reha­ bilitation centers, nursing homes, home health agencies, adult day­ care programs, and schools. These self-employed therapists may be in solo practice or be part of a consulting group. Some physical ther­ apists teach in academic institutions and conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require physical therapists to pass a licensure exam after graduating from an accredited physical therapy program. Entry level education in physical therapy is available in 70 bache­ lor’s degree and 64 master’s degree programs. The bachelor’s degree curriculum usually starts with basic science courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduces specialized courses such as biomechanics, neuroanatomy, human growth and develop­ ment, manifestations of disease and trauma, evaluation and assess­ ment techniques, research, and therapeutic procedures. Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience in hospitals. Individuals who have a 4-year degree in a related field, such as ge­ netics or biology, and want to be a physical therapist, should enroll in a master’s level physical therapy program. A master’s degree is also recommended for those with a bachelor’s degree in physical therapy who are interested in promotion to an administrative posi­ tion. For research and teaching jobs, a master’s degree is required. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is keen, so in­ terested students should attain superior grades in high school and college, especially in science courses. Courses useful when applying to physical therapy programs include anatomy, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Many education programs also require experience as a volunteer in the physical therapy de­ partment of a hospital or clinic for admission. Physical therapists should be patient, persuasive, resourceful, emotionally stable, and tactful to help patients understand the treat­ ments and adjust to their disabilities. Similar traits are also needed to deal with the patient’s family. Physical therapists should also have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Physical therapists should expect to continue to develop profes­ sionally by participating in continuing education courses and work­ shops from time to time. A number of States require continuing edu­ cation for maintaining licensure.  enter the prime age for heart attack and strokes, increasing the de­ mand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. More young people will also need physical therapy as medical advances save the lives of a larger proportion of newborns with severe birth defects. Future medical developments will also permit a higher percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating additional demand for rehabili­ tative care. Growth will also result from advances in medical technology which permit treatment of more disabling conditions. In the past, for example, the development of hip and knee replacements for those with arthritis gave rise to employment for physical therapists to improve flexibility and strengthen weak muscles. The widespread interest in health promotion should also increase demand for physical therapy services. A growing number of em­ ployers are using physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits to employees in the hope of reducing injuries. Job prospects in physical therapy are expected to be excellent. There have been shortages of physical therapists in recent years. However, this situation may ease eventually as the number of physi­ cal therapy education programs increases and more students gradu­ ate. Earnings In 1992, median annual earnings of salaried physical therapists who usually work full time were $35,464. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,624 and $43,628. The top 10 percent earned at least $52,468 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $17,784. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national sur­ vey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of physical therapists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $37,638 in October 1992. The average mini­ mum salary was $31,887 and the average maximum salary was $47,288. Physical therapists in private practice tend to earn more than salaried workers.  Employment in physical therapy occupations is expected to grow faster than in most other health care occupations. Home health aides Physical and corrective therapy assistants Physical therapists Occupational therapy assistants and aides Medical assistants Radiologic technologists and technicians Medical record technicians Occupational therapists  Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth will occur as new medical technologies save more people, who then need therapy; as new technologies permit more disabling conditions to be treated; and as the population grows and ages. The rapidly growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that will require more thera­ peutic services. At the same time, the baby-boom generation will  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  EEG technologists Speech-language path­ ologists and audiologists 100 125 150 Percentage growth, 1992-2005 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Professional Specialty Occupations  173  Related Occupations Physical therapists treat and rehabilitate persons with physical or mental disabilities. Others who work in the rehabilitation field in­ clude occupational therapists, corrective therapists, recreational therapists, manual arts therapists, speech pathologists and audiolo­ gists, orthotists, prosthetists, respiratory therapists, chiropractors, acupuncturists, and athletic trainers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alex­ andria, VA 22314.  Physician Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-018)  Nature of the Work As their title suggests, physician assistants (PA’s) support physi­ cians. However, they should not be confused with medical assistants (see elsewhere in the Handbook). PA’s are formally trained to per­ form many of the routine but time-consuming tasks physicians usu­ ally do. They take medical histories, examine patients, order and in­ terpret laboratory tests and x rays, and make preliminary diagnoses. They also treat minor injuries by suturing, splinting, and casting. PA’s record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order or carry out therapy. In 35 States and the District of Columbia, phy­ sician assistants may prescribe medications. PA’s may have mana­ gerial duties too. Some order medical and laboratory supplies and equipment; others supervise technicians and assistants. Physician assistants always work under the supervision of a phy­ sician. The extent of supervision, however, depends upon the loca­ tion. For example, PA’s working in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each week, may provide most of the health care for patients and consult with the supervising physician by telephone. Other PA’s may make house calls or go to hospitals to check on patients and report back to the physician. In some States, the duties of a physician assistant are determined by the supervising physician; in others, they are determined by the State’s regulatory agency. Aspiring PA’s should investigate the laws and regulations in the States where they wish to practice. PA’s assist physicians in specialty areas, such as general and tho­ racic surgery, emergency medicine, and pediatrics. PA’s specializ­ ing in surgery, also called surgeon assistants, provide pre- and post­ operative care and may work as first or second assistants during ma­ jor surgery. Working Conditions Although PA’s generally work in a comfortable, well- lighted envi­ ronment, those in surgery often stand for long periods, and others do considerable walking. Schedules vary according to practice set­ ting and often depend on the hours of the supervising physician. A few emergency room PA’s work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The workweek of PA’s in physicians’ offices may include weekends, night hours, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA’s in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 58,000jobs in 1992. Most PA’s work in physicians’ offices and clinics. Others work in hospitals. The rest work for public health clinics, nursing homes, prisons, and rehabili­ tation centers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most physician assistants work in physicians’ offices and clinics. About one-third of all PA’s provide health care to communities having fewer than 50,000 residents where physicians may be in lim­ ited supply, according to the American Academy of Physician As­ sistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all States require that new PA’s complete an accredited, for­ mal education program. In 1993, there were 57 such educational programs for physician assistants, including three programs for sur­ geon assistants. Thirty- seven of these programs offered a baccalau­ reate degree or a degree option. The rest offered either a certificate, an associate degree, or a master’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the health care field. Stu­ dents should take courses in biology, English, chemistry, math, psy­ chology, and social sciences. More than half of all applicants hold a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Many applicants are former emer­ gency medical technicians, other allied health professionals, or nurses. PA programs generally last 2 years. Most are located in medical schools, schools of allied health, or 4-year colleges; a few are in com­ munity colleges and in hospitals. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochemistry, nu­ trition, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical phar­ macology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, disease prevention, and medical ethics. Students obtain supervised clinical training in several areas, including family medicine, inpatient and ambulatory medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, internal medicine, ambulatory psy­ chiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, one or more of these “rotations” are served under the supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. These rotations often lead to permanent employment. As of 1993, 49 States, the District of Columbia, and Guam had legislation governing the qualifications or practice of physician as­ sistants. Mississippi did not. Forty-six States required physician as­ sistants to pass a certifying exam that is only open to graduates of an accredited educational program. Only those successfully complet­ ing the examination may use the credential “Physician AssistantCertified (PA-C).” In order to remain certified, PA’s must have 100 hours of continuing medical education every 2 years and pass a recertification examination every 6 years. PA postgraduate residency training programs, as yet unac­ credited, are available in emergency medicine, gynecology, geriat­ rics, surgery, pediatrics, neonatology, and occupational medicine.  174  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be cer­ tified by the National Commission on Certification of Physician As­ sistants. Physician assistants need leadership skills, self- confidence, and emotional stability. They must be willing to continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Some PA’s pursue additional education in order to practice in a specialty area such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. Others—as they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience— advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. However, by the very nature of the profession, individual PA’s are always super­ vised by physicians. Job Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be excellent for physi­ cian assistants, particularly in areas or settings that have difficulty attracting enough physicians, such as rural and inner city clinics. Employment of PA’s is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated expan­ sion of the health services industry and an emphasis on cost contain­ ment. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PA’s to provide primary care and assist with medical and surgical proce­ dures, thus freeing physicians to perform more complicated and rev­ enue generating tasks. The public and third party payers also seem to approve of PA’s use. For example, Medicare now allows physi­ cians to bill the government for services provided by PA’s in hospi­ tals and nursing homes. Besides the traditional office-based setting, PA’s should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. The growth of HMO’s and group medical practices should also lead to more jobs since they use PA’s to provide a wide variety of services because their salaries are lower than those of physicians. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi­ tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of physician as­ sistants, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differ­ entials, was $41,038 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $32,466 and the average maximum was $49,782. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, the average salary for all physician assistants in 1993 was between $50,000 and $55,000. Salaries vary by specialty, practice setting, ge­ ographical location, and years of experience.  Recreational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.124-014)  Nature of the Work Recreational therapists employ activities to treat or maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of patients. Activities in­ clude sports, games, dance, drama, arts and crafts, and music, as well as field trips for sightseeing, ball games, or picnics. They help individuals build confidence, socialize effectively, and remediate the effects of illness or disability. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation workers, who organize recreational activi­ ties primarily for enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In clinical settings, such as hospitals and rehabilitation centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate individuals with spe­ cific medical problems, usually in cooperation with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. In nursing homes, residential facilities, and community recreation departments, they use leisure activities—mostly group oriented—to improve general health and well-being, but may also treat medical problems. In these settings they may be called activity directors or therapeutic recreation specialists. Recreational therapists assess patients based on information from medical records, medical staff, family, and patients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic activity programs con­ sistent with patient needs and interests. For instance, patients hav­ ing trouble socializing may be helped to play games with others, a right-handed person with a right-side paralysis may be helped to use their left arm to throw a ball or swing a racket. They may instruct patients in relaxation techniques to reduce stress and tension, in stretching and limbering exercises, and in individual and group sports. Community based recreational therapists work in park and recre­ ation departments, special education programs, or programs for the elderly or disabled. In these programs therapists help patients de­ velop leisure activities and provide them with opportunities for exer­ cise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Recreational therapists observe and record patients’ participa­ tion, reactions, and progress. These records are used by the medical staff and others, to monitor progress, to justify changes or end treat­ ment, and for billing.  Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, physi­ cal therapists, occupational therapists, clinical psychologists, and speech and hearing clinicians. Sources of Additional Information A free brochure, Physician Assistants, PArtners in Medicine, is avail­ able from: fW American Academy of Physician Assistants, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For a list of accredited programs and a catalog of individual PA training programs, contact: 13s Association of Physician Assistant  r^:-v  Programs, 950 North Washington St.,  Alexandria, VA 22314.  For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, write to: O* National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 2845 Henderson Mill Rd. NE., Atlanta, GA 30341.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Recreational therapists may prepare periodic reports on patients.  -}  Professional Specialty Occupations Working Conditions Recreational therapists often plan events and keep records in offices and provide services in special activity rooms. In community set­ tings they might also work with clients in a recreation room, on a playing field, or in a swimming pool. Therapists often lift and carry equipment as well as participate in activities. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week, which may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Employment Recreational therapists held about 30,000 jobs in 1992. About onehalf were in hospitals and one-third were in nursing homes. Others were in residential facilities, community mental health centers, adult day care programs, correctional facilities, community pro­ grams for people with disabilities, and substance abuse centers. Some therapists were self-employed, generally contracting with nursing homes or community agencies to develop and oversee pro­ grams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation (or in recreation with an option in therapeutic recreation) is the usual requirement for hospital and other clinical positions. An associate degree in recrea­ tional therapy; training in art, drama, or music therapy; or qualify­ ing work experience may be sufficient for activity director positions in nursing homes. The National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification certifies therapeutic recreation specialists. Specialists must have a bachelor’s degree and pass a certification exam. Some employers re­ quire individuals to be certified; others prefer it. There are 105 programs that prepare recreational therapists. As of 1993, 54 programs were accredited by the National Council on Accreditation. Most offer bachelor’s degrees, although some offer associate or master’s degrees. In addition to therapeutic recreation courses in clinical practice and helping skills, program design, management, and professional issues, students study human anatomy, physiology, abnormal psy­ chology, medical and psychiatric terminology, characteristics of ill­ nesses and disabilities, and the concepts of mainstreaming and nor­ malization. Courses cover professional ethics, assessment and referral procedures, and the use of adaptive and medical equipment. In addition, 360 hours of internship under the supervision of a certi­ fied therapeutic recreation specialist are required.. Recreational therapists should be comfortable working with dis­ abled people and be patient, tactful, and persuasive. Ingenuity and imagination are needed in adapting activities to individual needs and good physical coordination is necessary when demonstrating or participating in recreational events. Job Outlook Employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, because of anticipated expansion in long-term care, physical and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for the disabled. Hospitals will provide a large number of recreational therapy jobs through the year 2005. A growing number of these will be in hospi­ tal-based adult day care and out-patient programs, or in units offer­ ing short-term mental health and alcohol or drug abuse services. Long-term rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals will provide ad­ ditional jobs. The rapidly growing number of older people is expected to spur job growth for activity directors in nursing homes, retirement com­ munities, adult day care programs, and social service agencies. Con­ tinued growth is expected in community residential facilities as well as day care programs for people with disablities. Job prospects are expected to be favorable for those with a strong clinical background.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  175  Earnings According to a survey of American Therapeutic Recreation Associ­ ation members, the average salary for recreational therapists was $25,557 in 1991. According to limited data from a survey conducted by the National Association of Activity Professionals, the average salary of activity directors in nursing homes was between $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1990. The average annual salary for all recreational therapists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage­ rial positions was about $33,499 in 1993. Related Occupations Recreational therapists design activities to help people with disabili­ ties lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are orientation therapists for the blind, art ther­ apists, drama therapists, dance therapists, music therapists, occupa­ tional therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on how to order materials describing careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, write to: X3" American Therapeutic Recreation Association, C.O. Associated Man­ agement Systems, P.O. Box 15215, Hattiesburg, MS 39402-5215. XW National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 2775 S. Quincy St., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206-2204.  Certification information may be obtained from: XS“ National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, P.O. Box 479, Thiells, NY 10984-0479.  Registered Nurses (D.O.T. 075.124-010 and -014, .127-014, -026, -030 and -034, .137-010 and -014, .167-010 and -014, .264-010 and -014, .364-010, .371-010, .374-014, -018, and -022)  Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R.N.’s) care for the sick and injured and help people stay well. They are typically concerned with the “whole per­ son,” providing for the physical, mental, and emotional needs of their patients. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reac­ tions, and progress; assist physicians during treatments and exami­ nations; administer medications; and assist in convalescence and re­ habilitation. R.N.’s also develop and manage nursing care plans; instruct patients and their families in proper care; and help individu­ als and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. While State laws govern the tasks R.N.’s may perform, it is usually the work setting which determines day-to-day job duties. Hospital nurses form the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses, who provide bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physicians. They may also supervise licensed practical nurses and aides. Hospital nurses usually are assigned to one area such as surgery, maternity, pediatrics, emergency room, in­ tensive care, or treatment of cancer patients or may rotate among departments. Nursing home nurses manage nursing care for residents with con­ ditions ranging from a fracture to Alzheimer’s disease. Although they generally spend most of their time on administrative and super­ visory tasks, R.N.’s also assess residents’ medical condition, develop treatment plans, supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides, and perform difficult procedures such as starting intravenous fluids. They also work in specialty-care departments, such as long­ term rehabilitaion for stroke and head-injury patients. Public health nurses work in government and private agencies and clinics, schools, retirement communities and other community set­ tings. They instruct individuals and families and other groups in health education, disease prevention, nutrition, child care, and  176  Occupational Outlook Handbook  home care of the sick or disabled. They arrange for immunizations, blood pressure testing, and other health screening. These nurses also work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in community health education. Some work in home health care, pro­ viding periodic services prescribed by a physician and instructing patients and families. Private duty nurses care for patients needing constant attention. They work directly for families on a contract basis or for a nursing or temporary help agency which assigns them to patients. They pro­ vide services in homes, hospitals, nursing homes, and rehabilitation centers. Office nurses assist physicians in private practice, clinics, surgicenters, emergency medical centers, and health maintenance orga­ nizations (HMO’s). They prepare patients for and assist with exami­ nations, administer injections and medications, dress wounds and incisions, assist with minor surgery, and maintain records. Some also perform routine laboratory and office work. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care at worksites, to employees, customers, and others with minor injuries and illnesses. They provide emergency care, prepare accident re­ ports, and arrange for further care if necessary. They also offer health counseling, assist with health examinations and inoculations, and work on accident prevention programs. Head nurses or nurse supervisors direct nursing activities. They plan work schedules and assign duties to nurses and aides, provide or arrange for training, and visit patients to observe nurses and to in­ sure that care is proper. They may also insure that records are main­ tained and that equipment and supplies are ordered. Working Conditions Most nurses work in well-lighted, comfortable medical facilities. Public health nurses travel to patients’ homes and to schools, com­ munity centers, and other sites. Nurses may spend considerable time walking and standing. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. Because pa­ tients in hospitals and nursing homes require 24-hour care, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. Office, occupational health, and public health nurses are more likely to work regular business hours. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals and clinics where nurses may care for individuals with infectious diseases such as hep­ atitis and AIDS. Nurses must observe rigid guidelines to guard against these and other dangers such as radiation, chemicals used for sterilization of instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, nurses face back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases.  Employment Registered nurses held about 1,835,000 jobs in 1992. About 2 out of 3 jobs were in hospitals. Others were in offices and clinics of physi­ cians, nursing homes, home health care agencies, temporary help agencies, schools, and government agencies. About one-fourth of all R.N.’s worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To obtain a nursing license, all States require graduation from an ac­ credited nursing school and passing a national licensing examina­ tion. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by exam­ ination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Licenses must be periodically renewed, and continuing education is a require­ ment for renewal in some States. In 1991, there were 1,470 entry level R.N. programs. There are three major educational paths to nursing: Associate degree (A.D.N.), diploma, and bachelor of science degree in nursing (B.S.N.). A.D.N. programs, offered by community and junior col­ leges, take about 2 years. More than 60 percent of graduates in 1991 were from A.D.N. programs. B.S.N. programs, offered by colleges and universities, take 4 or 5 years. More than 30 percent of gradu­ ates in 1991 were from these programs. Diploma programs, given in hospitals, last 2 to 3 years. A small and declining number of gradu­ ates come from these programs. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three program types qualify for entry level positions as staff nurses. There have been attempts to raise the educational requirements for an R.N. license to a bachelor’s degree and, possibly, create new job titles. However, such proposals have been around for years. These changes, should they occur, will be made State by State, through legislation or regulation. Changes in licensure requirements would not affect currently licensed R.N.’s, who would be “grandfathered” in, no matter what their educational preparation. However, individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh  About 20 percent of the 3.8 million new jobs in health care occupations will be for registered nurses.  All other health care operations  Registered Nurses  20%  'Includes health diagnosing, assessment, technician, and service occupations, and homemaker home health aides. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Advancement opportunities are broader for nurses with a B.S.N.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Professional Specialty Occupations the pros and cons of enrolling in a B.S.N. program, since advance­ ment opportunities are broader for those with a B.S.N. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with bachelor’s or advanced de­ grees. While A.D.N. or diploma preparation is enough for a nursing home nurse to advance to director of nursing, a bachelor’s degree is generally necessary for administrative positions in hospitals and for positions in community nursing. Moreover, the B.S.N. is a prerequi­ site for admission to graduate nursing programs. So individuals con­ sidering positions requiring graduate training, such as research, consulting, teaching, or clinical specializations should enroll in a B.S.N. program. A growing number of A.D.N. and diploma-trained nurses are en­ tering bachelor’s programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. They can often find a hospital position and then take ad­ vantage of tuition reimbursement programs to get a B.S.N. Nursing education includes classroom instruction and supervised training in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital departments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A growing number of programs include courses in gerontological nursing and clinical practice in nursing homes. Some provide clinical training in public health departments and home health agencies. Nurses should be caring and sympathetic. They must be able to accept responsibility, direct or supervise others, follow orders pre­ cisely, and determine when consultation is required. Experience and good performance can lead to promotion to in­ creasingly more responsible positions. Nurses can advance, in man­ agement, to assistant head nurse or head nurse. From there, they can advance to assistant director, director, and vice president posi­ tions. Increasingly, management level nursing positions require a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration. They also require leadership, negotiation skills, and good judgment. Graduate programs preparing executive level nurses usually last 1 to 2 years. Within patient care, nurses can advance to clinical nurse special­ ist, nurse practitioner, nurse midwife, or nurse anesthetist. These positions require 1 or 2 years of graduate education, leading to a cer­ tificate or master’s degree. Some nurses move into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and experience on a health care team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home health, and chronic care ser­ vices. Some are employed by health care corporations in health planning and development, marketing, and quality assurance. Job Outlook Job prospects in nursing are good. Although employers in some parts of the country reported shortages of R.N.’s in the past, large wage increases have attracted more people to nursing and damp­ ened demand. However, R.N. recruitment has long been a problem in rural areas, in some big city hospitals, and in specialty areas in­ cluding intensive care, rehabilitation, geriatrics, and long-term care. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Driving this growth will be technological advances in patient care, which permit a greater number of medical problems to be treated, and in­ creasing emphasis on primary care. The number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need medical care, is projected to grow very rapidly. Many job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the oc­ cupation, especially as the average age of the registered nurse popu­ lation continues to rise. Employment in hospitals, the largest sector, is expected to grow more slowly than in other health-care sectors. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to increase, requiring more nurses per patient, the number of inpatients (those who remain overnight) is not likely  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  177  to increase much. Also, patients are being released earlier and more procedures are being done on an outpatient basis, both in and outside hospitals. Most rapid growth is expected in hospitals’ outpa­ tient facilities. Employment in physicians’ offices and clinics, including HMO’s, ambulatory surgicenters, and emergency medical centers is ex­ pected to grow very rapidly as health care in general expands. In ad­ dition, an increasing proportion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed only in hospitals, are being performed here, thanks largely to advances in technology. Employment in home health care is also expected to grow very rapidly. This is in response to a growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances which make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. Employment in nursing homes is expected to grow very fast due to increases in the number of people in their eighties and nineties, many of whom will require long-term care. In addition, the financial pressure on hospitals to release patients as soon as possible should produce more nursing home admissions. Growth in units to provide specialized long-term rehabilitation for stroke and head injury pa­ tients or to treat Alzheimer’s victims will also increase employment. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time salaried registered nurses were $34,424 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,820 and $41,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,944; the top 10 percent, more than $50,960. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of staff nurses, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differen­ tials, was $33,278 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $27,476 and the average maximum was $41,563. For head nurses, the median was $47,335; clinical nurse specialists, $44,845; professional nurse practitioners, $43,680; and nurse anesthetists, $66,622. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, staff R.N.’s in chain nursing homes had median annual earnings of approximately $30,200 in January, 1993. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,200 and $33,400 a year. Many employers are offering flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, bonuses, and other incentives. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations with responsibilities and duties re­ lated to those of registered nurses are occupational therapists, paramedics, physical therapists, physician assistants, and respira­ tory therapists. Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) publishes a variety of nursing and nursing education materials, including a list of nursing schools and information on student financial aid. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information brochure. Send your request to: XW Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hud­ son St., New York, NY 10014.  For a list of B.S.N. and graduate programs, write to: O’American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle, Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036.  Information on career opportunities as a registered nurse is avail­ able from: O’ American Nurses’ Association, 600 Maryland Ave. SW„ Washington, DC 20024-2571.  Information about employment opportunities in Department of Veterans Affairs medical centers is available from local VA medical centers and also from: O’Title 38 Employment Division (054D), Department of Veterans Affairs, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20420.  For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write to:  178  Occupational Outlook Handbook  13” American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005-4014.  * Respiratory Therapists (D.O.T. 076.361-014)  Nature of the Work You may live without water for a few days and without food for a few weeks. But without air, you will suffer brain damage within a few minutes and die after 9 minutes or more. Respiratory therapists, also known as respiratory care practitioners, evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing disorders. In evaluating patients, therapists test the capacity of the lungs and analyze the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration and po­ tential of hydrogen (pH), a measure of the acidity or alkalinity level of the blood. To measure lung capacity, therapists have patients breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of air during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can determine whether lung deficiencies exist. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, therapists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician. Respiratory therapists treat all sorts of patients, be they prema­ ture infants whose lungs are not fully developed or elderly people whose lungs are diseased. They provide temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema and emergency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock victims. Respiratory therapists most commonly use oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiother­ apy, and aerosol medications. Therapists may place an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on a patient and set the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician to increase a patient’s concentration of ox­ ygen. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators which deliver pressurized air into the lungs. They insert a tube into a patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, volume, and oxygen concentration of the air entering the patient’s lungs. Therapists regularly check on patients and equipment. If the patient appears to be having diffi­ culty or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is ab­ normal, they change the ventilator setting according the doctor’s or­ der or check equipment for mechanical problems. In homecare, therapists teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life support systems. They visit several times a month to in­ spect and clean equipment and ensure its proper use and make emergency visits if equipment problems arise. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on patients to remove mucus from their lungs to make it easier for them to breathe. For example, during surgery, anesthesia depresses respira­ tion, so this treatment may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to normal and prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also is used on patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. Therapists place patients in positions to help drain mucus, thump and vibrate pa­ tients’ rib cages, and instruct them to cough. Respiratory therapists also administer aerosols—generally liquid medications suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled and teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to assure its ef­ fectiveness. Other duties include keeping records of the materials used and charges to patients. Some therapists teach or supervise other respir­ atory therapy personnel.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  About 9 out of 10 respiratory therapists work in hospitals. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work a 40-hour week. Because hos­ pitals operate around the clock, therapists may work evenings, nights, or weekends; they spend long periods standing and walking between patients’ rooms. In an emergency, they work under a great deal of stress. Gases used by respiratory therapists are potentially hazardous because they are used and stored under pressure. How­ ever, adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. As with many health occupations, respiratory therapists run a risk of catching in­ fectious diseases. Careful adherence to proper procedures minimizes the risk. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 74,000 jobs in 1992. About 9 out of 10 jobs were located in hospitals in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Durable medical equipment rental companies, home health agencies, and nursing homes accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is necessary for entry to this field. Training is of­ fered at the postsecondary level by hospitals, medical schools, col­ leges and universities, trade schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Some programs prepare graduates for jobs as respiratory therapists; other, shorter programs lead to jobs as re­ spiratory therapy technicians. In 1992, 283 programs for respiratory therapists were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Edu­ cation and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Asso­ ciation (AMA). Another 187 programs offered CAHEA-accredited preparation for respiratory therapy technicians. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. Most of the CAHEA-accredited therapist pro­ grams last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Some, however, are 4-year bachelor’s degree programs. Technician programs last about 1 year, and award certificates. Areas of study for respiratory therapist programs include human anatomy and physiology, chem­ istry, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests.  Professional Specialty Occupations Therapists should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psycho­ logical needs. Respiratory care workers must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating compli­ cated respiratory therapy equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemis­ try, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem-solving. An understanding of basic chemical and physical principles is also important. Computing medication dosages and calculating gas concentrations are just two examples of the need for knowledge of science and mathematics. Thirty-Seven States license respiratory care personnel. The Na­ tional Board for Respiratory Care offers voluntary certification and registration to graduates of CAHEA-accredited programs. Two cre­ dentials are awarded to respiratory care practitioners who satisfy the requirements: Certified Respiratory Therapy Technician (CRTT) and Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT). All gradu­ ates—those from 2- and 4-year programs in respiratory therapy, as well as those from 1-year technician programs—may take the CRTT examination first. CRTT’s who meet education and experi­ ence requirements can take a separate examination, leading to the award of the RRT. Individuals who have completed a 4-year program in a non-respiratory field, but have college level courses in anatomy, physiol­ ogy, chemistry, biology, microbiology, physics, and mathematics, can become a CRTT after graduating from AMA accredited 1- or 2year programs. After they receive 2 years of clinical experience, they are eligible to take the registry exam to become an RRT. Most employers require that applicants for entry level or general­ ist positions hold the CRTT or are eligible to take the certification examination. Supervisory positions and those in intensive care spe­ cialties, usually require the RRT (or RRT eligibility). Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of “general” to “critical” patients, whom have significant problems in other organ systems such as the heart or kidneys. Re­ spiratory therapists, especially those with 4-year degrees, may also advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory ther­ apy department. Respiratory therapists in home care and equipment rental firms may become branch manager. Others leave the occupa­ tion to work as sales representatives or as equipment designers for equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 be­ cause of substantial growth of the middle-aged and elderly popula­ tion, a development that will heighten the incidence of cardi­ opulmonary disease. The elderly are the most common sufferers from respiratory ail­ ments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers in­ crease, the need for respiratory therapists will increase as well. In addition, advances in treating victims of heart attacks, accident vic­ tims, and premature infants (many of whom may be dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will require the services of respiratory care practitioners. Rapid growth in the number of pa­ tients with AIDS will also boost demand since lung disease often ac­ companies AIDS. Opportunities are expected to be highly favorable for respiratory therapists with neonatal care and cardiopulmonary care skills. Very rapid growth is expected in home health agencies, equip­ ment rental companies, and firms that provide respiratory care on a contract basis. As in other occupations, most job openings will re­ sult from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs or stop working altogether.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  179  Earnings Median annual earnings for respiratory therapists who worked year round full time in 1992 were $32,084. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,116 and $41,236. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,528; the top 10 percent, more than $48,048. According to a national survey of hospitals and medical centers, conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the median annual salary for respiratory therapists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift and area differentials, was $29,228 in October 1992. The average minimum annual salary was $24,770 and the av­ erage maximum was $36,553. Related Occupations Respiratory therapists, under the supervision of a physician, admin­ ister respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to im­ prove their physical condition include dialysis technicians, regis­ tered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and radia­ tion therapy technologists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: tw American Association for Respiratory Care, 11030 Abies Ln., Dallas, TX 75229.  Information on gaining credentials as a respiratory therapy prac­ titioner can be obtained from: The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 8310 Nieman Rd., Lenexa, KS 66214.  For the current list of CAHEA-accredited educational programs for respiratory therapy occupations, write to: W Joint Review Committee for Respiratory Therapy Education, 1701 W. Euless Blvd., Suite 300, Euless, TX 76040.  Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists (D.O.T. 076.101-010, .104-010, and .107-010)  Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists assess and treat persons with speech, language, voice, and fluency disorders; audiologists assess and treat those with hearing and related disorders. Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot make speech sounds, or cannot make them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with speech quality problems, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; and those with problems understanding and producing language. They may also work with people who have oral motor problems that cause eating and swallowing difficulties. Speech and language problems may result from causes such as hearing loss, brain injury or deterioration, cerebral palsy, stroke, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, or emotional problems. Speech-language pathologists use special instruments, as well as written and oral tests, to determine the nature and extent of impairment, and to record and analyze speech irregularities. For in­ dividuals with little or no speech, speech-language pathologists se­ lect alternative communication systems, including automated de­ vices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach other patients how to make sounds, improve their voices, or increase their language skills. Audiologists work with people who have hearing and related problems. They use audiometers and other testing devices to mea­ sure the loudness at which a person begins to hear sounds, the abil­ ity to distinguish between sounds, and other tests of the nature and  180  Occupational Outlook Handbook  extent of their hearing loss. Audiologists may coordinate these re­ sults with medical, educational, and psychological information, make a diagnosis, and determine a course of treatment. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, the fitting of a hearing aid, auditory training, and instruction in speech or lip read­ ing. They may recommend use of amplifiers and alerting devices. Audiologists also test noise levels in workplaces and conduct hear­ ing protection programs. Most speech-language pathologists and audiologists provide di­ rect clinical services to individuals with communication disorders. In speech, language, and hearing clinics, they may independently develop and carry out a treatment program. In medical facilities, they may work with physicians, social workers, psychologists, and other therapists to develop and execute a treatment plan. Speechlanguage pathology and audiology personnel in schools also develop individual or group programs, counsel parents, and assist teachers with classroom activities, to meet the needs of children with speech, language, or hearing disorders. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pinpoint problems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel individ­ uals and their families about communication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accompany them. They also work with family members to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede communication and treatment, and show them communication-enhancing techniques to use at home. Some speech-language pathologists and audiologists conduct re­ search on how people speak and hear. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating problems. Working Conditions Speech-language pathologists and audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. The job is not phys­ ically demanding, but does require attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of clients and their families may be demanding and there may be frustration when clients do not im­ prove. Most full-time speech-language pathologists and audiologists work about 40 hours per week. Some work part- time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Employment Speech-language pathologists and audiologists held about 73,000 jobs in 1992. About one-half provided services in preschools, ele­ mentary and secondary schools, or colleges and universities. More  More than one-half of speech language pathologists and audiologists work in schools.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  than 10 percent were in hospitals. Others were in offices of physi­ cians; offices of speech-language pathologists and audiologists; speech, language, and hearing centers; home health care agencies; and other facilities. Some were in private practice, working either as solo practitioners or in a group practice. Some experienced speech-language pathologists or audiologists contract to provide services in schools, hospitals, or nursing homes or work as consultants to industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in speech-language pathology or audiology is the standard credential in this field. Of the 43 States that regulate speech-language pathologists and/or audiologists, all require a mas­ ter’s degree or equivalent; 375 hours of supervised clinical experi­ ence; a passing score on a national examination; and 9 months of post-graduate professional experience. For licensure renewal, 23 States have continuing education requirements. Medicaid, Medi­ care, and private insurers generally require a license to qualify for reimbursement. In some States, people with bachelor’s degrees in speech-language pathology may work in schools with students who have communi­ cation problems. They may have to be certified by the State educa­ tional agency, and may be classified as special education teachers rather than speech-language pathologists or audiologists. Recent Federal legislation requires speech-language pathologists in school systems in almost every State to have a minimum of a master’s de­ gree or equivalent. All States require audiologists to hold a master’s degree or equivalent. About 230 colleges and universities offered master’s programs in speech-language pathology and audiology in 1993. Courses cover anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in speech, language, and hearing; the development of normal speech, language, and hear­ ing and the nature of disorders; acoustics; and psychological aspects of communication. Graduate students also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and hearing disorders and receive supervised clinical training in communication disorders. Those with a master’s degree can acquire the Certificate of Clinical Competence (CCC) offered by the American Speech-Lan­ guage-Hearing Association. To earn the CCC, a person must have a master’s degree, have 375 hours of supervised clinical experience, complete a 9-month post-graduate internship, and pass a national written examination. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists should be able to effectively communicate test results, diagnoses, and proposed treat­ ment in a manner easily understood by their clients. They also need to be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to clients and their families. Patience and compassion are important because a client’s progress may be slow. With experience, some salaried speech-language pathologists and audiologists enter private practice; others become directors or ad­ ministrators of services in schools, hospitals, health departments, and clinics. Some become researchers. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is ex­ pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace speech-language pathologists and audiologists who leave the occupation. Employment in the health services industry will increase as a re­ sult of several factors. Because hearing loss is strongly associated with older age, rapid growth in the population age 75 and over will cause the number of hearing-impaired persons to increase markedly. In addition, baby boomers are now entering middle age, when the possibility of neurological disorders and their associated speech, language, and hearing impairments increases. Medical advances are also improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma victims, who then need treatment.  Professional Specialty Occupations The number of speech-language pathologists and audiologists in private practice, though small, is likely to rise sharply by the year 2005. Encouraging this growth is the increasing use of contract ser­ vices by hospitals, schools, and nursing homes. Employment in schools will increase as elementary and secon­ dary school enrollments grow. In 1986, Federal legislation guaran­ teeing special education and related services to all eligible children with disabilities, while originally designed for school-age children, was extended to include children from 3 to 5 years of age. This legis­ lation will also increase employment in day care centers, rehabilita­ tion centers, and hospitals. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time salaried speech-language pa­ thologists and audiologists were $36,036 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,404 and $42,120. According to a 1992 survey by the American Speech-Language­ Hearing Association, the median annual salary for certified speechlanguage pathologists with 1 to 3 years experience was about $29,050; for certified audiologists, it was about $28,000. Speech-lan­ guage pathologists with 16 years or more experience earned a me­ dian annual salary of about $41,300, while experienced audiologists   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  181  earned about $45,000. Salaries also vary according to geographic lo­ cation. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists in hospitals earned a median annual salary of about $33,916, according to a 1992 survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists and audiologists specialize in the pre­ vention, diagnosis, and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in other rehabilitation occupations include oc­ cupational therapists, physical therapists, recreational therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on certifica­ tion requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on speech-language pathology and audi­ ology is available from: 13= American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852.  Communications Occupations Public Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 165.017,. 167)  Nature of the Work An organization’s reputation, profitability, and even its continued existence can depend on the degree to which its goals and policies are supported by its targeted “publics.” Public relations specialists serve as advocates for businesses, governments, universities, hospi­ tals, schools, and other organizations, and strive to build and main­ tain positive relationships with the public. As managers recognize the growing importance of good public relations to the success of their organizations, they increasingly rely on public relations spe­ cialists for advice on strategy and policy. Public relations specialists handle such functions as media, com­ munity, consumer, and governmental relations; political campaigns; interest-group representation; conflict mediation; or employee and investor relations. Public relations is not only “telling the organiza­ tion’s story,” however. Understanding the attitudes and concerns of consumers, employees, and various other groups also is a vital part of the job. To improve communications, public relations specialists establish and maintain cooperative relationships with representives of community, consumer, employee, and public interest groups and those in print and broadcast journalism. Public relations specialists put together information that keeps the general public, interest groups, and stockholders aware of an or­ ganization’s policies, activities, and accomplishments. Their work keeps management aware of public attitudes and concerns of the many groups and organizations with which it must deal. Public relations specialists prepare press releases and contact peo­ ple in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations specialists. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, energy, or the environment. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct programs for contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare the speeches for company officials. These specialists represent employ­ ers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presentations at meetings and school assemblies; and plan conven­ tions. In addition, they are responsible for preparing annual reports and writing proposals for various projects. In government, public relations specialists—who may be called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communications specialists—keep the public informed about the ac­ tivities of government agencies and officials. For example, public af­ fairs specialists in the Department of Energy keep the public in­ formed about the proposed lease of offshore land for oil exploration. A press secretary for a member of Congress keeps constituents aware of their elected representative’s accomplishments. In large organizations, the director of public relations, who is often a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations specialists to write, do research, prepare materials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct pub­ lic relations for a small organization may deal with all aspects of the job. They contact people, plan and do research, and prepare mate­ rial for distribution. They may also handle advertising or sales pro­ motion work to support marketing. 182   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Public relations specialists maintain positive relationships between their organizations and the public. Working Conditions Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week, but unpaid overtime is common. In addition, schedules often have to be rearranged to meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, and travel out of town. Occa­ sionally they may have to be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emergency or crisis. Employment Public relations specialists held about 98,000 jobs in 1992. About two-thirds worked in services industries—management and public relations firms, educational institutions, membership organizations, hospitals, social service agencies, and advertising agencies, for ex­ ample. Others worked for a wide range of employers, including manufacturing firms, financial institutions, and government agen­ cies. Some were self-employed. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily availa­ ble, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no defined standards for entry into a public rela­ tions career, a college education combined with public relations ex­ perience, usually gained through an internship, is considered excel­ lent preparation for public relations work. The ability to write and speak well is essential. Many beginners have a college major in pub­ lic relations, journalism, advertising, or communications. Some firms seek college graduates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated communications skills and training or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—science, engineering, sales, or finance, for ex­ ample. In 1992, well over 200 colleges and about 100 graduate schools of­ fered degree programs or special curricula in public relations, usu­ ally in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offered at least one course in this field. A com­ monly used public relations sequence includes the following courses: Public relations principles and techniques; public relations  Professional Specialty Occupations management and administration, including organizational develop­ ment; writing, emphasizing news releases, proposals, annual re­ ports, scripts, speeches, and related items; visual communications, including desktop publishing and computer graphics; and research, emphasizing social science research and survey design and imple­ mentation. Courses in advertising, journalism, business administra­ tion, political science, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful, as is familiarity with word processing and other computer applications. Specialties are offered in public relations for business, government, or nonprofit organizations. Many colleges help students gain part-time internships in public relations that provide valuable experience and training. The Armed Forces also can be an excellent place to gain training and experience. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Student Soci­ ety of America or the International Association of Business Com­ municators provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them find a full-time job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Writing for a school pub­ lication or television or radio station provides valuable experience and material for one’s portfolio. Creativity, initiative, good judgment, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are essential. Decision making, problem solving, and research skills are also important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychol­ ogy, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be com­ petitive, yet flexible and able to function as part of a team. Some organizations—particularly those with large public rela­ tions staffs—have formal training programs for new employees. In smaller organizations, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of mate­ rial about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experience, they may write news re­ leases, speeches, and articles for publication, or design and carry out public relations programs. Similar to other occupations, public rela­ tions specialists in smaller firms generally get all-around experience, whereas those in larger firms tend to be more specialized. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public rela­ tions specialists who have at least 5 years of experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6- hour examination (5 hours written, 1 hour oral). The International Association of Business Communicators also has an accreditation program for professionals in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Those who meet all the requirements of the program earn the desig­ nation, Accredited Business Communicator. Candidates must have at least 5 years of experience in a communication field and pass a written and oral examination. They also must submit a portfolio of work samples demonstrating involvement in a range of communica­ tion projects and a thorough understanding of communication plan­ ning. Employers consider professional recognition through accredi­ tation a sign of competence in this field, and it may be especially helpful in a competitive job market. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as public relations spe­ cialists show they can handle more demanding managerial assign­ ments. In public relations firms, a beginner may be hired as a re­ search assistant or account assistant and be promoted to account executive, account supervisor, vice president, and eventually senior vice president. A similar career path is followed in corporate public relations, although the titles may differ. Some experienced public re­ lations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more infor­ mation on public relations managers, see the Handbook statement on marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.)  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  183  Job Outlook Keen competition for public relations jobs will likely continue among recent college graduates with a degree in communications— journalism, public relations, advertising, or a related field—as the number of applicants is expected to exceed the number of job open­ ings. People without the appropriate educational background or work experience will face the toughest obstacles in finding a public relations job. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Recognition of the need for good public relations in an in­ creasingly competitive business environment should spur demand for public relations specialists in organizations of all sizes. However, corporate restructuring and downsizing, in an effort to cut costs, could limit employment growth. Employment in public relations firms should grow as firms hire contractors to provide public rela­ tions services rather than support full-time staff. The vast majority ofjob opportunities should result from the need to replace public re­ lations specialists who leave the occupation to take another job, re­ tire, or for other reasons. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists who usually worked full time were about $32,000 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,000 and $51,000 annually; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,000; and the top 10 percent earned more than $62,000. A College Placement Council salary survey indicated new college graduates entering the public relations field were offered average starting salaries of about $21,000 in 1993. According to a 1992 salary survey by the Public Relations Jour­ nal, the median entry level salary of public relations account execu­ tives was almost $21,000 a year. Median annual salaries of all public relations account executives ranged from $28,000 in public relations firms to about $36,000 in corporations. Manufacturers, utilities, and scientific and technical firms were among the highest paying em­ ployers; museums and miscellaneous nonprofit organizations, relig­ ious and charitable organizations, and advertising agencies were among the lowest paying employers. The survey indicated an annual median salary for all respondents, including managers, of about $44,000. Some highly successful public relations workers earn con­ siderably more. In the Federal Government, persons with a bachelor’s degree gen­ erally started at $22,700 a year in 1993; those with a master’s degree generally started at $27,800 a year. Public affairs specialists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage­ rial positions averaged about $45,400 a year in 1993. Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among various organizations, special interest groups, and the public through effec­ tive communication. Other workers with similar jobs include fun­ draisers, lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising managers, and police officers involved in community relations. Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree programs or a sequence of study in public relations, and a brochure on careers in public relations, are available for $10 and $2, respectively, from: W Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376.  Current information on the public relations field, salaries, and other items is available from: 13" PR Reporter, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, NH 03833.  Career information on public relations in hospitals/health care is available from: 13P The American Society for Health Care Marketing and Public Relations, American Hospital Association, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  184  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters (D.O.T 131.067-010, and -018, .267-010; 159.147-010, and -014)  , ..m~ Nature of the Work Announcers and newscasters are well-known personalities to radio and television audiences. Radio announcers, often called disk jock­ eys, select and introduce recorded music; present news, sports, weather, and commercials; interview guests; and report on commu­ nity activities and other matters of interest to their audience. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. They often “ad-lib” much of the commentary. They also may oper­ ate the control board, sell commercial time to advertisers, and write commercial and news copy. Announcers at large stations usually specialize in sports or weather, or in general news, and may be called newscasters or anchors. Some are news analysts. In small stations, one announcer may do everything. News anchors, or a pair of co-anchors, present news stories and introduce in-depth videotaped news or live transmissions from onthe-scene reporters. (See statement on reporters and correspondents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Weathercasters, also called weather re­ porters or meteorologists, report and forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and other local and regional weather bureaus. Sportscasters select, write, and deliver the sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and live coverage of games played. Broadcast news analysts, called commentators, present news sto­ ries and also interpret them and discuss how they may affect the Na­ tion or listeners personally. Show hosts and hostesses interview guests about their lives, their work, or topics of current interest. They may ask questions of con­ testants, or manage play of games to enable contestants to win prizes. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, are masters of ceremonies at touch­ down club banquets or are on hand to greet customers at openings of sporting goods stores. Working Conditions Announcers and newscasters usually work in well-lighted, air-con­ ditioned, soundproof studios. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations—some are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many announcers present early morning shows, when many people are getting ready for work or commuting, or do late night newscasts. Working within a tight schedule requires split-second timing, and the resulting stress can be physically and mentally tiring. For many announcers, the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far out­ weigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. Employment Radio and television announcers and newscasters held about 56,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly all were staff announcers, but some were free­ lance announcers who sold their services for individual assignments to networks and stations, or to advertising agencies and other inde­ pendent producers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry to this occupation is highly competitive. While formal train­ ing in broadcast journalism from a college or technical school (pri­ vate broadcasting school) is valuable, station officials pay particular attention to taped auditions that show an applicant’s delivery and— in television—appearance and style on commercials, news, and in­ terviews. Those hired by television stations usually start out as pro­ duction secretaries, production assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an ap­ titude for “on-air” work. Newcomers to TV broadcasting also may begin as news camera operators. (See the statment on photographers and camera operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air newscasting job is remote, except possi­ bly for a small radio station. In radio, newcomers generally start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if qualified, may then move to a better paying job in a large city. An­ nouncers also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for jobs is particularly intense, and employers look for college graduates with at least several years of successful announc­ ing experience. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct English usage. Televi­ sion announcers need a neat, pleasing appearance as well. Knowl­ edge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves chances for success. In addition, announcers should be able to “ad-lib” all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. High school courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and electronics are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Students may gain valuable experi­ ence at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations. Some stations and cable systems offer financial assistance and onthe-job training in the form of internships, apprentice programs, co­ op work programs, scholarships, or fellowships. Persons considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television stations as well  Professional Specialty Occupations as broadcasting trade organizations to determine the school’s repu­ tation for producing suitably trained candidates. Announcers in small radio stations usually operate transmitters, so they must obtain a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricted radiotelephone operator permit. (For additional informa­ tion on FCC requirements, see the statement on broadcast techni­ cians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of announcers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as new radio and television stations are licensed and the number of cable televi­ sion systems continues to grow. Most openings in this relatively small field will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Many announcers leave the field because they can not advance to better paying jobs. Competition for jobs as announcers will be very keen because the broadcasting field typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire begin­ ners, but the pay is low. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek an­ nouncers and newscasters who have proven that they can attract and retain a large audience. Newscasters who are knowledgeable in such areas as business, consumer, and health news may have an advantage over others. While specialization is more common at larger stations and the net­ works, many smaller stations also encourage it. Employment in this occupation is not significantly affected by downturns in the economy. If recessions cause advertising revenues to fall, stations tend to cut “behind-the-scenes” workers rather than announcers and broadcasters. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely. They are higher in television than in radio, higher in larger markets than in small ones, and higher in commercial than in public broadcasting. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Cable Financial Management As­ sociation, the median salary for experienced radio announcers was $17,000 a year in 1992. Salaries ranged from $13,000 in the smallest markets to $45,000 in the largest markets for on-air personalities. News announcers’ median was $17,700, ranging from $14,700 in the smallest to $40,330 in the largest markets. Sports reporters’ median was $18,000, ranging from $12,500 in the smallest to $30,600 in the largest markets. Among television announcers, news anchors’ median salary was $41,000, ranging from $28,000 in the smallest to $163,000 in the largest markets. Weathercasters’ median was $36,660, ranging from $25,200 to $103,321. Sportscasters’ median was $31,900, ranging from $22,000 to $142,500.  For information on careers in broadcast news, contact: 13" Radio-Television News Directors Association, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006.  Reporters and Correspondents (D.O.T. 131.262-018)  Nature of the Work Reporters and correspondents play a key role in our society. They gather information and prepare stories that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corpo­ rate executives, special interest groups, and others who exercise power. In covering a story, they investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe on the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and may also take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material, determine their focus or empha­ sis, write their stories, and may also edit videos. Many enter infor­ mation or stories on portable computers, then submit it to their of­ fices using a telephone modem. In some cases, newswriters write the story from information collected and submitted by the reporter. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. Later, they may tape a commentary in the studio. General assignment reporters write up news as assigned, such as an accident, a political rally, the visit of a celebrity, or a company going out of business. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news at specific locations or “beats,” such as police stations or courts. They also have reporters specializing in fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, and relig­ ion. Investigative reporters cover stories that take many days or weeks of information gathering. News correspondents are stationed in large U.S. and foreign cities to report on news occurring there. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of the news, and also may take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire service copy, and write editorials. They also may solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and per­ form general office work. Working Conditions The work of reporters and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines. Some reporters work in  Related Occupations The success of announcers and news broadcasters depends upon how well they speak to their audiences. Others for whom oral com­ munication skills are vital are interpreters, sales workers, public re­ lations specialists, teachers, and actors. Sources of Additional Information For a list of schools that offer programs and courses in broadcast­ ing, contact: Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on FCC licenses, write to: rar Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20552.  General information on the broadcasting industry is available from: fW National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  185  Broadcast reporters need to be at ease on camera.  186  Occupational Outlook Handbook  comfortable, private offices; others work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other reporters. Those reporting from the scene for radio and tele­ vision may be distracted by curious onlookers or police or other emergency workers. Covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events may be dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Those on afternoon or evening papers generally work from early morning until early or midaf­ ternoon. Radio and television reporters generally are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters generally work during the day. Reporters may have to change their work hours to meet a dead­ line or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work may de­ mand long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Employment Reporters and correspondents held about 58,000 jobs in 1992. About 7 of every 10 worked for newspapers, either large city dailies or suburban and small town dailies or weeklies. Almost 2 in 10 worked in radio and television broadcasting, and others worked for magazines and wire services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer people with a bachelor’s degree in journal­ ism, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for expe­ rience on school newspapers or broadcasting stations and intern­ ships with news organizations. Large city newspapers and stations may also prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter spe­ cialty such as economics, political science, or business. Large news­ papers and broadcasters also require a minimum of 3 to 5 years ex­ perience as a reporter. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available in over 300 colleges. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical curricu­ lum are in liberal arts; the remainder are in journalism. Journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and televi­ sion newscasting and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in news-editorial journalism. Many community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs; credits may be transferable to 4-year journalism pro­ grams. A master’s degree in journalism was offered by over 100 schools in 1992; about 20 schools offered a Ph.D. degree. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. High school courses in English, journalism, and social studies, provide a good foundation. Useful college liberal arts courses in­ clude English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political sci­ ence, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer sci­ ence, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Reporters need good word processing skills, and computer graph­ ics and desktop publishing skills are useful. A knowledge of news photography is valuable for entry level positions which are for com­ bination reporter/camera operator or reporter/photographer. Experience in a part-time or summer job or an internship with a news organization is important. The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund and newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer summer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers and broadcasting stations, community papers, and Armed Forces publications also helps. In addition, more than 3,000 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships were awarded to college journalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations in 1990. Experience as a “stringer”—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is also helpful.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and impar­ tial news. Accuracy is important both to serve the public and be­ cause untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. A “nose for news,” persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and the physical stamina and emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and sometimes dan­ gerous assignments are important. Broadcast reporters need to be at ease on camera. All reporters must be at ease in unfamiliar places with all kinds of people. Most reporters start with small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. Large publications and stations hire very few recent graduates; they generally require their new reporters to have several years of experience. Beginning reporters do routine assignments; they cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries. With experience, they report more difficult assign­ ments, cover an assigned “beat,” or specialize in a particular field. Reporters may advance by moving to larger papers or stations. Some experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, writers, announcers, or public relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast jour­ nalism, who supervise reporters. Some eventually become broad­ casting or publications industry managers. Job Outlook Employment of reporters and correspondents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005—spurred mainly by an anticipated increase in the number of small town and suburban daily and weekly newspapers. Little or no increase is expected in the number of big city dailies. Some growth is expected in radio and television stations. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace reporters and correspondents who leave the occupation. Turnover is rela­ tively high in this occupation—some find the work too stressful and hectic, or don’t like the lifestyle and transfer to other occupations where their skills are valuable, especially public relations and adver­ tising work. Others leave because they are unable to move up to bet­ ter paid jobs in bigger cities. Competition for reporting jobs on large metropolitan newspapers and broadcast stations and on national magazines will continue to be keen. Small town and suburban newspapers will continue to offer better opportunities for beginners. Many openings arise on small publications as reporters become editors or reporters on larger pub­ lications or leave the field. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects have an advantage. Journalism graduates have the background for work in such closely related fields as advertising and public relations and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, and other nonmedia positions, in many cases because it is difficult to find media jobs. The newspaper and broadcasting industries are sensitive to eco­ nomic ups and downs. During recessions, few new reporters are hired and some reporters lose their jobs. Earnings The Newspaper Guild negotiates with individual newspapers on minimum salaries for both starting reporters and those still on the job after 3 to 6 years. The median minimum salary for reporters was about $406 a week as of August 1, 1992. Ten percent of the contracts called for minimums of $300 or less; 10 percent, $567 or more. The median minimum weekly salary for reporters after 3 to 6 years on the job was about $654 a week. Ten percent of the contracts called for top minimums of $479 or less; 10 percent, $856 or more. Annual median salaries of radio reporters ranged from $12,000 in the smallest stations to $33,388 in the largest stations in 1992, ac­ cording to a survey conducted by the National Association of  Professional Specialty Occupations Broadcasters. For all stations, the median salary was $16,000. Sala­ ries of television reporters ranged from $16,052 in the smallest sta­ tions to $69,500 in the largest ones. For all stations, the median sal­ ary was $21,825. Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essen­ tial include technical writers, advertising copy writers, public rela­ tions workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biographers, screen writers, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information, including a pamphlet entitled Facts about Newspapers, is available from: Newspaper Association of America, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, DC 20041.  Career information, including a pamphlet entitled Newspaper: What's In It For Me?, is available from: e= Newspaper Association of America Foundation, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universities that offer degree programs in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: (W The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543-0300.  For a list of junior and community colleges offering programs in journalism, contact: W Community College Journalism Association, San Antonio College, 1300 San Pedro Ave., San Antonio, TX 78212-4299.  Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine re­ porters is available from: pr The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 8611 Second Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910.  For a list of schools with accredited programs in their journalism departments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Pf Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communica­ tions, University of Kansas School of Journalism, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Law­ rence, KS 66045.  For general information about careers in journalism, contact: tw Association For Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, University of South Carolina, 1621 College St., Columbia, SC 29208-0251. A pamphlet titled A Career in Newspapers, can be obtained from: O'National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW., Suite 400, Washing­ ton, DC 20006.  Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and de­ partments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices.  Writers and Editors (D.O.T. 131 except .262-010 and -018; and 132 except .067-030)  Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writ­ ers develop original fiction and nonfiction for books, magazines and trade journals, newspapers, technical reports, company newsletters, radio and television broadcasts, movies, and advertisements. Edi­ tors select and prepare material for publication or broadcasting and supervise writers. Writers first select a topic or are assigned one by an editor. Topics may be ideas, tangible objects, events, people, or organizations. Writers gather information through personal observation, library research, and interviews. Sometimes, they change the focus to a more interesting related topic as they learn more. They select and organize the material and put it into words that effectively convey it to the reader. Besides reporting the information they gather, they may analyze and interpret it. Writers often revise or rewrite sec­ tions, searching for the best organization of the material or just the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  187  right phrasing. Newswriters prepare news items for newspapers or news broadcasts, based on information supplied by reporters or wire services. Columnists analyze news and write columns or commenta­ ries, based on personal knowledge and experience. Editorial writers write comments to stimulate or mold public opinion, in accordance with their publication’s viewpoint. Reporters and correspondents, who may also write articles or copy for broadcast, are described elsewhere in this section of the Handbook. Technical writers put scientific and technical information into readily understandable language. They prepare operating and main­ tenance manuals, catalogs, parts lists, assembly instructions, sales promotion materials, and project proposals. They also plan and edit technical reports and oversee preparation of illustrations, photo­ graphs, diagrams, and charts. Copy writers write advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media to promote the sale of goods and services. Established writers may work on a freelance basis; they sell their work to publishers or publication units, manufacturing firms, and public relations and advertising departments or agencies. They sometimes contract to complete specific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors frequently write and almost always review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. However, their primary duties are to plan the contents of books, magazines, or newspapers and to supervise their preparation. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to reporters and writers, and oversee the production of the publications. In small organizations, a single editor may do every­ thing. In larger ones, an executive editor oversees associate or assis­ tant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as fiction, local news, international news, or sports, or who edit one or a few publications. Editors hire writers, reporters, or other employ­ ees, plan budgets, and negotiate contracts with freelance writers. In broadcasting companies, program directors have similar responsi­ bilities. Editors and program directors often have assistants, with the title of assistant editor, editorial assistant, copy editor, or production as­ sistant. Many assistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They check manu­ scripts for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They add and rearrange sentences to improve clarity or delete incor­ rect and unnecessary material. Editorial assistants do research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Assistants also may ar­ range page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising or plan the use of tapes. They also may compose headlines, prepare copy for printing, and proofread printer’s galleys. Some editorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers or an­ swer letters about published or broadcast material. Production as­ sistants on small papers or in radio stations clip stories that come over the wire services’ printers, answer phones, and make photo­ copies. Most writers and editors use personal computers or word processors; many use desktop or electronic publishing systems. Working Conditions Some writers and editors work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other writers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, laboratories, the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours. Those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts work nights or weekends. Writers may work overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a late-developing story. They face deadlines and the pressure to meet them. On some jobs, there are deadlines every day. Employment Writers and editors held about 283,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly a third of salaried writers and editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers also work in advertising agen­ cies, in radio and television broadcasting, in public relations firms, and on journals and newsletters published by business and nonprofit  188  Occupational Outlook Handbook In small firms, beginning writers and editors may not only work as editorial or production assistants but also write or edit material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms. In larger firms, jobs usually are structured more formally. Beginners gener­ ally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. They take on fullscale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employees of small companies. Advancement comes as they are assigned more important articles.  Most writers and editors use personal computers or word processors. organizations, such as professional associations, labor unions, and religious organizations. Others develop publications for government agencies or write for motion picture companies. Many technical writers work for computer software firms or manufacturers of aircraft, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and com­ puters and other electronic equipment. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting com­ panies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Fed­ eral Government are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los An­ geles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed throughout the country are jobs with news­ papers; and professional, religious, business, technical, and trade union magazines or journals. Technical writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentrations are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Thousands of other persons work as freelancers—earning some income from their articles, books, and, less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves primarily with income from other sources. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts background, most prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. Technical writing requires a degree in or some knowledge about a specialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences, for example. In many cases, people with good writing skills can pick up specialized knowledge on the job. Some transfer from jobs as techni­ cians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assistants, edi­ torial assistants, or trainees in a technical information department, develop technical communication skills, and then assume writing duties. Writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logi­ cally and should love to write. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motivation, and perseverance are also valuable. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to produce under pressure is essential. Familiarity with electronic publishing, graphics, and video production equipment is increasingly needed. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what material to ac­ cept and what to reject. They need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, and community newspapers and radio and television stations all provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid—practical writing experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast stations have intern­ ships for students. Interns write short pieces, conduct research and interviews, and learn about the publishing or broadcasting business.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Em­ ployment of salaried writers and editors by newspapers, periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations is expected to increase with growing demand for their publications. Growth of advertising and public relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Demand for technical writers is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communicate it. Many job openings will also oc­ cur as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover is relatively high in this occupation— many freelancers leave because they can not earn enough. Through the year 2005, the outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly competitive primarily be­ cause so many people are attracted to the field. However, opportuni­ ties will be good for technical writers because of the more limited number of writers who can handle technical material. Opportunities should be better on small dailies and weekly newspapers and in small radio and television stations, where the pay is low. Persons preparing to be writers and editors should also have academic prep­ aration in another field as well, either to qualify them as writers spe­ cializing in that field or to enter that field if they are unable to get a writing job. Earnings In 1992, beginning salaries for writers and editorial assistants aver­ aged $20,000 annually, according to the Dow Jones Newspaper Fund. Those who had at least 5 years experience averaged more than $30,000 and senior editors at the largest newspapers earned over $60,000 a year. According to the 1992 Technical Communicator’s Salary Survey, median annual salaries for technical writers were as follows: Entry level........................................................................................ $26,700 Mid-level nonmanagement.............................................................. 35,000 Mid-level management........................................................................ 40,000 Senior management............................................................................ 45,400  The average annual salary for technical writers and editors in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage­ rial positions was $40,669; other writers and editors averaged $39,077. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other communications occupations include newspaper reporters and cor­ respondents, radio and television announcers, advertising and pub­ lic relations workers, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For a guide to journalism careers and scholarships, contact: ta-" The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08540.  For information on college internships in magazine editing, con­ tact: XW American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10022.  For information on careers in technical writing, contact: 13= Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 901 N. Stuart St., Suite 304,  Arlington, VA 22203.  Visual Arts Occupations  Designers (D.O.T. 141.051, .061, and .067; 142 except .051-010and .061-030)  Nature of the Work Designers organize and design articles, products, and materials in such a way that they not only serve the purpose for which they were intended but are visually pleasing as well. Pleasant surroundings, beautiful clothes, and floral arrangements can boost our spirits, and products and packaging that are eye catching are more likely to at­ tract buyers than those that are not. Many designers specialize in one particular area of design—for example, automobiles, clothing, furniture, home appliances, indus­ trial equipment, interiors of homes and office buildings, exhibits, movie and theater sets, packaging, or floral arrangements. Others, work in more than one design field. In developing a new design or altering an existing one, designers first determine the needs of their clients and potential users. Then they consider the size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and the way the product functions, as well as ease of use and maintenance, safety, and cost of the design. Designers may compare similar or competitive products. They take into account, and often set, style and fashion trends. Designers usu­ ally develop, by hand or with the aid of a computer, sketches of sev­ eral design concepts which they present for final selection to a client, an art or design director, a product development team, or producer of a play, film, or television production. The designer then makes a model, a prototype, or detailed plans drawn to scale. Designers in some specialties are increasingly using computer-aided design (CAD) tools to create and better visualize a final product. Com­ puters greatly reduce the cost and time necessary to create a model or prototype, which gives a real idea of what the product will look like. Industrial designers use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) to create designs and to communicate them to automated production tools. Designers may supervise craft workers who carry out their de­ signs. Those who run their own businesses also may devote a consid­ erable amount of time to developing new business contacts and to administrative tasks such as reviewing catalogs and ordering sam­ ples. Design is not one but a number of different fields. Industrial de­ signers develop and design countless manufactured products like cars, home appliances, children’s toys, computer equipment, and medical, office, or recreational equipment. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, marketing, materials, and pro­ duction methods to create the most functional and appealing design and to make the product competitive with others in the market­ place. Furniture designers design furniture for manufacture, according to knowledge of design trends, competitors’ products, production costs, capability of production facilities, and characteristics of a company’s market. In order to faciltiate the construction of the fur­ niture they may design and prepare detailed drawings of fixtures, forms, or tools required to be used in production. They may also de­ sign custom pieces or styles according to a specific period or coun­ try. They must be strongly involved with the fashion industry and must be aware of current trends and styles. Interior designers both plan the space and furnish the interiors of private homes, public buildings, and commercial establishments such as offices, restaurants, hospitals hotels, and theaters. They also may plan additions and renovations. With a client’s tastes, needs and budget in mind, they develop designs and prepare working  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  drawings and specifications for interior construction, furnishings, lighting, and finishes. Increasingly designers use computers to gen­ erate layout plans that can be easily changed to include input re­ ceived from the client. They also design lighting and architectural details such as crown molding, coordinate colors, and select furni­ ture, floor coverings, and curtains. Interior designers must design the space in accordance with Federal, State, and local building codes. Increasingly, they plan spaces that meet accessibility stan­ dards for the disabled and elderly. Set designers design movie, television, and theater sets. They study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to deter­ mine appropriate architectural styles. Fashion designers design clothing and accessories. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual cli­ ents. They make fashion news by establishing the “line,” colors, and kinds of materials that will be worn each season. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. They design original garments as well as follow the estab­ lished fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for ap­ parel manufacturers, adapting men's, women’s, and children’s fash­ ions for the mass market. Textile designers design fabrics for garments, upholstery, rugs, and other products, using their knowledge of textile materials and fashion trends. Computers are widely used in pattern design and grading. In the future, intelligent pattern engineering (IPE) systems will enable even greater automation in generating patterns. Floral designers cut and arrange fresh, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into designs to express the sentiments of the customer. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gar­ dens, and terrariums. They usually work from a written order indi­ cating the occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the floral arrangement or plant is to be delivered. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer depends on the size of the shop and the number of design­ ers employed. In a small operation, the floral designer may own the shop and do almost everything from growing flowers to keeping books. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers em­ ployed by manufacturing establishments or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Selfemployed designers tend to work longer hours—especially at first, when they are trying to establish themselves and cannot afford to hire assistants or clerical help. Designers frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients, meeting with them evenings or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in their own offices, clients’ homes or offices, or may travel to other locations such as showrooms or manufactur­ ing facilities. Industrial designers usually work regular hours but occasionally work overtime to meet deadlines. In contrast, set designers, espe­ cially those in television broadcasting, often work long and irregular hours. The pace of television production is very fast, and set design­ ers are often under pressure to make rapid changes in the sets. Fash­ ion designers who work in the apparel industry usually have regular hours. During production deadlines or before fashion shows, how­ ever, they may be required to put in overtime. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites overseas and across the United States. Interior designers generally work under deadlines and often work overtime to finish a job. Floral designers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, except during the holidays when overtime may be required. 189  190  Occupational Outlook Handbook  I  Designers must nave artistic ability in addition to knowledge of computers and their applications. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are re­ jected or when they cannot be as creative as they would like. Inde­ pendent consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain their in­ comes. Employment Designers held about 302,000 jobs in 1992. About one-third were self-employed, a much higher proportion than in most occupations. Salaried designers are found in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Most industrial designers, for example, work for consulting firms or for large corporations. Inte­ rior designers usually work for design or architectural firms, depart­ ment stores and home furnishing stores, or hotel and restaurant chains. Many do freelance work—full time, part time, or in addition to a salaried job. Set designers work for theater companies and film and television production companies. Fashion designers generally work for textile, apparel, and pattern manufacturers, or for fashion salons, highfashion department stores, and specialty shops. Some work in the entertainment industry, designing costumes for theater, dance, tele­ vision, and movies. Most floral designers work for retail flower shops but growing numbers work in floral departments of grocery stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field must have a strong snese of color, an eye for detail, a sense of bal­ ance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. Sketching ability is especially important for fashion designers. A good portfolio—a col­ lection of examples of a person’s best work—is often the deciding factor in landing a job. However, formal preparation in design is im­ portant in all fields with the exception of floral design. Educational requirements for entry level positions vary. Some de­ sign occupations, notably industrial design, require a bachelor’s de­ gree. Interior designers also generally need a college education, pref­ erably a bachelor of arts or a bachelor of applied arts degree. Few clients—especially commercial clients—are willing to entrust re­ sponsibility for designing living and working space to a designer  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with no formal credentials. Interior designers must also be knowl­ edgeable about Federal, State, and local codes, and toxicity and flammability standards for furniture and furnishings. In fashion design, some formal career preparation, such as a 2year or 4-year degree, is almost always needed to land a job. Em­ ployers seek individuals who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, and ornamentation as well as about trends in the fashion world. In contrast to the other design occupations, a high school di­ ploma ordinarily suffices for floral design jobs. Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When they hire trainees, employers gen­ erally look for high school graduates who have a flair for color and a desire to learn. However, completion of formal training is an asset for floral designers, particularly for advancement to the lead floral designer level. Vocational and technical schools offer programs in floral design that usually last less than a year, while 2- and 4-year programs in floriculture, horticulture, floral design, or ornamental horticulture are offered by community and junior colleges, and col­ leges and universities. Formal training for some design professions is also available in 2and 3-year professional schools which award certificates or associ­ ate degrees in design. Graduates of 2-year programs generally qual­ ify as assistants to designers. Four-year colleges and universities grant the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, designing and sketching, and specialized studies for each of the individual de­ sign disciplines such as garment construction, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, archi­ tecture, marketing, psychology, and basic engineering. A liberal arts education with courses in merchandising and business administra­ tion along with training in art is also a good background for most design fields, excluding industrial design. Persons with training or experience in architecture also qualify for some design occupations, particularly interior design. Computer-aided design (CAD) courses are very useful. CAD is used in many design areas, particularly in industrial design, and many employers expect new designers to be familiar with the use of the computer as a design tool. Computers are used extensively in the aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries, and are becoming more popular in the other design fields as well. For example, interior designers are using computers to create numerous versions of space designs. Images can be inserted, edited, or replaced—making it pos­ sible for a client to see and choose among several designs. In furni­ ture design, a chair’s basic shape and structure may be duplicated and updated by applying new upholstery styles and fabrics with the use of computers. In 1993, the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited 179 post-secondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in art. Some award de­ grees in industrial design, interior design, textile design, graphic de­ sign, or fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research accred­ its interior design programs and schools. Currently, there are 105 accredited programs in the United States and Canada located in schools of art, architecture, and home economics. People in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persis­ tent, and able to communicate their ideas both visually and verbally. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be open to new ideas and influences. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, and to budget their time in order to meet deadlines and production sched­ ules. Business sense and sales ability are important for those who are freelancers or run their own businesses.  Professional Specialty Occupations Beginning designers usually receive on-the-job training and nor­ mally need 1 to 3 years of training before they advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory posi­ tions. Some experienced designers open their own firms. Interior design is the only design field subject to government reg­ ulation: The District of Columbia licenses interior designers, and 18 States regulate use of the title. While licensing is the exception rather than the rule, membership in a professional association is uni­ versally recognized as a mark of achievement for designers. Profes­ sional membership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post-secondary education in design, at least 2 years of practical ex­ perience in the field, and completion of the National Council for In­ terior Design Qualification examination. Job Outlook Employment in design occupations is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addi­ tion, many openings will result from the need to replace those who leave the field. Continued emphasis on product quality and safety; on design of new products that are easy and comfortable to use; on high-technol­ ogy products in medicine, transportation, and other fields; and in­ creasing global competition among businesses should stimulate the demand for industrial designers. Floral design should experience healthy growth with the addition of floral departments in many gro­ cery stores. Growth in population and in personal incomes is ex­ pected to encourage increased demand for fashion designers, set de­ signers, and textile designers. Designers in most fields—with the exception of floral and furni­ ture design—can expect to face competition throughout their ca­ reers. Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as design­ ers—among them, graduates of prestigious design schools. In light of the abundant supply, individuals with no formal education in de­ sign, and without the necessary personal traits—particularly crea­ tivity and perseverance—may find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in design. While most areas of design are highly competitive, this is not the case in floral design. Relatively low pay and limited opportunities for advancement restrict the supply of suitable applicants. As a re­ sult, finding a job as a floral designer should be relatively easy. Op­ portunities should also be good for qualified persons in specialized fields, such as furniture design. Earnings Median weekly earnings of experienced full-time designers in all fields of design were about $585 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between 3375 and $855 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $260, and the top 10 percent earned more than $1,120.  Earnings of floral designers were lower than most types of design­ ers. According to a survey conducted by Floral Finance Inc., begin­ ning floral designers had average earnings of approximately $5.40 an hour in 1993. Designers with 1 to 3 years of experience earned $6.30, while designers with over 3 years of experience averaged $7.60. Managers had average earnings of about $9.40 an hour in 1992. According to the Industrial Designers Society of America, the av­ erage base salary for an entry-level industrial designer with 1 to 2 years of experience was about $27,900 in 1992. Staff designers with an average of 6 years of experience earned about $38,100, while se­ nior designers with an average of 10 years of experience earned about $44,500. Industrial designers in managerial or executive posi­ tions earned substantially more—up to about $75,000. According to the 1993 Top and Second 100 GIANTS surveys published by Interior Design magazine, salaries ofjunior interior de­ signers in the largest interior design firms averaged $25,000, project  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  191  and senior interior designers averaged $38,000, and project manag­ ers averaged $50,500 a year. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, mater­ ials, or interiors to improve their appearance and function include visual artists, architects, landscape architects, engineers, photogra­ phers, and merchandise displayers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited schools of art and design, contact: O" National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090.  A brochure that describes careers in industrial design and lists ac­ ademic programs in the field is available from the Industrial Design­ ers Society of America. For price and ordering information, write to: W Industrial Designers Society of America, 1142-E Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066.  For information about careers in interior design, contact: 0= American Society for Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. NE.,  Washington, DC 20002-6006.  For a list of accredited programs in interior design, contact: tw Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 60 Monroe Center NW„ Grand Rapids, MI 49503.  For information about careers in floral design, contact: W Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For a list of schools with accredited programs in furniture design, contact:  O’American Society of Furniture Designers, P.O. Box 2688, High Point, NC 27261.  Photographers and Camera Operators (D.O.T. 143)  Nature of the Work The job of a photographer or camera operator is to accurately or ar­ tistically portray people, places, and events. Skillful photographers capture the special feeling or mood that sells products, highlights news stories, and brings back memories. Photographers and camera operators all use the same basic equip­ ment, a camera. Camera operators generally use 35- or 16-millime­ ter cameras or camcorders to film commercial motion pictures and documentary or industrial films. They also make films for television news, and film private ceremonies and special events. Some camera operators have begun offering their services to the general public by recording important events, and renting out their equipment. Photographers use a wide variety of cameras that can accept lenses designed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photogra­ phy. These cameras also offer adjustments that allow the photogra­ pher creative and technical control over the picture-taking process. In addition to cameras and film, photographers and camera opera­ tors use an array of equipment—from filters, tripods, and flash at­ tachments to specially constructed motorized vehicles and special lighting. Photography increasingly involves the use of computers. Photographers take the picture, then it is scanned by a computer and manipulated to create the desired effect. The images are stored on a compact disk (CD) in the same way that music is stored on a CD. Currently, photographers primarily use this technology to cre­ ate an electronic portfolio. However, due to poor image quality and high cost, this technology has not been widely adopted. Taking quality pictures and movies requires technical expertise and creativity. For example, photographers and camera operators may enhance the subject’s appearance with lighting or by drawing attention to a particular aspect by blurring out the background.  192  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Composing a picture includes choosing a subject, presenting a sub­ ject to achieve a particular effect, and selecting equipment to accom­ plish the desired goal. By creatively applying the technical aspects of light, lens, film, filters, and camera settings, photographers and camera operators produce pictures that capture a mood or tell a story. Many photographers develop and print their own photographs, especially photographs requiring special effects, and photographers may enlarge or otherwise alter the original image. Most, however, send their film to laboratories for processing. This is especially true for color film, which requires very expensive equipment and exact­ ing conditions for processing and printing. (See the statement on photographic process workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most photographers specialize in commercial, portrait, or jour­ nalistic photography. Some specialize in weddings or school photo­ graphs. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Portrait pho­ tographers who are small-business owners also arrange for advertis­ ing, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, develop and retouch negatives, and mount and frame pictures. They also hire and train employees, purchase supplies, keep records, and bill cus­ tomers. Some self-employed photographers sign with stock photo agen­ cies. These agencies grant magazines and other customers the rights to an individual’s photographs on a commission basis. Stock photo agencies require an application from photographers and a sizable portfolio. Once accepted, a large number of new submissions are re­ quired each year. Photographers frequently have their photos placed on CD’s for this purpose. Additional photographs can be added later to the same CD. Commercial, editorial, and industrial photographers take pic­ tures of such subjects as manufactured articles, buildings, livestock, and groups of people. Their work is used in reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photographers take photographs or video­ tapes for use in analyzing engineering projects, for publicity, or as records of equipment and processes. Automobile manufacturers hire photographers every year to show off their new models. Com­ panies use photographs in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. This work frequently is done on-site. Scientific photographers provide illustrations and documentation for scientific publications, research reports, and textbooks. They usually specialize in fields such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry. Some use photographic or video equipment for use as a research tool. For example, biomedical photographers use photomi­ crography, photographs of small objects magnified many times to obtain information not visible under normal conditions, and timelapse photography, where time is stretched or condensed. Biomedi­ cal photographers also take photographs of medical procedures such as surgery. Photojoumalists photograph newsworthy events, places, people, and things for publications in newspapers, journals, and magazines. Photography also is an art medium. Some photographers sell their photographs as artwork, placing even greater emphasis on self­ expression and creativity, in addition to technical proficiency. Un­ like other specializations, however, very few photographers are suc­ cessful enough to support themselves through this specialty. Some camera operators work for local, network, and cable televi­ sion stations. They cover news events as part of a reporting team. They also may capture and transmit live pictures to the television audience. Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies or electronically record movies, tele­ vision programs, and commercials. Some camera operators special­ ize in filming cartoons or other optical effects for television and movies.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers and camera operators vary considerably. Photographers in government, commercial studios, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Newspaper photographers and camera operators may work long and irregular hours and must be available on short notice. Self-employment allows for a good deal of autonomy, flexible scheduling, and the possibility of working from one’s own home. However, the continuing need to find new clients can be time con­ suming and stressful. Some photographers hire an assistant solely for this responsibility. Portrait photographers often work in their own studios but may travel locally to take photographs in churches, synagogues, and homes. Press and commercial photographers and camera operators may frequently travel locally or overnight; some travel to distant places for long periods of time. Their work may put them in uncom­ fortable or even dangerous surroundings. This is especially true for photojournalists assigned to cover natural disasters or military con­ flicts. Photographers and camera operators may work long hours in a cramped and smelly darkroom or stand and walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. Also, photographers often work under severe time restrictions to meet deadlines and satisfy custom­ ers.  am  E3  j  *1  Photographers and camera operators frequently work outdoors.  Professional Specialty Occupations Employment Photographers and camera operators held about 118,000 jobs in 1992. About 4 out of 10 were self-employed, a much higher propor­ tion than the average for all occupations. Some photographers con­ tract with advertising agencies, magazines, or others to do individ­ ual projects, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock photo agencies. Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial pho­ tography studios. Others are with newspapers, magazines, advertis­ ing agencies, and government agencies. Most camera operators are employed in television broadcasting or in motion picture studios; few are self-employed. Most photographers and camera operators work in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no one best way to enter the occupation. Determination often is as much the key to success as are creativity, skill, and formal preparation. Students should subscribe to photographic newsletters and magazines, join camera clubs, and find work in camera stores or photo studios. Individuals also should decide on an area of interest and specialize in it. Completing an internship, through summer or part-time work, for a newspaper or magazine is an excellent way to gain experience and eventually entry to this field. Many entry level jobs require little formal preparation in photog­ raphy. However, entry level positions in photojournalism and in sci­ entific or technical photography are likely to require a college de­ gree in photography with courses in the scientific field being photographed—biology or botany, for example. Employers usually seek applicants having a technical understand­ ing of photography and certain personal traits, including imagina­ tion, creativity, and reliability. Business skills are essential for pho­ tographers planning on opening their own studio—courses in accounting and marketing are recommended. Technical expertise can be obtained through practical experience and postsecondary ed­ ucation. Camera operators generally acquire their skills through on-thejob training. Photography and cinematography assistants may set up lights and cameras or help a photographer take pictures. They also may receive routine assignments requiring few camera adjust­ ments or decisions on what subject matter to photograph. With ex­ perience, they may advance to more demanding assignments. Pho­ tography assistants may learn to mix chemicals, develop film, and print photographs, and can learn the skills vital to running their own business. Many aspiring photographers—who wish to open their own stu­ dios—believe that talent alone will insure success. However, all pro­ fessional photographers have talent, and success requires, in addi­ tion, the skills necessary to run a business. They must know how to bid for and write contracts, hire and direct models, acquire permis­ sion to use photographs of people, price photographs, and keep fi­ nancial records. Some self-employed photographers attempt to enter the field by submitting unsolicited photographs to magazines with the hope of eventually contracting with them to shoot photo­ graphs for articles. Universities, community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in photography, often as part of a communications or journalism pro­ gram. There are relatively few courses in cinematography. Most schools do not offer degrees in photography or cinematography. Basic courses in photography cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs provide a well-rounded ed­ ucation, including business courses. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition, but may be weak in the technical aspects of photography. Photographers and camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, accurate, and enjoy working with detail. They also should be able to work alone  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  193  and with others, as photographers frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and visual information specialists. Knowledge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the workings of lenses, films, light sources, and developing processes. News photographers must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and acting quickly to have it pub­ lished. Commercial photographers must be imaginative and original. Portrait photgraphers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Photojournalists must not only be good with a cam­ era but also understand the story behind an event so that their pic­ tures match the story. This requires journalistic skills and explains why employers increasingly look for individuals with a 4-year de­ gree in photojournalism or journalism with an emphasis on photog­ raphy. Camera operators can become directors of photography for movie studios and television programs. Magazine and news photog­ raphers may head up graphic arts departments or become photogra­ phy editors. Photographers and camera operators may become teachers and provide instruction in their own area of expertise. Job Outlook Photography, particularly commercial photography and photo­ journalism, is a highly competitive field. There are more people who want to be photographers than there is work to support them. Only the most skilled and those with the best business ability are able to find salaried positions or attract enough work to support themselves as self-employed photographers. Some become “weekenders,” indi­ viduals with full-time jobs in other fields who take photographs of weddings and other special events on weekends. Employment of photographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many ad­ ditional job openings will arise as workers transfer to other occupa­ tions or stop working. The growing use of visual images in educa­ tion, communication, entertainment, marketing, research and development, and other areas should spur demand for photogra­ phers. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. Digital cameras, which use electronic memory rather than a film negative to record the image, are now available. However, these cameras are much more expensive than conven­ tional cameras, and are not capable of producing an equally good image. As the technology improves and the price declines, however, these cameras may be more widely used, increasing demand for commercial photographers in particular. Employment of camera operators also is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, with businesses making greater use of videos for training films, business meetings, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Expansion of the entertainment industry will create additional openings, but com­ petition will be keen for what generally is regarded as an exciting field. Earnings The median annual earnings for salaried photographers and camera operators who worked full time were about $21,200 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,500 and $35,600. The top 10 percent earned more than $49,200, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,300. Photographers in the Federal Government averaged $33,000 a year in 1992. Some self-employed photographers earn more than salaried workers, but many do not. Their earnings are affected by the num­ ber of hours worked, their skills, their marketing ability, and general business conditions. Unlike photojoumalists and commercial photographers, very few artistic photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through this specialty.  194  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Related Occupations Other jobs requiring visual arts talents include illustrators, design­ ers, painters, sculptors, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: fcr Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  For a list of self-help technical publications on photography and photographic processing, write to: xw Eastman Kodak, Kodak Information Center, Department 841, 343 State St., Rochester, NY 14650.  For a publication listing places to sell your photographs and in­ structions on how to do it, write to: W F&W Publications, 1507 Dana Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45207.  For a publication describing standard business practices for com­ mercial and stock photographers, write to: XS" American Society of Media Photographers, Suite 502-14, Washington Rd., Princeton Junction, NJ 08550.  Lists of colleges and universities offering courses or a degree in photography may be found in directories of college programs, avail­ able in guidance offices, libraries, and large bookstores.  Visual Artists (D.O.T. 102.261-014; 141.031-010; .061-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030 and -034; .081-010; 142.061-030; 144; 149.041, and .261; and 970.131-014, and .361-018)  Nature of the Work Visual artists use an almost limitless variety of methods and materi­ als to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings. They use oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, magic markers, pencils, pen and ink, silkscreen, plaster, clay, or any of a number of other media, including computers, to create realistic and abstract works or images of ob­ jects, people, nature, topography, or events. Visual artists generally fall into one of two categories—“graphic artists” and “fine artists”—depending not so much on the medium, but on the artist’s purpose in creating a work of art. Graphic artists put their artistic skills and vision at the service of commercial cli­ ents, such as major corporations, retail stores, and advertising, de­ sign, or publishing firms. Fine artists, on the other hand, often cre­ ate art to satisfy their own need for self-expression, and may display their work in museums, corporate collections, art galleries, and pri­ vate homes. Some of their work may be done on request from cli­ ents, but not as exclusively as that of graphic artists. Fine artists usually work independently, choosing whatever sub­ ject matter and medium suits them. Usually, they specialize in one or two forms of art. Painters generally work with two-dimensional art forms. Using techniques of shading, perspective, and color-mix­ ing, painters produce works that depict realistic scenes or may evoke different moods and emotions, depending on the artist’s goals. Sculptors design three-dimensional art works—either molding and joining materials such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, or metal, or cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials such as concrete, metal, wood, plastic, and paper. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut into wood, stone, or metal, or from computer driven data. The designs may be engraved—as in the case of woodblocking; etched—as in the pro­ duction of etchings; or derived from computers in the form of inkjet or laser prints. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paint­ ings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the surfaces, reconstruct or retouch damaged areas, and apply preservatives to protect the paintings.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Fine artists may sell their works to stores, commercial art gal­ leries, and museums, or directly to collectors. Commercial galleries may sell artists’ works on consignment. The gallery and artist prede­ termine how much each earns from a sale. Only the most successful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through sale of their works, however. Most fine artists hold other jobs as well. Those with teaching certification may teach art in elementary or secondary schools, while those with a master’s or Ph.D. degree may teach in colleges or universities. Some fine artists work in arts administration in city, State, or Federal arts programs. Others may work as art crit­ ics, art consultants, or as directors or representatives in fine art gal­ leries; give private art lessons; or as curators setting up art exhibits in museums. Sometimes fine artists work in a totally unrelated field in order to support their careers as artists. Graphic artists, whether freelancers or employed by a firm, use a variety of print, electronic, and film media to create art that meets a client’s needs. Graphic artists are increasingly using computers, in­ stead of the traditional tools such as pens, pencils, scissors, and color strips, to produce their work. Computers enable them to lay out and test various designs, formats, and colors before printing a fi­ nal design. Graphic artists perform different jobs depending on their area of expertise. Graphic designers, who design on a two-dimensional level, may create packaging and promotional displays for a new product, the visual design of an annual report and other corporate literature, or a distinctive logo for a product or business. They also help with the layout and design of magazines, newspapers, journals, and other publications, and create graphics for television. Illustrators paint or draw pictures for books, magazines, and other publications, films, and paper products, including greeting cards, calenders, wrapping paper, and stationery. Many do a variety of illustrations, while others specialize in a particular style. Medical and scientific illustra­ tors combine artistic skills with knowledge of the biological sciences. Medical illustrators draw illustrations of human anatomy and surgi­ cal procedures. Scientific illustrators draw illustrations of animals and plants. These illustrations are used in medical and scientific publications, and in audiovisual presentations for teaching pur­ poses. Medical illustrators also work for lawyers, producing exhibits for court cases, and for doctors. Fashion artists draw illustrations of women’s, men’s, and children’s clothing and accessories for newspa­ pers, magazines, and other media. Some illustrators draw “story boards” for TV commercials. Story boards present TV commercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip, so an advertising agency and client (the company doing the advertising) can evaluate proposed commercials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the production of commercials. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports cartoons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists, however, have hu­ morous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Animators work in the motion picture and television industries. They draw by hand and use computers to create the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film or tape, form the animated cartoons seen in movies and on TV. Art directors, also called visual journalists, read the material to be printed in periodicals, newspapers, and other printed media, and de­ cide how to visually present the information in an eye-catching, yet organized manner. They make decisions about which photographs or artwork to use, and in general oversee production of the printed material. Working Conditions Graphic and fine artists generally work in art and design studios lo­ cated in office buildings or their own homes. While their surround­ ings are usually well lighted and ventilated, odors from glues, paint, ink, or other materials may be present.  Professional Specialty Occupations  The need for self-expression motivates many fine artists. Graphic artists employed by publishing companies and art and design studios generally work a standard 40-hour week. During busy periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Self-em­ ployed graphic artists can set their own hours, but may spend much time and effort selling their services to potential customers or clients and establishing a reputation. Employment Visual artists held about 273,000 jobs in 1992. About 3 out of 5 were self-employed. Self-employed artists are either graphic artists who freelance, offering their services to advertising agencies, publishing firms, and other businesses, or fine artists who earn income when they sell a painting or other art work. Of the artists who were not self-employed, most were graphic art­ ists who worked for advertising agencies, design firms, commercial art and reproduction firms, or publishing firms. Others were em­ ployed by manufacturing firms, department stores, the motion pic­ ture industry, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the fine arts field, formal training requirements do not exist, but it is very difficult to become skilled enough to make a living without some basic training. Bachelor’s and graduate degree programs in fine arts are offered in many colleges and universities. In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability and appropriate training or other qualifications are needed for success. Evidence of appropriate talent and skill shown in the “portfolio” is an important factor used by art  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  195  and design directors and others in deciding whether to hire or con­ tract out work to an artist. The portfolio is a collection of hand­ made, computer-generated, or printed examples of the artist’s best work. In theory, a person with a good portfolio but no training or experience could succeed in graphic arts. In reality, assembling a successful portfolio requires skills generally developed in a post­ secondary art or design school program, such as a bachelor’s degree program in fine art, graphic design, or visual communications. In­ ternships also provide excellent opportunities for artists and design­ ers to develop and enhance their portfolios. Most programs in art and design also provide training in computer design techniques. This training is becoming increasingly important as a qualification for many jobs in commercial art. The appropriate training and education for prospective medical illustrators is more specific. Medical illustrators must not only demonstrate artistic ability but also have a detailed knowledge of living organisms, surgical and medical procedures, and human and sometimes animal anatomy. A 4-year bachelor’s degree combining art and pre-medical courses is usually required, followed by a mas­ ter’s degree in medical illustration, a degree offered in only a few ac­ credited schools in the United States. Persons hired in advertising agencies or graphic design studios often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Many graphic artists work part time as free-lancers while continu­ ing to hold a full-time job until they get established. Others have enough talent, perseverance, and confidence in their ability to start out freelancing full-time immediately after they graduate from art school. Many freelance part time while still in school in order to de­ velop experience and a portfolio of published work. The freelance artist develops a set of clients who regularly con­ tract for work. Some successful freelancers are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as children’s book illustration, de­ sign, or magazine illustration. These artists can earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they do. Fine artists and illustrators advance as their work circulates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. The best artists and illustrators continue to grow in ideas, and their work constantly evolves over time. Graphic artists may advance to assistant art di­ rector, art director, design director, and in some companies, creative director of an art or design department. Some may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in a particular area. Others decide to open their own businesses. Job Outlook The graphic and fine arts fields have a glamorous and exciting im­ age. Many people with a love for drawing and creative ability qual­ ify for entry to these fields. As a result, there is expected to be keen competition for both salaried jobs and freelance work, especially in fine arts. Freelance work may be hard to come by, especially at first, and many free-lancers earn very little until they acquire experience and establish a good reputation. Employment of visual artists, overall, is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. De­ mand for the work of graphic artists will be strong as producers of information, goods, and services put even more emphasis on visual appeal in product design, advertising, marketing, and television. Employment growth for graphic designers, however, may be limited by increases in productivity due to computers, and because some firms are turning to employees without formal artistic or design training to operate computer-aided design systems. Employment of fine artists is expected to grow because of population growth, rising incomes, and growth in the number of people who appreciate fine arts. Despite the expected employment growth, the supply of those seeking entry to this field will continue to exceed requirements. Fine artists, in particular, may find it difficult to earn a living solely by selling their artwork. Nonetheless, graphic arts studios, clients, and  196  Occupational Outlook Handbook  galleries alike are always on the lookout for artists who display out­ standing talent, creativity, and style. Talented artists who have de­ veloped a mastery of artistic techniques and skills, and in many cases computer skills, should continue to be in great demand.  and design. Workers in other occupations which apply visual art skills are architects, display workers, floral designers, industrial de­ signers, interior designers, landscape architects, and photographers. The various printing occupations are also related to graphic art, as is the work of art and design teachers.  Earnings  Median earnings for salaried visual artists who usually work full time were about 523,000 a year in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between 517,600 and 530,800 a year. The top 10 percent earned more than 543,500, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than 514,600. The average salary for those working in design/graphic arts was 520,800 in 1992, according to the College placement Council. According to the Society of Publication Designers, entry level graphic designers earned between 521,000 and 524,000 annually. Earnings for self-employed visual artists vary widely. Those struggling to gain experience and a reputation may be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Well-established free-lancers and fine artists may earn much more than salaried artists. Self-employed artists do not receive benefits such as paid holidays, sick leave, health insurance, or pensions. Related Occupations  Many occupations in the advertising industry, such as account exec­ utive or creative director, are related to commercial and graphic art   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information Students in high school or college who are interested in careers as il­ lustrators should contact: tyThe Society of Illustrators, 128 East 63rd St., New York, NY 10021­ 7392. O’The National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Ba­ con Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090-5202.  For information on careers in medical illustration, contact: 13° The Association of Medical Illustrators, 1819 Peachtree St. NE., Suite 560, Atlanta, GA 30309-1848.  For information on careers in scientific illustration, contact: Guild of Natural Science Illustrators, P.O. Box 652, Ben Franklin Sta­ tion, Washington, DC 20044-0652.  For information on careers in graphic design, contact: t3"The American Institute of Graphic Arts, 1059 3rd Ave., New York, NY 10021-7602.  For information on art careers in the publishing industry, con­ tact: I®" The Society of Publication Designers, 60 East 42nd St., Suite 721, New York, NY 10165-1416.  Performing Arts Occupations TTWT TT"T?  Actors, Directors, and Producers (DOT. 139.167; 150 except .027-014; 159.041, .044, .047, .067, .117, .167-010 through -022, .267, .341, .344-010 and -014, .347 except -010, .367, and .647 except -018; 184.117-010, .162, and 167-014, -022 and -034; 187.167-174, -178, and -182; 961.364 and .667-014; and 962.167-014)  Nature of the Work Actors, directors, and producers create a visual and aural image based on written words of a script in theaters, film, television, and radio. They “make the words come alive” for their audiences. Actors entertain and communicate with people through their in­ terpretation of dramatic roles. Actors read scripts and decide how they want to interpret their role. Then they discuss their ideas with directors and voice coaches on how to portray their characters. They rely on facial and verbal expression as well as body motion for creative effect. In some roles, they sing and dance. They also may use props and costumes to help communicate their ideas. Actors memorize lines and stage directions. Most actors also put on their own makeup. Only a few actors achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in mo­ tion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number are wellknown, experienced performers, who frequently are cast in support­ ing roles. Most actors struggle for a toehold in the profession and pick up parts wherever they can. Some actors employed by theater companies teach acting in courses offered to the public. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “extras,” who have small parts with no lines to deliver, are used in almost all motion pictures, in many television shows, and in some theater productions. Directors interpret plays or scripts. In addition, they audition and select cast members, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of the cast and crew. Directors use their knowledge of acting, voice, and movement to achieve the best possible performance and usually ap­ prove the scenery, costumes, choreography, and music. Producers are entrepreneurs. They select plays or scripts, arrange financing, and decide on the size of the production and its budget. They hire directors, principal members of the cast, and key produc­ tion staff members, and they negotiate contracts with artistic per­ sonnel, often in accordance with collective bargaining agreements. Producers also coordinate the activities of writers, directors, manag­ ers, and other personnel. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commitment, because actors must wait for parts or filming schedules, work long hours, and often travel. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless performances require tedious memorizing of lines and repetitive re­ hearsals. On television, actors must deliver a good performance with very little preparation. Actors need stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, heavy costumes, the long, irregular hours, and the adverse weather conditions that may exist “on location.” When plays are “on the road,” traveling is necessary. Actors often face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when audition­ ing for work. Directors and producers often work under stress as they try to meet schedules, stay within budgets, resolve personnel problems, and put together a production that will appeal enough to the public to succeed. Employment In 1992, actors, directors, and producers held an average of about 129,000 jobs in motion pictures, stage plays, television, and radio.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  v  Employment in motion pictures and films for television is centered in Hollywood and New York City. Many others were between jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors, directors, and producers over the course of the year was higher. In the winter, most employment op­ portunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities, many of which have established professional regional theaters. In the summer, stock companies in suburban and resort areas also pro­ vide employment. In addition, many cities have small nonprofit pro­ fessional companies such as “little theaters,” repertory companies, and dinner theaters, which provide opportunities for local amateur talent as well as for professional entertainers. Normally, casts are se­ lected in New York City for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and films for television is cen­ tered in Hollywood and New York City. However, studios are also located in Florida, Seattle, and other parts of the country. In addi­ tion, many films are shot on location and employ local professionals and nonprofessionals as day players and extras. In television, oppor­ tunities are at the network entertainment centers in New York and Los Angeles and at local television stations around the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aspiring actors and directors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Formal dramatic training or acting experience is generally neces­ sary, although some people enter the field without it. Many exper­ ienced actors get formal training to learn new skills and improve old ones. Training can be obtained at dramatic arts schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at colleges and universities throughout the country offering bachelor’s or higher degrees in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, directing, playwriting, play production, design, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. The best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on them. Local and regional theater experience may help in obtaining 197  198  Occupational Outlook Handbook  work in New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experience may also be helpful. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Training in singing and dancing is especially useful. Actors must have poise, stage presence, and the ability to affect an audience, plus the ability to follow direc­ tions. Physical appearance is often a deciding factor in being se­ lected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their ca­ reers. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that supplies all ex­ tras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are ac­ cepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small chil­ dren—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the applicants have succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for directors and pro­ ducers. Talent, experience, and business acumen are very important. Directors and producers come from different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers often enter these fields. Formal training in directing and producing is available at some col­ leges and universities. As actors’, directors’, and producers’ reputations grow, they work on larger productions or in more prestigious theaters. Actors also advance to lead roles. Some actors move into acting-related jobs as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach drama in colleges and universities. The length of a performer’s working life depends largely on train­ ing, skill, versatility, and perseverance. Some actors, directors, and producers never retire, but many leave the occupation after a short time because they cannot find enough work to make a living. Job Outlook Employment of actors, directors, and producers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition, workers leaving the field will create as many job openings as will growth. Nevertheless, the large number of people desiring acting careers and the lack of formal entry requirements should cause keen competition for actor, director, and producer jobs. Only the most talented should continue to find regular employ­ ment. Rising foreign demand for American productions, combined with a growing domestic market—fueled by the growth of cable televi­ sion, home movie rentals, and television syndications—should stim­ ulate demand for actors and other production personnel. Growth of opportunities in recorded media should be accompanied by increas­ ing jobs in live productions. Growing numbers of people who enjoy live theatrical entertainment should continue to go to theaters for the excitement and aesthetic appreciation. Earnings Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employ­ ment are covered in collective bargaining agreements between pro­ ducers of shows and unions representing workers in this field. The Actors’ Equity Association represents stage actors; the Screen Ac­ tors Guild and the Screen Extras Guild cover actors in motion pic­ tures, including television, commercials, and films; and the Ameri­ can Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents television and radio performers. Most stage directors be­ long to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers, and film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Of course, each actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway stage pro­ ductions was $950 in 1993. Those in small “off- Broadway” theaters received minimums ranging from $340 to $579 a week, depending  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  on the seating capacity of the theater. For shows on the road, actors receive an additional $80 per day. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the stage, and additional performances are paid for as overtime. Actors usually work long hours during rehearsals. Once the show opens, they have more regular hours, working about 24 hours a week. In 1993, motion picture and television actors with speaking parts earned a minimum daily rate of $485, or $1,685 for a 5-day week. Those without speaking parts, “extras,” earned a minimum daily rate of $99. In addition, actors receive contributions to their health and pension plans and additional compensation for reruns. Earnings from acting are low because employment is so irregular. According to data from Actors' Equity Association, about 60 per­ cent of their members had no earnings from acting in 1991, and only 918 members earned more than $35,000. The median earnings for stage acting in a course of a year was approximately $5,200. The Screen Actors Guild reported that the average income its members earned from acting was $1,400 a year, and 80 percent of its members earned less than $5,000 a year from acting. Therefore, many actors must supplement their incomes from acting by holding other jobs. Some well-known actors have salary rates well above the mini­ mums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited, creating a false impression that all actors are highly paid. Many actors who earn more than a set minimum per year are cov­ ered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospi­ talization insurance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Actors’ Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. The top money is on Broadway—$36,750 for a rehearsal period, which usually lasts 5 weeks. Regional theaters paid directors from $3,415 to $13,595 for a 3 to 5 week rehearsal period. Small dinner theaters and summer stock pay much less—$685 to $1,311 per week—but offer the most employment opportunities. Producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Related Occupations People who work in occupations requiring acting skills include dancers, choreographers, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, and radio and television announcers. Others working in occupations related to acting are playwrights, scriptwriters, stage managers, cos­ tume designers, makeup artists, hair stylists, lighting designers, and set designers. Workers in occupations involved with the business as­ pects of theater productions include managing directors, company managers, booking managers, publicists, and actors’, directors’, and playwrights’ agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities in regional theaters may be ob­ tained from: tw Theatre Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10017.  A directory of theatrical programs may be purchased from: ^National Association of Schools of Theatre, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090.  Dancers and Choreographers (D.O.T. 151.027-010, and .047-010)  Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, stories, rhythm, and sound with their bodies. Many perform in classical ballet, which includes the stylized, traditional repertory.  Professional Specialty Occupations They also may perform modern dance, which allows more free movement and self-expression. Others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic, tap, and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to being an art form for its own sake, dance also complements opera, musical comedy, televi­ sion, movies, music videos, and commercials. Therefore, many dancers sing and act, as well as dance. Dancers most often perform as a group, although a few top artists dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching or cho­ reographing. Choreographers create original dances. They may also create new interpretations to traditional dances like the “Nutcracker” since few dances are “written down.” Choreographers instruct performers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect. They also audition perform­ ers. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very long hours and usu­ ally take place daily, including weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, and dancers must become accustomed to working late hours. Due to the physical demands, most dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but they sometimes continue to work in the dance field as choreographers, dance teachers and coaches, or as artistic directors. Some celebrated dancers, however, continue performing beyond the age of 50. Employment Professional dancers held an average of about 18,000 jobs at any one time in 1992. Many others were between engagements so that the to­ tal number of people employed as dancers over the course of the year was greater. In addition, there were many dance instructors in secondary schools, colleges and universities, dance schools, and pri­ vate studios. Many teachers also performed from time to time. New York City is the home of many of the major dance compa­ nies. Other cities with full-time professional dance companies in­ clude Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus,  Dancing is physically demanding and strenuous.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  199  Dallas, Houston, Miami, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. Training and Other Qualifications Training depends upon the type of dance. Early ballet training for women usually begins at 5 to 8 years of age and is often given by pri­ vate teachers and independent ballet schools. Serious training tradi­ tionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Men often begin their training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demonstrate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and advanced pro­ fessional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet companies. Leading dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time train­ ing program. Most dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18; however, training and practice never end. For example, professional ballet dancers have 1 to 1 1/2 hours of lessons every day and spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Early and intensive training also is important for the modern dancer, but modern dance generally does not require as many years of training as ballet. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training required, a dancer’s formal academic instruction may be minimal. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Many colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher de­ grees in dance, generally through the departments of physical edu­ cation, music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs concentrate on modern dance but also offer courses in ballet/classical techniques. A college education is not essential to obtaining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can help the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. A college education is also an advantage for college or university teaching. However, it is not necessary for teaching dance or choreo­ graphing professionally. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experience as performers; colleges and conservatories gener­ ally require graduate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essen­ tial. Good health and physical stamina are necessary in order to practice and perform and to follow the rugged schedule often re­ quired. Good feet and normal arches also are required. Above all, one must have flexibility, agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to ex­ press oneself through movement. Dancers seldom perform unaccompanied, so they must be able to function as part of a team. Dancers also should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when audi­ tioning for work. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Job Outlook Dancers face very keen competition for jobs. The number of appli­ cants will continue to exceed the number of job openings, and only the most talented will find regular employment. Employment of dancers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the public’s continued interest in this form of artistic expression. Although jobs will arise each year due to increased demand, most job openings will occur as dancers leave the occupation and as dance companies search for and find outstanding talent.  200  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The best job opportunities are expected to be with national dance companies because of the demand for performances outside of New York City. Opera companies will also provide some employment opportunities. Dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities and television and motion pictures will also offer some opportuni­ ties. Moreover, the growing popularity of dance in recent years has resulted in increased employment opportunities in teaching dance. Earnings Earnings of many professional dancers are governed by union con­ tracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and mod­ em dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc., AFL-CIO; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies are members of Actors’ Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, bene­ fits, and other conditions of employment. However, the separate contract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. For 1993-94, the minimum weekly salary for dancers in ballet and modem productions was $587. For new first year dancers being paid for single performances, the basic rate was $242 per performance and $71 per rehearsal hour. Dancers on tour received an additional allowance for room and board. The minimum performance rate for dancers in theatrical motion pictures was $99 per day of filming. The normal workweek is 30 hours including rehearsals and matinee and evening performances. Extra compensation is paid for addi­ tional hours worked. Earnings of choreographers vary greatly. Earnings from fees and performance royalties range from about $970 a week in small pro­ fessional theaters, to over $30,000 for a 8 to 10 week rehearsal pe­ riod for a Broadway production. In high budget films, choreogra­ phers make $3,000 for a 5-day week; in television, $7,500 to $10,000 for up to 14 work days. Earnings from dancing are generally low because dancers’ em­ ployment is irregular. They often must supplement their income by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union contracts are entitled to some paid sick leave, paid vacations, and various health and pension benefits—ex­ tended sick pay, child birth provisions—provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations require the dancer’s knowledge of conveying ideas through physical motion. These include ice skaters, dance crit­ ics, dance instructors, dance notators, and dance therapists. Ath­ letes in most sports also need the same strength, flexibility, agility, and body control.  Musicians (D.O.T. 152 except .021)  Nature of the Work Musicians may play musical instruments, sing, write musical com­ positions, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. Musicians may perform alone or as part of a group, before live audi­ ences or on radio, or in studios for recording, TV, or movie produc­ tions. Instrumental musicians play a musical instrument in an orches­ tra, band, rock group, or jazz “combo.” Musicians may play any of a wide variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instru­ ments. For example, they may play the violin, trumpet, trom­ bone, saxophone, clarinet, flute, organ, one of the “rhythm” instru­ ments—the piano, string bass, drums, and guitar—or one of the many electronic synthesizers. Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice produc­ tion, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Singers are often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, reggae, folk, or country and western. Composers create original music such as symphonies, operas, so­ natas, or popular songs or raps. They transcribe ideas into musical notation using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Many songwriters now compose and edit music using computers. Some even have a musical keyboard linked to a computer which compiles the digital information into musical notation while they play. Also, they may program the composition in musical notation into the computer, which can play back the piece. Orchestra conductors lead orchestras and bands. They audition and select musicians, choose the music to be performed, and direct rehearsals and performances. They apply conducting techniques to achieve desired musical effects. Choral directors conduct choirs and glee clubs. They audition and select singers and direct them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musi­ cal effects. All musicians spend a considerable amount of time practicing. Those who play current music listen to recordings and copy the sound, since sheet music may not be available. Working Conditions Musicians often perform at night and on weekends and spend con­ siderable time in practice and rehearsal. Performances frequently require travel. Because many musicians find only part-time work or  Sources of Additional Information For information on purchasing directories about colleges and uni­ versities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, and scholarships, write to: W National Dance Association, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091; or call 1-800-321-0789.  A directory of dance, art and design, music, and theater programs may be purchased from: O" National Association of Schools of Dance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090.  For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, send a self-addressed stamped envelope to: t3" American Dance Guild, 31 West 21st St., Third Floor, New York, NY 10010.  A directory of dance companies and related organizations, plus other information on professional dance, is available from: GT Dance/USA, 777 14th St. NW, Suite 540, Washington, DC 20005.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  (Wp** Musicians may have to travel frequently to perform.  Professional Specialty Occupations experience unemployment between engagements, they often supple­ ment their income with other types of jobs. In fact, many decide they can not support themselves as musicians and take permanent, full-time jobs in other occupations, while working only part time as musicians. Employment An average of about 236,000 musicians held jobs in 1992. Many were between engagements, so that the total number of people em­ ployed as musicians during the course of the year might have been greater. Over half of the musicians employed in 1992 worked part time; over one-third were self-employed. Many work in cities in which entertainment and recording activi­ ties are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Nash­ ville. Classical musicians may perform with professional orchestras or in small chamber music groups like quartets or trios. Musicians may work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Many are organists who play in churches and synagogues—6 out of 10 musicians who are paid a wage or salary work in religious organiza­ tions. Musicians also perform in clubs and restaurants, and for wed­ dings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups give their own concerts, appear on “live” radio and television, make record­ ings and music videos, or go on concert tours. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience play­ ing in a school or community band or orchestra, or in a “combo” with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or in a choir often provides good early training. Musicians need extensive and pro­ longed training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university mu­ sic program, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in an institution, an audition frequently is neces­ sary. Formal courses include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and instrumental and voice instruction. Composers, conductors, and arrangers need advanced training in these subjects as well. Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bach­ elor’s or higher degrees in music. Many also grant degrees in music education to qualify graduates for a State certificate to teach music in an elementary or secondary school. Those who perform popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for the style of music that interests them, but classical training can expand their employment opportunities, as well as their musical abilities. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have successful careers. As a rule, musicians take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to make amateur or professional ap­ pearances. Young persons who are considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and poise and stage pres­ ence to face large audiences^ Since quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musi­ cians who play concert and nightclub engagements must have physi­ cal stamina because frequent travel and night performances are re­ quired. They must also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians generally means becoming better known and performing for greater earnings with better known bands and orchestras. Many musicians rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Job Outlook Employment of musicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job open­ ings will arise from the need to replace the many musicians who  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  201  leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians. Competition for musician jobs is tough, and tal­ ent is no guarantee of success. However, being able to play several instruments and types of music enhances the opportunity to find employment. Although the total number of musician jobs is expected to in­ crease, employment in restaurants and bars is expected to decline. The fastest growing segment of restaurants is the moderately priced, family dining restaurants, which seldom provide live entertainment to their customers. Bars, which regularly employ musicians, are ex­ pected to grow more slowly than eating establishments because con­ sumption of alcoholic beverages outside of the home is expected to continue to decline. Earnings Earnings often depend on a performer’s professional reputation as well as on geographic location—and on the number of hours worked. According to the American Federation of Musicians, minimum salaries in major orchestras ranged from about $1,000 to $1,400 per week during the 1993-94 performing season. The season of these top orchestras ranged from 48 to 52 weeks, with most being 52 weeks. In regional orchestras, the minimum salaries were between $400 and $700 per week, and the seasons lasted 25 to 38 weeks, with an aver­ age of 30 weeks. Community orchestras, however, had more limited levels of funding and offered salaries that were much lower for sea­ sons of shorter duration. In 1993, musicians employed in motion picture or television re­ cording and those employed by recording companies were paid a minimum of about $226 and $249, respectively, for a 3-hour session. Although a few opera soloists and popular singers earned thousands of dollars per performance, the minimum daily wage rate for a principal singer on network or syndicated television was $485 in 1993. Musicians employed by some symphony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Many other musicians may face relatively long periods of un­ employment between jobs. Even when employed, however, many work part time. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. Moreover, since they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for un­ employment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vaca­ tions with pay. For these reasons, many musicians give private les­ sons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Federation of Musicians. Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artists of America. Related Occupations There are many music-related occupations. These include libret­ tists, songwriters, arrangers, and music therapists. A large number of music teachers work in elementary and secondary schools, music conservatories, and colleges and universities, or are self-employed. Many who teach music also perform. Technical knowledge of musical instruments is required by in­ strument repairers, tuners, and copyists. In addition, there are a number of occupations in the business side of music such as booking agents, concert managers, music publishers, and music store owners and managers, as well as salespersons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments. Others whose work involves music include disc jockeys, music critics, sound and audio technicians, music li­ brarians, and radio and TV announcers. Sources of Additional Information For a directory of accredited programs in music teacher education, contact: ty National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22091.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.264-010, .362-018, -030, -050, -062, .364-014, and .367-010)  Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in di­ agnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascular (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technicians who obtain electro (electrical)- cardio (heart)- grams (record), abbreviated EKG’s or ECG’s, which trace electrical impulses transmitted by the heart, are known as electro­ cardiograph (ECG or EKG) technicians. To take a “basic” EKG, technicians attach electrodes to the patient’s chest, arms, and legs, then manipulate switches on a electrocardiograph machine to ob­ tain the reading. The test is done before most kinds of surgery and as part of a routine physical examination for persons who have passed a certain age. More skilled EKG technicians perform Holter monitor and stress testing. For a Holter monitoring, technicians place electrodes on the patient’s chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient's belt. After 24-48 hours of normal routine for the patient, they re­ move a tape from the monitor, place it in a scanner and read it for electrical interference before sending it to a physician. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians take a medical his­ tory, explain the procedure, connect the patient to an EKG moni­ tor, and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pressure. They then monitor the patient’s heart while on a treadmill, gradually in­ creasing the speed of the treadmill to observe the effect of increased exertion. Those who do EKG and stress tests are also known as noninvasive technicians. Cardiovascular technologists who specialize in cardiac catheteri­ zation procedures, also known as invasive technology, are called cardiology technologists. They assist a physician who winds a small tube, or catheter, through a patient’s blood vessel, from a spot on the patient’s leg into the heart to determine if a blockage exists and for other diagnostic purposes. In balloon angioplasty, a procedure used to treat blockages of blood vessels, technologists assist physicians who insert a catheter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Technologists may prepare patients for these proce­ dures by positioning them on an examining table, then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of the patient’s leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor patients’ blood gases and heart rate using EKG equipment and notify the physician if something appears wrong. Technologists may also prepare and monitor patients during open heart surgery and the implantation of pacemakers. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians may also specialize in noninvasive peripheral vascular tests. They use ultrasound equip­ ment that transmits sound waves, then collects the echoes to form an image on a screen. Individuals who focus on blood flows and cir­ culation problems are known as vascular technologists, while those 202   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  who use ultrasound on the heart are referred to as echocardiographers. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule ap­ pointments, type doctor’s interpretations, maintain patient’s files, and care for equipment. Working Conditions Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those in cathe­ terization labs tend to work longer hours and also may work eve­ nings. They may also be on call during the night and on weekends. In addition, they spend a lot of time walking and standing. Cardi­ ology technologists may face stressful working conditions during operating procedures and are in contact with patients who have seri­ ous heart ailments.  \S>-N ?' >s ><. Vn. ' V ........  V*  _________  EKG technicians operate machines that record electrical impulses transmitted by the heart.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Employment Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 31,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked in hospital cardiology departments, while some worked in cardiologists’ offices, cardiac rehabilitation centers, or health maintenance organizations. More than half were EKG technicians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For basic EKGs, Holter monitoring, and stress testing, 1-year cer­ tificate programs exist, although most EKG technicians are still trained on the job by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist. On-thejob training usually lasts about 8 to 16 weeks. Applicants must be high school graduates. Most employers prefer to train people al­ ready in the health care field, nursing aides, for example. Most vascular technologists are trained on the job although some have backgrounds in nursing and sonography. Cardiology technologists need to complete a 2-year junior or community college program. One year is dedicated to core courses followed by a year of specialized instruction in either invasive, noninvasive, or noninvasive peripheral cardiology. Those who are qualified in a related allied health profession only need to complete the year of specialized instruction. Cardiovascular technologists must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instructions. A pleasant, re­ laxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. Job Outlook Overall employment in this field is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, but tech­ nicians and technologists will experience different patterns of em­ ployment change. Employment of EKG technicians is expected to decline. Although the number of cardiac tests and procedures per­ formed is anticipated to grow, demand for EKG technicians is not likely to keep pace because many hospitals are expected to train reg­ istered nurses and others to perform basic EKG procedures. Indi­ viduals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are expected to have more favorable job prospects than those who can only per­ form a basic EKG. Some openings will occur as EKG technicians transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Employment of cardiology technologists is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations. Growth will occur as the population ages, because older people have a higher incidence of heart problems. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of EKG techni­ cians, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift and area differen­ tials, was 517,222 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $15,223 and the average maximum was $21,868. According to the American Society for Cardiovascular Professionals, the average salary for cardiovascular technologists was $28,756 in 1991. Related Occupations Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other allied health practitioners diagnose and treat patients, so do radiologic technologists, diagnos­ tic medical sonographers, electroencephalographic technologists, perfusionists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu­ nities. For general information about a career in EKG and cardiovascu­ lar technology contact: 13” American Society for Cardiovascular Professionals, 10500 Wakeman Dr., Fredericksburg, VA 22407.  For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technology, contact:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  203  XW Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, American Medi­ cal Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610.  For information on vascular technology, contact: 13” The Society of Vascular Technology, 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036.  For information on cardiovascular technology, contact: American College of Cardiology, 9111 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1699.  Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.121-010, .221-010, .261-010, -014, -026, -030, and -038, .281-010, .381-014, .687-010, and 559.361-010)  Nature of the Work Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diag­ nosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, also known as medical technologists and techni­ cians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, tissues, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, or other micro­ organisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions, and test for drug levels in the blood to show how a pa­ tient is responding to treatment. They also prepare specimens for ex­ amination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells. They use auto­ mated equipment and instruments that perform a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other kinds of sophisticated laboratory equipment to perform tests. Then they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Medical technologists generally have a bachelor’s degree in medi­ cal technology or in one of the life sciences, or have a combination of formal training and work experience. They perform complex chemi­ cal, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bac­ teriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood, tis­ sue, and other body substances; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other micro-organisms; analyze samples for chemical content or re­ action; and determine blood glucose or cholesterol levels. They also type and cross-match blood samples for transfusions. They may evaluate the effects a patient’s condition has on test re­ sults, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs to insure the accuracy of tests. Some medical technolo­ gists supervise medical laboratory technicians. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, while those in specialty laboratories or large laboratories generally specialize. Technologists who prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids are clinical chemis­ try technologists. Those who examine and identify bacteria and other micro-organisms are microbiology technologists. Blood bank technol­ ogists collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for trans­ fusions; immunology technologists examine elements and responses of the human immune system to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists, who have specialized training, prepare slides of body cells and mi­ croscopically examine these cells for abnormalities which may sig­ nal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Medical laboratory technicians generally have an associate degree from a community or junior college, or a diploma or certificate from a vocational or technical school. They perform routine tests and lab­ oratory procedures. Technicians may prepare specimens and oper­ ate automatic analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests following detailed instructions. Like technologists, they may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Histology technicians cut and stain tissue specimens for micro­ scopic examination by pathologists and phlebotomists draw and test blood. They usually work under the supervision of medical technol­ ogists or laboratory managers.  204  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 268,000 jobs in 1992. More than half worked in hospitals. Most others worked in medical laboratories and offices and clinics of phy­ sicians. Some worked in blood banks, research and testing laborato­ ries, and in the Federal Government—for Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals and the U.S. Public Health Service. About 1 laboratory worker in 6 worked part time.  Nationally recognized accrediting agencies in the allied health field include the American Medical Association’s Committee on Al­ lied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA), and the Ac­ crediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). CAHEA accredits over 800 programs that provide education for medical technologists, cytotechnologists, histologic technicians, specialists in blood bank technology, and medical laboratory technicians. ABHES accredits training programs for medical laboratory techni­ cians. Licensure and certification are methods of assuring the skill and competence of workers. Licensure refers to the process by which a government agency authorizes individuals to engage in a given oc­ cupation and use a particular job title. Some States require labora­ tory personnel to be licensed or registered. (Information on licen­ sure is available from State departments of health, boards of occupational licensing, or occupational information coordinating committees.) Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization such as a professional society or certifying agency grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a prerequisite for most jobs and often is necessary for advancement. Agencies that certify medical labora­ tory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists, the American Medi­ cal Technologists, the National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the In­ ternational Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organizational sponsors. Clinical laboratory personnel need analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Close attention to detail is essential because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial for patient care. Manual dexterity and nor­ mal color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of au­ tomated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at prob­ lem solving and to have strong interpersonal and communications skills. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in laboratory work or become chief medical technologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and lab­ oratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to work in product development, marketing, and sales. Graduate edu­ cation in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemis­ try, management, or education usually speeds advancement. A doc­ torate is needed to become a laboratory director. Technicians can become technologists through additional education and experience.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry level position as a medical tech­ nologist is a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. It is also possible to qualify through a combi­ nation of on-the-job and specialized training. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, and mathe­ matics, and specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many programs also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. Masters degrees in medical technology and related clinical labo­ ratory sciences provide training for specialized areas of laboratory work or teaching, administration, or research. Two universities of­ fer doctorates in clinical laboratory technology. Medical laboratory technician training is offered in community and junior colleges, hospitals, vocational and technical schools, and in the Armed Forces. A few technicians learn on the job. Commu­ nity and junior college programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Others are shorter and lead to a certificate in medical labora­ tory technology.  Job Outlook As in most occupations, replacement needs will be the main source of job openings. Employment of clinical laboratory workers is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 creating additional job openings. The rapidly growing older population will spur demand, since older people gen­ erally have more medical problems. Technological changes will have two opposite effects on employment. New, more powerful di­ agnostic tests will encourage more testing and spur employment. However, advances in laboratory automation and simpler tests, which make it possible for each worker to perform more tests, should slow growth. Research and development efforts are targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures so that nonlaboratory per­ sonnel—physicians and patients in particular—can perform tests now done in laboratories. Also, robots may prepare specimens, a job now done by technologists and technicians. Fastest growth is expected in independent medical laboratories, as hospitals continue to send them a greater share of their testing. Rapid growth is also expected in offices and clinics of physicians. Slower growth is expected in hospitals.  Experienced clinical technologists may advance to supervisory positions. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions vary according to the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in independent lab­ oratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift, and may work weekends and holidays. Labo­ ratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory person­ nel are on call (available in case of emergency) several nights a week or on weekends. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and steriliza­ tion are followed, few hazards exist. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean; however, speci­ mens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes pro­ duce odors. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Earnings Median annual earnings of full time, salaried clinical laboratory technologists and technicians were $26,312 in 1992. Half earned be­ tween $19,136 and $32,864. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,664 and the top 10 percent more than $39,000. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national sur­ vey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of medical technologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $31,202 in October 1992. The average min­ imum salary was $24,888 and the average maximum was $36,844. For medical laboratory technicians, the median was $23,340; for histology technicians, the median was $25,605; for cytotechnologists, the median was $34,414; and for phlebotomists, the median was $16,209. Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances using a variety of tests. Similiar or related procedures are performed by analytical, water purifica­ tion, and other chemists; science technicians; crime laboratory ana­ lysts; food testers; and veterinary laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information Career and certification information is available from: IS" American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12277, Chicago, IL 60612. W American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. O" National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 1301, Bethesda, MD 20814. O” International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 818 Olive St., Suite 918, St. Louis, MO 63101.  For more career information, write to: American Association of Blood Banks, 1117 N. I9th St., Suite 600, Ar­ lington, VA 22209. XW American Society of Cytology, 1015 Chestnut St., Suite 1518, Philadel­ phia, PA 19107. e" American Society for Medical Technology, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 1301, Bethesda, MD 20814.  For a list of educational programs accredited by CAHEA for clinical laboratory personnel, write to: tw Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, 515 North State St., Chicago, IL 60610.  For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write to: 13" Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514.  Information about employment opportunities in Department of Veterans Affairs medical centers is available from local medical cen­ ters and also from: ET Title 38 Employment Division (054D), Department of Veterans Affairs, 810 Vermont Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20420.  Dental Hygienists  show patients how to floss their teeth. Some hygienists develop and promote community dental health programs which may include teaching how to practice good oral hygiene. Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments to clean teeth, x-ray machines to take dental pictures, syringes with needles to ad­ minister local anesthetics, and models of teeth to explain oral hy­ giene. Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full-time, part-time, evening, and weekend work is widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hy­ gienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures, compliance with recommended aseptic technique, and use of appropriate protective devices when administering nitrous oxide/oxygen analgesia. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks and gloves to protect themselves from infectious dis­ eases such as hepatitis and AIDS. The occupation is one of several covered by the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which encourages the States to adopt uniform standards for the training and certification of individuals who perform medical and dental radiological procedures. Employment Dental hygienists held about 108,000jobs in 1992. Because multiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs greatly ex­ ceeds the number of hygienists. About half of all dental hygienists usually worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Almost all dental hygienists work in private dental offices. Some work in public health agencies, school systems, hospitals, and clin­ ics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they prac­ tice. To qualify for licensure, a candidate must graduate from an ac­ credited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and a clinical examination. The American Dental Association Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers the written examina­ tion that is accepted by all States and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examination. In addition, examinations on legal aspects of dental hygiene practice are required by most States. Alabama also allows candidates to take its examination if they have been trained through a State-regulated on-the-job program in a dentist’s office. imm  (D.O.T. 078.361-010)  Nature of the Work Dental hygienists provide preventive dental care and teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene. Hygienists examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the pres­ ence of diseases or abnormalities. They remove calculus, stain, and plaque from teeth; apply caries-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants; take and develop dental x rays; place temporary fillings and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and polish and recontour amalgam restorations. In some States, hygien­ ists administer local anesthetics and nitrous oxide/oxygen analge­ sia, and place and carve filling materials. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health, inform patients how to select toothbrushes, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  205  Dental hygienists sometimes administer local anesthetic.  206  Occupational Outlook Handbook  In 1993, 208 programs in dental hygiene were accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Although some programs lead to a bachelor’s degree, most grant an associate degree. Five uni­ versities offer master’s degree programs in dental hygiene. An associate degree is sufficient for practice in a private dental of­ fice. A bachelor’s or master’s degree is usually required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. About half of the dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college. Some of the bachelor’s de­ gree programs require applicants to have completed 2 years. How­ ever, requirements vary from school to school. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, nu­ trition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Dental hygienists should work well with others, particularly pa­ tients who may be under stress. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use dental instruments with little room for er­ ror within a patient’s mouth. Recommended high school courses for aspiring dental hygienists include biology, chemistry, and mathe­ matics. Job Outlook Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in re­ sponse to increasing demand for dental care. Demand will be stimu­ lated by population growth, greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and elderly people and rising real incomes. Additional job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Also, dentists are likely to employ more hygienists, for several reasons. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ dental hygien­ ists, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to do so. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform preventive dental care such as cleaning, so they may use their own time more profitably. Enrollments in dental hygiene programs have been on the rise re­ cently after declining during the 1980’s. Unless the number in­ creases sharply, however, opportunities are expected to remain very good. Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by geographic location, employment setting, and education and experience. Dental hygien­ ists who work in private dental offices may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. According to the American Dental Association, dental hygienists who worked 32 hours a week or more averaged $609 a week in 1991; the average hourly earnings for all dental hygienists was $18.50. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting, and may be contin­ gent upon full-time employment. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies usually have substantial benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, ophthalmic medical assist­ ants, podiatric assistants, office nurses, medical assistants, and phy­ sician assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: XW Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists’ As­ sociation, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. tip SELECT, American Dental Association, Department of Career Gui­ dance, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1804, Chicago, IL 60611.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information about accredited programs and educational re­ quirements, contact: lw Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611.  The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can supply in­ formation on licensing requirements.  Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.361-010 and -014)  Nature of Work Dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following pre­ scriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (The work of optometrists is described in a statement elsewhere in the Hand­ book. See the statement on physicians for information about oph­ thalmologists.) Dispensing opticians help customers select appropriate frames, order the necessary ophthalmic laboratory work, and adjust the fin­ ished eyeglasses. In some States, they fit contact lenses under the su­ pervision of an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians examine written prescriptions to determine lens specifications. They recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupation, habits, and facial features. Dispensing opticians mea­ sure clients for size of eyeglasses including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the eye surface and the lens. For customers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a lensometer to record the present eyeglass prescription. Dispensing opticians may obtain a customer’s previous record, or verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthal­ mologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes lens prescriptions and infor­ mation on lens size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opti­ cians grind and insert lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses have been ground to spec­ ifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame, by hand or us­ ing pliers, so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and com­ fortably. Dispensing opticians also fix, adjust, and refit broken frames. They instruct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses. Some dispensing opticians specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes, or low vision aids. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure eye shape and size, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses re­ quires considerable skill, care, and patience. Dispensing opticians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with spe­ cial instruments and microscopes. During several visits, opticians show customers how to insert, remove, and care for their contacts, and make sure the fit is correct. Dispensing opticians keep records on customer prescriptions, work orders, and payments; track inventory and sales; and perform other administrative duties. Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in attractive, well lighted, and well ventilated surroundings. They may work in small stores where customers are served one at a time, or in large stores where several dispensing opticians serve a number of customers at once. Opticians deal with customers most of the time and spend much time on their feet. If they also prepare lenses, they need to take precautions  Technicians and Related Support Occupations  207  ophthalmic dispensing or optometric technology. There are also shorter programs, including some under 1 year. Some States that li­ cense dispensing opticians allow graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experience. Dispensing opticians may also gain credentials through voluntary certification or registration by the American Board of Opticianry and by the National Contact Lens Examiners. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. Many experienced dispensing opticians go into the opticianry business for themselves. Others become managers of optical stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eye­ glasses or lenses.  Dispensing opticians help customers select appropriate frames. against the hazards associated with glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Most dispensing opticians work a 40-hour week, although some work longer hours. Those in retailing may work evenings and week­ ends. Some work part time. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 63,000 jobs in 1992. About half work for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. Many also work in optical shops, including “superoptical stores.” These stores offer one-stop shopping: Customers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Some work in optical departments of drug and department stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some employers hire individuals with no background in opticianry or those who have worked as ophthalmic laboratory technicians. (See the statement on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training may be informal, on-the-job or formal apprenticeship. Others seek people with college level training in op­ ticianry. Knowledge of physics, basic anatomy, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable because training usu­ ally includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machin­ ery and tools. Because dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, they should be tactful and pleasant and communicate well. Large employers generally offer structured apprenticeship pro­ grams, and small employers provide more informal on-the-job train­ ing. In the 21 States that license dispensing opticians, individuals without formal college level training train from 2 to 4 years as ap­ prentices. Apprenticeship or formal traineeship is offered in most of the other States as well. Apprentices receive technical training and are taught office man­ agement and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced opti­ cian, optometrist, or ophthamologist, apprentices work directly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. In States requir­ ing licensure, information about apprenticeships and licensing pro­ cedures is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Formal opticianry training is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 1993, there were about 40 pro­ grams. Of these, 23 were accredited by the Commission on Op­ ticianry Accreditation and awarded 2-year associate degrees in  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to rising demand for corrective lenses. The number of middle-aged and elderly persons is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and eld­ erly persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Fashion, too, influences demand. Frames come in a growing vari­ ety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Finally, demand is expected to grow in response to products such as special lens treatments; photochromic lenses (glasses that become sunglasses in sunlight), now available in plastic as well as glass; tinted lenses; and bifocal, extended wear, and disposable con­ tact lenses. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, with employment falling somewhat during downturns. There will be a relatively large number ofjob openings, both to replace those who leave the occupation and due to growth. This is a young occupation and like many other occupations in retail trade, many people trans­ fer to other occupations. Earnings According to the Opticians Association of America, salaries for dis­ pensing opticians in retail stores averaged about $26,000 in 1992. The beginning average salary for licensed and certified opticians was $20,971. Those with 3 to 5 years of experience averaged $21,875; 6 to 9 years, $25,876; and 10 years or more, $29,640. Noncertified op­ ticians averaged about $6,000 less at each level of experience. Begin­ ning apprentices averaged about $13,000 a year. Some opticians earned well above $30,000 a year. Those who run their own stores earned more than salaried workers. In addition to base salaries, many employers provide commissions, bonuses, and profit-sharing. Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers, artificial eye makers, ophthalmic laboratory tech­ nicians, orthodontic technicians, dental laboratory technicians, prosthetics technicians, camera repairers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: 0= Opticians Association of America, 10341 Democracy Lane, Fairfax, VA  22030-2521.  For a list of accredited training programs, contact: ty Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 100, Bowie, MD 20720-4299.  For general information on opticianry and a list of home-study programs, seminars, and review materials, contact: ty National Academy of Opticianry, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 112, Bowie, MD 20720-4299.  208  Occupational Outlook Handbook  EEG Technologists (D.O.T. 078.362-022)  Nature of the Work “Brain waves” are electrical impulses which can be recorded by an electroencephalograph (EEG) technologist using an EEG machine. Since technologists often perform other related tests as well, they may also be called electroneurodiagnostic or neurophysiologic tech­ nologists. The tests performed by these technologists help neurolo­ gists—physicians who study the brain—to diagnose brain tumors, strokes, toxic/metabolic disorders, and epilepsy; to measure the ef­ fects of infectious diseases on the brain; and to determine whether individuals with mental or behavioral problems have an organic im­ pairment such as Alzheimer’s disease. They are also used to deter­ mine “cerebral” death, the absence of brain activity, and to assess the probability of a recovery from a coma. For basic, “resting” EEG’s, technologists take patients’ medical histories and help them relax. Then they apply electrodes to desig­ nated spots on the patient’s head and choose the most appropriate combination of instrument controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. Technologists correct for electrical or mechanical events that come from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or interference from electrical sources. Increasingly, technologists perform EEG’s in the operating room, which requires that they understand anesthesia’s effect on brain waves. For special procedure EEG’s, technologists may secure elec­ trodes to the chest, arm, leg, or spinal column to record activity from both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In ambulatory monitoring, EEG technologists monitor the brain, and sometimes the heart, while patients carry out normal activities over a 24-hour period. Then they remove the small recorder carried by the patients and obtain a readout. Technologists review the read­ outs, a process which can take several hours, selecting sections for the physician to examine. Using “evoked potential” testing, technologists measure sensory and physical responses to specific stimuli. After the electrodes have been attached, technologists set the instrument for the type and in­ tensity of the stimulus, increase the intensity until the patient reacts, and note the sensation level. The tests may take from 1 to 4 hours. For nerve conduction tests, used to diagnose muscle and nerve problems, technologists place electrodes on the patient’s skin over a nerve and over the muscle. Then they stimulate the nerve with an electrical current and record how long it takes the nerve impulse to reach the muscle. Specialized electroneurodiagnostic technologists also administer sleep studies and perform quantative EEG’s (sometimes called “brain wave mapping”). For sleep studies, technologists monitor respiration and heart activity in addition to brain wave activity. They must know the various stages of sleep and the dynamics of the neurologic and cardiopulmonary systems during each stage. Tech­ nologists coordinate readings from several organ systems, separat­ ing them according to the stages of sleep, and relay them to the phy­ sician. For quantative EEG’s, technologists decide which sections of the EEG should be transformed into color-coded pictures of brain wave frequency and intensity, for interpretation by a physician. They may also write technical reports summarizing test results. Technologists also look for changes in the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respiratory status, which may indicate an emergency, such as a heart attack, and provide emergency care until help ar­ rives. EEG technologists may have supervisory or administrative re­ sponsibilities. They may manage an EEG laboratory, arrange work schedules, keep records, schedule appointments, order supplies, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  provide instruction in EEG techniques. Technologists may also be responsible for the equipment’s upkeep. Working Conditions EEG technologists usually work in clean, well-lighted surround­ ings, and spend about half of their time on their feet. Bending and lifting are necessary since they may work with patients who are very ill and require assistance. EEG technologists in hospitals may do all their work in a single room, or may push equipment to patients’ bed­ sides and obtain recordings there. Most technologists work a standard workweek, although those in hospitals may be “on call” (ready to report to work at a moment’s notice) evenings, weekends, and holidays. Those performing sleep studies may work evenings and nights. Employment EEG technologists held more than 6,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked in EEG or neurology laboratories of hospitals. Others worked in of­ fices and clinics of neurologists and neurosurgeons, health mainte­ nance organizations, and psychiatric facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EEG technologists generally learn their skills on the job, although some complete formal training programs. Often, EEG trainees transfer from other hospital jobs, such as licensed practical nurse. Applicants for trainee positions in hospitals need at least a high school diploma, while some hospitals require postsecondary train­ ing. Formal postsecondary training is offered in hospitals and com­ munity colleges. In 1992, the Joint Review Committee on Education in Electroneurodiagnostic Technology had approved 13 formal pro­ grams. Programs usually last from 1 to 2 years and include labora­ tory experience as well as classroom instruction in human anatomy and physiology, neurology, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, medi­ cal terminology, computer technology, electronics and instrumenta­ tion. Graduates receive associate degrees or certificates. The American Board of Registration of Electroencephalographic and Evoked Potential Technologists awards the credential “Regis­ tered EEG Technologist” to qualified applicants. This board also accredits technologists evoked potentials as “Registered Evoked Po­ tential Technologist.” Although not generally required for staff level jobs, registration indicates professional competence, and usu­ ally is necessary for supervisory or teaching jobs. Technologists should have manual dexterity, good vision, writing skills, an aptitude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other health personnel. High school courses in health, biology, and mathematics are useful.  * * *  EEG technologists test for brain and nervous system disorders.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations EEG technologists in large hospitals can advance to jobs perform­ ing more difficult tests and then to chief EEG technologist, who manages the EEG laboratory. Chief EEG technologists generally are supervised by a physician—an electroencephalographer, neurol­ ogist, or neurosurgeon. Technologists may also teach or go into re­ search. Job Outlook Employment of EEG technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflect­ ing the increased numbers of neurodiagnostic tests performed. There will be more testing as new tests and procedures are devel­ oped, and as the older population, which requires more medical care, grows rapidly. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Most jobs will still be found in hospitals; however, growth will be fastest in offices and clinics of neurologists. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of EEG technologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $23,369 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $19,695 and the average maximum was $28,736. Related Occupations Other health personnel who operate medical equipment include ra­ diologic technologists, nuclear medicine technologists, perfusion­ ists, and cardiovascular (EKG) technologists. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu­ nities. For general information about a career in electroencepha­ lography as well as a list of accredited training programs, contact: xw Executive Office, American Society of Electroneurodiagnostic Technolo­ gists, Inc., 204 W. 7th, Carroll, IA 51401.  For information on work in sleep studies, contact: Association of Polysomnographic Technology, 1610 14th St. NW., Suite 300, Rochester, MN 55901.  Information about specific accredited training programs is also available from: O’ Joint Review Committee on Electroneurodiagnostic Technology, P.O. Box 11434, Norfolk, VA 23517.  Information on becoming a registered EEG technologist is availa­ ble from: (W American Board of Registration of Electroencephalgraphic and Evoked Potential Technologists, P.O. Box 11434, Norfolk, VA 23517.  Emergency Medical Technicians (D.O.T. 079.364-026 and .374-010)  Nature of the Work Automobile accident injuries, heart attacks, near drownings, un­ scheduled childbirths, poisonings, and gunshot wounds all demand urgent medical attention. Emergency medical technicians (EMT’s) give immediate care and then transport the sick or injured to medi­ cal facilities. Following instructions from a dispatcher, EMT’s—who usually work in teams of two—drive specially equipped emergency vehicles to the scene of emergencies. If necessary, they request additional help from police, fire, or electric company personnel, or they may enlist bystanders to direct traffic or remove debris. They determine the nature and extent of the patient’s injuries or illness while also  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  209  trying to determine whether the patient has epilepsy, diabetes, or other preexisting medical conditions. EMT’s then give appropriate emergency care following strict guidelines for which procedures they may perform. All EMT’s, including those with basic skills, the EMT-Basic, may open airways, restore breathing, control bleeding, treat for shock, administer oxygen, immobilize fractures, bandage wounds, assist in childbirth, manage emotionally disturbed patients, treat and assist heart attack victims, give initial care to poison and bum victims, and treat patients with anti-shock trousers, which pre­ vent a person’s blood pressure from falling too low. EMT-Intermediates, or EMT-I’s, have more advanced training and can perform such addtional procedures as administer intrave­ nous fluids; and use defibrillators to give lifesaving shocks to a stopped heart. EMT-Paramedics provide the most extensive prehospital care. In addition to the procedures already described, paramedics may ad­ minister drugs orally and intravenously, interpret EKG’s, perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment. Some conditions are simple enough to be handled following gen­ eral rules and guidelines. More complicated problems can only be carried out under the step-by-step direction of medical personnel with whom the EMT’s are in radio contact. When victims are trapped, as in the case of an automobile acci­ dent, cave-in, or building collapse, EMT’s free them or provide emergency care while others free them. When transporting patients to a medical facility, EMT’s may use special equipment such as backboards to immobilize them before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance. While one EMT drives, the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care as needed. Some EMT’s work for hospital trauma centers or jurisdictions which use helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. At a medical facility, EMT’s transfer patients to the emergency department, report to the staff their observations and the care they provided, and may help provide emergency treatment. After each run, EMT’s replace used supplies and check equip­ ment. If patients have had a contagious disease, EMT’s decontami­ nate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper au­ thorities. Working Conditions EMT’s work both indoors and outdoors, in all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bending, and lifting. They may risk noise-induced hearing loss from ambulance sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. EMT’s may be exposed to diseases such as Hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from drug overdose victims. The work is not only physically strenuous, but stressful—not surprising in a job that involves life-or-death situ­ ations. However, many people find the work exciting and challeng­ ing. EMT’s employed by fire departments often have about a 50-hour workweek. Those employed by hospitals frequently work between 45 and 58 hours a week and those in private between 48 and 51 hours. Some EMT’s, especially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because most emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMT’s have irregular working hours that add to job stress. Employment In 1992, EMT’s held 114,000 jobs. Two-fifths were in private ambu­ lance services, about a third were in municipal fire, police, or rescue squad departments, and a quarter were in hospitals. In addition, there are many volunteer EMT’s. Most paid EMT’s work in metropolitan areas. In many smaller cities, towns, and rural areas, there are no paid EMT jobs. All ser­ vices are provided by volunteers.  210  Occupational Outlook Handbook field interships as well as passing of a written and practical examina­ tion. Although not a general requirement for employment, registra­ tion acknowledges an EMT’s qualifications and may make higher paying jobs easier to obtain. All 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 29 States and the District of Columbia, registration with the National Registry is required at some or all levels of certification. Other States require their own certification examination or provide the op­ tion of taking the National Registry examination. To maintain their certification, all EMT’s must reregister, usually every 2 years. In order to reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT and meet a continuing education requirement. EMT’s should have emotional stability, good dexterity, agility, physical coordination and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. EMT’s need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with ac­ curate color vision. Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level usually means leaving fieldwork. An EMT-Paramedic can become a supervisor, operations manager, administrative director, or executive director of emergency services. Some EMT’s become EMT instructors, firefighters, dispatchers, or police officers, or others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. Finally, some be­ come EMT’s to assess their interest in health care and then decide to return to school and become R.N.’s, physicians, or other health workers.  Most job openings for EMT’s will result from people who leave the field. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is needed to become an EMT. EMT-Basic training is 100 to 120 hours of classroom work plus 10 hours of internship in a hospital emergency room. Training is available in 50 States and the District of Columbia, and is offered by police, fire, and health departments; in hospitals; and as a nondegree course in colleges and universities. The EMT basic program provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and care for com­ mon emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. EMT-Intermediate training varies from State to State, but in­ cludes 35-55 hours of additional instruction in patient assessment as well as the use of esophageal airways, intravenous fluids, and an­ tishock garments. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics gener­ ally last between 750 and 2,000 hours. Refresher courses and contin­ uing education are available for EMT’s at all levels. Applicants to an EMT training course generally must be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or the equivalent and a driver’s license. Recommended high school subjects for prospective EMT’s are driver education, health, and science. Training in the Armed Forces as a “medic” is also good preparation. In addition to EMT training, EMT’s in fire and police depart­ ments must be qualified as firefighters or police officers. Graduates of approved EMT-Basic training programs who pass a written and practical examination administered by the State certify­ ing agency or the National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni­ cians earn the title of Registered EMT-Basic. Prerequisites for tak­ ing the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMT-Basic, required classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience and field internship. Registration for EMTParamedics by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Tech­ nicians or a State emergency medical services agency requires cur­ rent registration or State certification as an EMT-Basic, completion of an EMT-Paramedic training program and required clinical and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Most job openings will occur because of this occupation’s substan­ tial replacement needs. Turnover is quite high, reflecting this occu­ pation’s stressful working conditions, limited advancement poten­ tial, and the modest pay and benefits in the private sector. Employment of EMT’s is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2005. Driving the growth will be an expanding population. Also, the number of older people, who are more likely to need emergency services, is increasing rapidly. Opportunities for EMT’s are expected to be excellent in hospitals and private ambulance services, where pay and benefits usually are low. Competition for jobs will be keen in fire, police, and rescue squad departments because of attractive pay and benefits and good job security. Earnings Earnings of EMT’s depend on the employment setting and geo­ graphic location as well as the individual’s training and experience. According to a survey conducted by the Journal of Emergency Med­ ical Services (JEMS), average starting salaries in 1993 were $20,092 for EMT-Ambulance or Basic, $19,530 for EMT-Intermediate, and $24,390 for EMT-Paramedic. EMT’s working in fire departments command the highest salaries, as the accompanying table shows. Table 1. Average annual salaries of emergency medical technicians, by type of employer, 1993  Employer  Paramedic  EMT-I  All employers (mean)..............  $28,079  $22,682  EMT-Basic $22,848  Private ambulance services — Hospitals.................................. Fire departments.....................  25,606 24,944 34,994  20,060 21,088 30,914  19,383 18,845 31,141  SOURCE: Journal of Emergency Medical Services  Those in emergency medical services which are part of fire or police departments receive the same benefits as firefighters or police of­ ficers. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life-or-death situations are police officers, firefighters,  Technicians and Related Support Occupations air traffic controllers, workers in other health occupations, and members of the Armed Forces. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training courses, registration, and job op­ portunities for EMT’s can be obtained by writing to the State Emer­ gency Medical Service Director. General information about EMT’s is available from; ts* National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, 9140 Ward Pky., Kansas City, MO 64114.  Licensed Practical Nurses  211  Working Conditions Most licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing homes work a 40-hour week, but because patients need round-the-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. They also face the stress of working with sick patients and their families. Hospital-based L.P.N.’s face hazards from caustic chemicals, ra­ diation, and infectious diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis. L.P.N.’s also are subject to back injuries when moving patients and shock from electrical equipment. L.P.N.’s employed in nursing homes often face heavy workloads. In addition, the people they take care of may be confused, irrational, agitated, or uncooperative. In private homes, L.P.N.’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nurses can often set their own work hours.  (D.O.T. 079.374-014)  Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (L.P.N.’s), or licensed vocational nurses (L.V.N.’s) as they are called in Texas and California, care for the sick, injured, convalescing, and handicapped, under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most L.P.N.’s provide basic bedside care. They take vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also treat bedsores, prepare and give injections and enemas, apply dressings, give alcohol rubs and massages, apply ice packs and hot water bottles, and insert catheters. L.P.N’s observe patients and re­ port adverse reactions to medications or treatments. They may col­ lect samples from patients for testing and perform routine labora­ tory tests. They help patients with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene, feed them and record food and liquid intake and output, keep them comfortable, and care for their emotional needs. In States where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intravenous fluids. Some L.P.N.’s help deliver, care for, and feed infants. Some experienced L.P.N.’s supervise nursing assistants and aides. L.P.N.’s in nursing homes, in addition to providing routine bed­ side care, may also help evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise nursing aides. In doctors’ offices and clinics, in­ cluding health maintenance organizations, they may also make ap­ pointments, keep records, and perform other clerical duties. L.P.N. s who work in home health may also prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks.  Wdsxii&tLT*. lap .SB.  Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs for L.P.N. X  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 659,000 jobs in 1992. About a quarter worked part time. Two out of 5 L.P.N.’s worked in hospi­ tals, almost one-quarter worked in nursing homes, and a tenth in doctors’ offices and clinics. Others worked for temporary help agen­ cies, home health care services, or government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require L.P.N.’s to pass a licensing examination after completing a State-approved practical nursing program. A high school diploma is usually required for entry, but some programs ac­ cept people without a diploma. In 1991, approximately 1,200 State-approved programs provided practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or vocational schools offered almost half of these programs, while community and junior colleges provided more than a third. Some were offered in high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities. Most practical nursing programs last about 1 year and include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and patient-care re­ lated subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice is usually in a hos­ pital, but sometimes includes other settings. L.P.N.’s should have a caring, sympathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be stressful. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Job Outlook Job prospects for L.P.N’s are expected to be excellent, as employ­ ment grows much faster than it has in the past. Because of this growth, the number of new graduates needed will be well above the number graduated in recent years. As in most other occupations, re­ placement needs will be the main source ofjob openings. Employment of L.P.N.’s is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, in response to the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing population of very old people and to the general growth of health care. Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs for L.P.N.’s as the number of aged and disabled persons in need of long-term care rises rapidly. In addition to caring for the aged, nursing homes may be called on to care for the increasing number of patients who have been released from the hospital and have not yet recovered enough to return home. Very rapid growth is also expected in such residential care facili­ ties as board and care homes, old age homes, and group homes for the mentally retarded, as well as in home health care services. Employment of L.P.N.’s in hospitals is not expected to increase much, largely because the number of inpatients, with whom most work, is not expected to increase much.  212  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment is projected to grow very rapidly in physicians’ of­ fices and clinics, including health maintenance organizations. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time, salaried L.P.N.’s were $21,476 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,148 and $25,948. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,392; the top 10 percent, more than $31,668. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of L.P.N.’s, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $22,360 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $18,384 and the average maximum was $26,551. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, L.P.N.’s in chain nursing homes had me­ dian annual earnings of approximately $21,900 in January, 1993. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,800 and $24,900 a year. Related Occupations L.P.N.’s work closely with people while helping them. So do emer­ gency medical technicians, social service aides, human service work­ ers, and teacher aides. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing are available from: W Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hud­ son St., New York, NY 10014. rs”National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 1400 Spring St., Suite 310, Silver Spring, MD 20910.  For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: tw National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., P.O. Box 18088, Raleigh, NC 27619.  Information about employment opportunities in Department of Veterans Affairs medical centers is available from local VA medical centers and also from: Title 38 Employment Division, (054D), Department of Veterans Affairs, 810 Vermont Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20420.  For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write: ^■American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Medical Record Technicians  will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other in­ surance programs that use the DRG system. Technicians who spe­ cialize in coding are called medical record coders, coder/abstrac­ tors, or coding specialists. Technicians may also tabulate and analyze data to help improve patient care, to control costs, to be used in legal actions, or to re­ spond to surveys. Tumor registrars compile and maintain records of patients who have cancer to provide information to physicians and for research studies. Medical record technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facil­ ity. In large to medium facilities, technicians may specialize in one aspect of medical records or supervise medical record clerks and transcribers while a medical record administrator manages the de­ partment (see the statement on health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook). In small facilities an accredited record technician may manage the department. Working Conditions Medical record technicians generally work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals where medical record de­ partments are open 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a week, they may work on day, evening, and night shifts. They work in pleasant and comfortable offices. Medical record technician is one of the few health occupations in which there is lit­ tle or no contact with patients. Accuracy is essential, and this de­ mands concentration and close attention to detail. Medical record technicians who work at video display terminals for prolonged peri­ ods may experience eyestrain and muscle pain. Employment Medical record technicians held about 76,000 jobs in 1992. About one half of jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remainder were in nursing homes, medical group practices, health maintenance orga­ nizations, and clinics. In addition, insurance, accounting, and law firms that deal in health matters employ medical record technicians to tabulate and analyze data from medical records. Public health departments hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Some self-employed medical record technicians are consultants to nursing homes and physicians’ offices.  (D.O.T. 079.362-014,-018)  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical record technicians entering the field usually have formal training in a 2-year associate degree program offered at community  Nature of the Work When you enter a hospital, you see a whirl of white coats of physi­ cians, nurses, radiologic technologists, and others. Every time these health care personnel treat a patient, they record what they ob­ served and did to the patient. This record includes information the patient provides about their symptoms and medical history, and also the results of examinations, reports of X ray and laboratory tests, and diagnoses and treatment plans. Medical record techni­ cians organize and evaluate these records for completeness and ac­ curacy. When assembling a patient’s medical record, technicians, who may also be called medical record technicians, first make sure that the medical chart is complete. They ensure that all forms are present and properly identified and signed, and that all necessary informa­ tion is on a computer file. Sometimes, they talk to physicians or others to clarify diagnoses or get additional information. Technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure. They consult a classification manual and rely, too, on their knowledge of disease processes. Technicians may then use a software program to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups” or DRG’s. The DRG determines the amount the hospital.  Medical record technicians may also be referred to as health information technicians.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Technicians and Related Support Occupations and junior colleges. Courses include medical terminology and dis­ eases, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of medical records, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, databases, quality assur­ ance methods, and computers as well as general education. Technicians may also gain training through an Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology offered by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA). Hospitals sometimes advance promising medical record clerks to jobs as medical record technicians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advancement generally requires 2-4 years ofjob experience and completion of the hospital’s in-house training program. Most employers prefer to hire Accredited Record Technicians (ART). Accreditation is obtained by passing a written examination offered by the AHIMA. To take the examination, a person must be a graduate of a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association, or a graduate of the Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology who has also obtained 30 semester hours of academic credit in pre­ scribed areas. Technicians who have received training in nonCAHEA accredited programs or on the job are not eligible to take the examination. In 1992, CAHEA accredited 90 programs for medical record technicians. Experienced medical record technicians generally advance in one of two ways—by specializing or managing. Many senior medical re­ cord technicians specialize in coding, particularly Medicare coding or in tumor registry. In large medical record departments, experienced technicians may become section supervisors, overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sections, for example. Senior techni­ cians with ART credentials may become director or assistant direc­ tor of a medical record department in a small facility. However, in larger institutions the director is a medical records administrator, with a bachelor’s degree in medical record administration. (See the statement on health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Hospitals will continue to employ the most technicians. Most job openings will occur because of replacement needs. The job prospects for formally trained technicians should be very good. Employment of medical record technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures and because medical records will be increasingly scrutinized by third-party payers, courts, and consumers. The need for detailed medical records in offices and clinics of doc­ tors of medicine should translate into rapid growth in employment opportunities for medical record technicians in large group prac­ tices and offices of specialists. Rapid growth is also expected in health maintenance organizations, nursing homes, and home health agencies. Earnings According to a 1992 survey of AHIMA members, accredited record technicans who worked as coders averaged $11.30 an hour; unac­ credited coders averaged $9.77 an hour; and accredited record tech­ nicians in supervisory positions averaged $29,599 a year. The aver­ age annual salary for medical record technicians in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi­ tions was $22,008 in 1993. Related Occupations Medical record technicians need a strong clinical background to an­ alyze the contents of medical records. Other occupations that re­ quire a knowledge of medical terminology, anatomy, and physiol­ ogy without directly touching the patient are medical secretaries, medical transcribers, medical writers, and medical illustrators.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  213  Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical record technology, including the Independent Study Program, is available from: 13° American Health Information Management Association, 919 N. Michi­ gan Ave., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60611.  A list of CAHEA-accredited programs for medical record techni­ cians is available from: X3" American Medical Association, Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610.  Nuclear Medicine Technologists (D.O.T. 078.361-018)  Nature of the Work In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radi­ ation spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Ra­ dionuclides are purified and compounded like other drugs to form radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer these radiopharmaceuticals to patients, then moniter the character­ istics and functions of tissues or organs in which they localize. Ab­ normal areas show higher or lower concentrations of radioactivity than normal. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in the patient’s body to create an image on photographic film. Radiologic technologists also operate diagnostic imaging equipment, but their equipment creates an image by pro­ jecting an x ray through the patient. (See the statement on radiologic technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nuclear medicine technologists explain test procedures to pa­ tients. They prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and ad­ minister it by mouth, injection, or other means. When preparing radiopharmaceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the radiation dose to workers and patients as low as possible. Technologists position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or scanner, which creates images of the distribution of a radiopharmaceutical as it passes through or localizes in the patient’s body. Technologists produce the images on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. Some nuclear medicine studies, such as cardiac function studies, are processed with the aid of a computer. Nuclear medicine technologists also perform radioimmunoassay studies which assess the behavior of a radioactive substance inside the body. For example, technologists may add radioactive sub­ stances to blood or serum to determine levels of hormones or thera­ peutic drug content. Technologists keep patient records and record the amount and type of radionuclides received, used, and disposed of. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. This may include evening or weekend hours in departments which operate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work are also available. In addition, technologists in hospitals may be on-call duty on a rotational basis. Because technologists are on their feet much of the day, and may lift or turn disabled patients, physical stamina is important. Although there is potential for radiation exposure in this field, it is kept to a minimum by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices. Technologists also wear badges that mea­ sure radiation levels. Because of safety programs, however, badge measurements rarely exceed established safety levels.  214  Occupational Outlook Handbook  *71^  Nuclear medicine technologists must adhere to radiation safety guidelines. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 12,000 jobs in 1992. About 9 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were in physicians’ offices and clinics, including imaging centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor's degree. Generally, certificate programs are offered in hospitals; associate programs in community colleges; and baccalaureate programs in 4 year-colleges and in universities. Courses cover physical sciences, the biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation protection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imaging techniques, and computer applications. Associate and bachelor’s programs also cover liberal arts. One-year certificate programs are for health professionals, espe­ cially radiologic technologists and ultrasound technologists wishing to specialize in nuclear medicine. They also attract medical technol­ ogists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. Others interested in the nuclear medicine technology field have three options: a 2-year certificate program, a 2-year asso­ ciate program, or a 4-year baccalaureate program. The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs in nuclear medicine technology. In 1992, there were 112 CAHEA-accredited programs. All nuclear medicine technologists must meet the minimum Fed­ eral standards on the administration of radioactive drugs and the operation of radiation detection equipment. In addition, about half of all States require technologists to be licensed. Technologists also may obtain voluntary professional certification or registration. Re­ gistration or certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board (NMTCB). Most employers prefer to hire certified or registered technologists. Technologists may advance to supervisor, then to chief technolo­ gist, and to department administrator or director. (See statement on health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some tech­ nologists specialize in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiology or computer analysis or leave patient care to take positions in research laboratories. Some become instructors or directors in nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bache­ lor’s degree or master’s in nuclear medicine technology. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for health equipment and radiopharmaceutical manufacturing firms, or as radiation safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Substantial growth in the number of middle-aged and older persons will spur demand for diagnostic procedures, including nu­ clear medicine tests. Furthermore, technological innovations seem likely to increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. One exam­ ple is the use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies to detect cancer at far earlier stages than is customary today, and without resorting to surgery. Another is the use of radionuclides to examine the heart’s ability to pump blood. Wider use of positron emission tomography imaging to observe met­ abolic and biochemical changes for neurology, cardiology, and on­ cology procedures, will also spur demand for nuclear medicine tech­ nologists. Cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applica­ tions of nuclear medicine grow. Some promising nuclear medicine procedures, such as positron emission tomography, are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating them will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of poten­ tial users. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of nu­ clear medicine technologists, based on a 40 hour week and exclud­ ing shift or area differentials, was $32,843 in October 1992. The av­ erage minimum salary was $26,402 and the average maximum was $38,840. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. So do radiologic technologists, diagnostic medical sonographers, cardiology technologists, electroencephalographic technologists, clinical laboratory technologists, perfusionists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technolo­ gist is available from:  tyThe Society of Nuclear Medicine-Technologist Section, 136 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016. tw American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave., Al­ buquerque, NM 87123.  For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technology, write to:  O" Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, 1144 West 3300 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84119.  Information on certification is available from: O" Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 2970 Clairmont Rd., Suite 610, Atlanta, GA 30329. O’The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., Mendota Heights, MN 55120.  Radiologic Technologists (D.O.T. 078.361-034, .362-026, -046, -054, -058, .364-010)  Nature of the Work Perhaps the most familiar use of the x ray is the diagnosis of broken bones. However, medical uses of radiation go far beyond that. Radi­ ation is used not only to produce images of the interior of the body, but to treat cancer as well. At the same time, the use of imaging techniques that do not involve x rays, such as ultrasound and mag­ netic resonance scans, is growing rapidly. The term “diagnostic imaging” embraces these procedures as well as the familiar x ray.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Radiographers produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing articles such as jewelry, through which x rays cannot pass, and positioning patients so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure, technol­ ogists surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radi­ ographers position radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instru­ ments similar to a measuring tape, technologists may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the x-ray film under the part of the pa­ tient’s body to be examined and make the exposure. They then re­ move the film and develop it. Experienced radiographers may perform more complex imaging tests. For fluoroscopies, radiographers prepare a solution of con­ trast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist, a physician who interprets x rays, to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiographers operate computed tomography scanners to produce cross-sectional views of patients and may be called CT technolo­ gists. Others operate machines using giant magnets and radiowaves rather than radiation to create an image and may be called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologists. Radiation therapy technologists, also known as radiation ther­ apists, prepare cancer patients for treatment and administer pre­ scribed doses of ionizing radiation to specific body parts. They oper­ ate many kinds of equipment, including high-energy linear accelerators with electron capabilities. They position patients under the equipment with absolute accuracy in order to expose affected body parts to treatment while protecting the rest of the body from radiation. They also check the patients reactions for radiation side effects such as nausea, hair loss, and skin irritation. They give instructions and explanations to patients who are likely to be very ill and may be dying. Radiation therapists, in contrast to other radiologic technol­ ogists, are likely to see the same patient a number of times during the course of treatment. Sonographers, also known as ultrasound technologists, use non­ ionizing, high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body; the equipment then collects reflected echoes to form an image. The image is viewed on a screen and may be recorded on a printout strip or photographed for interpretation and diagnosis by physi­ cians. Sonographers explain the procedure, record additional medi­ cal history, and then position the patient for testing. Viewing the screen as the scan takes place, sonographers look for subtle differ­ ences between healthy and pathological areas, and judge if the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. Sonographers may specialize in neurosonography (the brain), vascular (blood flows), echocardiography (the heart), abdominal (the liver, kidneys, spleen, and pancreas), obstetrics/gynecology (the female reproductive sys­ tem), and ophthalmology (the eye). Radiologic technologists follow precisely physicians’ instructions and regulations concerning use of radiation to insure that they, pa­ tients, and co-workers are protected from over exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radio­ logic technologists keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They may also prepare work schedules, evaluate equip­ ment purchases, or manage a radiology department. Working Conditions Most full-time radiologic technologists work about 40 hours a week; they may have evening and weekend or on- call hours. Technologists are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients. They work at radiologic machines but may  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  215  Radiologic technologists may be on their feet for extended periods of time. also do some procedures at patients bedsides. Some radiologic tech­ nologists travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. Radiation therapists are prone to emotional “bum out” since they regularly treat extremely ill and dying patients on a daily basis. Al­ though potential radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they have been minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding devices, as well as by instruments that measure radiation exposure. Technologists wear badges that measure radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumula­ tive lifetime dose. Employment Radiologic technologists held about 162,000 jobs in 1992. Most technologists were radiographers. Some were sonographers and ra­ diation therapists. About 1 radiologic technologist in 5 worked part­ time. About 3 out of 5 jobs are in hospitals. The rest are in physicians’ offices and clinics, including diagnostic imaging centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists, prefer to hire those with formal training. Formal training is offered in radiography, radiation therapy, and diagnostic medical sonography (ultrasound). Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent. Some 1-year certificate programs are for individuals from other health occupations such as medical technologists and registered nurses who want to change fields or experienced radiographers who want to specialize in radiation therapy technology or sonography. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs for this field. CAHEA accredited 687 radiography programs, 120 radiation ther­ apy programs, and 52 diagnostic medical sonography programs in 1992. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school di­ ploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, phys­ ics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both  216  Occupational Outlook Handbook  classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiology, pa­ tient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, prin­ ciples of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. For training programs in radiation therapy and diagnostic medi­ cal sonography, applicants with a background in science, or experi­ ence in one of the health professions, generally are preferred. Some programs consider applicants with liberal arts backgrounds, how­ ever, as well as high school graduates with courses in math and sci­ ence. Radiographers and radiation therapists are covered by provisions of the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensuring operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Fed­ eral Government to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs and certifying individuals who en­ gage in medical or dental radiography. By 1992, 26 States required radiographers to be licensed, and 23 required radiation therapists to be licensed. (Puerto Rico requires a license for the practice of either specialty.) One State, Utah, licenses diagnostic medical sonographers. Voluntary registration is offered by the American Registry of Ra­ diologic Technologists (ARRT) in both radiography and radiation therapy. The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical So­ nographers (ARDMS) certifies the competence of sonographers. To become registered, technologists must be graduates of a CAHEAaccredited program or meet other prerequisites and have passed an examination. Many employers prefer to hire registered technolo­ gists. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, ultrasound, angiogra­ phy, and magnetic resonance imaging. Experienced technologists may also be promoted to supervisor, chief radiologic technologist, and—ultimately—department administrator or director. Depend­ ing on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health administration may be necessary for the director’s position. Some technologists progress by becoming instructors or directors in radiologic technology programs; others take jobs as sales represent­ atives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. With additional education, available at major cancer centers, ra­ diation therapy technologists can specialize as medical radiation dosimetrists. Dosimetrists work with health physicists and oncolo­ gists (physicians who specialize in the study and treatment of tu­ mors) to develop treatment plans.  are too expensive and third-party payers may not be willing to pay for their use. But on the whole, it appears that radiologic procedures will be used more widely. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic tech­ nologists. However, employment is expected to grow most rapidly in offices and clinics of physicians, including diagnostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2005 due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technologi­ cal advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Some jobs will also come from the need to replace tech­ nologists who leave the occupation. Earnings In 1992, the median annual earnings for radiologic technologists who worked year round full time were $28,236. The middle 50 per­ cent earned between $22,932 and $33,748 a week; 10 percent earned less than $19,708 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $40,456. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch national sur­ vey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary for radiation technologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $25,615 in October 1992. The average min­ imum salary was $22,250 and the average maximum was $32,553. For radiation therapy technologists the median was $34,278 and for ultrasound technologists, $32,219. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include nuclear medicine technologists, cardiovascular technologists and techni­ cians, perfusionists, respiratory therapists, clinical laboratory tech­ nologists, and electroencephalographic technologists. Sources of Additional Information For career information, enclose a stamped, self-addressed businesssize envelope with your request to: XW American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 12770 Coit Rd., Suite 508, Dallas, TX 75251. tw American Healthcare Radiology Administrators, 111 Boston Post Rd., Suite 215, P.O. Box 334, Sudbury, MA 01776.  For the current list of accredited education programs in radiogra­ phy, radiation therapy technology, or diagnostic medical so­ nography, write to:  W Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, American Medi­ cal Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610.  Job Outlook Employment radiologic technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2005, as the health care industries grow, and because of the vast clinical poten­ tial of diagnostic imaging and therapeutic technology. Current as well as new uses of imaging equipment are virtually certain to sharply increase demand for radiologic technologists. Technology will continue to evolve. New generations of diagnos­ tic imaging equipment are expected to give even better information to physicians and be used more widely. Since ultrasound is non-invasive, it is also less risky and uncomfortable for the patient than ex­ ploratory surgery. Radiation therapy will continue to be used—alone or in combina­ tion with surgery or chemotherapy—to treat cancer. More treat­ ment of cancer is anticipated due to the aging of the population, edu­ cational efforts aimed at early detection, and improved ability to detect malignancies through radiologic procedures such as mam­ mography. Although physicians are enthusiastic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information on certification in radiologic technology, con­ tact: American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., Mendota Heights, MN 55120.  For information on certification in sonography, contact:  13“ American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 2368 Victory  Pky., Suite 510, Cincinnati, OH 45206.  Surgical Technologists (D.O.T. 079.374-022)  Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called operating room technicians, assist in operations under the supervision of surgeons or registered nurses. Before an operation, surgical technologists help set up the operating room with surgical instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and fluids such as saline (a salt solution), or glucose (a sugar solution). They assemble, adjust, and check nonsterile equipment to ensure that it is in working order. Technologists also “prep” (prepare) patients for  Technicians and Related Support Occupations surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical “drapes.” Technologists also observe patients’ vital signs, check charts, and help the surgical team scrub and put on gloves, gowns, and masks. During surgery, technologists pass instruments and other sterile supplies to surgeons and surgeon assistants. They may hold retrac­ tors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and in­ struments. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and may help apply dressings. They may operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equipment. Technologists may also maintain specified supplies of fluids such as plasma and blood. After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer pa­ tients to the recovery room and clean and restock the operating room. Working Conditions Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environ­ ments. They must stand for long periods of time and and remain alert during operations. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, al­ though they may be “on call” (available to work on short notice for emergencies) during weekends and evenings on a rotating basis. Employment Surgical technologists held about 44,000jobs in 1992. Most surgical technologists are employed by hospitals. Others are employed in clinics and surgicenters, and in the offices of physicians and dentists who perform outpatient surgery. A few, known as private scrubs, are employed directly by surgeons who have special surgical teams like those for liver transplants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs of­ fered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, univer­ sities, hospitals, and the military. In 1993, the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association recognized 130 accredited programs. High school graduation normally is required for admission. Programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate de­ gree. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clinical experience. Required study includes anatomy, physiology, microbi­ ology, pharmacology, and medical terminology. Other studies cover care and safety of patients during surgery, aseptic techniques, and surgical procedures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments;  217  prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Technologists may obtain voluntary professional certification from the Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technol­ ogist by graduating from a formal program and passing a national certification examination. Continuing education or reexamination is required to maintain certification, which must be renewed every 6 years. Some employers prefer to hire certified technologists. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle instru­ ments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emo­ tionally stable to handle the demands of surgeons. Technologists must respond quickly and know procedures well so that they may have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Rec­ ommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Technologists may advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open heart surgery. They may also work as circulating technologists. A circulating technologist is the “unsterile” member of the surgical team who prepares patients; helps with anesthesia; gets, opens, and holds packages for the “ster­ ile” persons during the procedure; interviews the patient before sur­ gery; keeps a written account of the surgical procedure; and answers the surgeon’s questions about the patient during the surgery. With additional training, some technologists advance to first assistants, who help with retracting, sponging, suturing, cauterizing bleeders, and closing and treating wounds. Surgical technologists may man­ age central supply departments in hospitals, or take positions with insurance companies, sterile supply services, and operating equip­ ment firms. Job Outlook Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, as the volume of surgery increases and operating room staffing pat­ terns change. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise as the popu­ lation grows and ages. Older people require more surgical proce­ dures. Technological advances, such as fiber optics and laser tech­ nology, will also permit new surgical procedures. Some employers may seek to substitute surgical technologists for operating room nurses to reduce costs. However, because some fa­ cilities and States limit the work that surgical technologists can do, widespread displacement of operating room nurses is not likely to occur. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgical technologists. Nonetheless, the shift to outpatient or ambulatory surgery will create faster growth for technologists in offices and clinics of physicians, including “surgicenters.” Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi­ tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of surgical tech­ nologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differ­ entials, was $21,741 in October 1992. The average minimum salary was $18,087 and the average maximum was $26,480. Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school are licensed practical nurses, respiratory therapy technicians, medical laboratory assistants, medical assistants, dental assistants, optometric assistants, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technologist and a list of CAHEA-accredited programs, contact: O’ Association of Surgical Technologists, 7108-C S. Alton Way, Engle­ wood, CO 80112.  Surgical technologists set up the operating room with surgical instruments and equipment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information on certification, contact: O’ Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 7108-C S. Alton Way, Englewood, CO 80112.  Technicians, Except Health  Aircraft Pilots (D.O.T. 196 except .163 and 621.261-018)  Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained professionals who fly airplanes and helicop­ ters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Although most pilots trans­ port passengers and cargo, others are involved in more unusual tasks, such as dusting crops, spreading seed for reforestation, testing aircraft, directing firefighting efforts, tracking criminals, monitor­ ing traffic, and rescuing and evacuating injured persons. The vast majority of pilots fly airplanes. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot (called captain) is in command and supervises all other crew members. The copilot as­ sists in communicating with air traffic controllers, monitoring the instruments, and flying the aircraft. Some large aircraft still have a third pilot in the cockpit—the flight engineer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other air­ craft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft now fly with only two pilots, who rely more heavily on computerized controls. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They thor­ oughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions enroute and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules (procedures governing the oper­ ation of the aircraft when there is poor visibilty), the pilot in com­ mand or their company dispatcher, normally files an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordi­ nated with other air traffic. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight and require close coordination between the pilot and copilot. For exam­ ple, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots consider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the copilot informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Air­ plane pilots with the assistance of autopilot and the flight manage­ ment computer, steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They continuously scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air- conditioning, hy­ draulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may re­ quest a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. Be­ cause helicopters are used for short trips at relatively low altitude, pilots must be constantly on the lookout for trees, bridges, power lines, transmission towers, and other dangerous obstacles. Regard­ less of the type of aircraft, all pilots must monitor warning devices 218  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely completely on their instru­ ments. Using the altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and whether or not they can fly safely over moun­ tains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots pre­ cise information which, with the help of special maps, tell them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides direc­ tions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their organization and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The number of nonflying duties that pilots have depends on the employment setting. Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and consequently perform few nonflying duties. Pilots em­ ployed by other organizations such as charters or business operators have many other duties. They may load the aircraft, handle all pas­ senger luggage to ensure a balanced load, and supervise refueling; other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and performing minor maintenance and repair work on their aircraft. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the princi­ ples of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to oper­ ate aircraft in dual-controlled planes and helicopters. A few spe­ cially trained pilots are “examiners” or “check pilots.” They periodically fly with other pilots or applicants to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 75 hours a month and work an additional 120 hours a month perform­ ing nonflying duties. The majority of flights involve layovers away from home. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide  v sa  SIS  Aircraft pilots check equipment and controls before takeoff.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations hotel accommodations, transportation between the hotel and air­ port, and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Based on seniority, pilots generally have a choice of flights. Pilots employed outside the airlines often have irregular sched­ ules as well; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Because these pilots frequently have many nonflying responsibili­ ties, they have much less free time than airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most pilots employed outside the airlines do not re­ main away from home overnight. They may work odd hours, be­ cause emergencies happen round the clock. In addition, pilots work­ ing as instructors often give lessons at night or on weekends. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suf­ fer jet lag—fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight perform­ ance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and seldom have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in police work may be subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be tiring. Particularly during takeoff and landing, pi­ lots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong. Employment Civilian pilots held about 85,000 jobs in 1992. Three-fifths worked for the airlines. Many others worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that use their own airplanes or heli­ copters to fly company cargo and executives. Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled air­ ports not served by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of busi­ nesses performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State, and local govern­ ments also employed pilots. Several thousand pilots were self-em­ ployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by the FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight ex­ perience. The time can be reduced through participation in certain school curricula approved by the FAA. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. Applicants must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations. They also must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA or designated examin­ ers. To fly in periods of low visibility pilots must be rated by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having a total of 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of experi­ ence in flying by instruments; passing a written examination on pro­ cedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying; and dem­ onstrating their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license. Captains must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Ap­ plicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a mini­ mum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instru­ ment flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the periodic physi­ cal examinations and tests of flying skills required by Government and company regulations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  219  The Armed Forces have always been an important source of trained pilots for civilian jobs. Military pilots gain valuable experi­ ence on jet aircraft and helicopters, and persons with this experience are generally preferred. This primarily reflects the extensive flying time military pilots receive. The FAA has certified about 600 civil­ ian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. In recent years, the Armed Services have increased financial incentives in an effort to retain more pilots. This has shifted more of the burden for training pilots to FAA certi­ fied schools. Over the next several years, the number of available pi­ lots who have been trained in the military should increase as reduc­ tions in military budgets result in more pilots leaving military service. Over the long haul, however, fewer pilots will be trained by the Armed Forces and this will mean that FAA certified schools will do more of the training. Although some small airlines will hire high school graduates, most airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. If the number of college educated applicants increases, em­ ployers may raise their educational requirements. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, airline companies reject applicants who do not pass re­ quired psychological and aptitude tests. New airline pilots usually start as copilots. Although airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may train those who have only the commercial license. All new pi­ lots receive several weeks of intensive training in simulators and classrooms before being assigned to a flight. Organizations other than airlines generally require less flying ex­ perience. However, a commercial pilot’s license is a minimum re­ quirement, and employers prefer applicants who have experience in the type of craft they will be flying. New employees usually start as copilots or flying less sophisticated equipment. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Advancement for all pilots generally is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more exper­ ienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight en­ gineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provi­ sions of union contracts. After 2 to 7 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to copilot and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a copilot may advance to pilot and, in large com­ panies, to chief pilot or director of aviation in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures. Job Outlook Pilots are expected to face considerable competition for jobs through the year 2005 because the number of applicants for new po­ sitions is expected to exceed the number of openings. Aircraft pilots understandably have an extremely strong attachment to their occu­ pation because it requires a substantial investment in specialized training and can offers very high earnings. In addition, the glamour, prestige, and travel benefits make this a very desirable occupation and pilots rarely change occupations. However, because of the large number of pilots who will reach retirement age over the next decade or so, replacement needs will generate several thousand job open­ ings each year. Additional jobs will be created from rising demand for pilots. Em­ ployment is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2005. While computerized flight manage­ ment systems will all but eliminate the demand for flight engineers, the expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more airliners, pilots, and flight instructors. Employment of business pilots is expected to grow more slowly than in the past as  220  Occupational Outlook Handbook  more businesses opt to fly with regional and smaller airlines serving their area rather than buy and operate their own aircraft. On the other hand, helicopter pilots are expected to grow more rapidly as the demand for the type of services they can offer expands. Opportunities for aircraft pilots will be poor in the short run as an increasing number of pilots leave the Armed Forces and look for jobs in the civilian sector. This situation will be compounded by the large number of pilots who have lost their jobs during the restruc­ turing of the airline industry. The mergers and bankruptcies of the past few years have created a glut of trained pilots. As this glut is ab­ sorbed over the next few years, prospects should improve dramati­ cally. Pilots who have logged the greatest number of flying hours in the more sophisticated equipment generally have the best prospects. This is the reason military pilots usually have an advantage over other applicants. Jobseekers with the most FAA licenses will also have a competitive advantage. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the econ­ omy. During recessions, when a decline in the demand for air travel forces airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may tempora­ rily furlough some pilots. Commercial and corporate flying, flight instruction, and testing of new aircraft also decline during reces­ sions, adversely affecting pilots employed in those areas. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Ac­ cording to the Future Aviation Professionals of America, the 1992 average salary for airline pilots was about $80,000 a year; for flight engineers, $42,000; for copilots, $65,000; and for captains, $107,000. Some senior captains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $165,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay may be given for night and international flights. Generally, pilots working outside the airlines earn lower salaries. The median salary for chief pilots was $62,000 a year in 1992, ac­ cording to a survey conducted by the National Business Aircraft Association; for captains/pilots, $57,900 and for copilots, $42,000. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher salaries than nonjet pilots. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement benefits and if they fail the FAA physical examination at some point in thir careers, they get disability payments. Some airlines provide al­ lowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of the Airline Pilots Association, International. Those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and dis­ patchers also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For addresses of airline companies and infor­ mation about job opportunities and salaries, contact: W Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 J. Memorial Dr., At­ lanta, GA 30032. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-JETJOBS.)  For information on airline pilots, contact: ^•Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  *3= Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information on helicopter pilots, contact: tW Helicopter Association International, 1619 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: ^Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office, Wash­ ington, DC 20402.  For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports.  Air Traffic Controllers (D.O.T. 193.162 except -022 and . 167-010)  Nature of the Work The air traffic control system is a vast network of people and equip­ ment that ensures the safe operation of commercial and private air­ craft. Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement of air traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Their immedi­ ate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes effi­ ciently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others reg­ ulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsi­ bility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Re­ lying on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to ensure a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pi­ lots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s air­ space. In addition, controllers keep pilots informed about changes in weather conditions such as wind shear—a sudden change in the ve­ locity or direction of the wind that can cause the pilot to lose control of the aircraft. During arrival or departure, several controllers handle each plane. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to in­ form the terminal of its presence. The controller in the radar room just beneath the control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delay­ ing any departures that would interfere with the plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller usu­ ally works entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. The procedure is reversed for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then in­ forms the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as the weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure con­ troller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 22 enroute control centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 con­ trollers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busier facilities. Airplanes generally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members,  Technicians and Related Support Occupations depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a sec­ tion of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be respon­ sible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an air­ port and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming off a printer. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at nearly the same time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight plans. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an ad­ jacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar controller ac­ cepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other potential hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying condi­ tions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at a time and often have to make quick decisions about com­ pletely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pat­ tern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. More powerful computers are helping controllers deal with these demands. Traditional air traffic controller tasks like de­ termining how far apart planes should be kept are now routinely done by computer. Improved communication between computers on airplanes and those on the ground also is making the controller’s job a little easier. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic con­ troller specialists also work in flight service stations operated at over 100 locations. These specialists provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather information, suggested routes, and other information im­ portant to the safety of a flight. Flight service station specialists help pilots in emergency situations and participate in searches for miss­ ing or overdue aircraft. However, they are not involved in actively managing air traffic. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work ad­ ditional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This requires total concentration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instruc­ tions. The mental stress of being responsible for the safety of several aircraft and their passengers can be exhausting for some persons. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 23,000 Federal Government jobs in 1992, at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the FAA. About 18,000 controllers were actively working con­ trolling air traffic; 4,000 worked at flight service stations and an­ other 800 worked in administative staff positions; a small number of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  221  P ^  Controllers carefully monitor the progress of each plane. civilian controllers worked for the Department of Defense. In addi­ tion to controllers employed by the Federal Government, some worked for private air traffic control companies providing service to non-FAA towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the controller’s duties. Appli­ cants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military controller can improve their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowledge portion of the examination. Abstract reasoning and three-dimen­ sional spatial visualization are among the aptitudes the exam mea­ sures. In addition, applicants generally must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Ap­ plicants also must survive a 1 week screening at the FAA’s Aero­ nautical Center Academy in Oklahoma City which includes apti­ tude tests using computer simultors, physical and psychological examinations. Successful applicants receive drug screening tests. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight- service stations. Controllers must be articulate, because directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. Intelligence and a good memory also are important because controllers constantly receive information that they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Deci­ siveness is also required because controllers often have to make quick decisions. The ability to concentrate is crucial because con­ trollers must make these decisions in the midst of noise and other distractions. Trainees learn their craft through a combination of formal and on-the-job training. They receive 3-4 months of intensive training at the FAA academy, where they learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, aircraft perform­ ance characteristics, as well as more specialized tasks. Based on ap­ titude and test scores, trainees are selected to work at either an en­ route center or a tower. Regardless of the type of training, students must demonstrate their ability to make quick, correct decisions in simulated air traffic situations. After graduation, it takes several  222  Occupational Outlook Handbook  years of progressively more responsible work experience, inter­ spersed with considerable classroom instruction and independent study, to become a fully qualified controller. This training includes instruction in the operation of the new, more automated air traffic control system—including the automated Microwave Landing Sys­ tem that enables pilots to receive instructions over automated data links—that is being installed in control sites across the country. At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new control­ lers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time may result in dismissal. Controllers who fail to com­ plete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training are usually dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Con­ trollers also are subject to drug screening as a condition of continu­ ing employment. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. However, there are only limited opportunities for a controller to switch from a position in an enroute center to a tower. Job Outlook Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the introduction of laborsaving air traffic control equipment that should make controllers more pro­ ductive. Competition for air traffic controller jobs is expected to remain keen because the occupation attracts many more qualified appli­ cants than the small number ofjob openings stemming from growth of the occupation and replacement needs. Turnover is very low; be­ cause of the relatively high pay and liberal retirement benefits, con­ trollers have a very strong attachment to the occupation. Because most of the current work force was hired after the controller’s strike during the 1980’s, the average age of the current work force is fairly young. As a result, most controllers will not be eligible to retire until 2005 or later. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic control­ lers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in 1993 earned about $22,700 (grade 7) a year. Controllers at the grade 9 level and above earn 5 percent more than other Federal workers in an equivalent grade. A controller’s pay is determined by both the work­ er’s job responsibilities and the complexity of the particular facility. Earnings are higher at facilities where traffic patterns are more com­ plex. In 1993, controllers averaged about $53,800 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, controllers can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Air traffic controllers are eligible to retire at age 50 with 20 years of ser­ vice as an active air traffic controller or after 25 years of active ser­ vice at any age. There is a mandatory retirement age of 56 for con­ trollers who manage air traffic.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Other occupations that involve the direction and control of traffic in air transportation are airline-radio operator and airplane dis­ patcher. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general information about controllers and in­ structions for submitting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Government, Office of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number, and call for a copy of the Air Traffic Controller Announce­ ment. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 1-800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location.  Broadcast Technicians (D.O.T. 193.167-014, .262-018, and -038; 194.062, .122, .262-010, -018, -022, .282, .362, and .382-014 and -018)  Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians install, test, repair, set up, and operate the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and televi­ sion programs. They work with television cameras, microphones, tape recorders, light and sound effects, transmitters, antennas, and other equipment. Some broadcast technicians develop movie sound tracks in motion picture production studios. In the control room of a radio or television broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of recording or broadcasts. They also operate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, telephone headsets, they give technical directions to studio personnel. Broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of du­ ties. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more spe­ cialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and "technician” often are used in­ terchangeably to describe these jobs. Transmitter operators monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pickup, trans­ mission, and switching, and video control engineers regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. Recording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equip­ ment. Technicians operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Field technicians set up and operate broadcasting portable field transmission equipment outside the studio. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment, and the technology is changing so fast, that many stations assign technicians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engi­ neers, and broadcast field supervisors supervise the technicians who operate and maintain broadcasting equipment. Technicians in the motion picture industry are called sound mix­ ers or rerecording mixers. Mixers produce the sound track of a movie by a process called dubbing. They sit at sound consoles facing the screen and fade in and fade out each sound and regulate its vol­ ume. Each technician is responsible for certain sounds. Technicians follow a script that tells at precisely what moment, as the film runs through the projector, each of the sounds must be faded in and out. All the sounds for each shot are thus blended on a master sound track.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations  'miiiir  -  mi nut 1.11  Broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surround­ ings. However, those who broadcast from disaster areas or crime scenes may work under less favorable conditions. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians in large stations and the networks usually work a 40hour week, but may occasionally work overtime under great pres­ sure to meet broadcast deadlines. Technicians in small stations rou­ tinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holi­ day work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Those who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule to Finish according to contract agreements. Employment Broadcast technicians held about 35,000 jobs in 1992. About 7 out of 10 broadcast technicians were in radio and television broadcast­ ing. Almost 2 in 10 worked in the motion picture industry. About 8 percent worked for cable and other pay television services. Some were self employed, providing their services to motion picture pro­ duction of other industries. Television stations employ, on the aver­ age, many more technicians than radio stations. Some are employed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television are located in virtu­ ally all cities, while jobs in radio are also found in most smaller towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concen­ trated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.—the originating centers for most of the network programs. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast technician job in radio and television—particularly for those who hope to advance to supervi­ sory positions or to jobs in large stations and at the networks—is to obtain technical school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology or in engineering or electronics. On the other hand, there is no formal training for jobs in the motion picture in­ dustry. People are hired as apprentice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Reputation, determination, and luck are important in getting jobs. Federal law requires a restricted radiotelephone operator permit for persons who operate and maintain broadcast transmitters in ra­ dio and television stations. No examination is required to get one.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  I  223  The Federal Communications Commission no longer requires per­ sons working with microwave to have a general radiotelephone op­ erator license; however, some States may require a license. Beginners learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. They generally begin their careers in small stations and, if qualified, move on to larger ones. Large stations generally only hire technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field. Certification by the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham” or amateur radio are good experience, as is work in college radio and television stations. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and mechanical systems and equipment and manual dex­ terity—the ability to perform tasks requiring precise, coordinated hand movements. Experienced technicians may become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is generally needed to become chief engineer at a large TV station. Job Outlook Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment in radio and television broadcasting is expected to de­ cline because of laborsaving technical advances such as computercontrolled programming and remote control of transmitters. This has shifted the emphasis from operations to maintenance work, which frequently is performed by commercial and industrial elec­ tronic equipment repairers employed by broadcasting equipment manufacturers. (See the statement on this occupation elsewhere in the Handbook.) People seeking beginning jobs as radio and televi­ sion broadcast technicians are expected to face strong competition in major metropolitan areas, where the number of qualified job­ seekers greatly exceeds the number of openings. There, stations seek highly experienced personnel. Prospects for entry level positions generally are better in small cities and towns for people with appro­ priate training. Employment in the motion picture industry will grow faster than the average for all occupations, as more movies are made. Job pros­ pects are expected to remain competitive, however, because of the large number of people attracted to this relatively small field. Most job openings will result from the need to replace exper­ ienced technicians who leave the occupation. Turnover is relatively high for broadcast technicians. Many leave the occupation for elec­ tronic jobs in other areas such as computer technology or commer­ cial and industrial repair because the number of jobs is limited in large cities where pay is high. Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than educational broadcasting; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small ones. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Cable Financial Management As­ sociation, the median earnings for technicians at radio stations were $22,725 a year in 1992; salaries ranged from $13,250 in the smallest markets to $28,500 in the largest markets. For chief technicians, av­ erage earnings were $26,140 and the range was $12,000 to $52,110. In television, the median earnings for operator technician were $22,136 a year, and salaries ranged from $15,500 in the smallest markets to $37,282 in the largest markets; for technical director, the median earnings were $24,705 and the range was $16,800 to $47,059; for maintenance technician, the median was $28,280 and  224  Occupational Outlook Handbook  the range was $22,050 to $42,819; and for chief engineer, the median was $47,741 and the salaries ranged from $35,500 in the smallest markets to $69,465 in the largest markets. Earnings in the motion picture industry depend on skill and repu­ tation, and, based on limited information, range from $20,000 to $100,000 a year Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the electronics training and hand coor­ dination necessary to operate technical equipment, and they gener­ ally complete specialized postsecondary programs. Others with sim­ ilar jobs and training include drafters, engineering and science technicians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technolo­ gists, respiratory therapy workers, cardiovascular technologists and technicians, EEG technicians, and medical laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about licensing, write to: XW Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20554.  For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: ^National Association of Broadcasters Employment Clearinghouse, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcast­ ing, contact: XW Broadcast Education Association, National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on certification, contact: XW Society of Broadcast Engineers, 8445 Keystone Crossing, Suite 140, Indi­ anapolis, IN 46240.  Computer Programmers (D.O.T. 030.162-010, -018, -022, and .167-010)  Nature of the Work Computers increasingly affect our daily lives. They control the tem­ perature and air quality in office buildings, expand dramatically the capabilities of our telephones, control manufacturing and other bus­ iness processes, and even control the scoreboards at major athletic events. Computer programmers write, update, and maintain the de­ tailed instructions (called programs or software) that list in a logical order the steps that computers must execute to perform these and other functions. In many large organizations, programmers follow descriptions prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task that the computer system is going to perform. These descriptions list the input required, the steps the computer must follow to process data, and the desired arrangement of the output. (A more detailed description of the work of systems analysts is presented in the state­ ment on computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. Instead, workers called programmer-ana­ lysts are responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Programmers in software development companies often work with­ out the contribution of systems analysts. Instead, they may work di­ rectly with experts from various fields to create software—either programs designed for specific clients or packaged software for gen­ eral use ranging from games and education software to programs for desktop publishing, financial planning, and spreadsheets. The transition from a mainframe environment to primarily a PCbased environment has brought about a blurring of the once rigid distinction between the programmer and the user. Increasingly ad­ ept users are taking over many of the programming tasks previously performed by programmers. For example, the growing use of pack­ aged software, like spreadsheet and data base management software  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  packages, allows users to write simple programs to calculate or ac­ cess data. Regardless of setting, programmers write specific programs by breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions the computer can follow. They then code these instructions in a conven­ tional programming language, such as C and FORTRAN, or one of the more advanced artificial intelligence or object oriented lan­ guages, such as LISP, Prolog, C+ -I-, or Ada. Much of the programming being done today is the preparation of packaged software, one of the most rapidly growing segments of the computer industry. Despite the prevalence of packaged software, many programmers are involved in updating, repairing, and modi­ fying code for existing programs. When making changes to a section of code, called a routine, programmers need to make other users aware of the task that the routine is to perform. They do this by in­ serting comments in the coded instructions so others can under­ stand the program. Programmers using computer-aided software engineering (CASE) can concentrate on writing the unique parts of the program because the computer automates some of the more ba­ sic processes. This also yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers’ productivity by eliminating some of the routine steps. When a program is ready to be tested, programmers run the pro­ gram to ensure that the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. They prepare sample data that test every part of the program and, after trial runs, review the results to see if any errors were made. If errors do occur, the programmer must change and recheck the program until it produces the correct results. This is called “debugging” the program. Finally, programmers working in a mainframe environment pre­ pare instructions for the computer operator who will run the pro­ gram. (The work of computer operators is described in the state­ ment on computer and peripheral equipment operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may also contribute to a user’s manual for the program. Programs vary with the type of information to be accessed or gen­ erated. For example, the data involved in updating financial records are different from those required to simulate a flight on a pilot train­ ee’s monitor. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In most cases, sev­ eral programmers may work together as a team under a senior pro­ grammer’s supervision. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types: applica­ tions programmers and systems programmers. Applications pro­ grammers usually are oriented toward business, engineering, or sci­ ence. They write software to handle specific jobs, such as a program used in an inventory control system or one to guide a missile after it has been fired. They also may work alone to revise existing pack­ aged software. Systems programmers, on the other hand, maintain the software that controls the operation of an entire computer sys­ tem. These workers make changes in the sets of instructions that de­ termine how the central processing unit of the system handles the various jobs it has been given and communicates with peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems program­ mers often help applications programmers determine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Programmers may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work longer hours in order to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur during off hours.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations  Many programmers develop packaged software. Because programmers spend long periods of time in front of a computer monitor typing at a keyboard, they are susceptible to eyes­ train and back discomfort and hand and wrist problems. Employment Computer programmers held about 555,000 jobs in 1992. Program­ mers are employed in most industries, but the largest concentrations are in data processing service organizations, including firms that write and sell software; firms that provide engineering and manage­ ment services; manufacturers of office, computing, and accounting machines; banks; educational institutions, and government agen­ cies. Applications programmers work for all types of firms that use computer systems. Systems programmers, on the other hand, usu­ ally work for organizations with large computer centers and for firms that manufacture computers or develop software. A small but growing number of programmers are employed on a temporary basis. A marketing firm, for example, may need the ser­ vices of several extra programmers to write and “debug” the software necessary to get a new data base management system run­ ning. Once the software is functioning, however, their services are no longer needed. Rather than hiring these programmers as perma­ nent employees and then laying them off after the job is done, em­ ployers increasingly are contracting with temporary help agencies, consulting firms, or directly with programmers themselves. Such temporary jobs usually last several months but some last a year or longer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training requirements for programmers be­ cause employers’ needs vary so much that computer applications have become so widespread and varied. Computer programming is taught at public and private vocational schools, community and jun­ ior colleges, and universities. High schools in many parts of the country also offer introductory courses in data processing. Many programmers obtain 2-year degrees or certificates. Two-year col­ leges are targeted toward producing graduates for entry level jobs and may have strong ties to the local job market.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  225  The majority of programmers hold a 4-year degree. Of these, some hold a B.A. or B.S. in computer science or information sys­ tems while others have taken special courses in computer program­ ming to supplement their study in fields such as accounting, inven­ tory control, or other business areas. College graduates who are interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise may return to a junior college for more training. The level of education and quality of training that employers seek have been rising due to the growth in the number of qualified appli­ cants and the increasing complexity of some programming tasks. Bachelor’s degrees are now commonly required; in the absence of a degree, substantial specialized experience may be needed. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applica­ tions prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or in­ formation science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sci­ ences. Graduate degrees are required for some jobs. Knowledge of C and FORTRAN programming languages is desirable since these are the most common languages used in this area. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in management informa­ tion systems (MIS), programming, and business. Knowledge of Cobol, C, Fourth Generation Languages (4GL), CASE tools, C++ and other object oriented programming languages is highly desirable. General business skills and experience related to the oper­ ations of the firm generally are preferred by employers. In the fu­ ture, it may be common for applications programmers to obtain a multidisciplinary degree to provide adequate knowledge of the ap­ plication area along with programming skills. A relatively small number of employers promote workers such as computer operators who have taken courses in programming to programmer jobs be­ cause of their knowledge of and particular work experience with computer systems. Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer sci­ ence. Extensive knowledge of operating systems is essential. This in­ cludes being able to configure the operating system to work with dif­ ferent types of hardware and adapting the operating system to best meet the needs of the particular company. The Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals offers the Certificate in Computer Programming (CCP) to those who pass a core examination plus exams in two specialty areas. College grad­ uates with little or no experience may be tested for certification as an Associate Computer Professional (ACP). Certification is not mandatory but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage. When hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think logically and who are capable of exacting analytical work. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with ex­ treme accuracy even under pressure. Ingenuity and imagination are also particularly important when programmers test their work for potential failures. Increasingly, interpersonal skills are valued be­ cause of the use of programmer teams and user support centers. The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers because they work with the software that controls the computer’s operation. Beginning programmers may spend their first weeks on the job at­ tending training classes. After this initial instruction, they may work alone on simple assignments, or on a team with more exper­ ienced programmers. Either way, they generally must spend at least several months working under close supervision. Because of rapidly changing technology, programmers must continuously update their training by taking courses sponsored by their employer or software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmer and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications program­ mers become systems programmers after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. With general business experience, both applications programmers and systems programmers may be­ come systems analysts or be promoted to a managerial position.  226  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Other programmers, with specialized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system, may work in research and de­ velopment areas such as artificial intelligence or CASE. Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2005 as computer usage expands. The demand for programmers will increase as organiza­ tions seek new applications for computers and improvements to the software already in use. The rising demand for information, further automation of offices and factories, advances in health and medicine, and continuing scientific research will stimulate the de­ mand for skilled programmers. One important area of progress will be data communications. Networking computers so they can communicate with each other is necessary to achieve the greater efficiency that organizations require to remain competitive. Expert systems and other artificial intelli­ gence principles and languages will increasingly be used in the years ahead, becoming productivity-enhancing tools available to pro­ grammers. Programmers will be creating and maintaining expert systems and embedding these technologies in more and more prod­ ucts. As this trend continues, knowledge of C + + and other objectoriented languages will become increasingly important. Employment, however, is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past as improved software and programming techniques, includ­ ing CASE and 4GL, simplify or eliminate some programming tasks. Someone who can apply CASE tool programming along with design and systems analysis is able to produce applications quickly and more cheaply. Employers are increasingly interested in workers who can combine both of these skills. In addition, the introduction of data base management systems is allowing users to take over many of the tasks previously performed by the programmer. Greater use of packaged software such as word processing and spreadsheet packages also may moderate the growth in demand for applications programmers. Although the proportion of programmers leaving the occupation each year is smaller than in most occupations, most of the job open­ ings for programmers will result from replacement needs. Most of the programmers who leave the occupation transfer to other occu­ pations, such as manager or systems analyst. Opportunities will ex­ ist throughout the economy, but jobs for both systems and applica­ tions programmers should be particularly plentiful in data processing service firms, software houses, and computer consulting businesses. Because the number and quality of applicants have increased, em­ ployers have become more selective. Competition has increased for entry level positions, affecting even applicants with a bachelor’s de­ gree. Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing and people with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience are facing especially strong competition for programming jobs. Many observers expect opportunities for people without college de­ grees to diminish in coming years as programming tasks become more complex. Prospects should be good for college graduates who are familiar with a variety of programming languages, particularly newer languages that apply to computer networking, data base man­ agement, and artificial intelligence. Many employers prefer to hire applicants with previous experi­ ence in the field. Firms also desire programmers who develop a tech­ nical specialization in areas such as structured methodology pro­ gramming, multimedia programming, graphic user interface, or 4th and 5th generation programming tools. Therefore, people who want to become programmers can enhance their chances by combining work experience with the appropriate formal training. Students have various options: Holding a summer or part-time job in a data processing department, participating in a college work-study pro­ gram, or undertaking an internship. Students can greatly improve  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  their employment prospects by also taking courses such as account­ ing, management, engineering, or science—allied fields in which ap­ plications programmers are in demand. Earnings Median earnings of programmers who worked full time in 1992 were about $35,600 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,700, and the highest 10 percent, more than $58,000. On aver­ age, systems programmers earn more than applications program­ mers. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for programmers with a college degree or qualifying experience was about $18,300 a year in 1993; for those with a superior academic record, $22,700. Related Occupations Programmers must pay great attention to detail as they write and “debug” programs. Other professional workers who must be detailoriented include statisticians, engineers, financial analysts, account­ ants, auditors, actuaries, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Also check with your city’s chamber of commerce for information on the area’s largest employ­ ers. For information about certification as a computer professional, contact: W Institute for the Certification of Computer Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  Further information about computer careers is available from: 13” The Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York,  NY 10036.  Drafters (D.O.T. 001.261-010, -014; 002.261; 003.131, .261 except -010, 281; 005.281; 007.161-010, -014, and -018, .261, and .281; 010.281 except -022; 014.281; 017 except .261-010 and .684; and 726.364-014)  Nature of the Work Drafters prepare technical drawings used by production and con­ struction workers to build spacecraft, automobiles, industrial ma­ chinery and other manufactured products, as well as structures such as office buildings, houses, bridges, and oil and gas pipelines. Their drawings show the technical details of the products and structures from all sides, with exact dimensions, the specific materials to be used, procedures to be followed, and other information needed to carry out the job. Drafters prepare and fill in technical details, using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations made by engineers, surveyors, architects, and scientists. For example, work­ ing from rough sketches, drafters use knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw the details of a structure, or employ knowledge of engineering and manufacturing theory to arrange the parts of a machine and determine the number and kind of fasteners needed. For this, they may use technical handbooks, tables, calcula­ tors, and computers. There are two methods by which drawings are prepared. In the traditional method, drafters sit at drawing boards and use com­ passes, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare the drawing manually. Drafters also use computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems. They use computer work stations to create the drawing on a video screen. They may print the drawing on paper but also store it electronically so that revisions and/or duplications can be made more easily. These systems also permit drafters to eas­ ily prepare many variations of a design. When CAD systems were first introduced, some thought a new occupation—CAD operator—would result. It is now apparent that a person who produces a technical drawing using CAD is still a  Technicians and Related Support Occupations drafter, and needs all the knowledge of traditional drafters as well as CAD skills. Because the cost of CAD systems is dropping rapidly, by the year 2005 it is likely that almost all drafters will use CAD systems regu­ larly. However, manual drafting probably will still be used in certain applications, especially in low-volume firms that produce many oneof-a-kind drawings with little repetition. Many drafters specialize. Architectural drafters draw architec­ tural and structural features of buildings and other structures. They may specialize by the type of structure, such as schools or office buildings, or by material, such as reinforced concrete or stone. Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings used for the manufacture of aircraft and missiles. Electrical drafters draw wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wir­ ing in powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronic drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufac­ ture, installation, and repair of electronic equipment. Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in civil engineering projects such as highways, bridges, pipe­ lines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. Mechanical drafters draw detailed working diagrams of machin­ ery and mechanical devices, including dimensions, fastening meth­ ods, and other engineering information. Working Conditions Drafters usually work in offices or rooms with lighting appropriate to their tasks. They often sit at drawing boards or computer termi­ nals for long periods of time doing detailed work, which may cause eyestrain and back discomfort. Drafters who spend the majority of their time using a computer keyboard for CAD work risk repetitive motion injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Employment Drafters held about 314,000 jobs in 1992. Over one-third of all drafters worked in engineering and architectural services, firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a con­ tract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy; about one-third worked in durable goods manufacturing industries, such as machinery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metals; and the  .  f+.Z'V****  ------.............................  Computer-aided design systems enable drafters to make revisions to designs more easily.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  227  remainder were mostly employed in the construction, communica­ tions, utilities, and personnel supply services industries. About 11,000 drafters worked in government in 1992, primarily at the State and local level. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for drafting positions who have posthigh school training in technical institutes, junior and community colleges, or extension divisions of universities. Employers are most interested in applicants who have well-developed drafting and mechanical drawing skills, a solid background in computer-aided design techniques, and courses in mathematics, science, and engi­ neering technology. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide drafting training. The kind and quality of programs can vary consid­ erably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in select­ ing a program. They should contact prospective employers regard­ ing their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less the­ ory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, which are similar to or part of the programs offered by community colleges or State uni­ versity systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for- profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary considerably in length and types of courses of­ fered. Some are 2-year associate degree programs. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs. However, courses taken at junior or community colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4year colleges than those at technical institutes. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates qualify for jobs as drafters while others continue their education in a related field at 4-year colleges. Four-year colleges usually do not offer drafting training, but col­ lege courses in engineering, architecture, and mathematics are use­ ful for obtaining a job as a drafter. Area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institu­ tions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by lo­ cal employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training may be obtained in the Armed Forces in technical areas which can be applied in civilian drafting jobs. Some additional training may be needed, depending on the military skills acquired and the kind ofjob, but often this is gained on the job. Those planning careers in drafting should be able to draw free­ hand three-dimensional objects and do detailed work accurately and neatly. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields, as is knowledge of manufacturing and construction methods. In addi­ tion, prospective drafters should have good communication skills because they work closely with engineers, surveyors, architects, and other workers. In 1992, the American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) es­ tablished a certification program for drafters. Although drafters are not required to be certified, certification demonstrates to employers that nationally recognized standards have been met. Individuals who wish to become certified must pass the Drafter Certification Test, which is administered periodically at ADDA-authorized test sites. Applicants are tested on their knowledge and understanding of basic drafting concepts such as geometric construction, working drawings, and architectural terms and standards. Entry level drafters usually do routine work under close supervi­ sion. After gaining experience, they do more difficult work with less supervision and may advance to senior drafter, designer, or supervi­ sor. With appropriate college courses, they may become engineers or architects. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Industrial  228  Occupational Outlook Handbook  growth and the increasingly complex design problems associated with new products and processes will increase the demand for draft­ ing services. However, greater use of CAD equipment by architects and engineers, as well as drafters, is expected to offset some of this growth in demand. Although productivity gains from CAD have been relatively modest since CAD use became widespread, CAD technology continues to advance. CAD is expected to become an in­ creasingly powerful tool, simplifying many traditional drafting tasks. Nevertheless, as in other areas, the ease of obtaining com­ puter-generated information stimulates a demand for more informa­ tion, so there will continue to be growth in the occupation. Individu­ als who have at least 2 years of training in a technically strong drafting program and who have experience with CAD systems will have the best opportunities. Although growth in employment will create many job openings, most job openings are expected to arise as drafters retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Drafters are highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, such as engineering and architec­ tural services and durable goods manufacturing. During recessions, when fewer buildings are designed, drafters may be laid off. Earnings Median annual earnings of drafters who worked year round, full time were about $27,400 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $20,600 and $35,100 annually; 10 percent earned more than $43,500; 10 percent earned less than $15,900. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, experienced drafters had median earnings of about $30,200 a year in 1992, with the middle half earning between about $27,100 and $34,000 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or analyze detailed drawings and make precise calculations and measurements include architects, land­ scape architects, engineers, engineering technicians, science techni­ cians, photogrammetrists, cartographers, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for drafters.  Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures and do related surveys and studies. Some in­ spect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollu­ tion control requirements are met. Others estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used. (See statement on cost estima­ tors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electronics engineering technicians help develop, manufacture, and service electronic equipment such as radios, radar, sonar, televi­ sion, industrial and medical measuring or control devices, naviga­ tional equipment, and computers, often using measuring and diag­ nostic devices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. Workers who only repair electrical and electronic equipment are discussed in sev­ eral other statements elsewhere in the Handbook. Many of these re­ pairers are often called electronics technicians. Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of per­ sonnel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design and de­ velop machinery, robotics, and other equipment by making sketches and rough layouts. They also record data, make computations, ana­ lyze results, and write reports. When planning production, mechan­ ical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the as­ sembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment in manufacturing departments or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. Chemical engineering technicians are usually employed in indus­ tries producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and petroleum prod­ ucts, among others. They help design, install, and test or maintain process equipment or computer control instrumentation, monitor quality control in processing plants, and make needed adjustments. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work regular hours in laboratories, of­ fices, electronics and industrial plants, or construction sites. Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials.  Engineering Technicians (D.O.T. 002.261-014, .262-010; 003.161, .261-010, .362; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030, .167-010, .181 and .267-014; 008.261; 010.261-010 and -026; 011.261-010, -014, -018, and -022, .281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013.161; 017.261-010; 019.161-014, .261-018, -022, -026, -030, and -034, .267, .281; 194.381, .382-010; 199.261-014; 726.261-010 and -014; 761.281-014; 828.261-018; and 869.261-026)  Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve problems in research and de­ velopment, manufacturing, sales, construction, and customer ser­ vice. Their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically ori­ ented than those of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Others work in production or inspection jobs. Engineering technicians who work in research and development build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, calcu­ late or record the results, and help engineers in other ways. Some make prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in routine design work, often using computer-aided design equipment. Engineering technicians who work in manufacturing follow the general directions of engineers. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise and run tests to ensure product quality, or study ways to improve manufacturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  iitmimm  .  mimimim »■«*  Like engineers, engineering technicians specialize in a specific area, such as mechanics, electronics, or chemicals.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Employment Engineering technicians held about 695,000 jobs in 1992. About two-fifths worked in manufacturing, mainly in the electrical and electronic machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, in­ dustrial machinery equipment, and computer and office equipment industries. Over one-fourth worked in service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies who do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing, or other organi­ zations. In 1992, the Federal Government employed about 59,000 engi­ neering technicians. Major employers were the Departments of De­ fense, Transportation, Agriculture, and the Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National Aeronautics and Space Admin­ istration. State governments employed about 30,000 and local gov­ ernments about 28,000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it is possible to qualify for some engineering technician jobs with no formal training, most employers prefer to hire someone who will require less on-the-job training and supervision. Training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, ex­ tension divisions of colleges and universities, public and private vo­ cational-technical schools, and through some technical training pro­ grams in the Armed Forces. Persons with college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics may also qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training. The kind and quality of programs vary consider­ ably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Graduates of programs ac­ credited by the Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET) are generally recognized to have achieved a minimum level of competence in the mathematics, science, and technical courses re­ quired for this occupation. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less the­ ory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or are part of a community college or are part of State university sys­ tems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary considerably in length and types of courses offered. Some are 2year associate degree programs. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs, as both offer associate degrees. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as en­ gineering technicians, while others continue their education at 4year colleges. However, there is a difference between an associate degree in pre-engineering and one in engineering technology. Stu­ dents who enroll in a 2-year pre-engineering program may find it very difficult to find work as an engineering technician should they decide not to enter a 4-year engineering program because pre-engi­ neering programs usually focus less on hands-on applications and more on academic preparatory work. Conversely, graduates of 2year engineering technology programs may not receive credit for many of the courses they have taken if they choose to transfer to a 4year engineering program. Four-year colleges usually do not offer engineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathemat­ ics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs are often hired to work as applied engineers, not technicians. Area vocational-technical schools include postsecondary public in­ stitutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  229  Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Many military technical training programs are highly re­ garded by employers. Some additional training may be needed, de­ pending on the military skills acquired and the kind of job, but often this is gained on the job. Some correspondence schools also offer training for engineering technicians. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Engineering techni­ cians need an aptitude for mathematics and science. For design work, creativity also is desirable. They should be able to work well with others since they are often part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Those in sales and service should be able to work inde­ pendently and deal effectively with customers. Engineering technicians usually begin by doing routine work under the close supervision of an experienced technician, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering tech­ nicians eventually become supervisors. Job Outlook Well-qualified engineering technicians should experience good em­ ployment opportunities through the year 2005. Employment is ex­ pected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations due to ex­ pected continued growth in the output of technical products. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force compa­ nies to improve and update manufacturing facilities and product de­ signs more rapidly than in the past. However, like engineers, em­ ployment of engineering technicians is influenced by local and national economic conditions. The employment outlook also varies with the area of specialization and industry. Some types of engineer­ ing technicians, such as civil engineering and aeronautical engineer­ ing technicians, experience greater cyclical fluctuations than others. Technicians whose jobs are defense related may experience fewer opportunities because of defense cutbacks. In addition to growth, nearly as many job openings will be to re­ place technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other rea­ sons. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, en­ gineering technicians at the most junior level had median earnings of about $20,900 in 1992, with the middle half earning between about $18,900 and $22,600 a year. Engineering technicians with more experience and the ability to work with little supervision had median earnings of about $28,800, and those in supervisory or se­ nior level positions earned about $41,400. In the Federal Government, engineering technicians could start at about $14,600, $16,400, or $18,300 in 1993, depending on their education and experience. In 1993, the average annual salary for en­ gineering technicians in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and manage­ ment positions in the Federal Government was $37,337; for elec­ tronics technicians, $42,436; and for industrial engineering technicians, $38,006. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsecondary programs below the baccalaure­ ate level. Similar occupations include science technicians, drafters, surveyors, broadcast technicians, and health technologists and tech­ nicians. Sources of Additional Information A number of engineering technology-related organizations provide information on engineering technician and technology careers. JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314, serves as a central distribution point for information from most of these organizations. Enclose a self-addressed, business-size envelope with four first class stamps to obtain a sampling of materi­ als available. For information on chemical engineering technicians, contact: 13" American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Attention: Mr. Chung Lam, 345 East 47th St., New York, NY 10017.  230  Occupational Outlook Handbook Others, such as computer searches using local and regional library networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challenging. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) li­ braries may work weekends and evenings. Library technicians in special libraries usually work normal business hours, although they are often called upon to work overtime.  Library Technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018)  Nature of the Work Library technicians help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material, and assist users in finding materials and information. Technicians in small libraries handle a wide range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. Depending on the employer, library technicians may have other titles, such as library technical assistants. Technicians assist in the use of public catalogs, direct library users to standard references, or­ ganize and maintain periodicals, handle interlibrary loan requests, perform routine cataloging and coding of library materials, verify information on order requests, retrieve information from computer data bases, and supervise other support staff, such as circulation desk workers. The widespread use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems has resulted in technicians handling more technical and user services, such as entering catalog informa­ tion into the library’s computer, that were once performed by li­ brarians. Technicians also may assist with customizing data bases. (See the statement on librarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equip­ ment, such as projectors, tape recorders, and videocassette record­ ers, and assist library users with microfilm or microfiche readers. Technicians may also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays. Those in school libraries teach students to use the school library/ media center and encourage them to do so. They also help teachers get instructional materials and help students with special assign­ ments. Some work in special libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research laboratories, where they conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the or­ ganization. Working Conditions Technicians who work with users answer questions and provide as­ sistance. Technicians who prepare library materials sit at desks or computer terminals for long periods and may develop headaches or eyestrain from working with video display terminals. Some duties like calculating circulation statistics can be repetitive and boring. '  A»v  * AMERICANS .  LVTORMVnGN  a  iwro»Y  Employment Library technicians held about 71,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. Some worked in hospitals and religious organizations. The Federal Government, primarily the Department of Defense and the Library of Congress, and State and local governments also employed library technicians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely, ranging from a high school diploma to postsecondary training as a library technician. Some libraries may require that tecnicians have a bache­ lor’s degree. Employers may hire individuals with work experience or other training, or may train inexperienced workers on the job. Given the widespread use of automation in libraries, computer skills are needed for many jobs. Some 2-year colleges offer an associate of arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library and media organization and op­ eration and how to order, process, catalog, locate, and circulate li­ brary materials, and work with library automation. Library technicians usually advance by assuming added responsi­ bilities. For example, technicians may start at the circulation desk, checking books in and out. After gaining experience, they may be re­ sponsible for storing and verifying information. As they advance, they may become involved in budget and personnel matters in their department. Some library technicians advance to supervisory posi­ tions and are in charge of overseeing the day-to-day operation of their department. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The in­ creasing use of library automation may spur job growth among li­ brary technicians. Computerized information systems have simpli­ fied certain tasks, such as descriptive cataloging, which can now be handled by technicians instead of librarians. For instance, the tech­ nician can now easily retrieve information from a central data base and store it in the library’s own computer. Flowever, budgetary con­ straints may dampen employment growth of library technicians in school, public, and college and university libraries. Additional job openings will result from the need to replace library technicians who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Growth in the number of professional and other workers who use special libraries should result in relatively fast employment growth among library technicians in special libraries. Willingness to relo­ cate enhances an aspiring library technician’s job prospects.  «  Earnings Salaries for library technicians vary widely, depending on the type of library and geographic location. Salaries of library technicians in the Federal Government averaged $23,900 in 1993.  u§ : *  Library technicians may retrieve information from computer data bases.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Library technicians perform organizational and administrative du­ ties. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include li­ brary clerks, information clerks, record clerks, medical record tech­ nicians, and title searchers. Library technicians also assist librarians. Other workers who assist professional workers include museum technicians, teacher aides, legal assistants, and engineering and science technicians.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library technician and a directory of schools offering training programs in this field can be obtained from: O" Council on Library/Media Technicians, P.O. Box 951, Oxon Hill, MD 20750.  For information on training programs for library/media techni­ cal assistants, write to: XW American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.  Information on schools receiving Federal financial assistance for library training is available from: W Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, Library Development Staff, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20208-5571.  Those interested in a position as a library technician in the Fed­ eral service should write to: ^Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: X3' Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20540.  State library agencies can furnish information on requirements for technicians, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job “hotlines” which report openings for library technicians. State departments of education can furnish information on re­ quirements and job opportunities for school library technicians.  Paralegals (D.O.T. 119.267-022 and -026)  Nature of the Work Not all legal work requires a law degree. Lawyers are often assisted in their work by paralegals—also called “legal assistants”—who perform many of the same tasks as lawyers, except for those tasks considered to be the practice of law. Paralegals work directly under the supervision of lawyers. Al­ though the lawyers assume responsibility for the legal work, they often delegate to paralegals many of the tasks they perform as law­ yers. Paralegals are prohibited from setting legal fees, giving legal advice, or presenting a case in court. Paralegals generally do background work for lawyers. To help prepare cases for trial, paralegals investigate the facts of cases to make sure that all relevant information is uncovered. Paralegals may conduct legal research to identify the appropriate laws, judicial decisions, legal articles, and other materials that may be relevant to clients’ cases. After organizing and analyzing all the information, paralegals may prepare written reports that attorneys use to decide how cases should be handled. Should attorneys decide to file law­ suits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal argu­ ments, draft pleadings to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorneys during trials. Paralegals also keep files of all documents and correspondence important to cases. Besides litigation, paralegals may also work in areas such as bank­ ruptcy, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, patent and copyright law, and real estate. They help draft documents such as contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments. They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some parale­ gals coordinate the activities of the other law office employees and keep the financial records for the office. Paralegals who work for corporations help attorneys with such matters as employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock op­ tion plans, and employee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  231  resolutions, and help secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals may also review government regulations to make sure that the cor­ poration operates within the law. The duties of paralegals who work in government vary depending on the type of agency that employs them. Generally, paralegals in government analyze legal material for internal use, maintain refer­ ence files, conduct research for attorneys, collect and analyze evi­ dence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for gen­ eral use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal service projects help the poor, the aged, and other persons in need of legal aid. They file forms, conduct research, and prepare documents. When authorized by law, they may represent clients at administrative hearings. Some paralegals, usually those in small and medium-sized law firms, have varied duties. One day the paralegal may do research on judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may help prepare a mortgage contract. This requires a general knowl­ edge of many areas of the law. Some paralegals who work for large law firms, government agen­ cies, and corporations, specialize in one area of the law. Some spe­ cialties are real estate, estate planning, family law, labor law, litiga­ tion, and corporate law. Even within specialties, functions often are broken down further so that paralegals may deal with one narrow area of the specialty. For example, paralegals who specialize in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits. A growing number of paralegals are using computers in their work. Computer software packages are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in the computer and identify legal texts rele­ vant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting documents, paralegals may use computers to organize and index the material. Paralegals may also use computer software packages to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strategies for clients. Working Conditions Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. Paralegals employed by corporations and government work a standard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year then released when work diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and additional time off.  Paralegals may have to consult with clients to gather relevant information for court cases.  232  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Paralegals handle many routine assignments, particularly when they are inexperienced. Some find that these assignments offer little challenge and become frustrated with their duties. However, parale­ gals usually assume more responsible and varied tasks as they gain experience. Furthermore, as new laws and judicial interpretations emerge, paralegals are exposed to many new legal problems that make their work more interesting and challenging. Employment Paralegals held about 95,000 jobs in 1992. Private law firms em­ ployed the vast majority; most of the remainder worked for various levels of government. Paralegals are found in nearly every Federal Government agency; the Departments of Justice, Treasury, Inte­ rior, and Health and Human Services, and the General Services Ad­ ministration are the largest employers. State and local governments and publicly funded legal service projects employ paralegals as well. Banks, real estate development companies, and insurance compa­ nies also employ small numbers of paralegals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to enter the paralegal profession. Employers generally require formal paralegal training; several types of training programs are acceptable. However, some employers prefer to train their paralegals on the job, promoting experienced legal secretaries or hiring persons with college education but no legal experience. Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice or nursing or health administration for personal injury practice. Over 600 formal paralegal training programs are offered by 4year colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior colleges, business schools, and proprietary schools. In 1993, 177 programs had been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Although this approval is neither required nor sought by many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for ad­ mission to formal training programs vary widely. Some require some college courses or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools re­ quire standardized tests and personal interviews. Most paralegal programs are completed in 2 years, although some take as long as 4 years and award a bachelor’s degree upon comple­ tion. Other programs take only a few months to complete, but re­ quire a bachelor’s degree for admission. Programs typically include a combination of general courses on subjects such as the law and le­ gal research techniques, and courses that cover specialized areas of the law, such as real estate, estate planning and probate, litigation, family law, contracts, and criminal law. Many employers prefer ap­ plicants with training in a specialized area of the law. Programs also increasingly include courses that introduce students to the legal ap­ plications of computers. Many paralegal training programs include an internship in which students gain practical experience by work­ ing for several months in a law office, corporate legal department, or government agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset when seeking a job after graduation. Depending on the program, graduates may receive a certificate, an associate degree, or, in some cases, a bachelor’s degree. The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better pro­ grams generally emphasize job placement. Prospective students should examine the experiences of recent graduates of programs in which they are considering enrolling. Paralegals need not be certified, but the National Association of Legal Assistants has established standards for voluntary certifica­ tion which require various combinations of education and experi­ ence. Paralegals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2day examination given each year at several regional testing centers by the Certifying Board of Legal Assistants of the National Associa­ tion of Legal Assistants. Persons who pass this examination may use  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). This designation is a sign of competence in the field and may enhance employment and advancement opportunities. Paralegals must be able to handle legal problems logically and ef­ fectively communicate, both orally and in writing, their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They must understand legal terminology and have good research and investigative skills. Famili­ arity with the operation and applications of computers in legal re­ search and litigation support is increasingly important. Paralegals must always stay abreast of new developments in the law that affect their area of practice. Because paralegals often deal with the public, they must be cour­ teous and uphold the high ethical standards of the legal profession. A few States have established ethical guidelines that paralegals in the State must follow. Experienced paralegals usually are given progressively more re­ sponsible duties and less supervision. In large law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies, experienced paralegals may supervise other paralegals and clerical staff and delegate work assigned by the attorneys. Advancement opportunities include pro­ motion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easier to move to another law firm when seeking increased respon­ sibility or advancement. Job Outlook Employment of paralegals is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job opportunities are expected to expand as more employers become aware that paralegals are able to do many legal tasks for lower salaries than lawyers. Both law firms and other employers with legal staffs should continue to emphasize hiring paralegals so that the cost, availability, and efficiency of legal services can be improved. New jobs created by rapid employment growth will create most of the job openings for paralegals in the future. Other job openings will arise as people leave the occupation. Although the number of job openings for paralegals is expected to increase significantly through the year 2005, so will the number of persons pursuing this career. Thus, keen competition for jobs should continue as the growing number of graduates from paralegal training programs keeps pace with employment growth. Still, job prospects are expected to be favorable for graduates of highly regarded formal programs. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals as a growing population needs more legal services. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for the services of law firms. A growing array of other organizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real es­ tate and title insurance firms, and banks will also hire paralegals. Job opportunities for paralegals will expand even in the public sector. Community legal service programs—which provide assis­ tance to the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-income fami­ lies—operate on limited budgets and will employ more paralegals to keep expenses down and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cy­ cle. During recessions, demand declines for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Corporations are less inclined to initiate litiga­ tion when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. As a result, full-time paralegals employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours reduced. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals are more likely to face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, fore­ closures, and divorces, that require legal assistance. Furthermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpretations of existing laws creates new business for lawyers and paralegals without regard to the business cycle.  Technicians and Related Support Occupations Earnings Earnings of paralegals vary greatly. Salaries depend on the educa­ tion, training, and experience the paralegal brings to the job, the type and size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. Generally, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large met­ ropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. Paralegals had an average annual salary of about $28,300 in 1993, according to a utilization and compensation survey by the National Association of Legal Assistants. Starting salaries of paralegals aver­ aged $23,400, while paralegals with from 6 to 10 years of experience averaged $28,200 a year. Salaries of paralegals with from 11 to 15 years of experience averaged $29,800 annually, according to the same survey. In addition to a salary, many paralegals received an annual bonus, which averaged $1,700 in 1993. Employers of the ma­ jority of paralegals provided life and health insurance benefits and contributed to a retirement plan on their behalf. Paralegal Specialists hired by the Federal Government in 1993 started at about $18,000 or $23,000 a year, depending on their train­ ing and experience. The average annual salary of paralegals who worked for the Federal Government in 1993 was about $37,600. Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim examiners, compliance and enforcement inspectors, occupational safety and health workers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal and a list of paralegal training programs approved by the American Bar Association may be purchased for $5 from: X3 Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  For information on certification of paralegals, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact: ty National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1601 South Main St, Suite 300, Tulsa, OK 74119.  Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training programs, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from: (3s National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O. Box 33108, Kansas City, MO 64114.  Information on paralegal training programs may be obtained from: American Association for Paralegal Education, P.O. Box 40244, Over­ land Park, KS 66204.  Science Technicians (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to investigate, invent, and help improve products. Their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. In recent years, laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex, changing the work of science technicians in research and development. The increasing use of robotics to per­ form many routine tasks formerly done by technicians has freed technicians to operate other, more sophisticated laboratory equip­ ment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, com­ puter-interfaced equipment, robotics, and high-technology indus­ trial applications such as biological engineering.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  233  Technicians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instru­ ments, monitor experiments, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. Those who work in production test products for proper proportions of ingredients or for strength and durability. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food and fiber research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to in­ crease the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Biological technicians work with biologists, studying living orga­ nisms. They may assist scientists who conduct medical research, helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example, or they may help conduct pharmaceutical research. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances such as blood, food, and drugs; some ex­ amine evidence in criminal investigations. Biological technicians working in biotechnology labs use the knowledge and techniques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply these techniques in product develop­ ment. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equip­ ment. Most do research and development, testing, or other labora­ tory work. For example, they might test packaging for design, materials, and environmental acceptability; assemble and operate new equipment to develop new products; monitor product quality; or develop new production techniques. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Those who focus on basic research might produce com­ pounds through complex organic synthesis. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in re­ search. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells using instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, they collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to de­ termine petroleum and mineral content. Some petroleum techni­ cians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drill­ ing operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Many work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that can’t be completed during regular working hours. Others, such as agricul­ tural and petroleum technicians, perform much of their work out­ doors, sometimes in remote locations, and some may be exposed to hazardous conditions. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals; nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation; and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing or­ ganisms or radioactive agents. However, there is little risk if proper safety procedures are followed. Employment Science technicians held about 244,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly 40 per­ cent worked in manufacturing, mostly in the chemical industry, but also in the petroleum refining and food processing industries. Al­ most 20 percent worked in colleges and universities and another 12 percent worked in research and testing services. In 1992, the Federal Government employed about 19,000 science technicians, mostly in the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, In­ terior, and Commerce.  234  Occupational Outlook Handbook are important, and technicians should be able to work well with others since technicians often are part of a team. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a scientist or experienced technician. Job candidates whose training or educational background encom­ passes extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including computers and related equipment, usually re­ quire a much shorter period of on-the-job training. As they gain ex­ perience, they take on more responsibility and carry out assign­ ments under only general supervision. Some eventually become supervisors.  Employers seek well trained individuals with good laboratory skills for science technician positions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for a job as a science technician. Most employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of spe­ cialized training. Many junior and community colleges offer associ­ ate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. A number of 2-year associate degree pro­ grams are designed to provide easy transfer to a 4-year college or university if desired. Technical institutes generally offer technician training but provide less theory and general education than junior or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 2-year associate degree programs are common. Some of these schools offer cooperative-education programs, al­ lowing students the opportunity to work at a local company while attending classes in alternate terms. Many science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in science or mathematics, or have had science and math courses in 4-year colleges. Some people with bachelor’s degrees in a physical or life science become science technicians be­ cause they can’t find or don’t want a job as a scientist or because em­ ployers couldn't find properly trained technicians with less educa­ tion. In some cases, they may be able to move into jobs as scientists, managers, or technical sales workers. Some companies offer formal or on-the-job training for science technicians. Technicians also may qualify for their jobs with some types of Armed Forces training. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate’s or bachelor’s program, should be laboratory oriented, with an emphasis on “bench” skills. Because computers and computer-interfaced equip­ ment are often used in research and development laboratories, tech­ nicians should have strong computer skills. Communication skills   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Con­ tinued growth of scientific research and development and the pro­ duction of technical products should spur demand for all science technicians. Advances in biotechnology will increase the need for bi­ ological technicians in particular. However, growth of job openings will be moderated somewhat by an expected slowdown in overall employment growth in the chemical industry, where many chemical technicians are employed. Nevertheless, job opportunities are expected to be very good for graduates of science technician training programs who are welltrained on the equipment currently in use in industrial and govern­ ment laboratories. As the instrumentation and techniques used in industrial research and development laboratories becomes more complex, employers are seeking well trained individuals with highly developed technical and communication skills. Despite the projected growth, most job openings will arise from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings Median annual earnings of science technicians were about $25,300 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $18,700 and $33,400. Ten percent earned less than $14,400, and 10 percent earned over $42,400. At all income levels, chemical technicians earned signifi­ cantly more than biological technicians. In the Federal Government in 1993, science technicians could start at $14,600, $16,390, or $18,340, depending on their education and experience. The average annual salary for biological science technicians in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi­ tions employed by the Federal Government in 1993 was $24,828; for mathematical technicians, $29,239; for physical science technicians, $31,484; for geodetic technicians, $37,282; for hydrologic techni­ cians, $28,635; and for meteorologic technicians, $36,408. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually taught in 2-year associate degree programs include engineering technicians, broadcast technicians, drafters, and health technolo­ gists and technicians. Some of the work of agricultural and biologi­ cal technicians is related to that in agriculture and forestry occupa­ tions. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: fW American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers (D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482- 010- 249.467- and 294.567)  Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to facilitate the sale of their merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, re­ ceive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Bank tellers, who perform similar duties but work in financial insti­ tutions, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers are usu­ ally assigned to a register and given a drawer at the beginning of their shifts. The drawer contains a “bank” of money. Cashiers must count their bank to insure that it contains the correct amount of money and that there is an adequate supply of change. At the end of their shift, they once again count the drawers’ contents and compare the totals with sales data. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked, but repeated shortages are grounds for dismissal in many establishments. Cashiers traditionally have rung up customers’ purchases using a cash register—manually entering the price of each product the con­ sumer was buying. However, most establishments are now using more sophisticated equipment, such as scanners and computers. In stores with scanners, the cashier passes the product’s Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, cashiers manually enter a code into a computer, and a description of the item and its price appear on the screen. After entering all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the bill and take payment. De­ pending on the type of establishment, payment may be by cash, check, charge, or increasingly, debit cards. Cashiers must know the store’s policies and procedures for accepting each type of payment. For checks and charges, they may have to request additional identi­ fication from the customer or call in for an authorization. When the sale is complete, cashiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. In addition to counting the contents of their drawer at the end of their shift, cashiers usually separate charge forms, return slips, cou­ pons, and any other non cash items. Cashiers may also handle re­ turns and exchanges. They must insure that the merchandise is in good condition and determine where and when it was purchased and the type of payment used. Cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, they weigh produce and bulk food as well as return un­ wanted items to the shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders. Operating ticket-dis­ pensing machines and answering questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. Counter and rental clerks, who perform many similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions More than one-half of all cashiers are on part-time schedules. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Gener­ ally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate customers’ needs. However, because of this, many  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  MHm>£ Many cashiers use scanning equipment. employers offer flexible schedules. For example, full-time workers who work on weekends may receive time off during the week. Be­ cause the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or behind counters. In addition, they are often unable to leave their worksta­ tions without supervisory approval since they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious but improvements in machine design are being made to combat problems caused by repetitive motion. Dealing with angry customers can be very taxing but for those who like daily interaction with people, the job can be rewarding. Employment Cashiers held about 2,747,000 jobs in 1992. Although employed in nearly every industry, more than one-third of all jobs were in super­ markets and other food stores. Department stores, gasoline service stations, drug stores, and other retail establishments also employed large numbers of these workers. Because cashiers are needed in busi­ nesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. Although there are no specific educa­ tional requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer ap­ plicants with a high school diploma. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small firms, begin­ ners are often trained by an experienced worker. The first day is usu­ ally spent observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of a more experienced worker. In larger firms, before being placed at a cash register, trainees first spend several days in classes. Topics typically covered include a description of the industry and the company, in­ struction on the store’s policies, procedures, and equipment opera­ tion, and security. Training for experienced workers is not common except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, training is given on the job by the employer or a representative of the equipment manufacturer. 235  236  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repeti­ tious work accurately. They also need basic arithmetic skills, good manual dexterity and, because they deal constantly with the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and be able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some firms seek persons who have operated specialized equipment or who have business ex­ perience, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash office clerk. In addition, the job offers a good opportunity to learn an employer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Job Outlook Employment of cashiers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to expanding demand for goods and services by a growing population. Although growth will account for numerous openings, most jobs will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will create a significant number of job openings, for the occu­ pation is large and turnover is much higher than average. Opportu­ nities for part-time work are expected to continue to be excellent. Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the openings in this occupation. This age group shrank in numbers dur­ ing the decade of the 1980’s and although it will rebound during the 1990’s, it will not attain its 1992 share of the workforce until about 2005. To attract and retain workers, employers may offer higher wages, additional benefits, and flexible schedules. Recruitment ef­ forts also may be directed toward non- traditional groups such as re­ tired or disabled persons. Earnings Cashiers have earnings ranging from the minimum wage to several times that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. In establishments covered by Fed­ eral law, those beginning at the minimum wage earned $4.25 an hour in 1993. In some States, the minimum wage in many establish­ ments is governed by State law, and where State minimums are higher, the establishment must pay at least that amount. In 1992, median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were about $219. The middle 50 percent earned between $185 and $295; 10 per­ cent earned below $153; and 10 percent earned above $414. Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than for those working part time. Cashiers often receive health and life insurance and paid vacations. In addition, those working in retail establish­ ments often receive discounts on purchases and those in restaurants may receive free or low- cost meals.  Counter and Rental Clerks (D O.T. 216.482-030; 249.362-010, .366-010; 295.357-010, -014 and -018, .367-010, -014, and -026, .467-010, -014, and -018, .477-010; 299.367-018; 369.367-010 and -014, .477-014, and .677-010)  Nature of the Work Whether renting power tools, dropping off clothes to be drycleaned, or getting appliances serviced, we rely on counter and rental clerks to handle these transactions efficiently. Although spe­ cific duties vary by establishment, counter and rental clerks are re­ sponsible for answering questions involving product availability, cost, and rental provisions. They may give other types of advice as well. Counter and rental clerks also take orders, calculate fees, re­ ceive payments, and accept returns. (Cashiers and retail sales work­ ers, occupations with similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company’s services, policies, and proce­ dures. For example, in the car rental industry, they inform custom­ ers about the features of the different types of automobiles available and their daily and weekly rental costs, ensure that customers meet age or other requirements, and indicate when and in what condition the car must be returned. In dry-cleaning establishments, counter clerks inform customers when items will be ready. In other estab­ lishments, counter and rental clerks use their special knowledge to give advice on a wide variety of products and services ranging from hydraulic tools to shoe repair. When taking orders counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms. However, computers and bar code scanners are quickly be­ coming the norm. Most computer systems are user friendly and usu­ ally require very little data entry. Scanners “read” the product code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. Clerks must insure, however, that the data on the screen matches the actual product. Working Conditions Because firms employing counter and rental clerks generally oper­ ate at the convenience of their customers, these workers often work night and weekend hours. However, because of this many employers offer flexible schedules. Many counter and rental clerk's work a 40hour week but nearly one-half are on part-time schedules—usually during rush periods such as weekends, evenings, and holidays.  Related Occupations Cashiers receive payment for the purchase of goods and services. Other workers with similar duties include food counter clerks, bank tellers, counter and rental clerks, postal service clerks, and sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities as a cashier, con­ tact:  O'National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2792. X3" Service Station Dealers of America, 801 N. Fairfax St., Suite 109, Alex­ andria, VA 22314. O” United Food and Commercial Workers Union, 1775 K St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20006-1502.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Four of every 10 counter and rental clerks work part time.  Marketing and Sales Occupations Working conditions are usually pleasant; most stores and service establishments are clean, well-lighted, and temperature controlled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be con­ fined behind a small counter area. This job requires constant inter­ action with the public and can be taxing—especially when things go wrong. Employment Counter and rental clerks held about 242,000 jobs in 1992. About 3 of every 10 clerks worked for a laundry or dry-cleaning establish­ ment. Other large employers included automobile or truck rental firms, equipment rental firms, and miscellaneous entertainment and recreation establishments. Four out of 10 counter and rental clerks work part time. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country but are concentrated in metropolitan areas where personal services and renting and leasing services are in greater demand. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counter and rental clerk jobs are primarily entry level and require little or no experience and little formal education. However, many employers prefer high school graduates for these positions. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job. Clerks usually learn how to operate the equipment and become familiar with the establishment’s policies and procedures under the observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employ­ ers have formal classroom training programs lasting from a few hours to a few weeks. Topics covered in this training usually include a description of the industry and the company, company policies and procedures, equipment operation, sales techniques, and cus­ tomer service. Counter and rental clerks must also become familiar with the different products and services rented or provided by their company in order to give customers the best possible service. Persons who want to become counter and rental clerks should en­ joy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with difficult customers. In addition, good oral and written communica­ tion skills are essential. Advancement opportunities depend on the size and type of com­ pany. However, jobs as counter and rental clerks offer good oppor­ tunities for workers to learn about their company’s products and business practices. These jobs can be steppingstones to more respon­ sible positions, because it is common in many establishments to pro­ mote counter and rental clerks into assistant manager positions. In certain industries, such as equipment repair, counter and rental jobs may be an additional or alternate source of income for workers who are unemployed or entering semi-retirement. For ex­ ample, a retired mechanic could prove invaluable at a tool rental center because of his or her relevant knowledge. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to antici­ pated employment growth in the industries where they are concen­ trated—laundries and dry cleaners, equipment rental and leasing, automotive rentals, and amusement and recreation services. Despite this growth, however, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Part-time employment opportunities are ex­ pected to be plentiful. Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $4.25 an hour in 1992. In areas where there is intense competition for workers, however, wages are often much higher. In addition to their wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  237  Retail counter clerks earned a median weekly income of $252 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $201 and $383 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $175; the top 10 percent earned more than $514. Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance and paid vacation and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part time tend to be significantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer discounts to both full- and part-time employees on the services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for ser­ vices rendered. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers, retail sales workers, food counter clerks, postal service clerks, and bank tellers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about opportunities as counter and rental clerks contact: Association of Progressive Rental Organizations, 6300 Brideenoint Pkv Austin, TX 78730.  Insurance Agents and Brokers (D.O.T. 239.267 and 250.257-010)  Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance agent or broker. These professionals sell indi­ viduals and businesses insurance policies that provide protection against loss. Insurance agents and brokers help individuals, families, and businesses select the right policy that best provides insurance protection for their lives and health, as well as for their automobiles, jewelry, personal valuables, furniture, household items, businesses, and other properties. Agents and brokers prepare reports, maintain records, and, in the event of a loss, help policyholders settle insur­ ance claims. Specialists in group policies may help an employer pro­ vide employees the opportunity to buy insurance through payroll deductions. Insurance agents may work for one insurance company or as “independent agents” selling for several companies. Insurance brokers do not sell for a particular company, but place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Insurance agents sell one or more of several types of insurance: Life, property/casualty, health, disability, and long-term care. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay survivors when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circum­ stances, a whole-life policy also can be designed to provide retire­ ment income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Life insurance agents and brokers also are sometimes called life un­ derwriters. (See the statement on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Property/casualty insurance agents and brokers sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss as a result of automobile accidents, fire or theft, or other property losses. Prop­ erty/casualty insurance can also cover workers’ compensation, product liability, or medical malpractice. Many life and property/ casualty insurance agents also sell health insurance policies covering the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury. An increasing number of insurance agents and brokers offer com­ prehensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retire­ ment planning counseling. As a result, many insurance agents and brokers are also licensed to sell mutual funds, annuities, and other  238  Occupational Outlook Handbook  securities. (See the section on securities and financial services sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Since insurance sales agents obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure their financial needs are being met as personal and business needs change. Developing a satisfied clientele who will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field. Working Conditions Most insurance agents and brokers work in small offices, contacting clients and providing insurance policy information. However, most of their time is spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients and close sales. They generally arrange their own hours of work, and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Many work more than 40 hours a week. Employment Insurance agents and brokers held about 415,000 jobs in 1992. About one-third of all agents and brokers are self- employed. While most insurance agents specialize in life insurance, a growing number of “multiline agents” offer life, property/casualty, and health and disability policies. The following tabulation shows the percent dis­ tribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. Total....................................................................................................  If®  Insurance agents, brokers and service................................................... Life insurance carriers ........................................................................... Fire, marine, and casualty insurance carriers........................................ Medical service plans and health insurance carriers............................. Pension funds and miscellaneous insurance carriers ............................ Other industries......................................................................................  41 37 14 4 1 3  Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Some insurance agents and brokers are employed in the headquar­ ters of insurance companies, but most work out of local company of­ fices or independent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For jobs selling insurance, companies prefer college graduates— particularly those who have majored in business or economics. Some hire high school graduates with potential or proven sales abil­ ity or who have been successful in other types of work. In fact, most entrants to agent and broker jobs transfer from other occupations,  It is important that insurance agents and brokers maintain regular contact with their clients.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  so they tend to be older, on average, than entrants to many other oc­ cupations. College training may help agents or brokers grasp more quickly the technical aspects of insurance policies and the fundamentals and procedures of selling insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, ec­ onomics, business law, government, and business administration en­ able insurance agents or brokers to understand how social, market­ ing, and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. It is important for insurance agents and brokers to keep current with is­ sues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefit programs, and other State and Federal regulations can affect the in­ surance needs of clients and how agents conduct business. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, some basic familiarity with computers is very important. The use of computers to provide in­ stantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products has greatly improved agents’ and brokers’ efficiency and enabled them to devote more time to clients. All insurance agents and brokers must obtain a license in the States where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified courses and then pass written examinations covering insurance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Agents and brokers who plan to sell mutual funds and other securities must also obtain a separate securities li­ cense. New agents usually receive training at the agencies where they work and, frequently, also at the insurance company’s home of­ fice. Beginners sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to pre­ pare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experienced agents when they call on prospective clients. As the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents and brokers increases, employers are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education. Agents and brokers can hone their practical selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insur­ ance and other financial services and planning by taking courses at colleges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. A number of organizations offer professional designation pro­ grams which certify expertise in specialties such as life, health, or property and casualty insurance or financial consulting. Although voluntary, professional designation assures clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant spe­ cialty. Many professional societies now require agents to commit to continuing education in order to retain designation. Nearly every state has or soon will make continuing education mandatory. Insurance agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, outgoing, self-confident, disciplined, hard working, and able to communicate effectively. They should be able to inspire customer confidence. Some companies give personality tests to prospective employees be­ cause personality attributes are important in sales work. Because they usually work without supervision, agents and brokers must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new cli­ ents. An insurance agent who shows sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, par­ ticularly in the property/casualty field, establish their own indepen­ dent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings are expected to result from the need to re­ place agents and brokers who leave the occupation. Many beginners find it difficult to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly competitive business; consequently, many eventually leave for other  Marketing and Sales Occupations jobs. Opportunities should be best for ambitious people who enjoy sales work and who develop expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Future demand for agents and brokers depends on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. The growing num­ ber of working women should increase insurance sales. Rising in­ comes as well as a concern for financial security also may stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable annuities, and other financial prod­ ucts and services. Growing demand for long-term health care and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the popu­ lation—should spur insurance sales. Sales of property/casualty in­ surance should rise as more people seek coverage not only for their homes, cars, and valuables, but also for expensive, advanced tech­ nology products such as home computers. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand coverage, sales of commercial in­ surance should increase. In addition, complex types of commercial coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, em­ ployee benefits, and pollution liability insurance are increasingly in demand. Employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales. Using computers, agents can access an abundance of information on potential clients, allowing them to save time and money by carefully crafting individually tailored plans. Consequently, agents will be able to handle a greater volume of sales. Many companies and agencies are diversifying their mar­ keting techniques to include some direct mail or telephone sales, as well as other methods. These methods reduce the time agents must spend developing sales leads, allowing them to concentrate on fol­ lowing up on leads. In some cases, clients can purchase policies without a visit from an agent. Also, customer service representatives are increasingly assuming some sales functions, such as expanding accounts, and, occasionally, generating new accounts. The trend to­ ward multiline agents, self-insurance, and group policies also will cause employment to rise more slowly than the volume of insurance sales. In addition, large firms may increasingly hire risk managers to analyze their insurance needs and select the best policies. Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings The median annual earnings of salaried insurance sales workers was $30,100 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,900 and $42,200 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned $15,400 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $64,600. Most independent agents are paid on a commission only basis, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency may be paid in one of three ways: Salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. Commissions, however, are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses are usually awarded when agents meet their production goals or when an agency’s profit goals are met. Some agents involved with financial planning receive an hourly fee for their services rather than a commission. Agency-paid benefits to sales agent employees generally include continuing education, group insurance plans, and office space and support services. Many agencies also pay for automobile and trans­ portation expenses, conventions and meetings, promotion and mar­ keting expenses, and retirement plans. Independent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for promotion and marketing ex­ penses. They are typically responsible for their own travel and auto­ mobile expenses, life insurance and retirement plans, and receive no paid holidays or vacations. In addition, all agents are legally respon­ sible for any mistakes that they make, and independent agents must purchase their own insurance to cover damages from their errors and omissions.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  239  Related Occupations Other workers who sell financial products or services include real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales rep­ resentatives, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and man­ ufacturers’ sales workers. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insurance agents and bro­ kers is available from the home office of many life and casualty in­ surance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capi­ tal. Information about a career as a life insurance agent also is availa­ ble from: (S’ National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW„ Washington DC 20006.  For information about insurance sales careers in independent agencies and brokerages, contact: iw National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washing­ ton St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information about professional designation programs, con­ tact:  (3- American Society of CLU and ChFC, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr PA 19010-2195. IS- Society of Certified Insurance Counselors, 3630 North Hills Dr., Austin TX 78731, or call 1-800-633-2165. (3- Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, Kahler Hall, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3009, Malvern, PA 19355-0709.  Manufacturers’ and Wholesale Sales Representatives (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Computers, compact discs, and articles of clothing are among the thousands of products bought and sold each day. Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives are an important part of this process. They market their company’s products to manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, government agencies, and other institutions. Regardless of the type of product they sell, the primary duties of these sales representatives are to interest wholesale and re­ tail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise and ensure that any questions or concerns of current clients are addressed. Sales reps also provide advice to clients on how to increase sales. (Retail sales workers, who sell directly to consumers, are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.) Depending on where they work, these sales representatives have different job titles. Many of those representing manufacturers are referred to as manufacturers’ representatives and those employed by wholesalers generally are called sales representatives. Those selling technical products, for both manufacturers and wholesalers, are usually called industrial sales workers or sales engineers. In addition to those employed directly by firms, manufacturers' agents are selfemployed sales workers who contract their services to all types of companies. Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers and current clients. During a sales call, they discuss the customers’ needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company stocks and inform customers about prices, availability, and how their products can save money and improve productivity. In addition, because of the vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers selling similar products, they try to emphasize the  240  Occupational Outlook Handbook  unique qualities of the products and services offered by their com­ pany. They also take orders and resolve any problems or complaints with the merchandise. These sales representatives have additional duties as well. For ex­ ample, sales engineers, who are among the most highly trained sales workers, typically sell products whose installation and optimal use require a great deal of technical expertise and support—products such as material handling equipment, numerical-control machinery, and computer systems. In addition to providing information on their firm’s products, these workers help prospective and current buyers with technical problems. For example, they may recommend improved materials and machinery for a firm’s manufacturing pro­ cess, draw up plans of proposed machinery layouts, and estimate cost savings from the use of their equipment. They present this in­ formation and negotiate the sale, a process that may take several months. Afterwards sales engineers will keep close contact with the client to assure the client renews the contract. Sales engineers may work with engineers in their own companies, adapting products to a customer’s special needs. Increasingly, sales representatives who lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. For example, a sales repre­ sentative will make the preliminary contact with customers, intro­ duce his or her company’s product, and close the sale. However, the technically trained person will attend the sales presentation to ex­ plain and answer technical questions and concerns. In this way, the sales representative is able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. Af­ ter the sale, sales representatives may make frequent followup visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equip­ ment. They may be equipped with a portable computer so they can have instant access to technical, sales, and other information while they are with a customer. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where their merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs and advertising. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job. Sales rep­ resentatives follow leads suggested by other clients, from advertise­ ments in trade journals, and from participation in trade shows and conferences. At times, they make unannounced visits to potential clients. In addition, they may spend a lot of time meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during evenings and weekends. Sales representatives also analyze sales statistics, prepare reports, and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense ac­ count reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They study literature about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. In addition to all these duties, manufacturers’ agents must man­ age their businesses. This requires organizational skills as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Working Conditions Some manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives have large territories and do considerable traveling. Because a sales region may cover several States, they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and do most of their traveling by automobile. Due to the nature of the work and the amount of travel, sales representatives typically work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales repre­ sentatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. As a result, they may be able to arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but de­ manding. In addition, sales representatives often face competition from representatives of other companies as well as from fellow workers. Companies may set goals or quotas that the representatives  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Obtaining new accounts is a large part of the manufacturer's salesworker’s job. are expected to meet. Because their earnings depend upon commis­ sions, manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele. Employment Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 1,613,000 jobs in 1992. Seven of every 10 worked in wholesale trade—mostly for distributors of machinery and equipment, grocer­ ies and related products, and motor vehicles and parts. Others were employed in manufacturing and mining. Due to the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportunities are available in every part of the country. In addition to those working directly for a firm, many sales repre­ sentatives are self-employed manufacturers’ agents who worked for a straight commission based on the value of their sales. However, these workers generally gained experience and recognition with a manufacturer or wholesaler prior to going into business for them­ selves. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. As the number of college graduates has increased and the job requirements have become more technical and analytical, most firms have placed a greater emphasis on a strong educational back­ ground. Nevertheless, many employers still hire individuals with previous sales experience who do not have a college degree. In fact, for some consumer products, sales ability, personality, and familiar­ ity with brands are more important than a degree. On the other hand, firms selling industrial products often require a degree in sci­ ence or engineering in addition to some sales experience. In general, companies are looking for the best and brightest individuals who display the personality and desire necessary to sell. Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives that last up to 2 years. However, most busi­ nesses are accelerating these programs to reduce costs and expedite the return from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installa­ tion, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager. In some firms, new workers are trained by accompanying more experienced workers on their sales calls. As these workers gain fa­ miliarity with the firm’s products and clients, they are given increas­ ing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own terri­ tory. As businesses experience greater competition, increased pressure is placed upon sales representatives to produce faster.  Marketing and Sales Occupations These workers must stay abreast of new merchandise and the changing needs of their customers. They may attend trade shows where new products are displayed or conferences and conventions where they meet with other sales representatives and clients to dis­ cuss new product developments. In addition, many companies spon­ sor meetings of their entire sales force where presentations are made on sales performance, product development, and profitability. Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work both as a team member and independently. A pleasant personality and appearance, the abil­ ity to get along well with people, and problem-solving skills are im­ portant as well. In addition, patience and perseverance are needed because completing a sale can take several months. Because these workers may be on their feet for long periods and may have to carry heavy sample cases, some physical stamina is necessary. Sales repre­ sentatives should also enjoy traveling because much of their time is spent visiting current and prospective clients. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Ex­ perienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales train­ ers—workers who train new employees on selling techniques and company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor or district manager. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some go into business for themselves as manufacturers’ agents. Others find opportunities in buying, purchasing, advertising, or marketing re­ search. Job Outlook Employment of manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to technological advances and changing business practices. Despite some growth in demand for sales repre­ sentatives, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The use of electronic data interchange (EDI) is used by a growing number of organizations. EDI enables computers to communicate with each other, making ordering and reordering goods from suppli­ ers quicker and easier than ever before. EDI has the potential to sub­ stantially reduce the need for sales representatives when paired with other advances such as point of sale inventory systems, which read the bar codes on merchandise and adjust inventory according to sales volume or expert system software, which can predict sales trends. In addition to the technological innovations that may affect em­ ployment demand, some of the largest companies are using their market power to negotiate directly with suppliers, bypassing sales representatives entirely. At present, the majority of firms find it impractical to spend the amount of money required to operate such a complex system and many do not possess the negotiating power necessary to bypass the sales representative. In addition, smaller retailers who rely on their reputation for selling specialty and fashionable items or establish­ ments that routinely change the lines they carry may not want to deal with an automated system that reduces their flexibility and di­ versity. For example, the use of automated reordering might be practical for a large grocery store that consistently stocks the same merchandise. However, this technology would be unsuitable for a small high fashion clothing retailer that changes inventory depend­ ing on the season and the latest trend. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that di­ rect selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best for products with strong demand, such as consumer products or com­ puters and related supplies and equipment. Furthermore, jobs will be most plentiful in small wholesale firms because a growing num­ ber of these companies will rely on wholesalers and manufacturers’  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  241  agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Opportunities for manufacturers’ agents may be affected more adversely than other sales representatives by the changes in business practices, and, as a result, most independent sales representatives will work for smaller firms. These representatives will benefit from the increased consumption of imported goods because it is often more cost efficient for importers to delegate their sales responsibili­ ties than to hire a sales force. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and product sold. However, most employers use a combination of salary and commission or salary plus bonus. Commissions are usually based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on indi­ vidual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of full-time manufacturers’ and whole­ sale sales representatives were about $32,000 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,300 and $46,500 per year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $16,400; the top 10 percent earned more than $62,000 per year. Earnings vary by experience and the type of goods or services sold. In addition to their earnings, sales representatives are usually re­ imbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, a pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and “frequent flyer” mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents work strictly on commission. Depending on the type of product they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of clients, their earnings can be significantly higher or lower than those working in direct sales. In addition, because manu­ facturers’ agents are self-employed, they must pay their own travel and entertainment expenses as well as provide for their own benefits, which can be a significant cost. Related Occupations Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills are retail, services, real estate, insurance, and securities sales workers, as well as wholesale and retail buyers. Sources of Additional Information Information on manufacturers’ agents is available from: ©=■ Sales and Marketing Management International, Statier Office Tower, Cleveland OH, 44115.  Real Estate Agents, Brokers, and Appraisers (D.O.T. 191.267-010 and 250.157-010, .357-010, -014, and -018)  Nature of the Work The purchase or sale of a home, or an investment property, is not only one of the most important financial events in peoples’ lives, but one of the most complex transactions as well. As a result, people  242  Occupational Outlook Handbook  generally seek the help of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers when buying or selling real estate. Real estate agents and brokers have a thorough knowledge of the housing market in their community. They know which neighbor­ hoods will best fit their clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws, and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as a medium for price negotiations be­ tween buyer and seller. Brokers are independent business people who, for a fee, sell real estate owned by others and rent and manage properties. In closing sales, brokers often provide buyers with information on loans to fi­ nance their purchase. They also arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers when details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker’s knowledge, resourcefulness, and creativity in arranging financing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean the differ­ ence between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales, but, in many ar­ eas, this is done by lawyers or lenders. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed broker on a contract basis. In re­ turn, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from property sold through the firm by the agent. Today, relatively few agents receive salaries as employees of a broker or realty firm. Instead, most derive their income solely from commissions. Before showing properties to potential buyers, the broker or agent has an initial meeting with them to get a feeling for the type of home they would like and can afford. Then, they take them to see a num­ ber of homes that are likely to meet their needs and income. Because buying real estate is such an important part of the average person’s life, agents may have to meet several times with a prospective buyer to discuss properties. In answering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are likely to be most important to the buyer. To a young family looking at a house, for example, they may point out the convenient floor plan and the fact that quality schools and shopping centers are close by. To a potential investor seeking the tax advantages of owning a rental property, they may point out the proximity to the city and the ease of finding a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must carefully follow the sell­ er’s instructions and may have to present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price. Once the contract has been signed by both parties, the real estate broker or agent must see to it that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. For example, if the seller has agreed to a home inspection or a termite and radon inspection, the agent must make sure that this is done. Also, if the seller has agreed to any repairs, the broker or agent must see to it that they have been made, otherwise the sale cannot be completed. Increasingly, brokers and agents must handle environmental problems or make sure the prop­ erty they are selling meets environmental regulations. For example, they may be responsible for dealing with problems such as lead paint on the walls. While many other details are handled by loan officers, attorneys, or other persons, the agent must check to make sure that they are completed. There is more to agents’ and brokers’ jobs, however, than just making a sale. Because they must have properties to sell, they spend a significant amount of time obtaining “listings” (owner agreements to place properties for sale with the firm). They spend much time on the telephone exploring leads gathered from various sources, includ­ ing personal contacts. When listing property for sale, agents and brokers make comparisons with similar properties that have been sold recently to determine its fair market value.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few, usually in large firms or specialized small firms, sell commer­ cial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each spe­ cialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and cli­ entele. Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, religious in­ stitutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be fa­ miliar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Agents and brokers in­ creasingly use computers to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and to identify available sources of financ­ ing. Real estate transactions involve substantial financial commit­ ments, so parties to the transactions usually seek the advice of real estate appraisers, objective experts who do not have a vested interest in the property. An appraisal is an unbiased estimate of the quality, value, and best use of a specific property. Appraisals may be used by prospective sellers to set a competitive price, by a lending institution to estimate the market value of a property as a condition for a mort­ gage loan, or by local governments to determine the assessed value of a property for tax purposes. Many real estate appraisers are inde­ pendent fee appraisers or work for real estate appraisal firms while others are employees of banks, savings and loan associations, mort­ gage companies, and multiservice real estate companies. During an inspection, real estate appraisers evaluate the quality of the construction, the overall condition of the property, and its functional design. They gather information on properties by taking measurements, interviewing persons familiar with the properties’ history, and searching public records of sales, leases, assessments, and other transactions. They then estimate the present cost of repro­ ducing any structures on the properties and how much the value of structures may have depreciated over time. Taking into considera­ tion the location of the properties, current market conditions, and real estate trends or impending changes that could influence the fu­ ture value of the properties, appraisers arrive at estimates of their value. Depending on the purpose of the appraisal, they may estimate the market value of the property, the insurable value, the investment value, or other kinds of value. Appraisers must prepare formal writ­ ten reports of their findings that meet the standards of the Appraisal Foundation. Real estate appraisers often specialize in certain types of proper­ ties. Most appraise only homes, but others specialize in appraising apartment or office buildings, shopping centers, or a variety of other types of commercial, industrial, or agricultural properties.  Most real estate agents sell residential property.  Marketing and Sales Occupations Working Conditions Although real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers generally work in offices, much of their time is spent outside the office—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, researching the state of the market, inspecting properties for appraisal, and performing a wide range of other du­ ties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own automobiles. Agents, brokers, and appraisers often work more than a standard 40-hour week; 4 of every 10 worked 50 hours or more a week in 1992. They often work evenings and weekends to suit the conve­ nience of their clients. Employment Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers held about 397,000 jobs in 1992. Many worked part time, combining their real estate activi­ ties with other careers. Most were self-employed, working on a com­ mission basis. Most real estate and appraisal firms are relatively small; indeed, some are a one-person business. Some large real estate firms have several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch of­ fices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or re­ gional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training salespeople and in running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold and appraised in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly grow­ ing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete at least 30 hours of class­ room instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of ex­ perience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for appli­ cants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. A small but in­ creasing number of States require that agents have 60 hours of col­ lege credit—roughly the equivalent of an associate degree. State licenses generally must be renewed every year or two, usually with­ out reexamination. Many States, however, require continuing edu­ cation for license renewal. Federal law requires appraisers of most types of real estate (all property being financed by a Federally regulated lender) to be State certified. In some States, appraisers who are not involved with Fed­ erally regulated institutions do not have to be certified. State certifi­ cation requirements for appraisers must meet Federal standards, but States are free to set more stringent requirements. Formal courses, appraisal experience, and a satisfactory score on an exami­ nation are needed to be certified, but college education may be sub­ stituted for a portion of the experience requirement. Requirements for licensure vary by State but are somewhat less stringent than for certification. Individuals enter real estate appraisal from a variety of back­ grounds. Traditionally, persons enter from real estate sales, man­ agement, and finance positions. However, a growing number of peo­ ple are entering appraiser jobs directly from college. College courses in real estate, finance and business administration, economics, and English are helpful. Many junior and community colleges offer 2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  243  year degrees in real estate or appraisal. Trainee appraisers usually assist experienced appraisers until they become licensed. Persons who take real estate agent, broker, and appraiser posi­ tions are older, on average, than entrants to most other occupations. Many homemakers and retired persons are attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part- time work schedules characteristic of this field and may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, de­ pending on the strength of the real estate market, family responsibil­ ities, or other personal circumstances. In addition to those who are entering or reentering the labor force, some transfer into real estate jobs from a wide range of occupations, including clerical and other sales jobs. As real estate transactions have become more complex, involving complicated legal requirements, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents, brokers, and appraisers have some college training, and the number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substantially in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic back­ ground. Brokers look for applicants who possess a pleasant person­ ality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusi­ asm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should be well organized and detail oriented as well as have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning regu­ lations, and local land-use laws. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often ap­ ply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neigh­ borhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties or identify sources of financing, under the direc­ tion of an experienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. Over 1,000 universities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Ad­ vanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property develop­ ment and management, and other subjects also are available through various National Association of Realtor affiliates. Many real estate appraisers voluntarily earn professional designa­ tions that represent formal recognition of their professional compe­ tence and achievements. A number of appraiser organizations have programs that, through a combination of experience, professional education, and examinations, lead to the award of such designa­ tions. These professional designations are desirable because require­ ments for them are more stringent than State standards. Among the more common are various designations awarded by the Appraisal Institute and the American Society of Appraisers. Advancement opportunities for agents often take the form of higher commission rates and more and bigger sales, both of which increase compensation. This occurs as agents gain knowledge and expertise and become more efficient in closing a greater number of transactions. Experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate ap­ praisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property or real estate managers. (For de­ tailed information on property and real estate managers, see the statement elsewhere in the Handbook). Agents, brokers, and ap­ praisers who gain general experience in real estate and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their locali­ ties may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counsel­ ing.  244  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as a result of the growing volume of sales of residential and commercial properties. Despite this rising demand, however, the large majority of job openings will be due to replace­ ment needs. Each year, tens of thousands ofjobs will become availa­ ble as workers tranfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because turnover is high, real estate sales positions should continue to be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field; many beginners become discouraged by their inability to get listings and to close a sufficient number of sales. Lacking financial sustenance and motivation, they subsequently leave the occupation. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy sell­ ing should have the best chance for success. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from in­ creased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade or so will re­ sult in a large number of persons in the prime working ages (25-54 years old) with careers and family responsibilities. This is the most geographically mobile group in our society and the one that tradi­ tionally makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, they also may be expected to invest in additional real estate. Increasing use of technology and electronic information may in­ crease the productivity of realtors and brokers. More and more real estate companies are equipped with computers, faxes, modems, and databases. Some real estate companies are even using computer gen­ erated images to show houses to customers without even leaving the office. These devices enable one realtor to serve a greater number of customers. Use of this technology may eliminate some of the more marginal realtors such as those practicing real estate part time or be­ tween jobs. These workers will not be able to compete as easily with full-time realtors who have invested in this technology. Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is sen­ sitive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining eco­ nomic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may decline. During these periods, the earnings of agents, brokers, and appraisers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers—few receive a salary. The rate of commission varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker and the agent in the firm that obtained the listing gener­ ally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and the agent in the firm that made the sale also generally share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. The agent who both lists and sells the property maximizes his or her commission. Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $507 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $323 and $802. The top 10 percent earned more than $1,247 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $223. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but indi­ vidual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in com­ munity organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employ­ ees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on for about 6 months or until commissions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include automotive sales workers, se­ curities and financial services sales workers, insurance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and manufacturers’ represent­ atives. Other appraisers specialize in performing many types of ap­ praisals besides real estate, including aircraft, antiques and fine arts, business valuations, and yachts. Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers are available from most local real estate and appraiser or­ ganizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate work, contact:  nr National Association of Realtors, 777 14th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005.  Information on careers and licensing and certification require­ ments in real estate appraising is available from: Egp Appraisal Institute, 875 North Michigan Ave., Suite 2400, Chicago, IL 60611-1980. W American Society of Appraisers, P.O. Box 17265, Washington, DC 20041. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-ASA-VALU.)  Retail Sales Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Millions of dollars are spent each day on all types of merchandise— everything from sweaters and cosmetics to lumber and plumbing supplies. Sales workers are employed by many types of retailers to assist customers in the selection and purchase of these items. Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, a sales worker’s primary job is to interest customers in the merchan­ dise. This may be done by describing the product’s features, demon­ strating its use, or showing various models and colors. For some jobs, particularly those selling expensive and complex items, special knowledge or skills are needed. For example, workers who sell per­ sonal computers must be able to explain to customers the features of various brands and models, the meaning of manufacturers’ specifi­ cations, and the types of software that are available. In addition to selling, most retail sales workers make out sales checks; receive cash, check, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, they may have to open or close the cash register. This may include counting the money in the cash register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash office. Sales workers are often held responsible for the contents of their register, and repeated shortages are cause for dis­ missal in many organizations. (Cashiers, who have similar job du­ ties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sales workers also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise, perform gift wrapping services, and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of a purchase, mark price tags, take inventory, and pre­ pare displays. Sales workers must be aware of not only the promotions their store is sponsoring, but also those that are being sponsored by com­ petitors. Also, they often must recognize possible security risks and know how to handle such situations.  Marketing and Sales Occupations Consumers often form their impressions of a store by its sales force. The retail industry is very competitive and, increasingly, em­ ployers are stressing the importance of providing courteous and effi­ cient service. When a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, for example, the sales worker may check the stockroom and, if there are none there, place a special order or call another store to lo­ cate the item. To provide better customer service, some firms employ personal shoppers. Some personal shoppers assist consumers in purchasing a particular item. For example, personal shoppers employed in de­ partment stores can assist customers in updating their wardrobes. Others actually choose the item for the client based on information provided. Those personal shoppers who work in food stores may buy groceries and arrange for their delivery for people confined to their homes. Although most sales workers have many duties and responsibili­ ties, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, lin­ ens, and housewares, they often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. They often stand for long periods and may need su­ pervisory approval when they want to leave the sales floor. The Monday through Friday, 9 to 5 work week is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons can expect to work during some evening and weekend hours and longer than nor­ mal hours may be scheduled during Christmas and other peak peri­ ods. In addition, most retailers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January. This job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with peo­ ple. Patience is required, however, when the work is repetitious and the customers demanding. Employment Retail sales workers held about 4,086,000jobs in 1992. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing several workers to the giant department store with hundreds of salesper­ sons. In addition, some were self- employed representatives of direct sales companies and mail- order houses. The largest employers of re­ tail sales workers, however, are department stores, apparel and ac­ cessories stores, grocery stores, and car dealers. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others looking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling “big  pif*f  Or wean  Many retail sales workers need an extensive knowledge of the products they sell.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  245  ticket items, such as cars, furniture, and electronic equipment, work full time and have substantial experience. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employ­ ment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the pop­ ulation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of work. Employers look for persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effec­ tively. Before hiring, some employers may conduct a background check, especially for jobs in selling high-priced items. In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In larger stores, training programs are more formal and usually are conducted over several days. Topics usually discussed are customer service, security, the store’s policies and procedures, and how to work the cash register. Depending on the type of product they are selling, they may be given additional specialized training. For example, those working in cosmetics re­ ceive instruction on the types of products available and for whom they would be most beneficial. This training is often provided by a manufacturer’s representative. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility and are given their choice of de­ partments. This often means moving to areas with potentially higher earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential is usually found in selling big-ticket items. This work often requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for per­ suasion. Traditionally, capable sales workers without a college degree could advance to management positions, but today, large retail busi­ nesses generally prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. De­ spite this trend, capable employees without a college degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervisory work in large stores. Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some es­ tablishments, advancement opportunities are limited because one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. In others, however, some sales workers are promoted to assistant man­ agers. Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as finan­ cial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Job Outlook Employment of retail sales workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all workers through the year 2005 due to an­ ticipated growth in retail sales. In addition, numerous job openings will be created as sales workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will generate an exceptionally large number of sales jobs because the occupation is large and turnover is much higher than average. There will con­ tinue to be many opportunities for part-time workers, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. During recessions, sales volume and the resulting demand for sales workers generally decline. Purchases of costly items such as cars, appliances, and furniture tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. However, since turnover of sales workers is usu­ ally very high, employers often can control employment simply by not replacing all those who leave. In some geographic areas, employers face a shortage of qualified applicants. As a result, employers can be expected to improve efforts  246  Occupational Outlook Handbook  to attract and retain workers by offering higher wages, more gener­ ous benefits, and more flexible schedules. Earnings The starting wage for many part-time retail sales positions is the Federal minimum wage, $4.25 an hour. In some areas where em­ ployers are having difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages are much higher than the established minimum. The following tabu­ lation shows median weekly earnings by class of sales worker in sev­ eral industries. Motor vehicle and boats..................... Radio, television, hi-fi, and appliances Furniture and home furnishings........ Hardware and building supplies........ Parts................................................... Other commodities............................. Apparel...............................................  $479 415 354 323 319 269 255  Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer­ chandise sold. Some sales workers receive an hourly wage. Others receive a commission or a combination of wages and commissions. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales that they make. These systems offer sales workers the op­ portunity to increase significantly their earnings, but they may find their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the ups and downs in the economy. Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but in large establish­ ments they are usually comparable to those offered by other em­ ployers. In addition, nearly all sales workers are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 40 percent below regular prices. In some cases, this privilege is extended to the em­ ployee’s family as well. Related Occupations Sales workers use sales techniques coupled with their knowledge of merchandise to assist customers and encourage purchases. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, including manufacturers’ and wholesale trade sales workers, service sales rep­ resentatives, counter and rental clerks, real estate sales agents, wholesale and retail buyers, insurance sales workers, and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the per­ sonnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Commercial Workers In­ ternational Union. In addition, general information about retailing is available from: fWNational Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004-2608.  Securities and Financial Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 162.167-034 and -038; 250.257-014, -018, -022, and .357-026)  Nature of the Work Securities sales representatives. Most investors—whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions with millions—use securities sales representatives when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, certificates of deposit, or other financial products. Securities sales representatives often are called registered representatives, account executives, or brokers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales representa­ tives may relay the order through their firms’ offices to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities sales representatives known as brokers’ floor representa­ tives buy and sell securities. If a security is not traded on an ex­ change, the sales representative sends the order to the firm’s trading department, where a security trader trades it directly with a dealer in the over-the-counter market. After the transaction has been com­ pleted, the sales representative notifies the customer of the final price. Securities sales representatives also provide many related services for their customers. Depending on a customer’s knowledge of the market, they may explain the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices; offer financial counseling; devise an individual fi­ nancial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of de­ posit, annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individ­ uals may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to in­ vest in short-term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Securities sales representatives furnish information about the ad­ vantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person’s objectives. They also supply the latest price quotations on any secur­ ity in which the investor is interested, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing these se­ curities. Most securities sales representatives serve individual investors while others specialize in institutional investors. In institutional in­ vesting, most sales representatives concentrate on a specific finan­ cial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate secur­ ities issued to finance plant expansion. Financial planners develop and implement financial plans for in­ dividuals and businesses using their knowledge of tax and invest­ ment strategies, securities, insurance, pension plans, and real estate. They interview clients to determine their assets, liabilities, cash flow, insurance coverage, tax status, and financial objectives. Then they analyze all this information and develop a financial plan tai­ lored to the clients’ needs. The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities sales representatives spend much of their time searching for custom­ ers—relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They may meet some clients through business and social contacts. Many sales representa­ tives find it useful to get additional exposure by teaching adult edu­ cation investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales representatives lists of people with whom the firm has dealt in the past. Sometimes sales represent­ atives may inherit the clients of representatives who have retired. Financial services sales representatives. Financial services sales representatives contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain the customer’s banking and other financial needs. They may discuss services such as deposit accounts, lines of credit, sales or inventory financing, cash management, or investment ser­ vices. They may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card programs. At most small and medium-size banks, branch man­ agers and commercial loan officers are responsible for marketing the bank’s financial services. As banks offer more and increasingly com­ plex financial services—for example, securities brokerage and finan­ cial planning—the job of the financial services sales representative is assuming greater importance.  Marketing and Sales Occupations  *  .  ■ V.Z’fl  "  ■' •  Vi  A successful salesperson must be motivated and have good communication skills. Working Conditions Securities sales representatives usually work in offices where there is much activity. They have access to “quote boards” or computer ter­ minals that continually provide information on the prices of securi­ ties. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the economy, the pace may become very hectic. Established securities sales representatives usually work the same hours as others in the business community. Beginners who are seek­ ing customers may work much longer hours, however. Most securi­ ties sales representatives accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. Financial services sales representatives normally work in a com­ fortable, less stressful office environment. They generally work 40 hours a week. They may spend considerable time outside the office meeting with present and prospective clients, attending civic func­ tions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some finan­ cial services sales representatives work exclusively inside banks, providing service to “walk-in” customers. Employment Securities and financial services sales representatives held about 200,000 jobs in 1992. In addition, a substantial number of people in other occupations sold securities. These include partners and branch office managers in securities firms as well as insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers. Securities sales representatives are employed by brokerage and in­ vestment firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most sales representatives, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in New York) and approximately 25,000 branch offices in other areas. Financial services sales representatives are employed by banks, savings and loan associations, and other credit institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities sales representatives must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the over­ whelming majority of entrants to this occupation are college gradu­ ates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more im­ portant than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have sales ability and good communication skills, are well groomed, and have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  247  handle frequent rejections also are important ingredients for suc­ cess. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales experi­ ence, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Understandably, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as se­ curities sales representatives following retirement from other fields. Securities sales representatives must meet State licensing require­ ments, which generally include passing the examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales represent­ atives must register as representatives of their firm according to reg­ ulations of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before be­ ginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination, admin­ istered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months. Most States require a second examination—the Uni­ form Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities busi­ ness, customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping proce­ dures. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales representatives meet the requirements for registration. In most firms, the training period generally takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analy­ sis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses of­ fered by business schools, such as the New York Institute of Fi­ nance, or other institutions and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. Many firms like to rotate their trainees among various departments in the firm to give them a broader perspective of the securities business. In small firms, sales representatives generally receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Many trainees take correspondence courses in prepara­ tion for the securities examinations. Securities sales representatives must understand the basic charac­ teristics of a wide variety of financial products offered by brokerage firms. Representatives periodically take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial prod­ ucts as they are introduced on the market and to improve their sales techniques. Training in the use of computers is important, as the se­ curities sales business is highly automated. The principal form of advancement for securities sales representa­ tives is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they han­ dle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventually they may handle very large institutional ac­ counts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experienced sales representatives become branch office managers and supervise other sales representatives while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few representatives advance to top manage­ ment positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college gradu­ ates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration de­ gree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Financial services sales representatives learn through on-the-job training under the supervision of bank officers. Outstanding per­ formance can lead to promotion to managerial positions. Job Outlook Employment of securities and financial sales representatives is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as economic growth, rising personal incomes, and greater inherited wealth increase the funds available for investment. More individual investors are expected to purchase common stocks, mutual funds, and other financial products after seeking advice  248  Occupational Outlook Handbook  from securities sales representatives regarding the increasing array of investment alternatives. Deregulation has enabled brokerage firms to sell certificates of deposit, offer checking and deposit ser­ vices through cash management accounts, and sell insurance prod­ ucts such as annuities and life insurance. Growth in the number and size of institutional investors will be strong as more people enroll in pension plans, set up individual retirement accounts, establish trust funds, and contribute to the endowment funds of colleges and other nonprofit institutions. More representatives also will be needed to sell securities issued by new and expanding corporations and by State and local governments financing public improvements. Investors increasingly rely on the growing number of financial planners to assist them in selecting the proper options among a wide variety of financial alternatives. In addition, demand should in­ crease as banks and credit institutions expand the range of financial services they offer and issue more loans for personal and commer­ cial use. Due to the highly competitive nature of securities sales work, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a sufficient clientele. Once established, however, securities and finan­ cial services sales representatives have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of high earnings and the considerable in­ vestment in training. The demand for securities sales representatives fluctuates as the economy expands and contracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the number of persons seeking jobs usually exceeds the number of openings—sometimes by a great deal. Even during periods of rapid economic expansion, however, competition for securities sales train­ ing positions—particularly in larger firms—is keen because of po­ tentially high earnings. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals with suc­ cessful work experience. Opportunities for inexperienced sales rep­ resentatives should be best in smaller firms. Earnings In 1992, median annual earnings of securities and financial services sales representatives were $40,300; the middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $20,800 and $47,000. Ten percent earned less than $14,000 and 10 percent earned more than $70,000. On average, financial ser­ vices sales representatives earn considerably less than securities sales representatives. According to the Securities Industry Association, average annual earnings of beginning securities sales representatives were $28,000 in 1992. Earnings of full-time, experienced securities sales represent­ atives who served individual investors averaged about $78,000 a year, while the relatively small number of sales representatives who handled institutional accounts averaged about $156,000. Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and re­ gistration requirements. After registration, a few firms continue to pay a salary until the new representative’s commissions increase to a stated amount. The salaries paid during training usually range from $1,200 to $1,500 a month. After candidates are licensed and registered, their earnings de­ pend on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earn­ ings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling and lower when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales representatives with a steady income by paying a “draw against commission”—that is, a minimum salary based on the com­ missions which they can be expected to earn. Securities sales repre­ sentatives who can provide their clients with the most complete fi­ nancial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Financial services sales representatives usually are paid a salary; some receive a bonus if they meet certain established goals. Related Occupations Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowledge include insurance agents and real estate agents.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning a career as a securities sales represenative is available for $1 from: t>/- Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271.  Career information also may be obtained from the personnel de­ partments of individual securities firms. For information about job opportunities for financial services sales representatives in various States, contact State bankers’ as­ sociations or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific loca­ tion as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. O’ The American Bank Directory (Norcross, GA., McFadden Business Pub­ lications). (W Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). g= The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.).  Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 165.157; 236.252; 250.357-022; 251.157, .257, .357; 252.257, .357; 253; 254; 259 except .257-014; 269.357-018; 273.357-014; 279.357-042; and 293 except .357-018)  Nature of the Work Services sales representatives sell a wide variety of services. For ex­ ample, sales representatives for data processing services firms sell complex services such as inventory control, payroll processing, sales analysis, and financial reporting systems. Hotel sales representatives contact government, business, and social groups to solicit conven­ tion and conference business for the hotel. Fundraisers plan pro­ grams to raise money for charities or other nonprofit causes. Sales representatives for temporary help services firms locate and acquire clients who will hire the firm’s employees. Telephone services sales representatives visit commercial customers to review their tele­ phone systems, analyze their communications needs, and recom­ mend services such as installation of additional equipment. Other representatives sell automotive leasing, public utility, burial, ship­ ping, protective, and management consulting services. (Information on other sales workers, including insurance agents and brokers, real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales rep­ resentatives, manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives, and travel agents, appears in other Handbook statements.) Services sales representatives act as industry experts, consultants, and problem solvers when selling their firm’s services. The sales rep­ resentative, in some cases, creates demand for his or her firm’s ser­ vices. A prospective client who is asked to consider buying a partic­ ular service may never have used, or even been aware of a need for, that service. For example, wholesalers might be persuaded to order a list of credit ratings for checking their customers’ credit prior to making sales, and discover that the list could be used to solicit new business. There are several different categories of services sales jobs. Outside sales representatives call on clients and prospects at their homes or offices. They may have an appointment, or they may prac­ tice “cold calls,” arriving without an appointment. Inside sales rep­ resentatives work on their employer’s premises, assisting individuals interested in the company’s services. Telemarketing sales represent­ atives sell exclusively over the telephone. They make large numbers of calls to prospects, attempting to sell the company’s service them­ selves, or to arrange an appointment between the prospect and an outside sales representative. Some sales representatives deal exclu­ sively with one, or a few, major clients. Despite the diversity of services being sold, the jobs of all services sales representatives have much in common. All sales representa­ tives must fully understand and be able to discuss the services their company offers. Also, the procedures they follow are similar. Many  Marketing and Sales Occupations  249  sales representatives develop lists of prospective clients through tele­ phone and business directories, asking business associates and cus­ tomers for leads, and calling on new businesses as they cover their assigned territory. Some services sales representatives acquire cli­ ents through inquiries about their company’s services. Regardless of how they first meet the client, all services sales rep­ resentatives must explain how the services being offered can meet the client’s needs. This often involves demonstrations of their com­ pany’s services. They answer questions about the nature and cost of the services and try to overcome objections in order to persuade po­ tential customers to purchase the services. If they fail to make a sale on the first visit, they may follow up with more visits, letters, or phone calls. After closing a sale, services sales representatives gener­ ally follow up to see that the purchase meets the customer’s needs, and to determine if additional services can be sold. Because services sales representatives obtain many of their new accounts through referrals, their success hinges on developing a sat­ isfied clientele who will continue to use the services and will recom­ mend them to other potential customers. Like other types of sales jobs, a services sales representative’s reputation is crucial to his or her success. Services sales work varies with the kind of service sold. Selling highly technical services, such as communications systems or com­ puter consulting services, involves complex and lengthy sales nego­ tiations. In addition, sales of such complex services may require ex­ tensive after-sale support. In these situations, sales representatives may operate as part of a team of sales representatives and experts from other departments. Sales representatives receive valuable tech­ nical assistance from these experts. For example, those who sell data processing services might work with a systems engineer or computer scientist, and those who sell telephone services might receive techni­ cal assistance from a communications consultant. Teams enhance customer service and build strong long-term relationships with cus­ tomers, resulting in increased sales. Because of the length of time between the initial contact with a customer and the actual sale, representatives who sell complex tech­ nical services generally work with several customers simultane­ ously. Sales representatives must be well organized and efficient in scheduling their time. Selling less complex services, such as linen supply or exterminating services, generally involves simpler and shorter sales negotiationts. A sales representative’s job may likewise vary with the size of the employer. Those working for large companies generally are more specialized and are assigned territorial boundaries, a specific line of services, and their own accounts. In smaller companies, sales repre­ sentatives may have broader responsibilities—administrative, mar­ keting, or public relations, for example—in addition to their sales duties. A sales representative often services a specific territory. A repre­ sentative for a company offering services widely used by the general public, such as pest control, generally has numerous clients in a rela­ tively small territory. On the other hand, a sales representative for a more specialized organization, such as a standardized testing ser­ vice, may need to service several States to acquire an adequate cus­ tomer base.  Business services........................................................................................ 53 Computer and data processing.............................................................. 10 Advertising......................................................................................... g Personnel supply ................................................................................ 7 Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic......................................... 3 Miscellaneous equipment rental and leasing.................................... 3 Other business services...................................................................... 22 Engineering and management............................................................... ]1 Personal....................................................................................................... 7 Amusement and recreation................................................................... 5 Automotive repair ................................................................................. 5 Membership organizations......................................................................... 4 Hotels and other lodging places............................................................. 3 Motion pictures.......................................................................................... 2 Health..................................................................................................... 2 Education, public and private.................................................................... 2 Other services............................................................................................. g  Working Conditions Working conditions for sales representatives vary. Outside sales rep­ resentatives responsible for a large territory may spend a great deal of time traveling, sometimes for weeks at a time. Representatives who cover a small territory may spend time in the office each day keeping records, preparing various documents, and setting up ap­ pointments with customers. Inside sales representatives and telemarketers spend all their time in their offices, which can range from bright and cheerful customer showrooms to cramped and noisy rooms. Many outside sales representatives have the flexibility to set their own schedules so long as they meet their company’s goals.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers require that services sales representatives have a college degree, but requirements may vary depending on the indus­ try a particular company represents. Employers who market adver­ tising services seek individuals with a college degree in advertising or marketing or a master’s degree in business administration; com­ panies that market educational services prefer individuals with an advanced degree in marketing or a related field. Many hotels seek graduates from college hotel administration programs, and compa­ nies that sell computer services and telephone systems prefer sales representatives with a background in computer science or engineer­ ing. College courses in business, economics, communications, and   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Services sales representatives convey their specialized knowledge to their customers. Selling is stressful work. Sales representatives face competition not only from other companies but also from their fellow sales workers. Companies generally set quotas and have contests with prizes for those who make the most sales. There often is considera­ ble pressure on the sales representative to perform by the end of every month. Employment Services sales representatives held about 488,000 jobs in 1992. Over half were in firms providing business services, including computer and data processing, advertising, personnel supply, equipment rental and leasing, and mailing, reproduction, and stenographic ser­ vices. Other sales representatives worked for firms that offer a wide range of other services, as the following tabulation shows. Total (percent)....................................................................................  i go  250  Occupational Outlook Handbook  marketing are helpful in obtaining other jobs as services sales repre­ sentatives. Employers may hire sales representatives with a high school di­ ploma if they have a proven sales record. This is particularly true for those who sell nontechnical services, such as linen supply, extermi­ nating, laundry, or funeral services. Many firms conduct intensive training programs for their sales representatives. A sound training program covers the history of the business, origin, development, and uses of the service, effective pros­ pecting methods, presentation of the service, answering customer objections, creating customer demand, closing a sale, writing an or­ der, company policies, and using technical support personnel. Sales representatives also may attend seminars on a wide range of subjects given by outside or in-house training institutions. These sessions ac­ quaint them with new services and products and help them maintain and update their sales techniques, and may include motivational or sensitivity training to make sales representatives more effective in dealing with people. They generally receive training in the use of computers and communications technology in order to increase their productivity. Very large companies often prefer to hire sales representatives di­ rectly out of college, while smaller companies often prefer to hire in­ dividuals with a proven sales record. Smaller companies generally prefer not to incur the expense of providing formal training pro­ grams for their sales representatives. In order to be successful, sales representatives should have a pleasant, outgoing personality and good rapport with people. They must be highly motivated, well organized, and efficient. Good grooming and a neat appearance are essential, as are self-confidence, reliability, and the ability to effectively communicate. Sales repre­ sentatives should be self-starters who have the ability to work under pressure to meet sales goals. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to supervisory and managerial positions. Fre­ quent contact with business people in other firms provides sales workers with leads about job openings, enhancing advancement op­ portunities. Job Outlook Employment of services sales representatives, as a group, is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to growth of the services industries that employ them. However, the projected growth of particular services industries varies, and employment of services sales representatives will not keep pace with industry growth due to downsizing of the sales force in many services industries, and the growing use of vari­ ous technologies, such as voice mail, cellular telephones, and laptop computers, that increase sales workers’ productivity. For example, the continued growth in factory and office automation should lead to much faster than average employment growth for computer and data processing services sales representatives, while faster than aver­ age growth is expected among sales representatives in health ser­ vices. Average growth is projected for representatives who sell ad­ vertising, while slower than average employment growth is projected for representatives who sell educational services. In addition to the jobs generated by this growth, openings will oc­ cur each year because of the need to replace sales workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, many sales representatives discover that they are unable to earn enough money at selling and leave the occupation. Turnover gener­ ally is higher among representatives who sell nontechnical services, since they have invested less time and effort in specialized training. Prospective services sales representatives with a college back­ ground or a proven sales record should have the best job opportuni­ ties.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings In 1992, the median annual income for full-time advertising sales representatives was over $26,000, while representatives selling other business services earned nearly $30,000. Earnings of representatives who sold technical services generally were higher than earnings of those who sold nontechnical services. Earnings of experienced sales representatives depend on perform­ ance. Successful sales representatives who establish a strong cus­ tomer base can earn more than managers in their firm. Some sales representatives earn well over $100,000 a year. According to a 1991 survey conducted by TPF & C, a Towers Perrin company, annual earnings of services sales representatives in Fortune 500 companies ranged from about $39,000 for beginners to $60,000 for those with 5 years of experience. Experienced sales workers responsible for key clients averaged over $70,000 a year. Sales representatives work on different types of compensation plans. Some get a straight salary; others are paid solely on a commis­ sion basis—a percentage of the dollar value of their sales. Most firms use a combination of salary and commissions. Some services sales representatives receive a base salary plus incentive pay that adds 50 to 70 percent to the sales representative’s base salary. In ad­ dition to the same benefits package received by other employees of the firm, outside sales representatives have expense accounts to cover meals and travel, and some drive a company car. Many em­ ployers offer bonuses, including vacation time, trips, and prizes, for sales that exceed company quotas. Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer and business expectations, earnings may fluctuate widely from year to year. Related Occupations Services sales representatives must have sales ability and a knowl­ edge of the service they sell. Workers in other occupations that re­ quire these skills include real estate agents, insurance agents, securi­ ties and financial services sales representatives, manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information For details about employment opportunities for services sales repre­ sentatives, contact employers who sell services in your area.  Travel Agents (D.O.T. 252.152-010)  Nature of the Work Constantly changing air fares and schedules, a proliferation of vaca­ tion packages, and business/pleasure trip combinations make travel planning frustrating and time consuming. Many travelers, there­ fore, turn to travel agents, who can make the best possible travel ar­ rangements for them. Depending on the needs of the client, travel agents give advice on destinations, make arrangements for transportation, hotel accom­ modations, car rentals, tours, and recreation, or plan the right vaca­ tion package or business/pleasure trip combination. They may also advise on weather conditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions and recreation. For international travel, agents also provide infor­ mation on customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates. Travel agents may also plan conventions and other meetings; they are usu­ ally referred to as meeting planners. Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They often base recommenda­ tions on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or cli­ ents. Travel agents may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to  Marketing and Sales Occupations judge, firsthand, their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service. Travel agents also promote their services. They present slides or movies to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising dis­ plays, and suggest company- sponsored trips to business managers. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. They may be under a great deal of pressure during vacation seasons. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. Employment Travel agents held about 115,000jobs in 1992 and are found in every part of the country. More than 9 out of 10 salaries agents worked for travel agencies; some worked for membership organizations. Many travel agents are self- employed. Nearly one-half of the travel agen­ cies are in suburban areas; about 40 percent are in large cities; and the rest, in small towns and rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal or specialized training is becoming increasingly important for travel agents since few agencies are willing to train people on the job. Many vocational schools offer 3- to 12-week full-time pro­ grams, as well as evening and Saturday programs. Travel courses are also offered in public adult education programs and in commu­ nity and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s and a mas­ ter’s degree in travel and tourism. Although few college courses re­ late directly to the travel industry, a college education is sometimes desired by employers. Courses in computer science, geography, for­ eign languages, and history are most useful. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Several home-study courses provide a basic understanding of the travel in­ dustry. The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) and the In­ stitute of Certified Travel Agents offer a travel correspondence course. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees a significant part of which consists of computer instruc­ tion. These computer skills are required by employers to operate air­ line reservation systems. Travel experience is an asset since personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans. Experience as an airline reservation agent also is a good background for a travel agent. Travel agents need good selling skills—they must be pleasant and patient and able to gain the confidence of clients. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent  bwkhjxdy  More than 9 out of 10 salaried agents worked for travel agencies.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  251  duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office manager or to other managerial positions. Experienced travel agents can take an advanced course, leading to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the Insti­ tute of Certified Travel Agents. The institute awards a certificate to those completing an 18- month part-time course. It also offers certi­ fication, called designation of competence, in North American, Western European, Carribbean, or South Pacific tours. Those who plan meetings also may be designated as Certified Meeting Profes­ sional (CMP). The CMP exam is administered by the Convention Liaison Council. To qualify to take the exam, a candidate must be employed in a meeting management position and have at least three years of meeting planning experience. Those who start their own agencies generally have experience in an established agency. They must generally gain formal supplier or corporation approval before they can receive commissions. Suppli­ ers or corporations are organizations of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines. The Airlines Reporting Corporation, for example, is the ap­ proving body for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be in operation, be financially sound, and employ at least one experienced manager/travel agent. There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. However, Rhode Island requires licensing, and Ohio, Hawaii, and California require registration. In California, travel agents not ap­ proved by a corporation are required to have a license. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many job openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies ex­ pand, but most will occur as experienced agents transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the year 2005. As business activity expands, so will business-related travel. Employment of managerial, professional specialty, and sales representative occupations—those who do most business travel—is projected to grow rapidly. Also, with rising incomes, more people are expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently— than in the past. In fact, many people take more than one vacation a year. Charter flights and larger, more efficient planes have brought air transportation within the budgets of more people. So has the easing of Government regulation of air fares and routes, by fostering greater competition among airlines to offer better and more afforda­ ble service. In addition, American travel agents organize tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agen­ cies now have automated reservation systems, this has not weakened demand for travel agents. The travel industry generally is sensitive to economic downturns and political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Therefore, the number ofjob opportunities fluctuates. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency de­ termine the salary of a travel agent. According to a Louis Harris survey, conducted for the Travel Weekly Magazine, the 1992 annual earnings of travel agents with less than 1 year experience were $12,428, from 1 to 3 years, $15,610; from 3 to 5 years, $17,975; from 5 to 10 years, $20,775; and more than 10 years, $25,007. Salaried agents usually have standard benefits, such as insurance coverage and paid vacations, that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel ar­ rangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are about 10 percent of the total sale; and for international travel, about 11 percent. They may also charge clients a service fee for the time and expense involved in planning a trip. During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation ap­ proval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings. Their income is generally limited to commissions from hotels,  252  Occupational Outlook Handbook  cruises, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making compli­ cated arrangements. Even established agents have lower profits dur­ ing economic downturns. When they travel, agents usually get substantially reduced rates for transportation and accommodations.  Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact:  X3" American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St. Alexandria, VA 22314.  For certification information, contact:  IS-' The Institute of Certified Travel Agents, 148 Lindon St., P.O. Box 82-56, Wellesley, MA 02181-0012, or phone toll free 1-800-542-4282.  Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recre­ ational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibili­ ties include secretaries, tour guides, airline reservation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information on Certified Meeting Professionals (CMP’s), contact:  ®=The Convention Liaison Council, 1575 Eye St. NW., Suite 1190, Wash­ ington, DC 20005.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, Investigators, and Collectors (D.O.T. 168.267-014 and -038; 191.167-022; 195.267-010; 203.382-014; 205.367-018, -034, and -046; 209.382-014 and .687-018; 219.362-042, and -050, .367-014, and .482-014; 241.217, .267-014, -018, -030, and -034, .357, .362, .367-010, -014, -022, and -034, and .387; and 249.367-030)  Nature of the Work Handling complaints, interpreting and explaining policies or regula­ tions, resolving billing disputes, collecting delinquent accounts, and determining eligibility for governmental assistance are examples of everyday situations that organizations must deal with smoothly and efficiently in order to maintain good relations with customers and clients. Organizations like insurance companies, department stores, banks, and government social services agencies employ adjusters, investigators, and collectors to act as intermediaries with the public in these kinds of situations. Following is a discussion of occupations that make up this group of workers. Claim Representatives. Claim representatives at insurance compa­ nies investigate claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize pay­ ments to claimants. When a policyholder files a claim for damage or a loss, the claim adjuster, claim examiner, or claim investigator must initially determine whether the customer's insurance policy covers it and the amount of the loss. Minor claims Filed by automobile or homeowner policyholders are usually handled by “inside adjusters” or “telephone adjusters.” These workers contact claimants by telephone or by mail to get in­ formation on repair costs, medical expenses, or other details the company needs. Many companies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases are referred to an “independent adjuster” or “outside adjuster.” Claim adjusters plan and schedule the work re­ quired to process a claim. They investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the com­ pany’s liability. They keep photographs, written or taped state­ ments, or computer files of information obtained from witnesses and prepare reports of their findings. When the policy holder’s claim is legitimate, the claim adjuster negotiates with the claimant and set­ tles the claim. When claims are contested, adjusters may testify in court. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize in claims associated with fire damage, marine loss, automotive dam­ age, product liability, or workers’ compensation. Material damage adjusters inspect automobile damage and use the latest computer­ ized estimating equipment to prepare estimates of the damage. In life and health insurance companies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner. In property and casualty insur­ ance companies, the claim examiner may supervise claim adjusters. In both cases, they investigate questionable claims or authorize pay­ ment for those exceeding a designated amount. Larger claims are re­ ferred to senior examiners. Examiners may check claim applications for completeness and accuracy, interview medical specialists, con­ sult policy files to verify information on a claim, or calculate benefit payments. They also maintain records of settled claims and prepare  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  reports to be submitted to their company’s data processing depart­ ment. Claim representatives are making greater use of computers to keep records of clients and actions taken in various claims. Many have computer terminals on their desks, and a growing number use portable lap-top computers to enter or access information when they are on assignment outside the office. Insurance Processing Clerks. Policy processing clerks process new insurance policies, modifications to existing policies, and claims. They begin the new policy process by reviewing the insurance appli­ cation to ensure that all the questions have been answered. After an application has been reviewed by underwriters and the company de­ termines that it will issue a policy, a policy processing clerk prepares the necessary forms and informs the insurance sales agent of an ap­ plication’s processing status. Policy processing clerks also update existing policies—such as a change in beneficiary, amount of cover­ age, or type of insurance—and recalculate premiums. They mail correspondence notices regarding changes to the sales agent and to the policyholder. Policy processing clerks maintain files for each policyholder including policies that are to be reinstated or cancelled. Claim clerks, also called claim interviewers, obtain information from policyholders regarding claims like automobile accidents. They prepare reports and review insurance claim forms and related documents for completeness. They call or write insured or other in­ volved persons for missing information and update claim files. They may transmit routine claims for payment or advise the claim super­ visor if further investigation is needed. Like claim representatives, insurance processing clerks use com­ puters extensively in their work. Most spend a large part of their time creating and updating records at a personal computer or termi­ nal. Adjustment Clerks. Adjustment clerks investigate and resolve cus­ tomers’ complaints about merchandise, service, billing, or credit rating. They may work for banks, department stores, utility compa­ nies, and other large organizations selling products and services to the public. Sometimes they are called customer service representa­ tives, customer complaint clerks, or adjustment correspondents. Adjustment clerks examine all pertinent information to deter­ mine the validity of a customer’s complaint. In a department store, this may mean checking sales slips or warranties, as well as the mer­ chandise in question. In a bank, it could mean reviewing records and videotapes of automated teller machine transactions. In a utility company, they review meter books, microfilm, computer printouts, and machine accounting records. Regardless of the setting, these clerks also get information—in person, by telephone, or through written correspondence—from the various parties involved, such as the customer and company personnel. After an investigation and evaluation of the facts, adjustment clerks report their findings, adjustments, and recommendations. These may include exchanging merchandise, refunding money, crediting customers’ accounts, or adjusting customers’ bills. Adjust­ ment clerks also ensure that the appropriate changes are set in mo­ tion and follow up on the recommendations to ensure customer sat­ isfaction. To prevent similar complaints in the future, they may recommend to management improvements in product, packaging, shipping methods, service, or billing methods and procedures. Ad­ justment clerks keep records of all relevant matters, using them to prepare reports for their supervisors. 253  254  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Adjustment clerks also respond to inquiries from customers. Clerks frequently can answer these inquiries with a form letter, but other times they must compose a letter themselves. Upon request, adjustment clerks also issue duplicate or additional credit cards for banks and department stores. Bill and Account Collectors. Bill and account collectors, sometimes called collection correspondents, are responsible for ensuring that customers pay their overdue accounts. Some collectors are em­ ployed by collection agencies; others, known as “inside collectors,” work directly for the original creditors, like department stores, hos­ pitals, or banks. Many companies automatically notify customers by mail if their account is overdue. When customers do not respond, collectors are called on to locate and notify them of the delinquent account, usu­ ally over the telephone, sometimes by letter. When customers move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors may check with the post office, telephone companies, credit bureaus, or former neigh­ bors to obtain their new address. This is called “skip-tracing.” Once collectors find the debtor, they inform them of the overdue account and solicit payment. If necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Collectors also may attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice and counsel on how to pay off the debts, such as by taking out a bill consolidation loan. How­ ever, the collector’s objective is always to ensure that the customer first pays the debt in question. If customers agree to pay, collectors note that for the record and check later to verify that the payment was indeed made. Collectors may have authority to grant an extension of time if customers ask for one. If customers fail to respond at all, collectors prepare a state­ ment to that effect for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, collectors may initiate repossession proceed­ ings or service disconnections, or hand the account over to an attor­ ney for legal action. Most collectors handle other administrative functions for the ac­ counts assigned to them, such as recording changes of address. Bill and account collectors keep records of the amounts collected and the status of the accounts. Some fill out daily reports to keep their supervisors apprised of their progress. In some organizations, inside collectors receive payments and post the amounts to the customers’ account. In most operations, however, the posting and receiving are done by other clerical workers. Collectors employed by collection agencies do not receive payments; rather, their primary responsibil­ ity is to get customers to pay their obligation. Increasingly, collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems to keep track of overdue accounts. Typically, collectors work at video display terminals that are linked to computers. In the most sophisticated systems, the computer dials the phone automati­ cally and the collector begins to speak only when a connection has been made. Such systems eliminate time spent calling busy or nonanswering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones; some wear headsets like those used by telephone operators. From time to time, supervisors may listen in on collectors’ conversations with customers to evaluate their job performance. Welfare Eligibility Workers and Interviewers. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers—sometimes referred to as intake workers, eligibility determination workers, eligibility specialists, or income maintenance specialists—determine who can receive welfare and other types of social assistance. They do so by interviewing and in­ vestigating applicants and recipients to see who is eligible. Based on the personal and financial information they obtain and the rules and regulations of each program, they initiate procedures to grant, mod­ ify, deny, or terminate individuals’ eligibility for various aid pro­ grams. This information is recorded and evaluated to determine the amounts of the grants.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers work with various kinds of public assistance programs. The best-known are Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Medicaid, Food Stamps, and the Work Incentive Program. Depending on local circumstances, there may be other programs, such as those for public housing, refu­ gee assistance, and fuel assistance. Most welfare eligibility workers and interviewers specialize in a specific area, such as housing, but some are responsible for several areas. They may assist social workers by informing them of perti­ nent information they have gathered during their interviews with applicants. In some areas, particularly rural ones, eligibility workers may also perform other kinds of welfare duties. These workers also provide information to applicants and current recipients. For example, they may explain and interpret eligibility rules and regulations or identify other resources available in the community for financial or social welfare assistance. More exper­ ienced workers may help train new workers. In addition, they may be assigned to special units whose responsibility is to detect fraud. An increasing number of jurisdictions are using computers to in­ crease worker productivity and to reduce the incidence of welfare fraud. In these settings, welfare eligibility workers and interviewers sit in front of computer terminals when they interview applicants and recipients. Welfare eligibility workers then enter the informa­ tion provided. In the most advanced systems, the computer terminal prompts them with questions. Although these workers usually interview applicants and recipi­ ents who visit their offices, they may make occasional home visits, especially if the applicant or recipient is elderly or disabled. They may also check with employers or other references to verify answers and get further information. The authority of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers var­ ies from one jurisdiction to another. In some places, these workers are authorized to decide on an applicant’s eligibility, subject to re­ view by their supervisor. In other places, however, they can only make recommendations to their supervisors, who in turn make the ultimate decision.  Most claim examiners have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical  Working Conditions Most claim examiners have desk jobs that require no unusual physi­ cal activity. They typically work a standard 5-day, 40-hour week. Claim examiners may work longer hours during peak periods or when quarterly and annual statements are prepared. They also may travel from time to time to obtain information by personal inter­ view. Many claim adjusters work outside the office, visiting and in­ specting damaged buildings, for example. Occasionally, experienced adjusters may be away from home for days when they travel to the scene of a disaster such as a tornado, hurricane, or flood to work with local adjusters and government officials. Some adjusters may be on “emergency call” in case of such incidents. Material damage adjusters work at local claim centers where policy holders may take their cars for estimates of damage. Adjusters generally have the flexibility to arrange their work schedule to accommodate evening and weekend appointments with clients. Some report to the office every morning to get their assign­ ments while others simply call from home and spend their days trav­ eling to claim sites. This enables some adjusters to work indepen­ dently. Most insurance processing clerks work 40 hours per week in of­ fices. Much of the work is routine and requires remaining at work stations for extended periods of time. Because most insurance infor­ mation is stored on computers, many of these workers sit at video display terminals and enter or access information while the cus­ tomer is on the phone. Because most companies provide 24-hour claim service to their policyholders, some claim clerks work eve­ nings and weekends. Many claim clerks work part time. Adjustment clerks, bill and account collectors, and welfare eligi­ bility workers and interviewers work in offices, usually during regu­ lar business hours. Some work part time. A few bill and account col­ lectors work as temporaries. From their offices, they deal with customers, clients, or applicants, either by telephone or in person. Dealing with upset or angry clients can be part of the daily routine in these jobs, so the work can be stressful. Some welfare eligibility workers and interviewers may be hired on a seasonal basis to help administer a specific program. For example, some states hire these workers for the winter to help run emergency fuel assistance programs. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors who spend a lot of time working at video display terminals may experience musculoskeletal strain and eyestrain.  Employment Adjusters, investigators, and collectors held about 1,185,000 jobs in 1992. The following tabulation presents their employment distribu­ tion by detailed occupation: Total (percent).....................................................................................  100  Adjustment clerks................................................................................... Bill and account collectors..................................................................... Insurance policy processing clerks......................................................... Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators................................ Insurance claims clerks.......................................................................... Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers.......................................... Claims examiners, property and casualty insurance............................. All other adjusters and investigators......................................................  30 20 14 12 10 8  3 3  Insurance companies employ the vast majority of claim adjusters, examiners, and investigators, property and casualty insurance claim examiners, policy processing clerks, and claim clerks. Real estate firms and government agencies employ most of the rest. About one-fifth of all adjustment clerks are employed by depart­ ment stores, grocery stores, or catalog and mail order houses. Man­ ufacturing firms, banks and other financial institutions, and tele­ phone companies are other major employers of these workers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  255  One in 6 bill and account collectors works for a credit reporting and collection agency. Many others work in banks, department stores, and other institutions that extend credit. Nine of every 10 welfare eligibility workers and interviewers work for state or local government agencies. In 37 states, these workers are employed exclusively by the State government. In the remain­ der, they are employed by the county or municipal government. Most of those not employed by government work for private social service agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most companies prefer to hire college graduates for claim represen­ tative positions. Persons may be hired without college training, however, if they have specialized experience. For example, persons with knowledge of automobile mechanics may qualify as material damage adjusters and those with extensive clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific college major is recommended as the best prepara­ tion. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a degree in almost any field is adequate. An ad­ juster who has a business or an accounting background might spe­ cialize in financial loss due to strikes, breakdowns in equipment, or damage to merchandise. College training in engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims, such as damage from fires and other ac­ cidents. A legal background is most helpful to those handling work­ ers’ compensation and product liability cases. Knowledge of com­ puter applications is increasingly important. Most large insurance companies provide on-the-job training and home-study courses to beginning claim adjusters and examiners. For example, material damage adjusters would learn about automo­ bile body construction, analysis of collision data, and repair cost es­ timation, including computerized estimating equipment. They also learn how to deal with customers. In smaller firms, workers may receive their training through courses offered by the Insurance Institute of America (IIA), a non­ profit organization offering educational programs and professional certification to persons in the property-liability insurance industry. The Insurance Institute of America offers an Associate in Claims (AIC) designation upon successful completion of an essay examina­ tion. Adjusters can prepare for the examination by independent home study or through company or public classes. The International Claim Association (ICA) offers a program on life and health insurance claim administration. Completion of the six-examination program leads to the professional designation, As­ sociate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC). The Life Office Management Association (LOMA) offers a com­ prehensive 10-course life and health insurance educational program that leads to the professional designation, Fellow, Life Management Institute (FLMI). LOMA also offers the Master Fellow Program (FLMI/M) that is designed specifically to meet the continuing edu­ cation needs of life and health insurance professionals. Students can prepare for FLMI exams through independent home study or through insurance company or FLMI Society classes. Most states require adjusters to be licensed. Applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written ex­ amination covering the fundamentals of adjusting; complete an ap­ proved course in insurance or loss adjusting; furnish character refer­ ences; be at least 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, claim representatives must be able to communicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of others. Some companies require applicants to pass a battery of writ­ ten aptitude tests designed to measure communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. Examiners must understand fed­ eral and state insurance laws and regulations. Both adjusters and ex­ aminers should be observant and enjoy working with details.  256  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate compe­ tence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Because of the complexity of insurance regulations and claim procedures, workers who lack formal academic training may ad­ vance more slowly than those with more education. Employees who demonstrate competence in claim work or administrative skills may be promoted to department supervisor in a field office or to a mana­ gerial position in the home office. High school graduation is considered adequate preparation for most insurance processing clerk positions. Courses in typing and word processing, and business arithmetic are desirable. Employers view favorably previous office experience and familiarity with com­ puters. Most new workers begin as file clerks and move into insur­ ance processing positions as they demonstrate their ability. How­ ever, persons with considerable clerical experience may begin processing insurance policies immediately. Some experienced insurance processing clerks may be promoted to a clerical supervisor position. Advancement to a claim represen­ tative or an underwriting technician position is possible for clerks who demonstrate potential, have had college training, or have taken specialized courses in insurance. Many companies offer home-study courses that allow their employees to gain the necessary knowledge to advance. Many employers do not require any formal education for adjust­ ment clerk positions. Instead, they look for people who can read and write and who possess good communications and interpersonal skills. Typing ability is also viewed favorably. Adjustment clerk is an entry level position in some, but not all, organizations. Depending on their assignment, new adjustment clerks may receive training on the job from a supervisor or an exper­ ienced co-worker, or they may enter a formal training course offered by the organization. Training covers such topics as how to use com­ puters, what standard forms to use, whom to contact in other de­ partments of the organization, and how to deal with customers. Some employers provide more advanced training for experienced adjustment clerks. This training may be offered in-house or from trade associations or local colleges. While high school graduation sometimes is required by employ­ ers when they hire bill and account collectors, formal education be­ yond high school is not stressed. Previous work experience as a col­ lector is particularly valuable, however. Experience in the field of telemarketing or as a telephone operator also is helpful, as is knowl­ edge of the billing process. Employers seek individuals who speak well and who are persistent and detail-oriented. Employers normally provide training to new bill and account col­ lectors. This training, which may last up to a couple of months, is usually conducted in a classroom or on the job. It may use lectures, videotapes, computer programs, role-playing, and hands-on experi­ ence. In addition to learning about skip-tracing and the firm’s bill­ ing procedure, new collectors learn communications and negotiat­ ing skills. Learning to use the firm's computer and telephone systems is an integral part of such training. Successful bill and account collectors may become supervisors. Some even start their own collection agencies. Hiring requirements for welfare eligibility workers and interview­ ers vary widely. Depending on the jurisdiction, applicants may need a high school diploma, some post- secondary training, or a bache­ lor’s degree. In some jurisdictions, especially rural ones, graduation from high school is not required. Previous work experience may be substituted for education in some places, particularly if it is in a closely related field like employment interviewing, social work, or insurance claims. Fluency in a foreign language may be an advan­ tage in parts of the country with a high concentration of non-En­ glish speaking people.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  After they are hired, eligibility workers are given training, some­ times in a formal classroom setting, other times in a more informal manner. They are taught the policies, procedures, and program reg­ ulations that they are expected to use to determine eligibility. If a formal training program is selected, it generally is followed by onthe-job training provided by the supervisor. Because they deal with people who are in difficult economic cir­ cumstances, welfare eligibility workers and interviewers should be compassionate and empathetic. Attention to detail is important be­ cause there are many policies, procedures, and regulations that must be observed. Advancement to the job of social worker is possible, although ad­ ditional formal education—such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree—usually is needed. Because a significant and growing proportion of adjusters, inves­ tigators, and collectors use computers, courses in typing or word processing are recommended. Employers increasingly view experi­ ence with computers as an asset. Job Outlook Overall employment of adjusters, investigators, and collectors is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the la­ bor force. Growth rates will vary considerably by occupation. Employment of insurance claim examiners is expected to grow about as fast as the average as the increasing volume of insurance results in more insur­ ance claims. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will re­ sult in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, as well as protection for homes, automobiles, and other possessions. A growing demand for insur­ ance coverage for working women is also expected. New or ex­ panding businesses will need protection for new plants and equip­ ment and for insurance covering their employees’ health and safety. Opportunities should be particularly good for claim representatives who specialize in complex business insurance such as marine cargo, workers’ compensation, and product and pollution liability. Employment of insurance processing clerks is expected to grow faster than the average as computerization increases their impor­ tance in providing customer service to the increasing number of pol­ icyholders. Within this group, employment of adjusters and claim clerks will increase more rapidly than employment of policy processing clerks because they have much more interpersonal con­ tact, which cannot be automated. The number ofjob openings for workers in the insurance industry should not fluctuate greatly from year to year. This industry, partic­ ularly the health insurance component, is less sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy than most industries. Employment of adjustment clerks is expected to grow about as fast as average as business establishments seek to maintain good cus­ tomer relations. An important aspect of good customer service is resolving customers’ complaints in a friendly and timely fashion. Because much of their work involves direct communication with customers, demand for adjustment clerks is expected to keep pace with the growth in the number of customers. Bill and account collector jobs are expected to grow much faster than average as the level of consumer debt rises. As the economy ex­ pands, firms will strive to increase the efficiency of their debt collec­ tion to keep losses at a minimum. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment of bill and account collectors tends to rise during recessions. This is due primarily to the difficulty that many individuals have in meeting their financial obligations. Employment of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as average as state and local govern­ ments respond to the growing need for public assistance among  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical their constituents. The Family Support Act of 1988, a reform of the welfare system, aims to get people off the welfare rolls by helping them get back to work. At the same time, it increasingly involves welfare departments in such areas as job training, child care, and medical assistance. Over the long run, this legislation probably will increase the demand for counseling and other services provided by welfare eligibility workers and interviewers. Earnings Earnings of adjusters, investigators, and collectors vary signifi­ cantly. For adjusters and investigators, the median weekly earnings in 1992 were about $400. The middle 50 percent earned between about $310 and $510 a week. Adjusters are also furnished a com­ pany car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Insurance claim representatives had median weekly earn­ ings of $430 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $340 and $580 a week. Specific information on earnings of insurance processing clerks and is not available. However, median weekly earnings for records clerks, a category that includes policy processing clerks, were $350 in 1992. Interviewers, whose work is similar to that of claim clerks, also had median weekly earnings of $350. Adjustment clerks had median weekly earnings of about $390 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between about $300 and $510 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $250 a week, and the highest paid 10 percent earned over $690 a week. Median weekly earnings of full-time bill and account collectors were about $370 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $290 and $450 a week. Ten percent earned less than $230 and 10 percent, more than $570. Some bill and account collectors receive a base salary and work on commission beyond that. Median weekly earnings of full-time welfare eligibility workers and interviewers were about $390 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $500 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $270 and the top 10 percent earned more than $640. Many welfare eligibility workers and interviewers belong to un­ ions. The two principal unions representing these workers are the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the Service Employees International Union.  Related Occupations Insurance adjusters and examiners investigate, analyze, and deter­ mine the validity of their firm’s liability concerning personal, casu­ alty, or property loss or damages and effect settlement with claim­ ants. Workers in other occupations that require similar skills include cost estimators, budget analysts, and private investigators. The work of insurance processing clerks and adjustment clerks is similar to that of other workers who compile, review, or maintain records, including coding, contract, auditing, and reservation clerks and title searchers. The work of bill and account collectors is related to that of cus­ tomer service representatives, telemarketers, telephone interview­ ers, and other workers who deal with the public over the telephone. The work of welfare eligibility workers is similar to that of human services workers, financial aid counselors, loan counselors, credit counselors, probation officers, and other workers who interview customers or clients. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers as a claim representative or an insurance processing clerk is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities in these occupations may be obtained from: VW Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038.  Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. For more information on claim representatives, contact:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  257  Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4980.  For information about public insurance adjusting and indepen­ dent insurance adjusting, contact respectively: 12" Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016,  Malvern, PA 19355-0716.  tw National Association of Independent Insurance Adjusters, 300 West Washington St., Room 845, Chicago, IL 60606.  Information on the Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC) and the Fellow, Life Management Institute (FLMI) designations can be obtained from: W Life Office Management Association, 5770 Powers Ferry Rd., Atlanta, GA 30327-4308.  Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: 12" American Collectors Association, Inc., P.O. Box 39106, Minneapolis,  MN 55439-0106.  Employment information on welfare eligibility workers and inter­ viewers is available at social service offices of municipal, county, and state governments.  Bank Tellers (D.O.T. 211.362, except -010; 211.382-010; and 219.462-010)  Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with tellers. Tellers generally handle a wide range of banking transactions, such as cashing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and processing with­ drawals. They sell savings bonds; accept payment for customers’ utility bills; receive deposits for special accounts; keep records and perform the necessary paperwork for customer loans; process the proliferating variety of certificates of deposit and money market ac­ counts; and sell travelers’ checks. Some tellers specialize in handling foreign currencies or commercial or business accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must verify the date, bank name, and identity of the person to receive payment, and see that the document is legal tender, that written and numerical amounts agree, and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Sometimes a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and processes the transac­ tion. Tellers may use machines to calculate and record transactions and to prepare documents, such as receipts and drafts. In some banks, they type or write deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand, but this is uncommon. In most banks, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. Some banks use very sophisticated computer systems that give tellers quick access to de­ tailed information on customer accounts. Tellers may use this infor­ mation to tailor their services to fit the customer’s needs, or recom­ mend an appropriate bank product or service. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a balance sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They sort checks and deposit slips. Tellers also spend time learning about the bank’s products and services and changes in the bank’s procedures. They also spend time training to refresh and upgrade their skills. Tellers process numerous mail transactions. Some tellers replen­ ish cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments to auto­ matic teller machines (ATM’s). Head tellers supervise the work of other tellers and ensure that ATM’s function properly.  258  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Because banks offer more and increasingly complex financial ser­ vices, most bank tellers are now being trained to act as customer ser­ vice representatives in addition to their other duties. These tellers can briefly explain to customers the various types of accounts and fi­ nancial services offered by their bank, and refer customers to more experienced customer service representatives or bank managers. (New accounts clerks, who also may act as customer service repre­ sentatives, are discussed in the Handbook statement on interviewing and new accounts clerks. Bank managers are covered in the Hand­ book statement on financial managers.) Working Conditions Tellers generally work during the day, Monday through Friday; some evening and weekend work is required. The job offers ample opportunity to work part time with flexible hours; in some banks, 90 percent of tellers work part time. Banks often hire part-time, or “peak-time,” tellers for busy banking periods such as lunch hours and weekend mornings. Some tellers work outside the traditional bank setting—in shopping malls, supermarkets, or other large retail establishments. Continual communication with customers, repeti­ tive tasks, prolonged standing within a fairly small area, and a high level of attention to security also characterize the job.  Employment Bank tellers held about 525,000 jobs in 1992; over one-fourth worked part time. The overwhelming majority, about 96 percent, worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The rest worked in personal, business, or Federal credit institutions; mortgage banks; security and commodity brokerages; and holding and other investment offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people who have good numerical, cleri­ cal, and communication skills, and enjoy public contact. Tellers must feel comfortable handling large amounts of cash and, since their work is highly automated, working with computers and video terminals. In some metropolitan areas, banks seek bilingual tellers or those with a working knowledge of several languages. Although tellers work independently, their recordkeeping is closely supervised. Accuracy and attention to detail are vital. Tellers should be courteous, attentive, and patient in dealing with the pub­ lic, because customers often judge a bank by the way they are treated at the teller window. Maturity, tact, and the ability to quickly explain bank procedures and services are important in help­ ing customers complete transactions or make financial decisions.  Tellers explain banking products and services to customers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most entrants transfer from other occupations; virtually all have at least a high school education. In general, banks prefer applicants who have had high school courses in mathematics, accounting, bookkeeping, economics, and public speaking. New tellers, espe­ cially at larger banks, receive at least 1 week of formal classroom training. Formal training is followed by several weeks of on-the-job training where tellers observe experienced workers before doing the work themselves. Smaller banks rely primarily upon on-the-job training. In addition to instruction in basic duties, many banks now include extensive training in the bank’s products and services—so that tellers are able to make appropriate product referrals to cus­ tomers—communication and sales skills, and instruction on equip­ ment such as ATM’s and on-line video terminals. In large banks, beginners usually start as limited-transaction tell­ ers, cashing checks and processing simple transactions for a few days, before becoming full-service tellers. Often banks simultane­ ously train tellers for other clerical duties. Advancement opportunities are good for well-trained, motivated employees. Experienced tellers may advance to head teller, cus­ tomer service representative, or new accounts clerk. Outstanding tellers who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to a managerial position. Banks encourage this upward mobility by providing access to edu­ cation and other sources of additional training. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses offered or ac­ credited by the American Institute of Banking, an educational affili­ ate of the American Bankers Association, or the Institute of Finan­ cial Education. These organizations have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communities, and they offer correspondence courses. They also work closely with local colleges and universities in preparing courses of study. Most banks use the facilities of these organizations, which assist local banks in conducting cooperative training pro­ grams or developing independent training programs. In addition, many banks refund college tuition fees to their employees upon suc­ cessful completion of their courses. Although most courses are meant for employed tellers, some community colleges offer preem­ ployment training programs. These programs can help prepare ap­ plicants for a job in banking, and can give them an advantage over other jobseekers. Job Outlook Employment of bank tellers is expected to decline through the year 2005. However, job prospects still should be good. Because the oc­ cupation is large and the turnover rate is high—characteristic of oc­ cupations that generally require little formal education and offer rel­ atively low pay—job opportunities, arising from the need to replace tellers who transfer to other occupations or stop working, should be plentiful for qualified applicants. The projected decline in employment of bank tellers stems from overexpansion and competition from large nonbank corporations that offer bank-like services, including investments and lending, that have resulted in closings, mergers, and consolidations in the banking industry in recent years. This trend is expected to continue, resulting in slow employment growth in commercial banks and sav­ ings and loan associations, where employment of tellers is highly concentrated. Further, teller employment will be adversely affected by various technologies, if they are widely adopted by banks in the future. For example, the use of video tellers, which allow customers at several locations to conduct transactions with tellers at a central location, and interactive telephone systems, which allow customers to bank by telephone, could adversely affect employment of tellers by the year 2005. The use of debit cards instead of cash or checks, scanning devices that verify signatures, and automated currency verification systems also could contribute to the decline in teller em­ ployment.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Earnings In 1992, median annual earnings of full-time tellers were $14,800. The lowest 10 percent earned about $10,500 while the top 10 per­ cent earned around $24,300. Some banks offer incentives whereby tellers earn supplemental rewards for inducing customers to use other financial products and services offered by the bank. In gen­ eral, a greater range of responsibilities results in a higher salary. Ex­ perience, length of service, and, especially, the location and size of the bank also are important. Some part-time tellers may not be eligible for certain benefits such as life and health insurance, although they may have higher hourly earnings in lieu of benefits. Related Occupations Tellers combine a knowledge of bank procedures with quickness and accuracy to process money, checks, and other financial items for customers. Other workers with similar duties include new ac­ counts clerks, cashiers, toll collectors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupations, training opportu­ nities, and the banking industry is available from: »3= American Bankers Association, Center for Banking Information, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on continuing education, preemployment train­ ing, and banking jobs, contact: XW Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 900, Chicago, IL 60601-4389. »3= American Institute of Banking, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20036.  State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. 13= The American Financial Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publications). 13" Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). 13= Rand McNally Bankers Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). 13= The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). 13= Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.).  Clerical Supervisors and Managers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective clerical and administra­ tive support to operate efficiently. Coordinating this support is the responsibility of clerical supervisors and managers. They can be found in nearly every sector of the economy, working in positions as varied as office manager, customer services supervisor, or chief tele­ phone operator. Although some functions may vary considerably, many duties are common to all. Supervisors perform administrative tasks to ensure that their staffs can work efficiently. For example, equipment and machinery used in their departments must be in good working order. If the computer system goes down or a photocopier malfunctions, they must try to correct the problem or alert repair personnel. They also request new equipment or supplies for their department when neces­ sary. Planning and supervising the work of their staff is another key function of this job. To do this effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff as well as the required level of quality and time allotted to each job. They must make allowances for unexpected absences and other disruptions and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  259  adjust assignments or perform the work themselves if the situation requires it. After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, clerical supervisors oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meets established quality standards. This may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer, as in the case of ac­ counting clerks, or, in the case of cashiers, listening to how they deal with customers. When supervising long-term projects, the supervi­ sor may establish regular meetings with staff members to discuss their progress. Another part of a clerical supervisor’s job is to conduct perform­ ance evaluations. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor records it in the employee’s personnel file and may recommend a promotion or other award. Alternatively, if a worker is performing poorly, the supervisor discusses the problem with the employee to determine the cause and help the worker improve his or her per­ formance. This might entail sending the employee to a training course or arranging personal counseling. If the situation does not improve, the supervisor may recommend a transfer, demotion, or dismissal. Clerical supervisors and managers generally interview and evalu­ ate prospective clerical employees. Some may be actively involved in recruiting new workers by performing functions like making presentations at high schools and business colleges. When new workers arrive on the job, supervisors greet them and provide orien­ tation to acquaint them with the organization and its operating rou­ tines. Supervisors also help train new employees in organization and of­ fice procedures. They may teach them to use the telephone system and to operate office equipment. Because much clerical work is computerized, they must also teach new employees to use the orga­ nization’s computer system. When new office equipment or updated computer software is introduced, supervisors retrain experienced employees to use it efficiently. They may also arrange for special outside training for their employees if necessary. Clerical supervisors often act as liaisons between the clerical staff and the professional, technical, and managerial staff. This may in­ volve implementing new company policies or restructuring the workflow in their departments. They must also keep their superiors informed of their progress and abreast of any potential problems. Oftentimes this communication takes the form of research projects and progress reports. Because they have access to information like their department’s performance records, they may compile and pre­ sent this data for use in planning or designing new policies. Clerical supervisors may be called upon to resolve interpersonal conflicts among the staff. In organizations covered by union con­ tracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management agreements and run their departments accordingly. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. Working Conditions Clerical supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in offices that are clean, well-lit, and generally comfortable. Most work a standard 40-hour week. Because some organizations operate around the clock, however, clerical supervisors may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. In some cases, supervisors ro­ tate among the three shifts. In others, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Employment Clerical supervisors and managers held about 1,267,000 jobs in 1992. Although jobs for clerical supervisors are found in practically every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large clerical work force such as government agencies, retail estab­ lishments, wholesalers, business service firms, banks, and insurance companies. Due to the need in most organizations for continuity of  260  Occupational Outlook Handbook clerical occupations to slow or even decline, supervisors may have smaller staffs and perform more professional tasks. In other areas, fewer supervisors may be needed.  l  Clerical supervisors are found in nearly every sector of the economy. supervision, few clerical supervisors and managers work on a tem­ porary or part-time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people entering this occupation transfer from other occupa­ tions within the organization, very often from the ranks of those they subsequently supervise. To be promoted to a supervisory posi­ tion, clerical or administrative support workers must prove that they are capable of handling additional responsibilities. When eval­ uating candidates, superiors look for strong teamwork skills, deter­ mination, loyalty, poise, and confidence. They also look for more specific supervisory attributes, such as the ability to organize and coordinate work efficiently, set priorities, and motivate others. In­ creasingly, supervisors need a broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility to adapt to changes in organizational struc­ ture and move among departments when necessary. In addition, supervisors must pay close attention to detail in order to identify and correct errors made by subordinates. Good working knowledge of the organization’s computer system is also an advan­ tage. Many employers require some postsecondary training. An as­ sociate degree is sufficient in many cases, but some organizations prefer candidates to hold bachelor’s degrees. A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occa­ sional supervisory assignments. To prepare for full-time supervisory duties, he or she may attend in-house training or take courses in time management, personal relations, or other management skills at a local community college or vocational school. Some clerical supervisors are hired from outside the organization for positions with more managerial duties. These positions may serve as entry-level training for potential higher level managers. New college graduates may rotate through departments of an or­ ganization at this level to learn the work of the entire organization. Job Outlook Employment of clerical supervisors and managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although growth in the demand for clerical supervisors will generate many job openings, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced supervisors who transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Because the occupation is so large, replacement needs will create a large number ofjob openings. Employment of clerical supervisors is tied somewhat to the de­ mand for clerical workers. More clerical work will be generated as organizations and the economy grow, especially the business and service sectors. As the amount of clerical work to be done continues to increase, more managers will be needed to coordinate this rising volume of work. As office automation causes employment in some  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time clerical supervisors were about $28,000 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $21,100 and $39,400 a year. Ten percent earned less than $16,200, and 10 per­ cent more than $51,300. As is the case in most fields, large employ­ ers tend to pay higher salaries than small ones. In addition, employ­ ers in major metropolitan areas tend to pay higher salaries than those in rural areas. Depending on their employer, clerical supervisors may receive a variety of benefits. These may include health and life insurance, paid vacations, tuition assistance, and a pension plan. Some clerical su­ pervisors in the private sector may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses and stock options. Related Occupations Clerical supervisors and managers must understand and sometimes perform the work of people whom they oversee, including account­ ing clerks, cashiers, bank tellers, and telephone operators. Their su­ pervisory and administrative duties are similar to those of other managers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employment opportunities in this and other clerical jobs.  Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators (D.O.T. 208.685-030; 213.362, .382, .582, .682, and .685)  Nature of the Work Computer and peripheral equipment operators oversee the opera­ tion of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these expensive machines are used as efficiently as possible. This means that opera­ tors must anticipate problems before they occur and take preventive action as well as solve problems that do occur. The duties of computer and peripheral equipment operators vary with the size of the installation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. Working from operating instructions pre­ pared by programmers or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators or, in large installations, peripheral equipment operators load the equipment with tapes, disks, and paper as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers—computer operators monitor the computer console and respond to operating and com­ puter messages. If an error message occurs, operators must locate and solve the problem or terminate the program. Peripheral equipment operators may have to prepare printouts and other output for distribution to computer users. Operators also maintain log books listing events such as machine malfunctions that occurred during their shift. In addition, computer operators may su­ pervise and train peripheral equipment operators and computer op­ erator trainees. They also may help programmers and systems ana­ lysts test and debug new programs. (Detailed descriptions of these occupations are presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) As the trend toward networking—making connections between computers—accelerates, a growing number of these workers are op­ erating personal computers (PC’s) and minicomputers. More and  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical more establishments are realizing the need to connect all their com­ puters in order to enhance productivity. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, PC’s and minicomputers serve as the center of such networks, often referred to as local area networks or multi­ user systems. While some of these computers are operated by users in the area, many require the services of full-time operators. The tasks performed are very similar to those performed on the larger computers. As organizations continue to use computers in more areas of op­ eration, they are also realizing opportunities to increase the produc­ tivity of computer operations. Automation, which traditionally has been the application of computer technology to other functional ar­ eas of an organization, is now reaching the computer room. Sophis­ ticated software coupled with robotics now exist that enable the computer to perform many routine tasks formerly done by com­ puter and peripheral equipment operators. For example, schedul­ ing, loading and downloading programs, mounting tapes, rerouting messages and running periodic reports can be done without the in­ tervention of an operator. These improvements will change what computer operators do in the future. As technology advances, more computer operators will monitor an automated system. In addition, they may be in charge of system security, troubleshooting, desk help, network problems, and maintaining large databases. In the computer centers that lack this level of automation, some computer operators may be responsible for tasks traditionally done by periph­ eral equipment operators. Working Conditions Computer operating personnel work in well-lighted, well-ventilated, and generally comfortable rooms. Because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, computer and pe­ ripheral equipment operators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends. Shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Automated operations will lessen the need for shift work because many companies let the computer take over all operations during less desirable working hours.  Peripheral equipment operators prepare printouts for distribution to computer users.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  261  Employment In 1992, computer operators and peripheral equipment operators held about 266,000 and 30,000 jobs, respectively. Although jobs for computer and peripheral equipment operators are found in almost every industry, most are in wholesale trade establishments; manu­ facturing companies; data processing service firms; banks; govern­ ment agencies; and accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping service firms. These organizations have data processing needs that require large computer installations. More than 1 out of 10 computer and peripheral equipment opera­ tors works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Previous work experience is the key to landing an operator job in many large establishments. These employers look for specific, hands-on experience in the type of equipment and related operating systems that they use. Additionally, a bachelor’s degree in a com­ puter-related field or other formal training is recommended. As technology expands, operator jobs will become more competitive and demanding, giving an advantage to those applicants with formal training. Increasing numbers of operators recently hired possess such training and many employers require it. Smaller organizations may be more willing to provide informal training because their computer systems are not as expensive nor downtime as costly as in larger installations. In these establish­ ments, education may be substituted for experience to some extent. Training is also offered by the Armed Forces and by some computer manufacturers. Workers usually receive some on-the-job training to become ac­ quainted with their employer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. New peripheral equipment operators are expected to learn their jobs in a few weeks. Because computer technology changes so rapidly, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. For example, more formal educa­ tion or training is now required for operators who work in auto­ mated data centers. Greater analytical and technical expertise are also needed to deal with the unique or higher level problems that the computer is not programmed to handle. Computer and peripheral equipment operators must be able to communicate well in order to work effectively with programmers and each other. Computer operators also must be able to work inde­ pendently because they may have little or no supervision. Peripheral equipment operators may become computer opera­ tors. A few computer operators may advance to supervisory jobs. Through on-the-job experience and additional formal education, some computer and peripheral equipment operators advance to jobs as programmers or operations analysts, although the move into a programmer job may become more difficult in the years ahead as the skill requirements for programming continue to rise. Job Outlook Employment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is ex­ pected to decline sharply through the year 2005. A small number of openings will arise each year to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and the cost of computer equipment while at the same time increasing its capac­ ity for data storage and processing. These improvements in technol­ ogy have fueled an expansion in the use of computers in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, medicine, and education. Computer and peripheral equipment operators, however, will not benefit because they work mainly with large com­ puter systems—the part of the overall computer market that has slowed down. Furthermore, the expanding use of software that automates com­ puter operations gives companies the option of making systems user-friendly, which greatly reduces the need for operators. Even if  262  Occupational Outlook Handbook  firms continue to use operators, which for many is extremely likely in the near future, these new technologies free the operator to con­ centrate on unique problems and monitor a greater number of oper­ ations at the same time. The result is that as few as 3 operators can accomplish the work previously done by 10. As automated equipment is developed further, smaller versions and lower prices will induce smaller organizations to invest in these technologies as well, further dampening demand for peripheral equipment operators. Computer operators or peripheral equipment operators who are displaced by automation may be reassigned to support staffs assist­ ing other members of the organization. Others may be retrained to perform different job duties such as supervising an entire operations center, maintaining automation packages, and analyzing computer operations to recommend ways to increase productivity. Earnings In 1992, full-time computer operators had median earnings of $21,100 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,000 and $28,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,400 and the top 10 percent earned more than $38,700. Salaries generally are higher in large organizations than in small ones. In the Federal Government, computer operators with a high school diploma started at about $14,600 a year in 1993. Those with 1 year of college started at $16,400. Applicants with operations ex­ perience started at higher salaries. All computer operators em­ ployed by the Federal Government in 1993 averaged about $27,400. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include com­ puter scientists and systems analysts, programmers, and computer service technicians. Other occupations in which workers operate electronic office equipment include data entry keyers, secretaries, typists and word processors, and typesetters and compositors. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in computer operations, contact firms that use computers such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and universities, and data processing ser­ vice organizations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employment and training opportuni­ ties.  applications, write credit bureaus and reporting agencies for appli­ cant records, and contact employers, banks, and references to verify personal and financial information. Clerks order appraisals from ap­ praisal companies and secure tax forms, bank statements, and any required government forms from applicants. They calculate debt-toincome ratios to see that applicants meet the minimum guidelines for a loan. If any information in the loan package is inaccurate or in­ complete, clerks contact the proper source for further information. Closing clerks obtain and prepare documents needed for real estate settlements. The closing clerks check to see that documents are complete, that all legal documents, such as deeds of trust, hazard in­ surance papers, and title commitments, are accurate and correctly signed, and that all loan conditions required for settlement have been met. Credit authorizers approve charges against customers’ existing accounts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. However, when accounts are past due, overextended, invalid, or show a change of address, sales persons refer transactions to credit authorizers located in a central office. Authorizers evaluate the cus­ tomers’ computerized credit records and payment histories and quickly decide whether or not to approve new charges. Authorizers may enter address changes and credit extensions into computer credit files. Working Conditions Credit clerks and authorizers usually work a 35- to 40- hour week. However, during particularly busy periods, they may work over­ time. For credit clerks handling residential real estate, the busy peri­ ods are spring and summer and at the end of the month. For credit authorizers, busy periods are during the Christmas shopping season and on store sale days. In fact, temporary workers are often hired as credit authorizers during peak workloads. In retail establishments, authorizers may work nights and weekends during store hours. Credit authorizers and some credit clerks sit for long periods in front of video display terminals, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Employment Credit clerks and authorizers held about 218,000 jobs in 1992. About 8 in 10 were in banks and other financial institutions, and about 1 in 10 was in wholesale and retail trade. The rest were distrib­ uted among business services, such as credit reporting and collec­ tion agencies and computer and data processing services.  Credit Clerks and Authorizers (D.O.T. 205.367-022; 209.362-018; 219.362-038 and 367-046; 237.367-014; 241.267-030 and 367-018; and 249.362-014, -018, -022, and .367-022)  MUi  ■ mummm  .. .  Nature of the Work At some point in your life, you will probably apply for credit—to buy a home, furniture or appliances, an automobile, or to get a credit card. A credit clerk or authorizer will review your credit his­ tory and obtain the information needed to determine your creditworthiness. Credit clerks contact applicants, credit bureaus, and other sources for information, and verify loan documents to en­ sure completeness. Credit authorizers refer to credit records and re­ ports to decide whether to approve a customer’s credit card purchase. Clerks in credit bureaus secure, update, and verify information for credit reports. These workers are often called credit investigators or reporters. Clerks in banks and other financial institutions process loan and credit applications. Some clerks verify employment and fi­ nancial information of credit card applicants. Loan processing clerks prepare loan applications for underwriters. They review loan  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  'MM  A credit authorizer reviews a customer’s credit records before approving a new car loan.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific training is needed for entry level positions in credit clerking and authorizing, with the exception of loan closing and loan interviewing. Closers and interviewers are often required to have previous work experience, preferably in financial institutions, and some knowledge of underwriting. New employees are generally trained on the job—working under the close supervision of more experienced workers—although some firms offer formal training. Some credit workers also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universities. As workers demonstrate competence, they can advance to team leader of a small group of clerks, loan or credit department supervisor, underwriter, loan officer, or management. For management positions, employers prefer applicants with a bachelor’s degree in business or a related field, or at least some college-level business or management courses. Because positions in these fields involve much telephone contact, good communication skills are a necessity. Good organizational skills and the ability to pay attention to detail are also important. Many credit checkers use computers to enter and retrieve data, so some computer skills and good typing speed are required. Job Outlook Employment of credit clerks and authorizes is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the volume of credit in the economy continues to grow. Growth will occur as the number of real estate, retail sales, and other transac­ tions requiring credit increases. The interpersonal nature of loan clerking and the judgment required of authorizes ensure that com­ puters will not significantly affect employment. In addition to jobs created by growth, many jobs will become available as workers re­ tire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings According to a survey of mortgage banking companies conducted by Carl D. Jacobs & Associates, the average entry level salary for loan processos was about $18,000 in branch offices and $19,000 in central offices in 1992. According to a 1993 salary survey by the A.M.S. Foundation (Administrative Management Society), the average salary for credit and collection clerks was about $20,800. Full-time workers generally receive health insurance, vacation and sick leave, and other standard benefits; part-timers may not. In addition, workers in retail establishments usually receive a discount on store purchases.  263  clerks have duties that are as diverse as the needs of the employer. Some days may be spent filing or typing; others may be spent enter­ ing data at a computer terminal. They also may operate photocopiers, fax machines, or other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread copy; and answer telephones and deliver messages. A general office clerk in a doctor’s office may not perform the same tasks as a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto parts wholesaler. Although they all may sort checks, keep payroll records, take inventory, or access information, they also may perform duties specific to their employer like organizing medi­ cations, making transparencies for a presentation, or filling orders received by fax machine. Duties also vary by level of experience. Inexperienced employees may transcribe data, operate calculators, or record inquiries while more experienced workers may handle greater responsibilities. They might maintain financial or other records, verify statistical reports for accuracy and completeness, handle and adjust customer com­ plaints, take inventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on departmental services and functions, and help prepare budgetary requests. Senior general office clerks may be expected to oversee and direct the work of lower level clerks. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for general office clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Those on a full-time schedule usually work a standard 40-hour week. Some may work shifts or overtime during busy periods and 1 in 4 works part time. In addition, many general office clerks work as temporaries. Employment General office clerks held about 2,688,000 jobs in 1992. They work in every sector of the economy. Most general office clerks are em­ ployed in relatively small businesses, with over 50 percent working in the services or wholesale and retail trade industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many general office clerk jobs are entry level and do not require of­ fice or business experience. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, word processing, and other gen­ eral office skills. In addition, basic computer skills are becoming in­ creasingly important. Training for this occupation is available in business education programs offered in high schools, community and junior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in keyboarding,  Related Occupations Occupations with duties similar to those of credit clerks and authorizers include claim examiners and adjusters, customer-complaint clerks, procurement clerks, probate clerks, and collection clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about local job opportunities in credit clerking and au­ thorizing may be obtained from retail stores, banking institutions, and credit reporting agencies.  General Office Clerks (D.O.T. 209.362-030, .562-010; 219.362-010, -022, -026; 243.362-014­ 245.362-014, .367-010, -014, -018; 249.367-010, -014; 375.362-010)  Nature of the Work The duties of general office clerks are too varied and diverse for them to be classified in any specific administrative support occupa­ tion. Rather than specialize in a single primary task, general office  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  General office clerks have a variety of skills, enabling them to work in almost any office setting.  264  Occupational Outlook Handbook  microcomputer applications, and office practices are particularly helpful. General office clerks usually work with others. Therefore, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. They must also be willing to change to meet the unexpected requirements of the job. General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, inter­ personal, and analytical skills may be promoted to supervisory posi­ tions. Others move into different clerical jobs, such as receptionist, typist, or secretary. Advancement to professional occupations in the establishment usually requires more formal education like a college degree. Job Outlook Opportunities for persons interested in becoming general office clerks should be quite favorable. The large size and high turnover of this occupation should produce a significant number of job open­ ings. Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills, basic computer skills, and knowledge of office machine operation such as fax machines and copiers should have the best opportunities. Gen­ eral office clerks should find many opportunities for part-time or temporary work, especially during peak business periods. Because they are so versatile, general office clerks find work in virtually every kind of industry. Therefore, employment is not de­ pendent on the fortunes of any single sector of the economy. Simi­ larly, because they perform a wide variety of office duties using many types of equipment, their employment is not necessarily de­ pendent on any particular technological development. Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as more small businesses place a single office worker—frequently a general office clerk—in charge of all clerical work. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time general office clerks were about $18,500 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $14,300 and $24,100 annually. Ten percent earned less than $11,400, and 10 per­ cent more than $29,500. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, beginning general office clerks had median annual earnings of $12,700 in 1992, with the middle half earning about $11,400 to $14,600 a year. The most experienced general office clerks had me­ dian annual earnings of about $23,800, with the middle half earning between about $20,800 and $26,900 a year. General office clerks’ salaries vary by industry. They tend to be highest in public utilities and mining and lowest in construction and finance, insurance, and real estate. In 1993, the Federal Government paid general office clerks a starting salary of between $13,382 and $16,393 a year, depending on education and experience. In 1993, general office clerks in the Fed­ eral Government earned an average annual salary of $22,791. Related Occupations General office clerk is usually an entry-level office job. Entry-level jobs in other settings include cashier, medical assistant, teacher aide, and food and beverage service worker. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies that specialize in placing administrative support personnel can provide information about job openings for general office clerks.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Information Clerks Nature of the Work Information clerks gather information from and provide informa­ tion to the public. Depending on the organization, they may be known as hotel and motel desk clerks, interviewing clerks, new ac­ counts clerks, receptionists, reservation agents, transportation ticket agents, or travel clerks. Although their day-to-day duties vary widely, many information clerks greet customers, guests, or other visitors, determine their needs, and either assist them or refer them to someone who can help. Other clerks answer telephones or elicit information from the pub­ lic. Most information clerks use automated office equipment, such as multiline telephones, fax machines, and personal computers, in the course of their work. While this equipment allows them to pro­ cess more information, it does not alter the basic requirement of their job—communication and human interaction. More detail on these occupations is available in the statements that appear later in this section. Working Conditions Those information clerks who greet customers and visitors usually work in areas that are highly visible and carefully designed and fur­ nished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually are pleasant; work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Reservation agents generally work away from the public, in a space that a number of agents share, and as a result may be crowded and noisy. Although most information clerks work a standard 40-hour week, some work irregular schedules. Some jobs—those in the transportation industry, hospitals, and hotels, in particular—may require working evenings, late night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employees with the least seniority may be assigned the least desira­ ble shifts. The work of information clerks may be tiring, repetitious, and stressful. For example, receptionists may spend all day answering a continuously ringing telephone. Reservation agents and travel clerks use computer systems which may be electronically monitored by management. These workers also may have their telephone calls monitored or tape recorded by management, and may be subject to limitations on the time that they can spend on each call and quotas on the number of reservations which are made. Such practices can make stress-related complaints more common. Prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eye and musculoskeletal strain as well as complications to pregnancy. Both hotel and motel desk clerks and ticket agents may be on their feet most of the time, and ticket agents may have to lift heavy baggage. During holidays and other busy periods, these clerks may find the work hectic due to the large number of people to be served. When service does not flow smoothly—because of cancelled flights or mishandled reservations, for example—these clerks act as a buffer between the establishment and its customers. Trying to serve the needs of difficult or angry customers can be emotionally drain­ ing. Employment Information clerks held over 1.3 million jobs in 1992. The following tabulation shows 1992 employment for the individual occupations. Receptionists and information clerks............................................. Interviewing and new accounts clerks........................................... Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ... Hotel desk clerks.............................................................................  904,OCX) 175,000 131,000 122,000  These workers are employed throughout the economy, but are concentrated in hotels and motels, the health services industry,  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical banks and savings institutions, Firms providing business or real es­ tate services, and the transportation industry. This type of work lends itself to part-time schedules—more so for receptionists, inter­ viewing and new accounts clerks, and hotel and motel desk clerks than for reservation and transportation ticket agents. About 3 out of every 10 information clerks work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although hiring requirements vary from industry to industry, a high school diploma or its equivalent often is required. However, not all jobs require a high school diploma. Some high school and college students work part time as information clerks outside of school hours. For some jobs, such as airline reservation and ticket agents, some college education is preferred. With the exception of airline reservation and transportation ticket agents, orientation and training for information clerks gener­ ally are given on the job. Hotel and motel desk clerk job orientation usually is brief, and includes an explanation of the job duties and in­ formation about the establishment, such as room location and avail­ able services. They learn job tasks through on-the-job training under the guidance of a supervisor or an experienced clerk. They often need additional training to use computerized reservation, room as­ signment, and billing equipment and systems. Receptionists generally receive on-the-job training. They learn how to operate the telephone system, personal computers, and the proper procedures for greeting visitors, and distributing mail, fax, and parcel deliveries. Most airline reservation agents learn their skills through formal company training programs. They spend some time in a classroom setting, learning company and industry policies, computer systems, and ticketing procedures. They learn to use a computer to obtain in­ formation on schedules, seat availability, and fares; to reserve space for passengers; and to plan passenger itineraries. They must learn airport and airline code designations, and are tested on this knowl­ edge. Since reservation agents are expected to limit the time spent on each call without alienating customers, learning how to carry on a conversation in an organized, yet pleasant manner is an important part of their training. After completing classroom instruction, new agents work with supervisors or experienced agents for a period of time. During this period, monitoring of telephone conversations may serve as a training device to improve the quality of customer service. In contrast, automobile clubs, bus lines, and railroads either train their travel clerks on the job, without formal classes, or con­ duct short in-house classes that can last several days. Most informa­ tion clerks continue to receive instruction on new procedures and company policies after their initial training ends. Because many information clerks deal directly with the public, a good appearance and a pleasant personality are imperative, as are problem solving ability and good interpersonal skills. A clear speak­ ing voice and fluency in the English language are essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address sys­ tem. Courses useful to persons wanting to enter these occupations include basic math, English, geography, U.S. history, psychology, communications, and public speaking. Good spelling, typing ability, and computer literacy often are needed. Some employers may re­ quire applicants to take a typing and spelling test to gauge their skills, with a minimum typing speed of 35 to 50 words per minute often required for employment. It is increasingly helpful for those wishing to enter the hotel and motel industry to learn a foreign lan­ guage. Advancement for information clerks generally comes about ei­ ther by transfer to a more responsible occupation or by promotion to a supervisory position. For example, receptionists, interviewers, and new accounts clerks with typing or other clerical skills may ad­ vance to a better paying job as a secretary or administrative assis­ tant. In the airline industry, a ticket agent may advance to lead worker on the shift. Additional training frequently is helpful in pre­ paring information clerks for promotion. In the lodging industry,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  265  for example, clerks can improve their chances for advancement by taking home or group study courses in lodging management, such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. In some industries, such as lodging, workers commonly are promoted through the ranks. In many industries, a college degree may be required for advancement to management ranks. Job Outlook Overall employment of information clerks is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to the many openings that will occur as businesses and or­ ganizations expand, numerous jobs for information clerks will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs will create large numbers of job openings, reflecting relatively high turnover. Many young people work as information clerks for a few years before switching to other, better paying jobs. This work is well suited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part­ time work will continue to be available. Economic growth and general business expansion are expected to stimulate demand for these workers. Employment of receptionists, hotel and motel desk clerks, hospital admitting clerks, and reserva­ tion and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks should grow more rapidly than that of new accounts clerks. The slower growth projected for new accounts clerks reflects slow growth among com­ mercial banks and savings institutions, where employment is heav­ ily concentrated.  Earnings In 1992, median weekly earnings of full-time information clerks were about $320. The middle 50 percent earned between $260 and $420. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $210, while the top 10 percent earned more than $580. Earnings vary widely by occupation and experience. For example, weekly earnings ranged from less than $180 for the lowest paid hotel clerks to over $775 for the highest paid reservation agents. Salaries of reservation and ticket agents tend to be significantly higher than for other information clerks, while hotel and motel desk clerks tend to earn quite a bit less, as the following tabulation of median weekly earnings shows. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks......... Interviewing and new accounts clerks................................................. Receptionists......................................................................................... Hotel and motel clerks.........................................................................  $400 350 310  250  In 1993, the Federal Government commonly paid beginning re­ ceptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months’ experience sala­ ries ranging from $11,900 to $14,600 a year. The average salary for all receptionists employed by the Federal Government was $18,600 a year in 1993. Earnings of hotel and motel desk clerks depend on the location, size, and type of establishment in which they work. Large luxury hotels and those located in metropolitan and resort areas generally pay clerks more than less expensive properties and those located in less populated areas. In general, hotels pay higher salaries than mo­ tels or other types of lodging establishments. In addition to their hourly wage, full-time information clerks who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift dif­ ferential pay. Some employers offer educational assistance to their employees. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks receive free or very low cost travel on their company’s carri­ ers for themselves and their immediate family and, in some compa­ nies, free uniforms. Relatively few information clerks belong to un­ ions. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among  266  Occupational Outlook Handbook  these are dispatchers, security guards, bank tellers, guides, and tele­ phone operators.  Hotel and Motel Desk Clerks (D.O.T. 238.367-038)  Nature of the Work Hotel and motel desk clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments. They may regis­ ter guests and assign rooms, using personal computers. They answer questions about services, checkout times, the local community, and other matters in their public relations capacity. In assigning rooms, they consider their guests’ preferences while trying to maximize the establishment’s revenues. They keep records of room assignments so they can advise housekeepers, telephone operators, and mainte­ nance workers that rooms are occupied, and they collect payment. Desk clerks are always in the public eye and, through their attitude and behavior, greatly influence the public’s impressions and the es­ tablishment’s reputation. Because most smaller hotels and motels have minimal staffs, the clerk also may function as a bookkeeper, advance reservation agent, cashier, and/or telephone switchboard operator. Large establish­ ments usually have specialized employees to perform these various services. Employment Hotel and motel desk clerks held about 122,000 jobs in 1992. This occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules, with over 1 in 5 clerks working part time. Hotels and motels are found in all parts of the country, and so are these jobs.  more hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments are built and as occupancy rates rise. Several factors should favorably affect employment of hotel and motel desk clerks. Business travel will likely remain strong. Pleasure travel also is expected to increase in the coming years. The number of international travelers to the United States should continue to grow steadily because of increased promotion abroad of the domes­ tic tourist industry. Increases in the number of two-income families, as well as smaller families and delayed childbearing, should raise discretionary income. This will, in turn, increase the demand for va­ cation accommodations. Shifts in travel preference away from long vacations and toward long weekends and other, more frequent, short trips also should increase demand. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines, so persons seeking these positions have a harder time finding jobs. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in the lodging industry, as well as informa­ tion about professional development and training programs, may be obtained from: tw The Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association, P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826.  (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.)  Interviewing and New Accounts Clerks (D.O.T. 205.362-018, -026, -030, .367-014, -026, -042, -054, and -058)  Job Outlook Job opportunities for hotel and motel desk clerks should be rela­ tively good because turnover is very high. Each year thousands of workers transfer to other occupations that offer better pay and ad­ vancement opportunities, and many more leave work altogether to assume family responsibilities, return to school, or for other reasons. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be plentiful since the front desk must be staffed 24 hours a day. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as  Nature of the Work Interviewing and new accounts clerks communicate with individu­ als in person or by telephone or mail, to assist them in opening bank accounts, gaining admission to medical facilities, or completing charge account applications, consumer surveys, and other forms. They may verify information, create files, and perform various processing tasks. The specific duties and job titles of these workers depend upon the type of employer. New accounts clerks, who comprise over 6 out of 10 of this occu­ pational group, also are known as customer service representatives. They work for financial institutions such as commercial banks, credit unions, and savings and loan associations. They interview people who want to open a checking or savings account and record the data on an application form. They describe the increasing array of financial services that are available and help people fill out forms  Hotel and motel desk clerks often are the first employees that guests encounter.  Interviewing and new accounts clerks compile information through interpersonal communication.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical for special services, such as overdraft protection or automatic teller machine cards. They may answer telephone inquiries about proce­ dures for opening or closing accounts. (Bank tellers, who also may perform customer service representative duties, are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.) Many clerks work in hospitals, doctors’ offices, and other health­ care facilities, where they commonly are known as admitting inter­ viewers. They gather all the preliminary information required for admission, generally including the patient’s name, address, age, health history, present medications, previous hospitalizations, relig­ ion, persons to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and individual or insurance company responsible for payment of the bill. They may assign a patient to a room and escort the patient or ar­ range for an escort to the assigned room. They type admitting and discharge records and route them to designated departments. They receive payments and answer the telephone. In an outpatient set­ ting, they also schedule appointments, note cancellations, and pro­ vide general information about care. Charge-account clerks and survey workers interview individuals to complete credit applications or to conduct market research surveys on such topics as occupation and earnings, political prefer­ ences, and buying habits. In either case, they ask a carefully worded series of questions, enter the responses, and forward the results to management. (For more information about the issuance of credit, see the statement on credit clerks and authorizes elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Interviewing and new accounts clerks held about 175,000 jobs in 1992. Over 6 out of 10 were employed by commercial banks and other depository institutions. Over 3 out of 10 worked in hospitals and other health-care facilities, while other clerks worked for firms providing business services. About 1 of every 4 interviewing clerks works part time. Job Outlook Overall employment of interviewing and new accounts clerks is ex­ pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth of interviewing clerks in the health services industry is expected to be faster than average. Additionally, much faster than average employment growth of in­ terviewing clerks will occur in personnel supply services, as more organizations contract out for the services of these clerks rather than support a staff of full-time clerks. On the other hand, slower than average employment growth is expected for new accounts clerks, reflecting slow growth among commercial banks and savings and loan institutions. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about em­ ployment opportunities. A brochure on careers in banking, including information on new accounts clerks (referred to as customer service representatives in the brochure), is available from:  to management. Another major responsibility of the receptionist is to answer the telephone and route the calls to the proper individual or department. Receptionists greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the person who can help them. They also answer questions from the public. Their day-to-day duties can vary, depending on where they work. Those in hospitals and doctors’ of­ fices, for example, may obtain personal and financial information and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. At beauty or hair salons, they arrange appointments and may direct customers to the hairstylist. In factories or large business firms and government offices, they provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take callers to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and related matters. Many receptionists keep records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. They may inform employees of their visitors’ arrivals or an expected visitor’s cancellation. When they are not busy with callers, they may perform secretarial duties—opening and sorting mail, collecting and distrib­ uting parcels, making fax transmittals and deliveries, updating ap­ pointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and doing simple bookkeeping, typing, and filing. Increasingly, receptionists use automated office equipment, such as personal computers, fax machines, and multiline telephone sys­ tems. While this equipment increases their productivity, it does not alter the basic content of their job—person to person contact and in­ teraction. Employment Receptionists held about 904,000 jobs in 1992, accounting for over two-thirds of all information clerk jobs. Over two-thirds of recep­ tionists worked in services industries, and about half of these were located in the health services industry—doctors’ and dentists’ of­ fices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent care centers, surgicenters, and clinics. Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, government, and real estate industries also employed large numbers of reception­ ists. About 3 of every 10 receptionists work part time. Job Outlook Job opportunities for receptionists should be plentiful. In addition to faster than average employment growth, turnover is high. Each year, several hundred thousand receptionists transfer to other occu­ pations, seeking better pay or career advancement, or leave the labor force to tend to household responsibilities, return to school, or re­ tire. In addition, because establishments need receptionists’ services even during economic downturns, they usually are not subject to layoffs during recessions.  ^■American Bankers Association Education Foundation, 1120 Connecti­ cut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) *  Receptionists (D.O.T. 203.362-014; 205.367-038; 237.267, .367-010, -018, -022, -026, -038, -042, -046, and -050; 238.367-022 and -034; 249.262 and .367-082)  Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression, and this is the job of the receptionist, who often is the first representative of the organization that a caller encounters. One primary duty of recep­ tionists, particularly those in large cities, is a security function—see­ ing who belongs in a given place and who does not. They also may be expected to monitor the attendance of employees and report this  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  267  Receptionists receive visitors and answer telephone calls.  /  268  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Many receptionists also perform secretarial duties. Good typing and computer skills, coupled with strong interpersonal and commu­ nications skills, enhance one’s job prospects. Employment of receptionists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. This is largely be­ cause so many receptionists work for firms in the services industry—including physician’s offices, law firms, temporary help agencies, and consulting firms—a sector of the economy that is ex­ pected to continue to show strong growth. On the other hand, the increasing use of voice mail may temper, somewhat, the demand for receptionists. Where several receptionists may have been required to answer the company’s telephones in the past, voice mail may now make it possible for one person to do the job. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job openings for receptionists. (See the introductory part of this section for information on work­ ing conditions, training requirements, and earnings.)  Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-030; 238.167, .362, .367-010, -014, -018, -026, -030; and 248.382)  Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Because so many people travel, it often is helpful, even necessary, to plan trips and make reservations well in advance. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks help accomplish this. These workers facilitate travel in a variety of ways. They may help individuals plan trips by answering questions and of­ fering suggestions on travel arrangements such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of accommodation. They make and con­ firm transportation and hotel reservations, calculate expenses, and write and sell tickets. When passengers are about to embark on their trip, these clerks may check their baggage, direct them to the point of departure, or help them to board. Reservation agents usually work in large central offices answer­ ing customer telephone inquiries and booking reservations. Agents generally have computer terminals and can quickly obtain informa­ tion needed to make, change, or cancel reservations at the custom­ er’s request. After a reservation has been made and the ticket pur­ chased, ticketing clerks compile and record information, such as dates of travel and method of payment. The tickets then are sent to x or are picked up by the traveler. Ticket agents sometimes are known as passenger agents, passen­ ger-booking clerks, reservation clerks, ticket clerks, or ticket sellers. In addition to selling tickets, they may answer inquiries, check bag­ gage, examine passports and visas, ensure passenger seating, or check in animals. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate agents, work in airports and terminals assisting passengers when boarding. Their duties include directing passengers to the cor­ rect boarding area, checking tickets, making boarding announce­ ments, and assisting young, elderly, or disabled passengers when they board or depart. Passenger rate clerks work for bus companies. They sell tickets for regular bus routes and arrange nonscheduled or chartered trips by planning travel routes, computing rates, and keeping customers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel ac­ commodations. Most travel clerks are employed by automobile clubs. These workers, known as member services counselors or travel counselors, plan trips, calculate mileage, and offer travel suggestions for club members. They highlight the best route from the point of origin to the destination, as well as the return, using a road map. They also  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  prepare an itinerary which indicates points of interest, restaurants, overnight accommodations, and availability of emergency services during the trip. They may make rental car, hotel, or restaurant res­ ervations for club members. Travel clerks also work in other settings, such as hotels and mo­ tels, business firms, and government agencies. When individuals are planning trips, travel clerks assist them by providing the appropri­ ate literature and information, answering questions, and offering suggestions. They make reservations, pick up and deliver tickets, ar­ range for visas, and make any other arrangements necessary to make the trip more enjoyable. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks must be knowledgeable about their companies’ policies and industry procedures. They must be able to use computers to ascertain the availability of special promotions and services, and be able to an­ swer any questions their customers may have. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 131,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly 2 of every 3 workers are em­ ployed by the airlines. Others work for membership organizations like automobile clubs, hotels and other lodging places, railroad com­ panies, bus lines, and other companies that provide transportation services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work in downtown ticket and reservation offices and at large metropolitan transportation terminals, where most passenger busi­ ness originates. The remainder often work in smaller communities served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Most applicants for reservation and transportation ticket agent jobs are likely to encounter considerable competition because the supply of qualified applicants far outstrips demand. Many people satisfy the entry requirements, and airline jobs, in particular, attract many applicants because of the travel benefits and glamour associated with the industry. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2005. Both business and pleasure travel, by airline, bus, rail, and automobile, will likely remain strong and spur employment growth. Increases in the number of two-income families, as well as smaller families and delayed childbearing, should raise discretionary income and allow for more recreational travel. Job openings also will become available as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. However, the number of openings will be smaller than that of other  Increased travel will spur demand for more ticket agents.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical information clerks because turnover among reservation and trans­ portation ticket agents and travel clerks is the lowest of all informa­ tion clerks. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel declines, and transporta­ tion service companies are less likely to hire and may even lay off or demote agents and clerks. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities as reservation and trans­ portation ticket agents and travel clerks, write the personnel man­ ager of individual transportation companies. Addresses of airlines are available from: 13" Air Transport Association of America, Suite 1100, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20004-1707.  A brochure describing airline jobs is available from: Air Line Employees Association, Job Opportunity Program, 5600 South Central Ave., Chicago, IL, 60638-3797.  (See the introductory part of this section for information on work­ ing conditions, training requirements, and earnings.)  Mail Clerks and Messengers (D.O.T. 209.587-018 and .687-026; 215.563; 222.367-022, .387-038, .567-018, and .587-030 and -032; 230.647-010 and .663-010; 239.567, .677, and .687; 243.367-010; 248.367-030; and 249.687-010)  Nature of the Work Mail clerks and messengers help businesses and governments run ef­ ficiently by moving and distributing information, documents, and small packages. Most large organizations employ mail clerks to handle their inter­ nal mail. Internal mail goes back and forth among people, offices, or departments within a firm or institution. It ranges from memos to key personnel to bulletins on job issues to all employees. Mail clerks sort internal mail and deliver it to their fellow employees, often us­ ing carts to carry the mail between offices. Mail clerks also handle external mail, serving as the link between the U.S. Postal Service and individual offices and workers. They sort incoming mail and deliver mail within large office buildings. They also prepare outgoing mail—which may range from advertis­ ing flyers, to customers’ orders, to legal documents—for delivery to the post office. Many organizations mail numbers of identical items; mail clerks may prepare materials for mailing by folding and in­ serting them into envelopes, and affixing the proper postage. Mail may be sent registered, certified, special delivery or first, second, third, or fourth class. When necessary, they contact delivery ser­ vices to send important letters or parcels. Mail clerks also may sort large mailings by zip code before delivery to the post office. In larger organizations, or organizations with a large volume of outgoing mail, mail clerks often operate machines which collate, fold, and in­ sert material to be mailed into envelopes. They also operate ma­ chines which affix postage. In addition, mail clerks increasingly use computers to keep their records of incoming and outgoing items. Messengers pick up and deliver letters, important business docu­ ments, or small packages which need to be sent or received in a hurry from one side of town to another. By sending an item by mes­ senger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Messengers also deliver items which the sender is unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial documents. Some messengers pick up and deliver important small packages such as medical samples to be tested. Messengers receive their instructions either by reporting to their office in person or by telephone or two- way radio. They then pick  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  269  up the item and carry it to its destination. After a delivery, they check with their office and receive instructions about the next deliv­ ery. Consequently, most messengers spend most of their time out­ doors or in their vehicle. Messengers usually maintain records of de­ liveries and often obtain signatures from the persons receiving the items. Most messengers deliver items within a limited geographic area, such as a city or metropolitan area. Items which need to go longer distances usually are sent by mail or by an overnight delivery ser­ vice. Some messengers carry items only for their employer, which typically might be a law firm, bank, or financial institution. Other messengers may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and mainly carry items between an organization’s buildings or en­ tirely within one building. Many messengers work for messenger or courier services; for a fee they pick up items from anyone and deliver them to specified destinations within a local area. Messengers reach their destination by several methods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. A few travel by foot, espe­ cially in urban areas or when making deliveries nearby. In congested urban areas, messengers often use bicycles, since this is the fastest way to travel in heavy traffic. Bicycle messengers usually are em­ ployed by messenger or courier services. Only electronic facsimile (FAX) machines that send copies of documents over telephone lines can deliver information faster in a city than bicycle messengers, but for many types of business transactions a FAX copy cannot substi­ tute for the original document. Some messengers, especially those who work for courier services, provide and maintain their own transportation. They receive a fee for each delivery, from which they must deduct any expenses associ­ ated with the operation of their vehicle. Unlike other messengers, they seldom receive paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance, or other benefits. Working Conditions Working conditions for mail clerks are much different from the working conditions for most messengers. Most mail clerks work regular hours, spending much of their time in mailrooms, which are usually located in office buildings. Although mailrooms are usually clean and well lighted, there may be noise from mail-handling ma­ chines. Most of the rest of their time is spent making mail deliveries throughout an office building. Mail clerks spend most of their time on their feet while sorting and delivering mail and operating ma­ chinery, which can be tiring and physically demanding. They are sometimes required to lift heavy objects but usually the work is not strenuous. Messengers work in a less structured environment than mail clerks because they spend most of their time alone making deliveries  - jl  Mail clerks sort internal mail and deliver it to their fellow employees.  270 Occupational Outlook Handbook and usually are not closely supervised. Although many messengers work full time during regular business hours, some messengers work nights and weekends. Messengers who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and are exposed to all weather conditions as well as the many hazards con­ nected with heavy traffic. Some messengers, especially those who work for courier services, are paid according to the number of deliv­ eries made and distance traveled. The pressure to make as many de­ liveries as possible to increase earnings can be stressful and may lead to unsafe driving or bicycling practices. Employment Messengers and mail clerks together held about 271,000 jobs in 1992; about 131,000 were mail clerks and 140,000 were messengers. Only about 12 percent of the messengers were employed by courier and messenger services. About 12 percent worked for law firms, and 12 percent worked for hospitals and medical and dental laborato­ ries. Financial institutions, such as commercial banks, saving insti­ tutions, and credit unions, employed 10 percent. The rest were em­ ployed in a wide variety of other industries. In 1992, about one-fifth of all mail clerks worked in Federal, State, and local governments. Others were employed in a wide range of industries. Very few messengers or mail clerks were self-em­ ployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no formal qualifications or training required to be a mail clerk or messenger, although some employers prefer high school graduates. This is a first job for many. Mail clerks must be careful and dependable workers. They must be able to do routine work and work well with their hands. They are usually trained on the job. If they operate computers and mail-han­ dling machinery to help prepare mailings, training may be provided by another employee or by a representative of the machinery manu­ facturer. Mail clerks are sometimes required to have a driver’s li­ cense if they make deliveries to other buildings. Messengers are required to have a driver’s license if they operate a motor vehicle; many messengers are required to provide and main­ tain their own vehicle. They need a good knowledge of the geo­ graphic area in which they travel as well as a good sense of direction. Some mail clerks, depending on the size of the operation, advance to positions as clerical staff supervisors or office managers. Other mail clerks transfer to related jobs with the U.S. Postal Service, if they pass the competitive entrance examination. (Information on postal clerk and mail carrier careers appears elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Messengers, especially those who work for messenger or cou­ rier services, have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of mail clerks and messengers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 despite an increasing volume of internal mail, parcels, business documents, promotional materials, and other written information that must be handled and delivered as the economy expands. Never­ theless, job opportunities are expected to be plentiful for mail clerks and messengers through the year 2005. Most job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Mail clerk and messenger jobs are attractive to many because the limited formal education and training requirements allow easy entry, mak­ ing them attractive to persons seeking their first job or a short- term source of income. This is especially true for messengers, many of whom work in this occupation a relatively short time. Businesses’ growing reliance on directly mailing advertising and promotional materials to prospective customers will result in in­ creasing amounts of mail to be handled. However, increasing auto­ mation of mail-handling will enable mail clerks to handle a growing  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  volume of mail. In addition, employment of mail clerks will be lim­ ited by more widespread use of robot mail carts to distribute mail in large office buildings. Employment of messengers will grow more slowly as new elec­ tronic information-handling technology comes into more wide­ spread use. Electronic facsimile, or FAX machines, for example, al­ low copies of documents to be immediately sent across town or across the country and are rapidly becoming standard office equip­ ment. The transmission of information through telephone lines be­ tween computers will also reduce the demand for messengers as more computers are connected to networks. However, messengers will still be needed to transport materials which cannot be sent elec­ tronically, such as legal documents, blueprints and other over-sized materials, large multipage documents, and securities. Also, messen­ gers will still be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and deliver medical samples, specimens, and other materials. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time mail clerks were about $300 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $240 and $390 a week. Median weekly earnings of full-time messengers were about $350. The middle 50 percent of messengers earned between $250 and $560 a week. Messengers occasionally receive tips from clients, but this is not a significant part of their earnings. Some messengers are paid by commission rather than earning a regular wage. The commission usually is based on the number of de­ liveries made, the distance traveled, and the fee charged to the cus­ tomer. They must provide their own transportation and must pay fuel and maintenance costs. The more deliveries they make and the faster they travel, the more they earn. They seldom receive paid va­ cation or sick leave, health insurance, or other benefits. Messengers working for employers other than messenger and courier services usually are paid by the hour and receive the benefits offered to all employees. Mail clerks are usually paid by the hour and benefits often include health and life insurance, sick leave, vacation pay, and pension plan. Related Occupations Messengers and mail clerks sort and deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are postal clerks and mail carriers, route driv­ ers, traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks, correspondence review clerks, vault workers, parcel post clerks, and reconsignment clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Per­ sons interested in mail clerk and messenger jobs may also contact messenger and courier services, mail order firms, banks, printing and publishing firms, utility companies, retail stores, or other large firms.  Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Workers in this group are responsible for a variety of communica­ tions and recordkeeping operations in business and government. In general, they coordinate, expedite, and keep track of orders for per­ sonnel, equipment, and materials.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Dispatchers receive requests for service and initiate action to pro­ vide that service. Duties vary, depending on the needs of the em­ ployer. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, handle calls from people reporting crimes, fires, and medical emergencies; truck, bus, and train dispatchers schedule and coordinate the movement of these vehicles; taxicab dispatchers relay requests for cabs to individual drivers; tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service; and gas, electric, and tele­ phone company dispatchers handle calls related to utility and tele­ phone service. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep track of all incoming and outgoing shipments of goods transferred between businesses, suppliers, and customers. Traffic clerks keep a record of destination, weight, and charges of all incoming and outgoing shipments. Ship­ ping clerks assemble, address, stamp, and ship merchandise or materials. Receiving clerks unpack, verify, and record incoming merchandise. In a small company, one clerk may perform all of these tasks. Stock clerks receive, unpack, store, issue, and maintain an inven­ tory. The inventory may be merchandise in wholesale and retail es­ tablishments, and equipment, supplies, or materials in other kinds of organizations. In small firms, they may perform all of the above tasks, as well as those usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. In large establishments, they may be responsible for only one task. More detail on these occupations is available in the statements that follow. Other administrative support occupations in this group include production, planning, and expediting clerks—who coordinate and expedite the flow of work and material according to production schedules; procurement clerks—who draw up purchase orders to ob­ tain merchandise or material; weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers—who weigh, measure, and check materials; and utilities meter readers—who read electric, gas, water, or steam meters and record the volume used by their customers. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably by occupation and employ­ ment setting. The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when a large number of calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because slow or improper response to a call can result in further destruction of property, seri­ ous injury, or death. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may be­ come hysterical and be unable to provide the needed information; some even become abusive. Despite provocations, the dispatcher must remain calm, objective, and in control of the situation. Dispatchers work inside in surroundings that are typical of office jobs. They sit for long periods, often using telephones, computers, and two-way radios. If a lot of time is spent at a video display termi­ nal, as is increasingly commonplace, they may experience eyestrain and back discomfort. Dispatchers generally work a standard 40hour week. However, evening, weekend, and holiday work is com­ mon for those service providers who operate around the clock. Some employers rotate dispatchers among three shifts to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Traffic, shipping, receiving, and stock clerks work in a wide vari­ ety of businesses, institutions, and industries. They work in ware­ houses, stock rooms, or in shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. They also may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are ex­ posed to the weather. Most jobs involve frequent standing, bending, walking, stretching, lifting, and carrying. Although many use mechanical material-handling equipment to move heavy items, the work can be strenuous. The typical workweek is 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday, although evening and weekend hours are standard for some jobs and may be required in others when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  271  Employment In 1992, material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distribut­ ing workers held nearly 3.6 million jobs. Employment was distrib­ uted among the occupations in this group as follows: Total.........................................................................................  3,588,000  Stock clerks ................................................................................. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks........................................ Production, planning, and expediting clerks ............................. Dispatchers................................................................................... Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales...................................... Procurement clerks..................................................................... Meter readers, utilities................................................................ Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers........................... Allother.......................................................................................  1,782,000 824,000 239,000 222,000 187,000 61,000 49,000 46,000 178,000  Nearly 3 out of 4 material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing jobs were in manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. Although these workers are found throughout the country, most work near population centers where stores, warehouses, facto­ ries, and large communications centers are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire high school graduates, especially those who have taken business courses. Preference also may be given to candidates who have previous business, dispatching, or specific jobrelated experience. Good reading and writing skills, as well as a ba­ sic knowledge of business arithmetic are necessary. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills are also important. Some employers give applicants typing tests. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks and stock clerks who han­ dle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may have to be bonded. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatching jobs generally are governed by State or local government civil service regulations. Candidates for these jobs may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. A familiarity with personal computers or computer systems is an asset, because com­ puters are increasingly used for inventory control and for dispatch­ ing. Trainees usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This in­ formal training may last from several days to a few months, depend­ ing on the complexity of the job. Dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Working under an experienced dispatcher, they monitor calls and learn how to operate telephones, radio trans­ mitters and receivers, radio consoles, teletypewriters, and data com­ munications terminals. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. Many public safety dispatchers also partici­ pate in structured training programs provided by their employer. Some employers offer a course designed by the Associated Public Safety Communications Officers (APCO). This course includes such units as interpersonal communications; overview of the police, fire, and rescue functions; modem public safety telecommunications systems; basic radio broadcasting; local, State, and national crime information computer systems; and telephone complaint/report processing procedures. Other employers develop in-house programs based on their own needs. Emergency medical dispatchers often get special training or have special skills. Some agencies bring in trained paramedics or nurses to work as dispatchers, but because this is so costly, many agencies expand the training of their dispatchers to in­ clude instruction on how to help callers begin appropriate lifesaving procedures while trained professionals are on their way. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification re­ quirements, some States require that public safety dispatchers pos­ sess a certificate to work on a State network such as the Police Infor­ mation Network. Voluntary certification programs are offered by both APCO and the International Municipal Signal Association. Many dispatchers participate in these programs in order to improve their prospects for career advancement. Stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks usually learn the job by doing simple tasks under close supervision. They  272  Occupational Outlook Handbook  learn how to count and mark stock and then start keeping records and taking inventory. Stock clerks whose sole responsibility is to bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks need little or no training. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels and making sure the addresses are correct. Training in the use of auto­ mated equipment is usually done informally on the job. Communications skills, physical fitness, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment is frequently re­ quired for public safety dispatchers. Dispatchers in transportation industries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks and sometimes under pressure are important characteristics for stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. Advancement opportunities vary with the place of employment. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which are usually small, will find few opportunities for advancement. Public safety dispatch­ ers, on the other hand, may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or move to higher paying administra­ tive jobs. Some may go on to become police officers or firefighters. In large firms, stock clerks may advance to invoice clerk, stock con­ trol clerk, or procurement clerk. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks may be promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad un­ derstanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field such as industrial traffic management. With additional training, some stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent. Job Outlook Overall employment of material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth among the occupations in this group is expected to vary, however. Employment of stock clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average. The volume of business transactions will in­ crease as the economy grows, but automation will enable clerks to handle more stock, holding down employment growth somewhat. The impact of automation will be greatest in warehouses and stock­ rooms. Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average, although automation and other productivity improvements may enable these clerks to handle materials more efficiently, reducing potential employment opportunities. Employment of dispatchers is also expected to grow as fast as the average as the population increases and with it the need to protect property and to coordinate the transportation and ship­ ment of a larger amount of goods. Because employment in material recording, scheduling, dispatch­ ing, and distributing occupations is substantial, workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations are expected to cre­ ate many thousands ofjob openings each year. Earnings Median weekly earnings of workers in all material recording, sched­ uling, dispatching, and distributing occupations were about $384 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $291 and $514. The lowest 10 percent earned $226 or less; the top 10 percent earned over $688.  Earnings vary somewhat by occupation and industry. Dispatch­ ers earn slightly more than the average for all occupations, and stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks generally earn less. Median weekly earnings of dispatchers were $420 in 1992. The median weekly earnings of traffic, shipping, receiving, and stock clerks were between $350 and $370 in 1992, with stock clerks generally receiving the higher pay. Workers in material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and dis­ tributing occupations usually receive the same benefits as most  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  other workers. See the introductory section, Keys To Understand­ ing What’s in the Handbook, for more information on benefits. If uniforms are required, employers usually either provide the uniforms or an allowance to purchase them.  Dispatchers (D.O.T. 215.167-010, .367-018; 221.362-014, .367-070, -082; 239.167-014; .367-014, -022, -030; 248.367-026; 249.167-014, .367-070; 372.167-010; 379.162-010; .362-010, and -018; 910.167-014, .367-018; 911.167-010; 913.167-010; .367-010; 914.167-014; 919.162-010; 932.167-010; 939.362­ 010- 952.167-010; 953.167-010; 954.367-010; 955.167-010; and 959.167-010)  Nature of the Work Dispatchers work in a wide array of situations. Some receive and transmit emergency calls from the public requesting assistance and coordinate the dispatching of the appropriate service provider. Others, like those in transportation, coordinate arrivals and depar­ tures of shipments so that specific time schedules are kept. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, are usually the first people the public talks to when they call for emergency assistance. Dispatchers receive these calls in a va­ riety of settings; they may work in a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or a centralized city communications center. In many cit­ ies, the police department serves as the communications center. In these situations, all 911 emergency calls go to the police department where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling a call, dispatchers carefully question the caller to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. They then quickly decide on the kind and number of units needed, locate the closest and most suitable ones available, and send them to the scene of the emergency. They keep in touch with the units until the emergency has been handled, in case further instructions are needed. When appropriate, they stay in close contact with other ser­ vice providers—for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medi­ cal emergency, dispatchers not only keep in close touch with the dis­ patched units but also with the caller. They often give extensive pre­ arrival first aid instructions while the caller is waiting for the ambu­ lance. They continuously give updates on the patient’s condition to the ambulance personnel and often serve as a link between the medi­ cal staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance. (The work of emergency medical technicians is de­ scribed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Truck dispatchers who work for local and long distance trucking companies coordinate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. They direct the pickup and delivery activities of drivers. They receive customers’ requests for pickup and delivery of freight, con­ solidate freight into truckloads for specific destinations, assign driv­ ers and trucks, make up routes and pickup and delivery schedules, and provide other information. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service and dispatch orders to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers are responsible for the timely move­ ment of trains according to train orders and schedules. Taxicab dis­ patchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for ser­ vice and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service. They relay the problem to a nearby gas station or a tow truck service and see to it that the emer­ gency road service is completed. Gas and water service dispatchers monitor gas lines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Other dispatchers coordinate de­ liveries, service calls, and related activities for a variety of firms. Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls they receive and the action they take. They may type and file cards on each call and then prepare detailed reports on all activities occurring during their shift. Those who work with a computer-aided dispatch system make the appropriate  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical  273  Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the move­ ment of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as information and message distribution, are airline-radio operators, airline dispatch­ ers, air traffic controllers, radio and television transmitter opera­ tors, telephone operators, customer service representatives, and transportation agents. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers contact: Associated Public Safety Communications Officers, 2040 S. Ridgewood South Daytona, FL 32119-8437. O’International Municipal Signal Association, P.O. Box 539, 165 East Union St., Newark, NY 14513-1526.  For general information and earnings on dispatchers contact:  The computerization of the workplace has aided dispatchers. entries and corrections into the computer as they occur, and then print a log or report at the end of their shift. Many police, ambulance, taxicab, and tow truck dispatchers work as part of a two-person team. One person usually receives incoming calls while the other dispatches and follows up on them. This is common­ place in large communications centers or companies. Employment Dispatchers held about 222,000 jobs in 1992. About one-third were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily for local police and fire departments. Most of the remaining dispatchers worked for local and long distance trucking companies and bus lines; telephone, elec­ tric, and gas utility companies; wholesale and retail establishments; and companies providing business services. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas where large communications centers and businesses are located. Job Outlook Overall employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the growing need for the various services that dispatchers provide. Most job openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Their employment is concentrated in State and local government, an industry sector which is expected to experience average growth. Increasingly intense competi­ tion among government functions for available resources should limit the ability of many growing communities to keep pace with rapidly growing emergency services needs. Although population growth and economic expansion are ex­ pected to increase overall employment of other dispatchers not in­ volved in public safety, not all specialties will be affected in the same way. Employment of taxicab, train, and truck dispatchers is sensi­ tive to economic conditions. When economic activity falls, demand for transportation services declines. They may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entry level jobs. Employment of tow truck dispatchers, on the other hand, is seldom affected by general economic conditions because of the emergency nature of their business. Computerization is making inroads into all areas of dispatching, increasing productivity and dampening employment growth some­ what. However, computer-aided dispatch systems are very expen­ sive, making them affordable only to relatively large establishments, and slowing growth of dispatchers using computers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ts-American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314-4677. tw Service Employees International Union, AFL-CIO, 1313 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005-4100. nr Communications Workers of America, 501 Third St. NW., Washington DC 20001-2797. ISf American Train Dispatchers Association, 1401 South Harlem Ave., Berwyn, IL 60402-1295.  Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from the personnel offices of State and local governments or police departments. Information about work oppor­ tunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employ­ ers and State employment service offices. (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, schedul­ ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations.)  Stock Clerks (D.O.T. 219.367-018, .387-026 and -030; 221.587-018 and -022; 222.167-010, .367-014, -026, -038, -042, -050, and -062, .387-018, -026, -030, -034, -042, -058, and -062, .487-010 and -014, .587-022 and -054, .684-010 .687-038 and -046; 229.367-010 and -014, .587-014; 249.367-058- 299 367­ 014, .677-014; 339.687-010; 381.687-010; and 969.367-010)  Nature of the Work Stock clerks receive, unpack, check, store, and keep track of mer­ chandise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leav­ ing the stock room and report damaged or spoiled goods. They or­ ganize and, when necessary, mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. In many firms, stock clerks use hand-held scanners connected to computers to keep inventories up to date. In stores, stock clerks may bring mer­ chandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stock­ rooms and warehouses, they store materials in bins, on the floor, or on shelves. In large establishments where they may be responsible for only one specific task, they may be known as inventory clerk, stock control clerk, merchandise distributor, order filler, property custodian, or storekeeper. In small firms they may also be responsi­ ble for tasks usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. Employment Stock clerks held almost 2 million jobs in 1992 with almost 80 per­ cent working in wholesale or retail trade. The greatest numbers were employed by department and grocery stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in urban areas where stores, warehouses, and factories are concentrated. Job Outlook Job prospects for stock clerks should be favorable even though em­ ployment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. This occupation is very large, and many job openings will occur each year to replace stock clerks who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Many jobs are en­ try level, and therefore many vacancies are created by normal career progression.  274  Occupational Outlook Handbook  r:  1  Stock clerks count all goods entering and leaving the warehouse to keep inventory records current. Growing use of computers for inventory control and new automated equipment are expected to slow growth in demand for stock clerks. This is especially true in manufacturing and in wholesale trade, the industries whose operations are most easily automated. In addition to computer­ ized inventory control systems, firms in these industries are expected to rely more and more on sophisticated conveyor belts, automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods, and automatic guided vehicles, which are battery powered and driverless. Employment of stock clerks who work in grocery, general mer­ chandise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation since much of their work is done manually on the sales floor and is difficult to automate. Related Occupations Other workers who also handle, move, organize, and store materials include shipping and receiving clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, stock supervisors, and cargo checkers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks. Also, see clerical and sales occupations elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information. General information about stock clerks can be obtained by con­ tacting: National Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004-2608.  other departments within the firm. They make sure that the rate charges are accurate by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. They may also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. Shipping clerks are record keepers responsible for all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels, and make sure orders have been filled correctly. They also record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Some­ times they fill the order themselves; they obtain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or pos­ tal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They also may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move the goods from the plant—sometimes by forklift truck—to the shipping dock and direct its loading. When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer’s orders have been correctly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or in­ voice. They record the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks record the information by using hand­ held scanners to read the bar codes on incoming products. After re­ cording this information, they connect the scanner or reader to a personal computer and transfer the data to the appropriate depart­ ment. They may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom. They also arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may also perform some stock clerk duties. Employment Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held about 824,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly two-thirds were employed by wholesale retail estab­ lishments or manufacturing firms. Although jobs for traffic, ship­ ping, and receiving clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where factories and wholesale establish­ ments generally are located. Many traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks work for the U.S. Postal Service. For information on these workers, see the statement on postal clerks and mail carriers, else­ where in the Handbook. Job Outlook Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth will continue to be affected by auto­ mation, as all but the smallest firms move to hold down labor costs  (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occu­ pations.)  Traffic, Shipping, and Receiving Clerks (D.O.T. 209.367-042; 214.587-014; 219.367-022 and -030; 221.367-022; 222.367-066, .387-014, -022, -050, and -054, .485-010, .567-010 and -014, .587-018, -034, and -058, .687- 022 and -030; 248.362-010, .367-014 and -022; 919.687-010; and 976.687-018)  Nature of the Work Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the estab­ lishment. In a small company, one clerk may be responsible for ac­ cepting deliveries, preparing shipments, and maintaining records. In a large company, the responsibilities are usually divided among sev­ eral clerks who specialize. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They sometimes enter this information into a computer to be used by the accounting and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  *, • v V. - * , m  Receiving clerks monitor the quantity and condition of incoming goods.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of materials handling have changed significantly in re­ cent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, com­ puter-directed trucks, and automatic storage and retrieval systems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in receiving departments has increased the productivity of these workers. Despite automation, job openings will arise due to increasing eco­ nomic activity and because certain functions cannot be automated. For example, someone needs to check shipments before they go out and when they arrive to ensure that everything is in order. However, most job openings will occur because of the need to replace traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks who leave the occupation. Because this is an entry level occupation, many vacancies are created by nor­ mal career progression. Related Occupations Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, ex­ press clerks, expediters, and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information General information about traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks can be obtained by contacting: National Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004-2608.  (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occu­ pations.)  Postal Clerks and Mail Carriers (D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367-018; and 243.367-014)  Nature of the Work Each day, the U.S. Postal Service receives, sorts, and delivers mil­ lions of letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this, it employs about 792,000 workers. Almost 5 out of 10 of these workers are postal clerks, who sort mail and serve customers in post offices, or mail carriers, who deliver the mail. Clerks and carriers are distinguished by the type of work they do. Clerks are usually classified by the mail processing function they perform, whereas carriers are classified by their type of route—city or rural. About 350 mail processing centers throughout the country ser­ vice post offices in surrounding areas and are staffed primarily by postal clerks. Some clerks, more commonly referred to as mail han­ dlers, unload the sacks of incoming mail; separate letters, parcel post, magazines, and newspapers; and transport these to the proper sorting and processing area. In addition, they may load mail into au­ tomated letter sorting machines, perform simple canceling opera­ tions, and rewrap packages damaged in processing. After letters have been put through stamp-canceling machines, they are taken to other workrooms to be sorted according to destina­ tion. Clerks operating older electronic letter-sorting machines push keys corresponding to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered; the machine then drops the letters into the proper slots. This older, less automated method of letter sorting is being slowly phased out. Other clerks sort odd- sized letters, magazines, and newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to lo­ cal post offices for sorting according to delivery route and delivered. A growing proportion of clerks operate optical character readers (OCR’s) and bar code sorters. Optical character readers “read” the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  275  zip code and spray a bar code onto the mail. Bar code sorters then scan the code and sort the mail. Because this is significantly faster than older sorting methods, it is becoming the standard sorting tech­ nology in mail processing centers. Postal clerks at local post offices sort local mail for delivery to in­ dividual customers, sell stamps, money orders, postal stationary, and mailing envelopes and boxes, weigh packages to determine post­ age, and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mail­ ing. Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and answer ques­ tions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally, they may help a customer file a claim for a damaged package. Once the mail has been processed and sorted, it is ready to be de­ livered by mail carriers. Duties of city and rural carriers are very similar. Most travel established routes delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. Recently, automated equipment has been able to sort most of the mail for city carriers, allowing them to spend less time sorting and more time delivering mail. Carriers may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some urban and most rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers use their own automobiles. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large build­ ings, such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d. (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed re­ ceipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and busi­ nesses. They turn in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels for further processing by clerks. The duties of some city carriers may be very specialized; some de­ liver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and receiving boxes in office buildings. In contrast, rural carriers pro­ vide a wide range of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept par­ cels, letters, and items to be registered, certified, or insured. All carriers answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. In addition to their regularly scheduled du­ ties, carriers often participate in neighborhood service programs in which they check on elderly or shut-in patrons or notify the police of any suspicious activities along their route. Postal clerks and mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers, hired for 90 days at a time, help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours; they replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part- time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day pe­ riod. Working Conditions Postal clerks usually work in clean, well-ventilated, and well-lit buildings. However, other conditions vary according to work as­ signments and the type of laborsaving machinery available. In small post offices, mail handlers use handtrucks to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another and clerks may sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and  276  Occupational Outlook Handbook more information about these workers, see the statement on traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.  I  Automation of mail sorting has reduced hand sorting significantly. conveyors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done by ma­ chines. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail handlers and postal clerks can be physically demanding. These workers are usually on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Mail handlers and distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of moving and sorting mail. Many work at night or on week­ ends because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Window clerks, on the other hand, have a greater variety of du­ ties, frequent contact with the public, and rarely have to work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, and they are held accountable for the assigned stock of stamps and for postal funds. Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. A carrier’s schedule has its advantages, however. Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon, and they spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Overtime hours may be required during peak delivery times, such as the holidays. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk when mak­ ing deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post items when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers always must be cautious of potential hazards on their routes. Wet roads and sidewalks can be treacherous, and each year numerous carriers are bitten by dogs. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 64,000 postal clerks and 297,000 mail carriers in 1992. About 85 percent of them worked full time. Most postal clerks provided window service and sorted mail at local post offices, although some worked at mail processing centers. Al­ though most mail carriers worked in cities and suburban communi­ ties, 43,000 were rural carriers. In addition to the postal clerks mentioned above, there were about 217,000 traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks employed in the U.S. Postal Service in 1992. Many of the duties of these clerks are described in the Nature of the Work section of this statement. For  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks and mail carriers must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have a high school di­ ploma). Qualification is based on a written examination that mea­ sures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and abil­ ity to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination as well, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for jobs as postal clerks operating electronic sorting machines must pass a special examination that includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license, a good driving record, and a passing grade on a road test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work in order to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examina­ tion scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably dis­ charged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years from the examination date. Relatively few people under the age of 25 are hired as career pos­ tal clerks or mail carriers, a result of keen competition for these jobs and the customary waiting period of 1-2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New postal clerks and mail carriers are trained on the job by ex­ perienced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction. Workers receive additional instruction when new equipment or pro­ cedures are introduced. They usually are trained by another postal employee or, sometimes, a training specialist hired under contract by the Postal Service. A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rap­ idly and accurately are important. In addition, mail handlers should be in good physical condition. Mail handlers and distribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch transportation deadlines. Window clerks and mail carriers must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving com­ plaints. Postal clerks and mail carriers often begin on a part- time flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority as vacan­ cies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory posi­ tion as expediter or window service technician. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases, or to higher level jobs such as carrier technician. Both clerks and carri­ ers can advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Those seeking a job in the Postal Service can expect to encounter keen competition—the number of applicants for postal clerk and mail carrier positions is expected to continue to far exceed the num­ ber of openings. Job opportunities will vary by occupation and du­ ties performed. Overall employment of postal clerks is expected to decline through the year 2005. In spite of anticipated increases in the total volume of mail, automation will continue to increase the productiv­ ity of postal clerks, slowing employment growth. Increasingly, mail will be moved using automated materials-handling equipment and sorted using optical character readers, bar code sorters, and other automated sorting equipment. In addition, demand for window clerks will be moderated by the increased sales of stamps and other  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical postal products by grocery and department stores and other retail outlets. Conflicting factors also are expected to influence demand for mail carriers. Despite competition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication, the volume of mail handled by the Postal Service is expected to continue to grow. Population growth and the formation of new households will stimulate demand for mail delivery. However, increased use of the “ZIP + 4” system, which is used to sort mail to the carrier route, and other automated sorting equipment should decrease the amount of time carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle longer routes. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more cen­ tralized mail delivery, such as the use of more cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. Although these trends are expected to increase carrier productivity, they should bal­ ance with the growth in mail volume, and employment of mail carri­ ers is expected to change little through the year 2005. Jobs will become available because of the need to replace postal clerks and mail carriers who retire or stop working for other rea­ sons. However, the factors that make entry to these occupations highly competitive—attractive salaries, a good pension plan, job se­ curity, and modest educational requirements—contribute to a high degree of job attachment. Accordingly, replacement needs produce relatively fewer job openings than in other occupations of this size. In contrast to the typical pattern, postal workers generally remain in their jobs until they retire; relatively few transfer to other occupa­ tions. Although the volume of mail to be processed and delivered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time postal clerks and mail carriers have never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time clerks and carriers work overtime, part-time clerks and carriers work additional hours, and casual clerks and carriers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings In 1992, base pay for beginning full-time carriers and postal clerks was $23,737 a year, rising to a maximum of $33,952 after 12 1/2 years of service. For those working between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m., a sup­ plement is paid. Experienced, full-time, city delivery mail carriers earn an average salary of $32,832 a year. Postal clerks and carriers working part-time flexible schedules begin at $11.81 an hour and, based on the number of years of service, increase to a maximum of $16.91 an hour. Rural delivery carriers had average base salaries of $34,951 in 1992. Their earnings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Carriers with heav­ ier workloads generally earn more than those with lighter wor­ kloads. Rural carriers also receive an equipment maintenance allow­ ance when required to use their own vehicles. In 1992, this was approximately 34 cents per mile. Postal workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits. These include health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and a pension plan. In addition to their hourly wage and benefits package, some pos­ tal workers receive a uniform allowance. This group includes those workers who are in the public view for 4 or more hours each day and various maintenance workers. The amount of the allowance de­ pends on the job performed—some workers are only required to wear a partial uniform, and their allowance is lower. In 1992, for ex­ ample, the allowance for a letter carrier was $252 per year, com­ pared to $108 for a window clerk. Most of these workers belong to one of four unions: American Postal Workers Union, National Association of Letter Carriers, Na­ tional Postal Mail Handlers Union, and National Rural Letter Car­ riers Association.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  277  Related Occupations Other workers whose duties are related to those of postal clerks in­ clude mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, material mov­ ing equipment operators, clerk typists, cashiers, data entry opera­ tors, and ticket sellers. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include messengers, merchandise deliverers, and deliveryroute truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment op­ portunities for postal clerks and mail carriers.  Record Clerks Nature of the Work Organizations of all kinds—businesses, government agencies, un­ ions, health care facilities, and colleges and universities—need to keep accurate records. Maintaining and updating financial as well as nonfinancial records, ranging from payroll records to informa­ tion on the shipment of goods to bank statements, is the job of re­ cord clerks. (Additional information about specific record clerk oc­ cupations is provided in the separate statements in this section.) Record clerks perform a wide variety of recordkeeping duties. Billing clerks prepare bills and invoices. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks maintain financial data in computer and paper files. Brokerage clerks prepare and maintain the records generated when stocks, bonds, and other types of investments are traded. Statement clerks prepare monthly statements for bank customers. File clerks store and retrieve various kinds of office information for use by members of the staff. Library assistants check books in and out. Order clerks process incoming orders for goods and services. Payroll and timekeeping clerks compute wages for payroll records. Personnel clerks keep employee records current. Record clerks’ duties may vary with the size of the firm. In a small business, for example, one bookkeeping clerk may handle all financial records and transactions as well as payroll and personnel duties while a large firm may employ specialized accounting clerks to work on each aspect of the balance sheet, as well as specialized payroll and personnel clerks. Increased computerization has changed the duties of most record clerks. In the past, for example, clerks made calculations with ad­ ding machines and entered figures into ledgers and paper files. Now, many workers use financial software to enter and manipulate data! In many cases, these computer programs can automatically perform calculations on data that previously had to be calculated manually. Computers enable clerks to access data within files more quickly than by leafing through stacks of paper. Despite increased automa­ tion, however, workers still keep backup paper records for research, auditing, and reference purposes. Interaction with the public and with coworkers is a basic part of the job of many record clerks. Payroll clerks, for example, may an­ swer employees’ questions concerning benefits; bookmobile drivers help patients in nursing homes and hospitals select books; and order clerks may call customers to verify special mailing instructions. Working Conditions With the exception of library clerks and bookmobile drivers, record clerks work in a typical office environment. Most work alongside the organization’s other clerical workers, but some work in central­ ized units away from the organization’s front office. Clerks who re­ view detailed data may have to sit for extended periods. Although they do not do heavy lifting, file clerks and library assistants must frequently stoop, bend, reach, and spend a lot of time on their feet. Bookmobile drivers must maneuver their large vehicles in all kinds  278  Occupational Outlook Handbook  of traffic and weather conditions. In addition, some are responsible for the maintenance of the bookmobile. An increasing number of record clerks use video display termi­ nals (VDT’s) as part of their daily routine. Workers who spend a lot of time at VDT’s may experience eyestrain and muscle strain, back­ aches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Most of these workers work regular business hours. Some, such as library assistants, may work evenings and weekends. Library assist­ ants employed in school libraries generally work only during the school year. Accounting clerks may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly and yearly accounting audits are performed. Billing, book­ keeping, and accounting clerks in hotels, restaurants, and stores may work overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. Bro­ kerage clerks may have to work overtime if there is a high volume of activity in the stock or bond markets. Order clerks in retail estab­ lishments may work overtime when sales volume is high, especially around Christmas. Employment Record clerks held about 3,573,000 jobs in 1992. The following tab­ ulation indicates the employment in each occupation. Total....................................................................................................  100  Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks ..................................... Billing clerks and related workers......................................................... Order clerks, material, merchandise, and service.................................. File clerks............................................................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks.............................................................. Personnel clerks, except payroll and timekeeping................................. Library assistants and bookmobile drivers............................................. Brokerage and statement clerks..............................................................  59 11 8  5 4  3 3  These workers are employed in virtually every industry. The larg­ est number work for firms providing health, business, and other types of services. Large numbers also work in trade; finance, insur­ ance, and real estate; manufacturing; and government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most record clerk jobs are entry level positions. Most employers re­ quire applicants to have at least a high school diploma or its equivalent. A higher level of education will usually be favored over a high school diploma, but it is not generally required. However, in some cases, more extensive education is mandatory. For example, order clerks in high-technology firms often need to understand sci­ entific and mechanical processes, which may require some college education. Regardless of the type of work being done, most employ­ ers prefer those who are computer literate. Knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet programs is especially valuable, as is ex­ perience working in an office and good interpersonal skills. High schools, business schools, and community colleges teach of­ fice skills. Business education programs typically include courses in typing (keyboarding), word processing, shorthand, business com­ munications, records management, and office systems and proce­ dures. Technical training needed for some specialized order clerk positions can be obtained in technical institutes and in 2- and 4-year colleges. Some entrants are college graduates with degrees in business, fi­ nance, or the liberal arts. Although a degree is rarely required, many graduates take entry level clerical positions to get into a company or into the finance and accounting field, with the hope of being pro­ moted to professional or managerial jobs. Some companies, such as brokerage and accounting firms, have a set plan of advancement that tracks college graduates from entry level clerk jobs into man­ agement positions. These workers may start at higher salaries and advance more rapidly than those without a degree. Once hired, record clerks generally receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or senior worker, new employees  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  learn procedures to follow. Some formal classroom training may be necessary, such as training in operating specific computer software. Record clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in or­ der to avoid making errors and to be able to recognize errors made by others. These workers must also be honest, discreet, and trust­ worthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. Payroll clerks, billing clerks, and bookkeeping, account­ ing, and auditing clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Because statement clerks have access to individuals’ financial infor­ mation, they must be bonded. Many bookmobile drivers are now re­ quired to have a commercial driver’s license. Workers usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation with higher pay. Others advance to closely related occu­ pations. For example, some order clerks use their experience to move into a sales position. Others move into another clerical job, such as secretary, or advance to a supervisory position. With appro­ priate experience and education, some clerks may become account­ ants, personnel specialists, brokers, or librarians. Job Outlook Higher than average turnover in this large occupation places it among those occupations providing the most job openings. Oppor­ tunities will be very plentiful for full-time, part-time, and seasonal employment as record clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. These are entry level jobs that require little formal preparation and are characterized by a lot of movement into and out of them. Employment of record clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Despite continued growth in the volume of business transactions, rising pro­ ductivity will result in slow employment growth. The main factor affecting productivity in these occupations is the spread of office automation. Many of these jobs are “back office” clerical positions, which have already been heavily automated in many organizations. Productivity has increased significantly as workers use word processors and personal computers instead of more time- consuming equipment such as typewriters, adding ma­ chines, and calculators. The growing use of equipment such as bar code readers, point-of-sale terminals, and optical scanners by other employees also reduces much of the data entry handled by record clerks. Managers and professionals now do much of their own cleri­ cal work, using computers to access, create, and store data directly in the computer system. The growing use of local area networks is also facilitating electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI refers to the sending of data from computer to computer, without the need for clerks to reenter the data. To further eliminate duplicate functions, more large companies may consolidate all their clerical operations in a central office where accounting, billing, personnel, and payroll functions are performed for all satellite offices in the organization. Earnings Salaries of record clerks vary considerably. Region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment all influence salary levels. The level of industry or technical expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk’s responsibilities may also af­ fect earnings. Average salaries vary by detailed occupation, as shown in the following tabulation. Order clerks...................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks....................... Personnel clerks................................................ Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks Billing clerks.................................................... Library assistants and bookmobile drivers...... File clerks........................................................  $22,200 21,000 20,300 19,100 18.400 16.400 15,700  In the Federal Government in 1993, payroll and timekeeping clerks and personnel clerks with a high school diploma or 6 months of clerical experience started at $14,600. In 1993, the average salary  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical  279  for all payroll and timekeeping clerks was $20,300, and for person­ nel clerks, $23,700. In addition to salary, record clerks receive the same package of benefits as other employees in the organization. In large and me­ dium-size establishments, sick and annual leave, life and health in­ surance, and retirement plans are common.  charges and prepare bills in one step. Computer packages prompt clerks to enter data from hand-written forms and manipulate the necessary entries of quantities, labor, and rates to be charged. Bill­ ing clerks verify the entry of information and check for computer er­ rors before the bill is printed by the computer. After the bills are printed, billing clerks check them again for accuracy.  Related Occupations Most record clerks today enter data into a computer system and per­ form basic analysis of the data. Other clerical workers who enter and manipulate data are bank tellers, statistical clerks, receiving clerks, medical record clerks, hotel and motel clerks, credit clerks, and reservation and transportation ticket agents.  Employment Billing clerks held about 409,000 jobs in 1992. About 4 of every 10 workers were employed by banks and other financial institutions, insurance companies, and other organizations providing business and health services. About 1 of every 4 employees was found in wholesale and retail establishments, and a significant number worked in manufacturing, transportation, communications, and utilities. Approximately 1 in 6 billing clerks works part time.  Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for record clerks. Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions can provide information about job openings for library assistants and bookmo­ bile drivers. The State Library of Ohio, Field Operations Department, can provide specific information on bookmobile drivers. The address is: 65 South Front St., Columbus, OH 43215. Information on careers in records and information management can be obtained from: tw Association of Record Managers and Administrators (ARMA), 4200 Somerset Dr., Suite 215, Prairie Village, KS 66208. (Phone: 1-800-422­ 2762.)  Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as billing clerks are expected to be numerous through the year 2005. Despite the lack of employ­ ment growth, many job openings will occur as billing clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occu­ pation is relatively high, reflecting the fact that it is an entry level oc­ cupation requiring only a high school diploma. Each year, tens of thousands of jobs will become available as billing clerks transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Overall employment of billing clerks is expected to change little through the year 2005. A growing economy and a greater demand  Billing Clerks (D.O.T. 184.387-010; 210.382-022, -026, -066; 211.482-014, -018­ 214.267-010, .362-010, -014, -022, -026, -038, -042, .382-014, -018, -030, .387-010, -014, -018, .462-010, .467-010, -014; 214.482-010, -014, -018, -022, .587-010; 216.382- 034, -050, -054, -018, -022; 217.382-010- 241.267-026and 249.367-034)  Nature of the Work Billing clerks produce the bills and related documents that are used to settle customers’ accounts. Billing, cost, and rate clerks keep the records, calculate the charges, and maintain the files of payments made for goods or services. Billing machine operators operate the machines that generate the bills, statements, and invoices. Billing clerks review purchase orders, bills of lading, sales tickets, hospital records, or charge slips to calculate the total amount due from a customer. In accounting, law, consulting, and similar firms, billing clerks calculate client fees based on the actual time required to perform the task. They keep track of the accumulated hours and dollar amounts to charge to each job, the type ofjob performed for a customer, and the percentage of work completed. In hospitals, cal­ culating the charges for an individual’s hospital stay may require a letter to an insurance company, whereas a clerk computing trucking rates for machine parts may consult a rate book. After billing clerks review all necessary information, they compute the charges using calculators, adding machines, or computers. They then prepare the itemized statements, bills, or invoices—depending on the organiza­ tion’s needs—used for billing and recordkeeping purposes. For ex­ ample, the clerk might prepare a simple bill that only contains the amount due and the date and type of service. In another organiza­ tion, the clerk would produce a detailed invoice that includes the codes for all goods and services provided. This latter form might list the items sold, credit terms, date of shipment or dates services were provided, a salesperson’s or doctor’s identification if necessary, and the sales total. Once all the information has been entered, billing machine opera­ tors then run off the bill that will be sent to the customer. In a grow­ ing number of firms, billing machines are being replaced by com­ puters and specialized billing software that allow clerks to calculate  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ...  Billing clerks maintain the files ofpayments made for goods and services.  280  Occupational Outlook Handbook  for billing services will result in more business transactions, but pro­ ductivity increases will keep employment from rising. Employment of billing, cost, and rate clerks will rise, but not as fast as the increase in business transactions, as computers are increasingly used to man­ age account information. Less routine, more complex billing appli­ cations will increasingly require workers with greater technical ex­ pertise. Employment of machine operators will decline as billing machines are replaced by more advanced machines and computers which enable billing, cost, and rate clerks to perform the jobs for­ merly done by billing machine operators. In smaller firms, account­ ing clerks are taking over the responsibilities of billing clerks due to productivity gains from billing software. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks (D.O.T. 209.687-010; 210.362-010, .367-010, -014, .382-010, -014, -030, -038, -042, -046, -050, -054, -062; 216.362-014, -022, -026, -034, -038, -042, .382-022, -026, -058, .482-010, -026, .587-010; 219.362-066, .367-042, .387­ 018, .487-010, and .587-010)  Nature of the Work All money spent or received by an organization must be accurately recorded. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are an or­ ganization’s financial recordkeepers. They compute, classify, re­ cord, and verify numerical data in order to develop and maintain fi­ nancial records. In smaller establishments, bookkeeping clerks handle all aspects of financial transactions. They record debits and credits, compare current and past balance sheets, summarize details of separate ledg­ ers, and prepare reports for supervisors and managers. They may also prepare bank deposits by compiling data from cashiers, verify­ ing and balancing receipts, and sending the cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. In larger offices and accounting departments, accounting clerks are more specialized. Their title may reflect the type of accounting they do, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk. Entry level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total ac­ counts, and compute interest charges. They may also monitor loans and accounts payable and receivable to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced clerks may total, balance, and reconcile bill­ ing vouchers; ensure completeness and accuracy of data on ac­ counts; and code documents according to company procedures. They may also post transactions in journals and on computer files, and update these files when needed. They also review computer printouts against manually maintained journals, and make neces­ sary corrections. Senior workers review invoices and statements to make sure all information is accurate and complete, and may recon­ cile computer reports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents for correct entry, mathematical accuracy, and proper codes. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to adjust. As organizations computerize their financial records, more book­ keeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are using specialized ac­ counting software on personal computers. They increasingly post charges to accounts on computer spreadsheets and data bases and do less manual posting to general ledgers. Information is entered into the computer from paper receipts or bills and then is stored on paper as computer printouts. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2,112,000 jobs in 1992. About 1 of every 4 was in wholesale and retail trade. About one-third were in organizations providing business, health, educational, and social services. Approximately 1 in 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks works part time.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Bookkeeping clerks post changes to accounts using computer spreadsheets. Job Outlook Virtually all job openings for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks through the year 2005 will be due to replacement needs. Each year, several hundred thousand jobs will become available as these clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turno­ ver is lower than among other record clerk occupations, but the large size of the occupation ensures a large number of openings and plentiful job opportunities for jobseekers. Many opportunities for temporary and part-time work should be available. Little change is expected in the employment of bookkeeping, ac­ counting, and auditing clerks through 2005. A growing economy will result in more financial transactions and other activities and, therefore, more demand for accounting services. However, automa­ tion of office functions is expected to continue, with resulting pro­ ductivity increases. Virtually all new jobs will be created in small, rapidly growing organizations. Large organizations are likely to continue the consolidation of departments to eliminate duplicate functions and reduce the demand for these clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Brokerage Clerks and Statement Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-046; 216.362-046, .382-046, .482-034; 219.362-018, -054, and .482-010)  Nature of the Work Brokerage clerks and statement clerks work behind the scenes to produce records associated with financial transactions. Brokerage clerks, who work in the operations area of securities firms, perform many duties to facilitate the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. These clerks produce the necessary records of all transactions that occur in their area of the business. Their specific job titles depend upon the type of work they do. Purchase-and-sale clerks match orders to buy with orders to sell. They balance and verify stock trades by comparing the records of the selling firm to those of the buying firm. Dividend clerks ensure timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular brokerage firm. Transfer clerks execute customer requests for changes to security registration and examine stock certificates for adherence to banking regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks facili­ tate the receipt and delivery of securities among firms and institu­ tions. Margin clerks post accounts and monitor activity in custom­ ers’ accounts. Their job is to ensure that customers make their  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical payments and stay within legal boundaries concerning stock purchases. A significant and growing number of brokerage clerks use custom designed software programs to process transactions, allowing trans­ actions to be processed more quickly than if they were done manu­ ally. At this time, only a few customized accounts are handled man­ ually. Statement clerks assemble, verify, and send individual and com­ mercial bank statements every month. How this is done depends on the particular bank. In most modern banks, statement clerks, sometimes called state­ ment operators, run sophisticated, high-speed machines. These ma­ chines fold the computer-printed statement, collate it if it is more than one page, insert the statement and cancelled checks into an en­ velope, seal it, and weigh it for postage. Statement clerks load the machine with the statements, cancelled checks, and envelopes. They then monitor the equipment, correct jams, or call the repair person­ nel for more serious problems. In banks that do not have such machines, statement clerks manu­ ally place the statements and cancelled checks in envelopes, seal them, and weigh them for postage. They may also be responsible for verifying signatures and checking for missing information on checks, placing cancelled checks into trays, and retrieving them to send with the statements. In a small but growing number of banks, only the statement is printed and sent to the account holder. The cancelled checks are not returned; this is known as check truncation. Statement clerks are employed primarily by large banks. In smaller banks, their function is usually handled by a teller or a book­ keeping clerk who performs other duties during the rest of the month. Other small banks send their statement information to larger banks for processing, printing, and mailing. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 57,000 jobs in 1992, and statement clerks held about 31,000. Brokerage clerks worked in firms involved in the sales of securities and commodities. Almost all statement clerks were employed by banking institutions of some kind. Job Outlook Jobs for brokerage clerks and statement clerks will not be nearly as plentiful through the year 2005 as for other record clerk occupa­ tions, due to the relatively small size of the occupation. Neverthe­ less, several thousand jobs will become available each year to replace clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of brokerage clerks and statement clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through  -X J jv  Automation will limit growth of brokerage clerks and statement clerks.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  281  the year 2005 due to automation and changes in business practices. For example, computers now calculate the dividends due on stocks, something done for decades by brokerage clerks with adding ma­ chines and calculators. However, brokerage clerks are still needed to enter data into the computer and to process information. In the past, the record of security ownership was a piece of paper—a stock certificate. Today, most securities are stored in computer form and traded using electronic data interchange (EDI). Although less paper changes hands, clerks continue to enter and verify all transactions. Automated statement processing will grow as the increased volume of transactions justifies the cost of the necessary equipment, and this will dampen demand for statement clerks. In addition, the further spread of check truncation is expected to hold down employment of statement clerks. The use of ATM card systems and other electronic money transfers should increase, resulting in significantly fewer checks being written and processed. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  File Clerks (D.O.T. 206.362-010, .367-014, -018; and .387-010, -014, -022, -034)  Nature of the Work All kinds of organizations—businesses, government agencies, and non profit institutions—generate records that must be arranged so that information can be located quickly. This creates many job op­ portunities for file clerks, who classify, store, retrieve, and update office information. File clerks, also called records and information clerks or record center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alphabetically, or by subject matter. They then store forms, letters, receipts, or reports in paper form or enter necessary information into other storage devices. Many file clerks still place paper files in file cabinets. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them. Others film documents that are then stored on microforms (microfilm or microfiche). A small but growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on optical disks. Records must be current to be useful. File clerks ensure that new information is added to the files in a timely manner and may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly sequenced and placed. Whenever records cannot be lo­ cated, the file clerk searches for the missing material. As an organi­ zation’s needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system established by supervisory personnel. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the borrower. The document may be a sheet of paper stored in a drawer in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the first exam­ ple, the clerk manually retrieves the document and hands or for­ wards it to the borrower. In the latter example, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. They keep track of materials removed from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. A growing number of file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems. When the amount of information in files is too large to be stored on a computer, information on the physical loca­ tion of documents can be stored in a data base. To retrieve a docu­ ment, the clerk enters the document’s identification code, obtains the location, and pulls the document. A smaller number of files can be stored directly on the computer. Even when files are stored on the computer, backup paper copies generally are also kept. However, accessing files in a computer data base is much quicker than locating and physically retrieving paper files. In small offices, file clerks often have expanded responsibilities. These include typing (keyboarding), word processing, sorting mail, or operating copying machines.  282  Occupational Outlook Handbook of automated and computerized systems that increase file clerks’ productivity. In addition, use of personal computers by profession­ als and managers will relieve file clerks of accessing the growing number of documents stored on computers. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Library Assistants and Bookmobile Drivers (D.O.T. 209.387-026; 222.587-014; 249.363-010, .365-010, .367-046, and .687-014)  Nature of the Work  File clerks return files to storage after they are returned by borrower. Employment File clerks held about 257,000 jobs in 1992. Many other clerical workers also perform filing in connection with their work. While file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, about 4 out of 5 file clerks are employed in services; finance, insurance, and real estate; and government. More than 1 out of every 10 is em­ ployed in temporary services, and about 1 out of 3 works part time. Job Outlook Job opportunities for file clerks should be plentiful through the year 2005 because a large number of workers will be needed to replace workers who leave the occupation each year. Turnover is very high, highest among all record clerk occupations. This reflects the lack of formal training requirements, limited advancement potential, and relatively low pay. Jobseekers who have typing (keyboarding) and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines, personal computers in particular, should have better opportunities than less experienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. Employment of file clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as recordkeeping requirements continue to rise in conjunction with rising economic activity. Demand for file clerk services will be strongest in the rap­ idly growing health sector. However, the expected growth in the volume of paper records should be partially offset by the greater use  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Library assistants and bookmobile drivers keep library resources in order and make them readily available to a variety of users. They work under the direction of librarians. Library assistants—sometimes referred to as library media assist­ ants, library technicians, library aides, or circulation assistants— register patrons so they can borrow materials from the library. They record the borrower’s name and address from an application and then issue a library card. Many library assistants now enter and up­ date patron’s records using computers. At the circulation desk, assistants lend and collect books, periodi­ cals, video tapes, and other materials. When an item is borrowed, as­ sistants stamp the due date on the material and record the patron’s identification from his or her library card. They inspect returned materials for damage, check the due dates, and compute any fines that may be owed. They review records to compile a list of overdue materials and send out overdue notices. They also answer patrons’ questions in person and on the telephone and refer those they cannot answer to a librarian. Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, publica­ tions, and other items and return them to their designated shelves, files, or storage areas. They locate materials to be loaned, either to a patron or to another library. Many card catalogues are computer­ ized, so library assistants must be familiar with the computer system for their particular library. If any of the materials have been dam­ aged, these workers repair them, if possible. For example, they use tape or paste to repair torn pages or book covers and other special­ ized processes to repair more valuable materials. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons with vision problems, including blindness. Sometimes referred to as talkingbooks library clerks or braille-and- talking-books clerks, they review the borrower’s list of desired reading material. They select those materials or closely related substitutes from the library collection of large type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and open-reel talking books. They do the necessary paperwork and give or mail them to the borrower. To extend library services to as wide an audience as possible, many libraries operate bookmobiles. Bookmobile drivers drive vans stocked with books or drive light trucks that pull a book trailer to designated sites on a regular schedule. Bookmobiles serve commu­ nity organizations such as shopping centers, apartment complexes, schools, and nursing homes. Depending on local conditions, they may drive alone or may be accompanied by a library technician. When working alone, the drivers perform many of the same func­ tions as a library assistant in a main or branch library. They answer patrons’ questions, receive and check out books, collect fines, main­ tain the book collection, and shelve materials. Bookmobile drivers participate and may assist in planning programs sponsored by the li­ brary such as reader advisory programs, used book sales, or out­ reach programs. They must keep track of their mileage, the materi­ als lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In some areas they are responsible for the maintenance of the vehicle and any photocopiers or other equipment in it. They may be required to re­ cord statistics on circulation and the number of people visiting the bookmobile. Drivers may also record requests for special items from  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical the main library and arrange for the materials to be mailed or deliv­ ered to a patron during the next scheduled visit. Increasingly, book­ mobiles are equipped with personal computers and CD-ROM sys­ tems linked to the main library system; this allows bookmobile drivers to reserve or locate books immediately. Because bookmobile drivers may be the only link some people have to the library, much of their work is helping the public. They may assist handicapped or elderly patrons to the bookmobile or shovel snow to assure their safety. They may enter hospitals or nurs­ ing homes to deliver books directly to patrons who are bedridden. Bookmobile drivers should be familiar with audiovisual equipment for showing slides or films. The schedules of bookmobile drivers depend on the size of the area being served. Some of these workers go out on their routes every working day, while others do so only certain days of the week. On the other days, they perform library assistant duties at the li­ brary. Some now work evenings and weekends to give patrons as much access to the library as possible. Employment Library assistants and bookmobile drivers held about 114,000 jobs in 1992. Almost one-half of these workers were employed by public libraries; most of the remainder worked in school libraries. Oppor­ tunities for flexible schedules are abundant; over one-half of these workers were on part-time schedules. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for persons interested in jobs as li­ brary assistants or bookmobile drivers through the year 2005. Turn­ over of these workers is quite high, reflecting the relatively weak at­ tachment to the occupation. This work is attractive to retirees and others who want a part-time schedule, and there is a lot of move­ ment into and out of the occupation. Tens of thousands of openings will become available each year to replace workers who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Some positions become available as library assistants move within the organization. Library assistants can be promoted to supervisory positions in public service or technical service areas. Advancement opportunities are greater in larger libraries and may be more limited in smaller libraries. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The vast majority of library assistants and bookmobile drivers work in public or school libraries of some kind. Moderate employment growth is expected due to the expected growth in funding for local governments and academic in­ stitutions of all types. Because so many are employed by public insti­ tutions, library assistants and bookmobile drivers are not directly af­ fected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. Some of these  workers may lose their jobs, however, if there are cuts in govern­ ment budgets. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Order Clerks (D.O.T. 209.387-018; 245.367-026; 249.367-042, -054; 295.367-018; and 659.462-010)  Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process incoming orders for such items as spare parts for machines, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. They are sometimes called order-entry clerks, customer service representa­ tives, order processors, or order takers. Orders for materials, merchandise, or services can come from within an organization or from outside it. In large companies with many work sites, such as automobile manufacturers, parts and equipment need to be ordered from the company’s warehouses. “In­ side order clerks” receive orders from other workers employed by the same company or from salespersons in the field. Many other or­ der clerks, however, receive orders from other companies or from individuals. Order clerks in wholesale businesses, for instance, re­ ceive orders for merchandise from retail establishments that the re­ tailer in turn sells to the public. A growing number of order clerks work in catalog sales, receiving orders from individual customers ei­ ther by phone or by mail. Order clerks dealing primarily with the public sometimes are referred to as “outside order clerks.” Today, most order clerks record orders on video display termi­ nals (VDT’s) that are part of a larger computer system. Many clerks sit at these terminals and receive orders directly by telephone, enter­ ing the required information as the customer places the order. De­ pending on the size of the purchase, the order clerk may be required to get approval for the credit card purchase. Some orders are re­ ceived through the computer system; they are sent directly from the customer’s terminal to the order clerk’s terminal. The computer provides the order clerk with ready access to infor­ mation such as order stock numbers, prices and inventory. Orders  f•  Bar code readers enable library assistants to log in returned books more efficiently.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  283  One-halfofall order clerks work in wholesale or retail establishments.  284  Occupational Outlook Handbook  frequently depend on which products are in stock and which prod­ ucts are most appropriate for the customer’s needs. Some order clerks, especially those in industrial settings, must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Others must be able to take special orders or give expected arrival dates. Although the large majority of orders are now placed by phone, some order clerks also receive orders by mail and by fax machine. These clerks review the hand-written or typed orders for complete­ ness and clarity. They extract the checks or money orders, sort them, and send them on for processing. The clerk may complete missing information or contact the customer for the information. Similarly, if customers need additional information, such as prices, shipping dates, or anticipated delays, the order clerk contacts them. These orders may be processed by order clerks in small establish­ ments or, in large organizations, entered into the computer system by data-entry clerks. After an order has been verified and entered, the customer’s final cost is calculated. The clerk then routes the order to the proper de­ partment—such as the warehouse—that actually sends out or deliv­ ers the item in question. In organizations with sophisticated computer systems, inventory records are adjusted automatically as sales are made. In less auto­ mated organizations, order clerks adjust inventory records. For ex­ ample, after processing an order for bolts, the clerk verifies that the bolts were sent and subtracts the order from the inventory control form. Clerks also notify other departments when inventories are low or when orders would deplete supplies. They also compile data from completed orders to produce reports that managers use to assess the organization’s sales and plan its future activities. Some order clerks need to establish priorities in filling orders. For ex­ ample, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a request from a hos­ pital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must first find out if the re­ quest is routine or an emergency, and then take appropriate action. Employment Order clerks held about 300,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for wholesale and retail establishments and manufacturing firms. Job Outlook Job openings for order clerks should be plentiful through the year 2005 due to sizeable replacement needs. Tens of thousands of jobs will become available each year to replace order clerks who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Many of these openings will be for seasonal work, especially in catalogue compa­ nies that cater to holiday gift buyers. Little change in the employment of order clerks is expected through the year 2005 as office automation continues to increase the productivity of these workers. As the economy grows, more orders for goods and services will be placed. How this growing business ac­ tivity relates to employment of order clerks depends in large mea­ sure on the setting. Demand for outside order clerks who deal mainly with the public should remain fairly strong. The greater use of toll-free numbers that makes “home shopping” easier and more convenient will stimulate demand for these workers. However, pro­ ductivity gains from the increasing use of automation will absorb some of the growth in the volume of orders. Demand for inside order clerks will be much weaker, however. The spread of electronic data interchange (EDI), a system that en­ ables computers to communicate directly with each other, allows orders between establishments to be placed with little human inter­ vention. Although currently limited to large organizations, it is ex­ pected that orders between computers of different companies and from home computers will increase. Other automation should also depress the demand for order clerks. Sophisticated inventory control and automatic billing sys­ tems allow companies to track their inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks. A growing number of companies are using facsimile machines (faxes) to receive orders. Increasingly, data entry keyers enter the information from faxed or mailed orders. Some companies, especially retail businesses, use voice recognition equipment to receive orders. Currently, this technology consists of an answering machine. However, experts believe that by the year 2005, “interactive” voice recognition equipment will carry on a con­ versation with the customer and take the order. To the extent that such equipment is perfected and marketed widely, it is expected to further reduce the demand for order clerks.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (D.O.T. 215.362-018, .367-022, .382-014, and .482-010)  Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function—ensuring that employees’ paychecks are correct and paid on time. Employees frequently call on them to adjust monetary errors or incorrect amounts of vacation time. Their daily duties include researching these records as well as performing other clerical tasks. Timekeeping clerks distribute and collect timecards each pay pe­ riod. These workers review employee workcharts, timesheets, and timecards to ensure that information, such as the number of hours worked and sick and vacation days, is properly recorded, and that the records have the signatures of authorizing officials. For exam­ ple, they may recalculate total hours on a timesheet that has many complex entries. In companies that bill for the time spent by staff, such as law or accounting firms, timekeeping clerks make sure the hours recorded are charged to the correct job so the client can be properly billed. They review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors and contact the employee; or the employee’s supervisor to resolve the problem. Timekeeping clerks also keep informed of new payroll policies and inform manag­ ers and other employees of procedural changes. In the payroll department, payroll clerks, also called payroll tech­ nicians, screen the timecards for calculating, coding, or other errors. Then they compute pay by subtracting allotments like retirement, Federal and State taxes, insurance, or savings from gross earnings. Increasingly, computers perform these calculations and alert pay­ roll clerks to problems or errors in the data. For small organizations or for new employees whose records are not yet entered into a com­ puter system, clerks may perform all the necessary calculations. In some small offices, payroll is processed by clerks or other employees in the accounting department. Payroll clerks also maintain paper backup files for research and refer­ ence. They record changes in employee addresses; close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer; and advise employees on income tax withholding and other mandatory deductions. They also issue and re­ cord adjustments to pay because of previous errors or retroactive in­ creases. Payroll clerks must follow changes in tax and deduction laws, so they have to be aware of the most current revisions. They prepare and mail earnings and tax withholding statements in early January for em­ ployees’ use in preparing their income tax returns. In small offices, payroll and timekeeping duties are more likely to be included in the duties of a general office clerk or secretary. Larger  Payroll clerks resolve problems with employees’ pay.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical organizations employ specialized payroll and timekeeping clerks to perform these functions. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 165,000 jobs in 1992. About 1 of every 3 worked in business, health, education, and social services. One in 4 worked in manufacturing, and approximately 2 of every 10 were in wholesale and retail trade or in government. Ap­ proximately 1 in 8 payroll and timekeeping clerks works part time. Job Outlook Numerous job openings for persons seeking work as payroll and timekeeping clerks should be available through the year 2005. Many thousands ofjobs will open up each year as these workers transfer to other occupations—many payroll clerks use this position as a steppingstone to higher level accounting jobs—or leave the labor force. Employment of payroll and timekeeping clerks is expected to de­ cline through the year 2005 as continuing automation of the payroll and timekeeping function makes these workers more productive. The technology having the greatest effect on employment is the ex­ panding use of automated timeclocks to calculate employees’ hours and balances. These automated timeclocks allow large organiza­ tions to centralize their timekeeping duties in one location. At indi­ vidual sites, employee hours are increasingly tracked by computer and verified by managers. Then, this information is compiled and sent to a central office to be processed by payroll clerks. This elimi­ nates the need to have payroll clerks at every site. Also, timekeeping duties are more commonly being distributed to secretaries and gen­ eral office clerks or being contracted out to organizations that spe­ cialize in these services. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  Personnel Clerks (D.O.T. 205.362-010, -014, -022, .367-062, .567-010; 209.362-026' 241.267-010; and 249.367-090)  Nature of the Work When new employees begin work at most large organizations, they are greeted and briefed by personnel clerks. These clerks may ex­ plain the company’s various employee benefits and pay rates, review rules and regulations, administer an oath of office, and see that the new employees report to their duty station. Personnel clerks maintain the personnel records of the organiza­ tion’s employees. These records include information such as name, address, job title, earnings, benefits such as health and life insur­ ance, and tax withholding. On a daily basis, they record and answer questions about employees’ absences and supervisory reports on job performance. When an employee receives a promotion or switches health insurance plans, the personnel clerk updates the appropriate form. A personnel clerk may also prepare a report for a manager elsewhere in the organization. Compiling a list of employees eligible for an award is one example. Some personnel clerks in smaller organizations perform reception as well as other clerical duties. They answer telephone or letter in­ quiries from the public, send out announcements of job openings or job examinations, and issue application forms. When credit bureaus and finance companies request confirmation of a person’s employ­ ment, the personnel clerk provides authorized information from the employee’s personnel records. Payroll departments and insurance companies may also be contacted to verify changes to records. Some personnel clerks are also involved in hiring. As part of their job, they may screen job applicants to obtain information such as ed­ ucation and work experience; administer aptitude, personality, and interest tests; explain the organization’s employment policies and refer qualified applicants to the employing official; and request ref­ erences from present or past employers. Personnel clerks inform job applicants, by telephone or letter, of their acceptance or rejection for employment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  285  Other personnel clerks are known as assignment clerks. Their role is to notify a firm’s existing employees of position vacancies and to identify and assign qualified applicants. They keep track of vacan­ cies throughout the organization and complete and distribute va­ cancy advertisement forms. The clerks review applications in re­ sponse to the advertisement and verify the information using personnel records. After the selection is made, they notify all the ap­ plicants of their acceptance or rejection. In some job settings, personnel clerks have more specific job titles. In temporary help agencies, for example, referral clerks handle calls from businesses or other organizations requesting temporary work­ ers. After recording information regarding the job requirements, they locate registered workers who meet the requirements and are available for the scheduled work shift. The clerks then inform the selected workers of the available job. Some referral clerks specialize in referring specific types of workers, such as nurses. Identification clerks are responsible for security matters at de­ fense installations. They compile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and civilian and military personnel and their dependents. Their job duties include interviewing applicants, corre­ sponding with law enforcement authorities, and preparing badges, passes, and identification cards. Employment Personnel clerks held about 128,000 jobs in 1992. Although these workers are found in most industries, 1 of every 4 works for a gov­ ernment agency. Colleges and universities, hospitals, department stores, and banks also employ large numbers of personnel clerks. Job Outlook Replacement needs will account for most job openings for personnel clerks through the year 2005. Jobs will open up as clerks advance within the personnel department, take a job unrelated to personnel administration, or leave the labor force. Employment of personnel clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Contribut­ ing to the demand for personnel clerks is the increased workload as­ sociated with a growing work force and changing personnel prac­ tices brought about by changes in tax and immigration laws, the growing popularity of flexible benefit plans, and the growth of legis­ latively mandated benefits. Despite increased workloads, automation of personnel depart­ ments will increase the productivity of personnel clerks and moder­ ate their employment growth. The growing use of computers and electronic data interchange (EDI) in personnel or human resource departments means that a lot of data entry work done by personnel clerks can be eliminated as employees themselves enter the data and  >i,.  m  iTjW  Personnel clerks ensure that employees’ records are complete and current.  286  Occupational Outlook Handbook  send it to the personnel office. This is most feasible in large organi­ zations with multiple personnel offices. In addition, as professionals in personnel offices increasingly use computers and other auto­ mated office equipment, there could be less work for personnel clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.)  '  Secretaries (D.O.T. 201 and 219.362-074)  Nature of the Work Most organizations employ secretaries to perform and coordinate office activities and to ensure that information gets disseminated in a timely fashion to staff and clients. Managers, professionals, and other support staff rely on them to keep administrative operations under control. Their specific duties depend upon their level of re­ sponsibility and the type of firm in which they are employed. Secretaries are responsible for a variety of administrative and clerical duties that are necessary to run and maintain organizations efficiently. They schedule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and take dictation. They may also type letters, make travel arrangements, or contact clients. In addition, secretaries operate office equipment like facsimile ma­ chines, photocopiers, and telephones with voice mail capabilities. In today’s automated offices, secretaries increasingly use personal computers to run spreadsheet, word processing, data base manage­ ment, desktop publishing, and graphics programs—tasks previously handled by managers and professionals. Because they are often re­ lieved from dictation and typing, they can support several members of the professional staff. Secretaries sometimes work in clusters of three or four so that they can work more flexibly and share their ex­ pertise. Executive secretaries or administrative assistants perform fewer clerical tasks than lower level secretaries. As well as receiving visi­ tors, arranging conference calls, and answering letters, they may handle more complex responsibilities like conducting research, pre­ paring statistical reports, training employees, and supervising other clerical staff. In addition to general administrative duties, some secretaries do highly specialized work that requires a knowledge of technical ter­ minology and procedures. Further specialization in various types of law is common among legal secretaries. They prepare correspon­ dence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney. They also may review legal journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, ar­ ticles, and conference proceedings. They record simple medical his­ tories, arrange for patients to be hospitalized, or order supplies. They may also need to know insurance rules, billing practices, and be familiar with hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secretaries assist engineers or scientists. They may prepare corre­ spondence, maintain the technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices with other professionals or in schools, hospitals, or doctors’ offices. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress and repetitive motion problems such as carpal tunnel syn­ drome.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Secretaries are increasingly taking on new responsibilities. Secretaries generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cit­ ies, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrange­ ments, like telecommuting, and 1 secretary in 6 works part time. In addition, a significant number of secretaries work as temporaries. A few participate in job-sharing arrangements in which two people di­ vide responsibility for a single job. Employment Secretaries held 3,324,000 jobs in 1992, making this one of the larg­ est occupations in the U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty. Legal secretaries............................................................................ Medical secretaries....................................................................... All other secretaries.....................................................................  280,000 234,000 2,810,000  Secretaries are employed in organizations of every description. About one-half of all secretaries are employed in firms providing services, ranging from education and health to legal and business services. Others work for firms that engage in manufacturing, con­ struction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communi­ cations. Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real es­ tate firms are important employers, as are Federal, State, and local government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates may qualify for secretarial positions pro­ vided they have basic office skills. Today, however, knowledge of word processing, spreadsheet, and database management programs is increasingly important, and most employers require it. Secretaries must be proficient in keyboarding and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Shorthand is necessary for some positions. Employers also look for communication and interpersonal skills, since secretaries must be tactful in their dealings with many differ­ ent people. Discretion, judgment, organizational ability, and initia­ tive are important for higher level secretarial positions. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and continu­ ing education will remain an integral part of many jobs. Continuing changes in the office environment, for instance, have increased the demand for secretaries who are adaptable and versatile. Secretaries may have to attend classes to learn to operate new office equipment such as word processing equipment, information storage systems, personal computers, or new updated software packages.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical The skills needed for a secretarial job can be acquired in various ways. Formal training, especially for computer skills, may lead to higher paying jobs. Secretarial training ranges from high school vo­ cational education programs that teach office practices, shorthand, and keyboarding skills to 1- to 2-year programs in secretarial science offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Many temporary service agencies provide training in computer and keyboarding skills. These skills are most often acquired, however, through instruction offered at the work­ place by other employees or by equipment and software vendors. In addition, specialized training programs are available for students planning to become medical or legal secretaries or office automation specialists. Testing and certification for entry-level office skills is available through the Office Proficiency Assessment and Certification (OPAC) program offered by Professional Secretaries International (PSI). As secretaries gain experience, they can earn the designation Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of exami­ nations given by the Institute for Certifying Secretaries, a depart­ ment of PSI. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employers as the mark of excellence for senior-level office profes­ sionals. Similarly, those without experience who want to be certified as a legal support professional may be certified as an Accredited Le­ gal Secretary (ALS) by the Certifying Board of the National Associ­ ation of Legal Secretaries. They also administer an examination to certify a legal secretary with 3 years’ experience as a Professional Legal Secretary (PLS). Advancement for secretaries generally comes about by promotion to a secretarial position with more responsibilities. Qualified secre­ taries who broaden their knowledge of the company’s operations may be promoted to other positions such as senior or executive sec­ retary, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Secretaries with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word processing service bureau. They also can get jobs with manufacturers of word processing or computer equipment in positions such as instructor or sales repre­ sentative. Job Outlook Employment of secretaries is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Nevertheless, employment opportunities should be quite plentiful, especially for well-qualified and experienced secretaries, who, according to many employers, are in short supply. The very large size of the occupa­ tion, coupled with moderate turnover, generates several hundred thousand secretarial positions each year as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Demand for secretaries will rise as the economy grows and as more workers are employed in offices. The trend toward secretaries assuming more responsibilities traditionally reserved for managers and professionals should also stimulate demand. Increased productivity resulting from new office technologies, however, will offset this demand somewhat. In firms that have in­ vested in electronic typewriters, word processors, or personal com­ puters, secretaries can turn out significantly more work than when they used electric or manual typewriters. New office technologies such as electronic mail, facsimile machines, and voice message sys­ tems are used in a growing number of organizations. These and other sophisticated computer software capabilities are expected to be used more widely in the years ahead. Widespread use of automated equipment is already changing the workflow in many offices. Administrative duties are being reas­ signed and the functions of entire departments are being restruc­ tured. Large firms are experimenting with different methods of staffing their administrative support operations. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as typing or keyboarding, filing, copy­ ing, and accounting are being assigned to workers in other units or  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  287  departments. In some law offices and physicians’ offices, for exam­ ple, paralegals and medical assistants are taking over some tasks for­ merly done by secretaries. Professionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing rather than submit the work to secre­ taries and other support staff. In addition, there is a trend in many offices for groups of professionals and managers to “share” secretar­ ies, allowing secretaries to assume new responsibilities. The tradi­ tional arrangement of one secretary per manager is becoming less prevalent; instead, secretaries increasingly support systems or units. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary’s work envi­ ronment. However, many secretarial job duties are of a personal, in­ teractive nature and hence, not easily automated. Duties such as planning conferences, receiving clients, and transmitting staff in­ structions require tact and communication skills. Because auto­ mated equipment cannot substitute for these personal skills, secre­ taries will continue to play a key role in the office activities of most organizations. Earnings The average annual for all secretaries was $26,700 in 1992. Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility, ranging from $20,000 to $36,000. The starting salary for inexperienced secretaries in the Federal Government was $16,400 a year in 1993. All secretaries employed by the Federal Government in 1993 averaged about $24,000. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, stenogra­ phers, personnel clerks, typists and word processors, legal assist­ ants, medical assistants, and medical record technicians. A growing number of secretaries share in managerial and human resource re­ sponsibilities. Occupations using these skills include clerical super­ visor, systems manager, office manager, and human resource of­ ficer. Sources of Additional Information For career information, contact: O'" Professional Secretaries International, 10502 NW. Ambassador Dr., Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. (Phone: 1-816-891-6600.)  Persons interested in careers as legal secretaries can request infor­ mation from: fW National Association of Legal Secretaries (International), 2250 East 73rd St., Suite 550, Tulsa, OK 74136.  State employment offices can provide information about job openings for secretaries.  Stenographers and Court Reporters (D.O.T. 202.362, .382-010, and 203.582-058)  Nature of the Work Written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspon­ dence, records, or legal proof. These verbatim reports of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, or other events are taken by stenographers and court reporters. Stenographers and stenotype operators take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter or word processor. They may take dictation using either shorthand or a stenotype machine, which prints shorthand symbols. General stenographers, including most beginners, take routine dictation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take more difficult dictation. For example, they may sit in on staff meetings and pro­ vide word-for-word records or summary reports of the proceedings  288  Occupational Outlook Handbook  to the participants. They may also supervise other stenographers, typists, and clerical workers. Some experienced stenographers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenographers serving traveling business people and others. Technical stenographers must know the medical, legal, and engi­ neering or scientific terminology used in a particular profession. For example, medical transcriptionists listen to doctors’ audio record­ ings and use typewriters or word processors to transcribe what they hear into the proper printed format. These reports are not always word-for-word; they may be edited for grammar or abbreviated words may be expanded. Transcriptionists must be medical lan­ guage specialists and familiar with patient assessment, therapeutic procedures, diagnoses, and prognoses. In addition to transcribing letters, reports, and the like, they may have other clerical duties. (Medical secretaries and assistants may transcribe as part of their jobs. These occupations are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Court reporters record all statements made in an official proceed­ ing. They take down all statements at speeds of approximately 200 words per minute and present their record as the official transcript. Because there is only one person creating an official transcript, ac­ curacy is vitally important. Many reporters do freelance work recording out-of-court deposi­ tions for attorneys, proceedings of meetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the U.S. Congress, in State and local governing bodies, and in govern­ ment agencies at all levels. Some reporters still dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Others transcribe their own notes, or give them to note readers, persons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. Most commonly, reporters use stenotype machines that print short­ hand symbols on paper and record them on computer disks. The disks are then loaded into a computer that translates and displays the symbols in English. This is called “Computer-Aided Transcrip­ tion.” Stenotype machines that link directly to the computer are used for real-time captioning. That is, as the reporter types the sym­ bols, they are instantly transcribed by the computer. This is used for closed captioning for the deaf or hearing-impaired on television, in  Court reporters often use stenotype machines to record statements made in official proceedings.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  courts, or in meetings. Court reporters who specialize in captioning television news stories may be called stenocaptioners. Working Conditions Stenographers usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Court re­ porters sometimes record depositions in the offices of attorneys, but they more often work in nonoffice settings, such as courts, legisla­ tures, and conventions. Medical transcriptionists may also work in hospitals, doctors’ offices, or outpatient service facilities. Although the work is not physically demanding, sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring. In addition, pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful. Stenographers and court reporters can work a standard 40-hour week. Many court reporters, however, are self-employed and free­ lance their services, which may result in irregular hours. Others work part time or as temporaries. Employment Stenographers and court reporters held 115,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly 15 percent were self-employed freelance court reporters. Of those who worked for a wage or salary, about one-third worked for State and local governments, a reflection of the large number of court re­ porters working in courts, legislatures, and various agencies. An ad­ ditional one-fourth worked for hospitals as medical transcription­ ists. Other stenographers and court reporters worked for colleges and universities, secretarial and court reporting services, temporary help supply services, and law firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stenographic skills are taught in high schools, vocational schools, and proprietary business schools. There are 350 postsecondary schools and colleges that offer 2- or 4-year training programs in court reporting. About 100 programs have been approved by the National Court Reporters Association, and all of them teach com­ puter-aided transcription. For stenographer jobs, employers prefer to hire high school grad­ uates and seldom have a preference among the many different short­ hand methods. For court reporter jobs, however, employers prefer stenotype, not only because reporters can write faster using steno­ type, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high-speed transcription. Speed and accuracy are the most im­ portant factors in hiring. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Govern­ ment, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per minute. Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible positions. Although requirements vary in private firms, applicants with the best speed and accuracy usually receive first consideration in hiring. Court reporters in the Federal Government generally must take at least 175 words a minute, and many court reporting jobs require at least 225 words of dictation per minute. Some States require Court reporters who stenotype depositions to be notary publics, and 18 States require each court reporter to be a Certified Court Reporter (CCR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each State that has CCR laws. The Na­ tional Court Reporters Association confers the designation Regis­ tered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part examination and participate in continuing education programs. Al­ though voluntary, the RPR designation is recognized as a mark of distinction in the profession. For medical transcriptionist jobs, understanding medical termi­ nology is essential. Good English grammar and punctuation skills are required, as well as familiarity with word processing using com­ puters. The American Association for Medical Transcription awards the voluntary designation Certified Medical Transcription­ ist to those who earn passing scores on written and practical exami­ nations. Stenographers can advance to more responsible secretarial posi­ tions, especially if they develop their interpersonal skills such as the  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical ability to communicate well. Stenographers who get the necessary education can become court reporters. Court reporters, on the other hand, have little advancement opportunities, although some report­ ers choose to specialize in captioning television programs.  289  Teacher Aides (D.O.T. 099.327; 219.467; 249.367-074, -086)  Job Outlook Employment of stenographers and court reporters is expected to de­ cline. Decreases in stenographer jobs should more than offset growth in transcriptionist and court reporters jobs. Despite the de­ cline, job openings will arise each year due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. The widespread use of dictation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenographers. The traditional “steno pool” is practi­ cally a thing of the past. Audio recording equipment and the use of personal computers by managers and other professionals should continue to greatly decrease the demand for these workers. Although the need for health care documentation is expected to increase as health services continue to grow, growth of medical tran­ scriptionist jobs should be slowed as more doctors and nurses di­ rectly enter their notes into computers. Meanwhile, skilled court re­ porters jobs should remain nearly unchanged as video recordings are increasingly recognized as legal records of proceedings. Also, budget constraints should limit the ability of Federal, State, and lo­ cal courts to expand, even in the face of rising numbers of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Demand should grow, however, for court reporters willing to take depositions for court reporting ser­ vice bureaus or as independent freelancers. Another factor stimulating demand is the growing number of conventions, conferences, seminars, and similar meetings whose proceedings are recorded. Although many of these events are being videotaped, a written transcript must still be created for legal pur­ poses or if the proceedings are to be published. The trend to provide instantaneous written captions for the deaf and hearing impaired also should strengthen demand for stenocaptioners. Competition for entry level jobs as a court reporter is increasing as more workers are attracted to the occupation. Opportunities should be best for those who earn certification by the National Court Reporters Association. Earnings Stenographers and court reporters had median earnings of $410 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $370 and $540 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $310, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $960 a week. Court reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic office workers. Re­ gardless of specialty, earnings depend on speed, education, experi­ ence, and geographic location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas).  Nature of the Work Teacher aides, also called paraprofessionals or “paraeducators,” provide instructional and clerical support for classroom teachers, al­ lowing teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Aides assist and supervise students in the classroom, cafeteria, schoolyard, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, or help pre­ pare materials for instruction. They also tutor and assist children in learning class material. Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly. Some teacher aides just han­ dle routine nonteaching and clerical tasks. They grade tests and pa­ pers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, type, file, and duplicate materials. They also may stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. Other aides instruct children, under the direction and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups— listening while students read, reviewing or reinforcing class work, or helping them find information for reports. They may supervise inde­ pendent study or help students in vocational or work-study pro­ grams find jobs. Teacher aides also may provide personal attention to “at- risk” students—those whose families live in poverty, for ex­ ample—or students with special needs—those who speak English as a second language, for example. Aides help assess a student’s pro­ gress by observing a student’s performance and recording relevant data. Many aides have a combination of instructional and clerical du­ ties, designed to most effectively assist classroom teachers. Some­ times, aides take charge of special projects and prepare equipment or exhibits—for a science demonstration, for example. Working Conditions About half of all teacher aides work part time during the school year. Most aides who provide educational instruction work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year, usually in a classroom set­ ting. Aides also may work outdoors supervising recess when weather allows, and spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Seeing students develop and gain appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, working closely with stu­ dents can be both physically and emotionally tiring.  Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, secretar­ ies, personnel clerks, administrative assistants, and medical assist­ ants. Sources of Additional Information For information about shorthand reporting, contact: ^•National Court Reporters Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vi­ enna, VA 22182.  Information on medical transcription is available from: American Association for Medical Transcription, P.O. Box 576187, Mo­ desto, CA 95357. Phone: toll free, 1-800-982-2182.  State employment offices can provide information about job openings for stenographers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job openings for teacher aides should be plentiful.  290  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Teacher aides held about 885,000 jobs in 1992. About 8 out of 10 worked in elementary and secondary schools, mostly in the lower grades. A significant number assisted special education teachers in working with children who have disabilities. Most of the others worked in child daycare centers and religious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher aides range from a high school diploma to some college training. Those aides with teaching responsibilities usually require more training than those who don’t have teaching tasks. Increasingly, employers prefer aides who have some college training. Many schools require previous experience in working with children. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate de­ gree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher aides. However, most teacher aides receive on-the-job training. Aides who tutor and review lessons with students must have a thorough under­ standing of class materials and instructional methods, and must be familiar with the organization and operation of a school. Aides also must know how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials. Teacher aides should enjoy working with children and be able to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Aides also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good oral and writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teachers. Some aides must be able to speak a second language to help children whose pri­ mary language is not English. Clerical and computer skills also may be necessary. Some States have established certification and training require­ ments for general teacher aides. To qualify, an individual may need a high school diploma or general equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college training. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility, comes primarily with experi­ ence or additional education. Some school districts provide time away from the job so that aides may take college courses. Aides who earn bachelor’s degrees may become certified teachers. Job Outlook Employment of teacher aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The increas­ ing number of special education classes, restructuring of schools, and the rising number of students who speak English as a second language will spur rapid growth of teacher aides. Numerous job openings also will arise as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force for family responsibilities, to return to school, or for other reasons—characteristic of occupations that require lim­ ited formal education and offer relatively low pay. Since many teacher aides work in special education, a field that is expected to experience rapid growth through the year 2005, strong demand is expected for teacher aides. The number of special educa­ tion programs is rising in response to Federal legislation which man­ dates appropriate education for all children with disabilities. Chil­ dren with special needs require much personal attention, and special education teachers rely heavily on teacher aides. In addition, school reforms which call for more individual in­ struction should further enhance employment opportunities for teacher aides. More paraprofessionals are being employed to pro­ vide students with the personal instruction and remedial education they need; most students greatly benefit from additional attention, individual instruction, and positive feedback. Teacher aide employment is sensitive to changes in State and lo­ cal expenditures for education. Pressures on education budgets are greater in some States and localities than in others. A number of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  teacher aide positions, such as Head Start assistant teachers, are fi­ nanced through Federal programs, which also may be affected by budget constraints. Earnings According to the National Survey of Salaries and Wages in Public Schools, conducted by the Educational Research Service, aides in­ volved in teaching activities averaged $8.31 an hour in 1992-93; those performing only nonteaching activities averaged $7.82 an hour. Earnings varied by region, work experience, and academic qualifications. Many aides are covered by collective bargaining agreements and have benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. Related Occupations Teacher aides who instruct children have duties similar to those of preschool, elementary, and secondary school teachers and librari­ ans. However, teacher aides do not have the same level of responsi­ bility or training. The support activities of teacher aides and their educational backgrounds are similar to those of child-care workers, family daycare providers, library technicians, and library assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information on teacher aides and on a wide range of education-re­ lated subjects, including teacher aide unionization, can be obtained from:  tw American Federation of Teachers, Organizing Department, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20001.  For information on a career as a teacher aide in special education, contact:  13= National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals in Special Education, 25  West 43rd St., Room 620, New York, NY 10036.  School superintendents and State departments of education can provide details about employment requirements.  Telephone Operators (D.O.T. 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014, .662-014, -018, -022, and -026; and 239.367-026)  Nature of the Work Although most telephone numbers are dialed directly, some still re­ quire the assistance of a telephone operator. Telephone company central office operators help customers with person-to-person or collect calls or with special billing requests, such as charging a call to a third number or giving customers credit or a refund for a wrong number or a bad connection. Operators also are called upon to han­ dle emergency calls and assist children or people with physical limi­ tations. Technological innovations have also changed the responsibilities of central office operators. Electronic switching systems have elimi­ nated the need for manual switching, and new systems automati­ cally record information about the length and cost of calls into a computer that processes the billing statements. It is also now possi­ ble in most places to call other countries, person-to-person, or col­ lect without the help of an operator. The task of responding to “in­ tercept” calls (vacant, changed, or disconnected numbers) also is automated, and a computerized recording explains the reason for the interception and gives the new number. The monitoring and computing of charges on calls from pay telephones also have an au­ tomated function formerly performed by operators. Directory assistance operators answer inquiries by accessing computerized alphabetical and geographical directories. They gen­ erally no longer read numbers; this is done by a computerized re­ cording.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Many organizations like hotels and medical centers employ oper­ ators to run private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. These switchboard, or PBX operators, connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, connect outgoing calls, supply infor­ mation to callers, and record charges. Many also act as receptionists or information clerks, relaying messages or announcing visitors. (Receptionists are described elsewhere in this section of the Hand­ book.) Operators also work in other settings. Telephone- answering-ser­ vice operators manage switchboards to provide answering service for clients. Communication-center operators handle airport author­ ity communication systems. For example, they use the public ad­ dress system to page passengers or visitors. They also monitor elec­ tronic equipment alarms. Private-branch-exchange service advisors, sometimes called cus­ tomer instructors or telephone usage counselors, train switchboard operators. Service advisors monitor conversations between opera­ tors and customers to observe the operator’s behavior, technical ac­ curacy, and adherence to company policies. Working Conditions The hours of PBX or switchboard operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. In some organizations, they work 40 hours a week during regular business hours. Operators in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, work shifts, even on holidays and week­ ends. Telephone company operators generally work 32 1/2 to 37 1/ 2 hours a week. They also may work day, evening, or night shifts, which include weekends and holidays. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced workers to choose when they will work. These operators, like all telephone company employees, may be subject to 24-hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Many telephone company operators work at video display termi­ nals in pleasant, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. But if  \m  Many telephone operators are also receptionists.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  291  the work site is not well designed, these operators may experience eyestrain and back discomfort. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; during peak calling periods, however, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Telephone companies continually strive to increase operator efficiency, and this can create a tense work environment. An operator’s work generally is quite repetitive and, in telephone companies, is closely supervised. Computerized pacing and moni­ toring by supervisors, combined with the rapid pace, may cause stress. Operators must sit for long periods and usually need supervi­ sory approval to leave their work stations. Employment Telephone operators held about 314,000 jobs in 1992. About 3 out of 4 worked as PBX operators in hotels, hospitals, department stores, or other organizations. The remainder worked in telephone companies. Roughly one-fifth of all operators worked part time, al­ though relatively few of those employed by telephone companies were part-timers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone operators should be pleasant, courteous, and patient. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being a good listener, prospective operators should have good read­ ing, spelling, and arithmetic skills. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity are useful, as is an ability to work well under pres­ sure. Many employers require operators to pass a physical examina­ tion. Some employers require a high school diploma. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background. Fluency in a foreign language is also looked upon favorably. New operators are taught how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. In larger companies, this may include familiariza­ tion with computer terminals and recordkeeping programs. In tele­ phone companies, classroom instruction lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-the- job training. Classroom instruction covers time zones and geography so that central office operators understand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to fa­ miliarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other tele­ phone sounds and to improve diction and courtesy by giving them an opportunity to hear their own voices. Close supervision contin­ ues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usually have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. These workers usually are trained informally by experienced personnel, al­ though, in some organizations, it may be done by a telephone com­ pany instructor. After 1 or 2 years of experience, telephone company operators may be promoted to service assistant, aiding the supervisor by moni­ toring telephone conversations. Direct promotion to supervisor may also be possible in some companies. Some operators advance to other clerical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as installer or re­ pairer. Large firms may promote PBX operators to more responsi­ ble clerical positions; however, many small businesses have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of operators in telephone companies is expected to de­ cline sharply through the year 2005 as automation continues to in­ crease these workers’ productivity. Many telephone companies do not plan to replace operators who leave and many are laying off op­ erators. The number of switchboard or PBX operators will also de­ cline, but not as fast. As older switchboards that require operators to make connections are replaced by ones that route calls automati­ cally, fewer operators will be needed. In addition, voice message sys­ tems are expected to proliferate as computers become smaller, cheaper, and more powerful. These systems record, store, play, and forward telephone messages-—work currently performed by PBX  292  Occupational Outlook Handbook  operators. In those cases when callers need to speak to an operator, they may be helped by receptionists who have been trained to make telephone connections. However many firms may still keep switch­ board operators for the “personal touch,” which would somewhat limit the effects of new technology. Voice recognition technology, which gives computers the capac­ ity to understand speech and to talk back, is now being introduced. This equipment will replace some directory assistance operators and central office operators. Earnings Telephone operators who worked year round full time earned a me­ dian weekly salary of $385 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $284 and $490. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $232; the top 10 percent earned more than $561 a week. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, switchboard operators had median weekly earnings of $353 in 1992. The middle half earned between $300 and $400 a week. Telephone company operators generally earn more than switch­ board operators. Operators employed by AT&T and the Bell Oper­ ating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned between $550 and $567 a week in 1992. Most telephone company operators are members of the Commu­ nications Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, nonsupervisory operator position to the highest). Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6 1/2 to 7 1/2 hours a day or 5 days a week, for Sunday and holiday work, and for a pay differential for nightwork and split shifts. Many contracts pro­ vide for a 1-week vacation with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public in­ clude customer service representatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, in­ formation clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservation agents, and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact a tele­ phone company. For general information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts from: ts= United States Telephone Association, Small Companies Division, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  For general information on the telephone industry contact: Communications Workers of America, Research Department, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Typists, Word Processors, and Data Entry Keyers (D.O.T. 203.362-010 and -022, .382-018 and -026, .582-014, -038, -042, -046, -054, -062, -066, and -078; 208.382-010; and 209.382-010)  Nature of the Work Many organizations process large amounts of information and data in the course of their daily operations. Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers often are responsible for ensuring that this work is handled smoothly and efficiently. Typists and word processors usually set up and enter reports, let­ ters, mailing labels, and other text material. Typists make neat,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  typed copies of materials written by other clerical, professional, or managerial workers. They may begin as entry level workers by typ­ ing headings on form letters, addressing envelopes, or preparing standard forms on electric or electronic typewriters. As they gain experience, they may begin to do routine typing, such as insurance policies, or to type from handwritten drafts. Often, they perform other office tasks as well: answering telephones, filing, and operat­ ing copiers, calculators, and other office machines. More experienced typists do work that requires a higher degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts that are difficult to read or that contain technical mate­ rial. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on photocopiers. Job titles of typists vary by duties performed and by work setting. For example, clerk typists combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Note-readers transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard for­ mats. In many organizations, word processing centers handle the tran­ scription and typing for several departments. Regardless of how work is organized, most typing is now done more quickly on auto­ mated word processing equipment. Word processors use this equip­ ment to record, edit, store, and revise letters, memos, reports, statis­ tical tables, forms, and other printed materials. Word processing or automated equipment—usually a personal computer or part of a larger computer system—normally includes a keyboard, a video dis­ play terminal, and a printer, and may have “add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition readers. This way, information and instructions can be received through the machine. Data entry keyers usually fill forms that appear on a computer screen or enter lists of items or numbers. They also may manipulate existing data, edit current information, or proofread new entries to a database. They may enter customers’ personal information, orders for supplies, or update membership lists. Usually this information is used internally by the company and may be reformatted before, say, use by a professional for an accounting report or by the billing de­ partment to send to a customer. Keyers can enter data on a variety of typewriter-like equipment. Many keyers use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks for entry into a computer sys­ tem. Others prepare materials for printing or publication by using data entry composing machines. Some keyers operate on-line termi­ nals or personal computers. Data entry keyers are increasingly ex­ posed to non-keyboard forms of data entry and are working more with scanners and electronically transmitted files. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers usually work in clean offices. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines such as printers. These workers generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Some word processors and data entry keyers work in large, cen­ tralized word processing centers that are relatively isolated from other operational areas. Others, however, are located in depart­ ments that are physically dispersed throughout the organization, so they often work more closely with other employees. Recent research on occupational health and safety has been con­ cerned with the hazards to physical and mental health posed by new types of office equipment. Studies have found that word processors and data entry keyers who work full time on video terminals experi­ ence musculoskeletal strain, eye problems, and stress. Repetitive  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical  293  business schools, home study schools, or on one’s own, using self­ teaching aids such as books, records, and personal computers. Spell­ ing, punctuation, and grammar skills are also important, as is famil­ iarity with standard office equipment and procedures. Increasingly, employers also expect applicants to have word processing or data entry training or experience. Many community colleges, business schools, and temporary help agencies teach stu­ dents to use word processing, spreadsheet, and database manage­ ment computer software packages. For many people, a job as a typist, word processor, or data entry keyer is their first job after graduating from high school or after a period of full-time family responsibilities. This work frequently serves as a steppingstone to higher paying, more responsible jobs. Large companies and government agencies generally have training programs to help clerical employees upgrade their skills and ad­ vance to positions with more responsibilities. It is common for typ­ ists, word processors, and data entry keyers to transfer to other cler­ ical jobs, such as secretary, statistical clerk, or court reporter, or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center.  Jntf  Job prospects will be best for workers who are familiar with a variety of software packages. strain injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, may also affect typ­ ists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Employment Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers held about 1,238,000 jobs in 1992 and were employed in every sector of the economy. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements; many of these workers hold temporary jobs and 1 in 5 works part time. Some of these part-time workers are self-em­ ployed freelancers; others take short-term jobs through temporary help agencies. Some workers “telecommute.” That is, they work from their homes via personal computers linked by telephone lines to those in the main office. This enables them to type material at home and almost instantly produce printed copy in an office miles away. These home-based jobs often do not include the full range of benefits that full- time office workers enjoy, and they lack the ad­ vantages of social interaction on the job. Four of every 10 typists, word processors, and data entry keyers held jobs in educational institutions, health care facilities, law of­ fices, and firms that provide business services. Among the latter are temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. One in four worked in government agencies at various levels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who can meet their requirements for keyboarding speed. Keyboarding skills can be learned in different ways—in high schools, community colleges,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of typists, word processors, and data entry keyers is expected to decline through the year 2005 despite rapid growth in the production of information and volume of business transactions. This is an indication of the significant productivity gains expected to continue among office workers due to increasing office automation. Technological advances and restructuring of work processes should enable fewer typists, word processors, and data entry keyers to han­ dle a bigger workload. A couple of hundred thousand openings will still occur each year, however, as workers transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. Technological advances are driving these productivity gains. Most important among these is the proliferation of personal com­ puters, which has enabled other workers to perform work formerly done by typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Most pro­ fessionals and managers now use desktop personal computers or work stations to enter data and do their own word processing. Many data entry and word processing departments have decen­ tralized in much the same way that technology has in today’s of­ fices. Some larger organizations still have central word processing and data entry departments, but most have moved to a more dis­ persed, leaner staff which is more flexible. Another indication of this trend is the recent increase in part-time work and the growth of the temporary services industry, which accounts for a significant por­ tion of the growth in these occupations. Further automation of tasks is expected and should continue to reduce the demand for typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. For example, bar code scanners are now used in many retail establishments and their use should continue to spread to smaller es­ tablishments as prices fall. More sophisticated optical character rec­ ognition readers, which scan documents and enter their text and data into a computer, are being used in more and more workplaces. This technology is being improved and should be widely used in the 1990’s. Researchers are also developing voice recognition technolo­ gies that enable people to enter text and data by simply speaking to a computer. It is not clear when this technology is likely to affect em­ ployment patterns, but its effects could be significant. In addition to these technologies designed to make traditional data entry more productive, others are being implemented which aim to make it unnecessary. Data is being captured at the point of origin and entered into the system without human intervention. An example of this in the banking industry is automatic teller machines. As telecommunications technology improves, many organizations will network computers allowing more data to be electronically transmitted, thus avoiding the reentry of data. Job prospects will be brightest for those typists, word processors, and data entry keyers with the best technical skills. Applicants for  294  Occupational Outlook Handbook  such positions, however, will increasingly need to be flexible and willing to continuously develop their skills. In particular, the more computer software packages these workers know or expertise they have in combining word processing with graphics or spreadsheets, the better their job opportunities will be. Earnings Typists and data entry keyers in metropolitan areas earned average salaries of $20,000 in 1992, while word processors averaged $23,000. Typists generally receive higher salaries if they have word processing experience. In the Federal Government in 1993, clerk-typists and data entry keyers without work experience each started at about $13,400 a   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  year. In some metropolitan areas, higher salaries are paid because of shortages of qualified personnel. The average annual salary for all clerk-typists in the Federal Government in 1993 was about $18,800. Related Occupations Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers must transcribe in­ formation quickly. Other workers who must deliver information in a timely manner are stenographers, court reporters, dispatchers, and telephone operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities in data entry, contact the nearest office of the State employment service.  Service Occupations Protective Service Occupations Correction Officers (D.O.T. 372.367-014, .567-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367-010)  Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the security and safety of per­ sons who have been arrested, are awaiting trial or other hearing, or who have been convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institution. Many correction officers guard prisoners in small municipal jails or precinct station houses where their respon­ sibilities are wide ranging, while others control inmates in large State and Federal prisons where job duties are more specialized. A relatively small number guard aliens being held by the Immigration and Naturalization Service before being released or deported. Re­ gardless of the setting, correction officers maintain order within the institution, enforce rules and regulations, and often supplement the counseling that inmates receive from psychologists, social workers, and other mental health professionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction of­ ficers monitor inmates’ activities, including working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise inmates’ work as­ signments, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Some­ times it is necessary to search inmates and their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce discipline. Correction officers cannot show favoritism and must re­ port any inmate who violates the rules. To prevent escapes, officers staff security positions in towers and at gates. They count inmates periodically to make sure all are present. Correction officers inspect the facilities to assure the safety and security of the prisoners. For example, they check cells and other ar­ eas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, fire hazards, and evi­ dence of infractions of rules by inmates. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, window bars, grille doors, and gates for signs of tam­ pering. Correction officers report orally and in writing on inmate con­ duct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Of­ ficers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily record of their activities. In some modem facilities, correction officers monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with the aid of closed cir­ cuit television cameras and a computer tracking system. Within the institution, correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized vis­ itors. They also escort prisoners between the institution and court­ rooms, medical facilities, and other points. From time to time, they may inspect mail for contraband (prohibited items), administer first aid, or assist police authorities by investigating crimes committed within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates with problems are increasingly important parts of the correction officer’s job. Correctional institu­ tions usually employ psychologists and social workers to counsel in­ mates, but correction officers informally supplement the work of the professionals. They may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can visit the library, help inmates get news of their fami­ lies, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from prison. In some institutions, officers receive specialized training and have a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  more formal counseling role and may lead or participate in group counseling sessions. Correction sergeants directly supervise correction officers. They usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an as­ signed area. Working Conditions Correction officers may work indoors or outdoors, depending on their specific duties. Some indoor areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, weather conditions may be disagreeable, for example when standing watch on a guard tower in cold weather. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous; correction officers occa­ sionally have been injured or killed during inmate disturbances. Correction officers usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which means some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. In addition, of­ ficers may frequently be required to work overtime. Employment Correction officers held about 282,000 jobs in 1992. Six of every 10 worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformatories. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institu­ tions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions lo­ cated in rural areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correction officers meet an 18- or 21year age minimum, have a high school education or its equivalent, and be a United States citizen. In addition, correctional institutions increasingly seek correction officers with postsecondary education in psychology, criminology, and related fields—reflecting a continu­ ing emphasis on personal counseling and rehabilitation of inmates.  Correction officers closely monitor inmates’ activities. 295  296  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Correction officers must be in good health. Many States require candidates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Other common requirements include a driv­ er’s license, work experience that demonstrates reliability, and hav­ ing no felony convictions. Some States screen applicants for drug abuse and require candidates to pass a written or oral examination. Federal, State, and local departments of correction provide train­ ing for correction officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association, the American Jail Association, and other professional organizations. Some States have special training academies. All States and local departments of correction provide informal on-the-job training and advanced training as well. Academy trainees generally receive several weeks or months of instruction on institutional policies, regulations, and operations; counseling psychology, crisis intervention, inmate behavior, and contraband control; custody and security procedures; fire and safety; inmate rules and rights; administrative responsibilities; writ­ ten and oral communication, including preparation of reports; self­ defense, including the use of firearms; cardiopulmonary resuscita­ tion; and physical fitness training. New Federal correction officers undergo 2 weeks of training at their assigned institutions followed by 3 weeks of basic correctional instruction at the Federal Bureau of Prisons training center at Glynco, Georgia. On-the-job trainees re­ ceive several weeks or months of similar training in an actual job set­ ting under an experienced officer. Experienced officers receive inser­ vice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. Some complete home- study courses. Correction officers employed in Michigan must be certified. The criteria for certification are 340 hours of academy training and 15 hours of more advanced training that includes the law regarding corrections; human growth and development; and prison organiza­ tion. Officers in Pennsylvania’s 2-year apprenticeship program, which provides 4 weeks of orientation, 4 weeks of training at its academy, and 20 months of on-the-job training, receive certification from the U.S. Department of Labor. With additional education, experience, or training, qualified of­ ficers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory, ad­ ministrative, or counseling positions. Many correctional institutions require experience as a correction officer for other corrections posi­ tions. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole. Job Outlook Job opportunities for correction officers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005. The need to replace correction officers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will generate several tens of thousands of job openings each year. Correctional institutions have tradition­ ally experienced some difficulty in attracting qualified applicants, and this situation is expected to continue, ensuring highly favorable job prospects. Employment of correction officers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as additional officers are hired to supervise and counsel a growing in­ mate population. Expansion and new construction of correctional facilities also are expected to create many new jobs for correction of­ ficers, although State and local government budgetary constraints could affect the rate at which new facilities are built. Increasing pub­ lic concern about the spread of illegal drugs—resulting in more con­ victions—and the adoption of mandatory sentencing guidelines call­ ing for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates also will spur demand for correction officers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Layoffs of correction officers are rare because security must be maintained in correctional institutions at all times.  Earnings According to a survey by CONTAC, Inc., starting salaries of State correction officers averaged about $18,600 a year in 1992, ranging from $12,000 in Arkansas to $30,500 in New Jersey. Salaries, over­ all, averaged about $23,200 and ranged from $15,500 in Tennessee to $38,600 in California. Salaries generally were comparable for cor­ rection officers working in jails and other county and municipal cor­ rectional institutions. At the Federal level, the starting salary was about $18,300 a year in 1993; supervisory correction officers started at about $40,300 a year. The 1993 average salary for all Federal nonsupervisory correc­ tion officers was about $30,000; for supervisors, about $53,000. Correction officers usually are provided uniforms or an allowance to purchase their own. Most are provided or can participate in hos­ pitalization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disability and life insurance at group rates. They also receive vaca­ tion and sick leave and pension benefits. Officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. In over half of the States, cor­ rection officers are represented by labor unions.  Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in the protective services and the field of security. Bai­ liffs guard offenders and maintain order in courtrooms during pro­ ceedings. Bodyguards escort people and protect them from injury or invasion of privacy. House or store detectives patrol business estab­ lishments to protect against theft and vandalism and to enforce stan­ dards of good behavior. Security guards protect government, com­ mercial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open to persons interested in work­ ing with offenders. Probation and parole officers counsel offenders, process their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Recrea­ tion leaders organize and instruct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Some of these related occupations are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.  Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career op­ portunities for correction officers may be obtained from the Federal Office of Personnel Management, Federal Bureau of Prisons, State civil service commissions, State departments of correction, or nearby correctional institutions and facilities. Information on corrections careers, as well as information about schools that offer criminal justice education, financial assistance, and where to find jobs, is available from: ©•CEGA Services, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, NE 68501-1826.  Additional information on careers in corrections is available from: I3T The American Correctional Association, 8025 Laurel Lakes Ct., Laurel, MD 20707. ©= The American Probation and Parole Association, P.O Box 201, Lexing­ ton, KY 40584. ©■The International Association of Correctional Officers, Box 53, 1333 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL 60605.  Service Occupations  297  Firefighting Occupations (D.O.T. 169.167-022; 373 except .117; 379.687-010; 452.134, .167, .364- 014, .367-010 and-014, .687-014)  Nature of the Work Every year, fires take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This statement provides information only about paid firefighters; it does not cover volunteer firefighters, who make up the overwhelming majority of all firefighters in the Nation. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because firefighting is dangerous and complex, it requires organization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. They may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. They may rescue victims and administer emergency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled areas, operate equip­ ment, and salvage the contents of buildings. The job of firefighter has become more complicated in recent years due to the use of increasingly sophisticated equipment. In ad­ dition, many firefighters have assumed additional responsibilities— for example, working with ambulance services that provide emer­ gency medical treatment, assisting in the recovery from natural di­ sasters such as earthquakes and tornadoes, and becoming involved with the control and cleanup of oil spills and other hazardous chem­ ical incidents. Some firefighters are responsible for fire safety in the Nation’s forests. Fire lookouts locate fires from remote fire-lookout stations and report their findings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Fire rangers patrol areas of the forest to locate and report fires and haz­ ardous conditions and to ensure that travelers and campers are com­ plying with fire regulations. When fires break out, firefighters go in to battle the blaze, parachuting from airplanes when necessary to reach inaccessible areas. Most fire departments also are responsible for fire prevention. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. Fire inspectors inspect pipes, hoses, and other fire appara­ tus to ensure that it is in working order. Firefighters also educate the public about fire prevention and safety measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assemblies and civic groups. Fire marshalls investigate and gather facts to determine the cause of fires when arson or criminal neglience is suspected or someone is killed or seriously injured. In addition, they may have to testify in court about the evidence that they have gathered. Between alarms, firefighters have classroom training, clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. Firefighters also pre­ pare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science litera­ ture to keep abreast of technological developments and administra­ tive practices and policies. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods at fires, medical emergencies, hazard­ ous chemical incidents, and other emergencies on their feet and out­ doors, sometimes in adverse weather. Firefighting is one of the most hazardous occupations. It involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Strong winds, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Firefighters routinely check equipment to ensure proper performance. falling trees and branches can make fighting forest fires particularly dangerous. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. For these reasons, firefighters must wear all kinds of protective gear. Work hours of firefighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. The majority of firefighters work over 50 hours a week; during some weeks, they may work significantly longer hours. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then re­ peat the cycle. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours include time when firefighters study, train, and perform fire preven­ tion duties. Employment Firefighters held about 305,000 jobs in 1992. Nine of every 10 worked in municipal or county fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on Federal and State installations, including airports. Private firefighting companies employ a small number. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a writ­ ten test; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agil­ ity; and a medical examination—including drug screening. Workers also may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after ac­ cepting employment. Examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chances for appointment. The completion of community college courses in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for ap­ pointment. In fact, in recent years, an increasing proportion of en­ trants to this occupation have some postsecondary education. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are trained for sev­ eral weeks at the department’s training center. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures; also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefight­ ing and rescue equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they are evaluated during a period of probation.  298  Occupational Outlook Handbook  A number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as firefighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards as­ sociated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Most experienced firefighters continue to study to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. Today, firefighters need more training to operate increasingly sophisticated equipment and to deal safely with the greater hazards associated with fighting fires in larger, more elaborate structures. To progress to higher level positions, firefighters must acquire expertise in the most advanced firefighting equipment and techniques and in build­ ing construction, emergency medical procedures, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor rela­ tions. Fire departments frequently conduct training programs, and some firefighters attend training sessions sponsored by the National Fire Academy on a variety of topics such as executive development, anti-arson techniques, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have extensive firefighter training programs. Many colleges and universities offer courses leading to 2- or 4year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. Many fire depart­ ment offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay for completing advanced training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alert­ ness, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are extremely important be­ cause firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergencies. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership quali­ ties are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain dis­ cipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. The line of promotion usually is to engineer then lieutenant, captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores on a written ex­ amination, performance on the job, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments are using assessment centers—which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks—to screen for the best candidates for promotion. However, many fire departments require a master’s degree—preferably in public administration or a related field—for promotion to positions higher than battalion chief. Job Outlook Firefighters are expected to face considerable competition for avail­ able job openings. Firefighting attracts many people because a high school education usually is sufficient, earnings are relatively high, and a pension is guaranteed upon retirement. In addition, the work is frequently exciting and challenging and affords an opportunity to perform a valuable public service. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas generally exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical re­ quirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist through the year 2005. Employment of firefighters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as a result of the increase in the Nation’s population and fire protection needs. In addition, the number of paid firefighter positions is expected to in­ crease as a percentage of all firefighter jobs. Much of the expected increase will occur in smaller communities with expanding popula­ tions that augment volunteers with career firefighters to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. However, little  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  growth is expected in large, urban fire departments. A small number of local governments are expected to contract for firefighting ser­ vices with private companies. In response to the expanding role of firefighters, some municipali­ ties have combined fire prevention, public fire education, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organization commmonly referred to as a public safety organization. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into county-wide establish­ ments in order to cut overhead, take advantage of economies of scale, reduce administrative staffs, and establish consistent training standards and work procedures. Turnover of firefighter jobs is unusually low, particularly for an occupation that requires a relatively limited investment in formal education. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace those who retire or stop working for other reasons, or who transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire protection is an es­ sential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire-protec­ tion coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire depart­ ments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment purchases or not hiring new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. Earnings Median weekly earnings for firefighting occupations were $636 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $499 and $824 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $362, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $987. Fire lieutenants and fire captains may earn considerably more. The law requires that overtime be paid to those firefighters who average 53 or more hours a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Firefighters receive benefits that usually include medical and lia­ bility insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Practically all fire departments provide protective clothing (hel­ mets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also pro­ vide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 af­ ter 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. The majority of career firefighters are members of the Interna­ tional Association of Fire Fighters. Related Occupations A related fire protection occupation is the fire- protection engineer, who identifies fire hazards in homes and workplaces and designs prevention programs and automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems. Other occupations in which workers respond to emergen­ cies include police officers and emergency medical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter is available from local civil service offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from: tw International Association of Fire Chiefs, 4025 Fair Ridge Dr., Fairfax, VA 22033-2868.  Xgp International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Information about firefighter professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities that offer 2- or 4-year degree programs in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: 13= National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.  Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of firefighters in various cities is published annually by the Interna­ tional City Management Association in its Municipal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries.  Service Occupations  Guards  299  -..I  3RD FLOOR I  (D.O.T. 372.563, .567-010, .667-010, -014, and -030 through -038; 376.667-010; and 379.667-010)  Nature of the Work Guards, also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. Their duties vary with the size, type, and location of their employer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, merchandise, money, and equipment. In de­ partment stores, they often work with undercover detectives to watch for theft by customers or store employees. At ports, airports, and railroads, guards protect merchandise be­ ing shipped as well as property and equipment. They screen passen­ gers and visitors for weapons, explosives, and other contraband. They ensure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Some­ times they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paintings and exhibits. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide tours. In factories, laboratories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases where valuable property or informa­ tion—such as information on new products, computer codes, or de­ fense secrets—must be protected, guards check the credentials of persons and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. Golf course patrollers prevent unauthorized persons from using the facility and help keep play run­ ning smoothly. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gatherings, guards provide information, assist in crowd control, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. Some guards work as “bouncers” and patrol places of entertainment such as nightclubs to preserve order among customers and to protect property. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. Bodyguards protect individuals from bodily injury, kidnapping, or invasion of privacy. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single worker may be respon­ sible for all security measures. Patrolling usually is done on foot, but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or mo­ tor scooter. As more businesses purchase advanced electronic secur­ ity systems to protect their property, more guards are being assigned to stations where they monitor perimeter security, environmental functions, communications, and other systems. In many cases, these guards maintain radio contact with other guards patrolling on foot or in motor vehicles. Some guards use computers to store informa­ tion on matters relevant to security—for example, visitors or suspi­ cious occurrences—during their hours on duty. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthorized persons remain after working hours, and ensure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and may carry a nightstick and gun, although the bearing of guns is decreasing. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Correction officers—guards who work in prisons and other cor­ rectional institutions—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  L, ■  Guards check the credentials ofpersons entering or leaving a building. Working Conditions Guards work indoors and outdoors patrolling buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. Indoors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or to check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Because guards often work alone, there may be no one nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms, therefore, use a reporting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an ex­ pected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to them­ selves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other em­ ployees and members of the public. Many guards work alone at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to divide day­ time, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break. Employment Guards held about 803,000 jobs in 1992. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employed over one-half of all guards. These or­ ganizations provide security services on contract, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. The remainder were in-house guards, employed in large numbers by banks; building management companies; hotels; hospitals; retail stores; restaurants and bars; schools, colleges, and universities; and Federal, State, and local governments. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Ap­ plicants with less than a high school education also can qualify if they pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate competence in following written and oral instructions. Some jobs require a driver’s license. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the military police or in State and local police departments. Most per­ sons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts some persons seeking a second job. For some entrants, retired from military careers or other protective services, guard employment is a second career.  300  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Applicants are expected to have good character references, no po­ lice record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good personal habits such as neatness and dependability. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit in or­ der to cope with emergencies. Guards who have frequent contact with the public should be friendly and personable. Some employers require applicants to take a polygraph examination or a written test of honesty, attitudes, and other personal qualities. Most employers require applicants and experienced workers to submit to drug screening tests as a condition of employment. Virtually all States and the District of Columbia have licensing or registration requirements for guards who work for contract security agencies. Registration generally requires that employment of an in­ dividual as a guard be reported to the licensing authorities—the State police department or other State licensing commission. To be granted a license as a guard, individuals generally must be 18 years old, have no convictions for perjury or acts of violence, pass a back­ ground examination, and complete classroom training in such sub­ jects as property rights, emergency procedures, and seizure of sus­ pected criminals. In 1990, only about five States and the District of Columbia had licensing requirements for in-house guards. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as a guard and pass a written examination. Armed Forces experience also is an asset. For most Federal guard positions, applicants must qualify in the use of firearms. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training require­ ments generally are increasing as modern, highly sophisticated se­ curity systems become more commonplace. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the- job training. More and more States are making ongoing training a legal requirement. For example, New York State now requires guards to complete 40 hours of training af­ ter starting work. Guards receive training in protection, public rela­ tions, report writing, crisis deterrence, first aid, drug control, and specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. Guards employed at establishments that place a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants may undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. Guards may be taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and elec­ tronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be peri­ odically tested in their use according to State or local laws. Some guards are periodically tested for strength and endurance. Although guards in small companies receive periodic salary in­ creases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large or­ ganizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and salary. Higher level guard experience may enable persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancement. Guards with some college educa­ tion may advance to jobs that involve administrative duties or the prevention of espionage and sabotage. A few guards with manage­ ment skills open their own contract security guard agencies.  enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more advancement potential, and are usually given more training and re­ sponsibility. Employment of guards is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increased con­ cern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism will heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, offices, and recreation ar­ eas. The level of business investment in increasingly expensive plant and equipment is expected to rise, resulting in growth in the number of guard jobs. Demand for guards will also grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as monitoring crowds at airports and providing security in courts—formerly handled by gov­ ernment police officers and marshals. (Police, detectives, and spe­ cial agents are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.) Because engaging the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct responsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agencies. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies occa­ sionally are laid off when the firm at which they work does not re­ new its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employ­ ment with other agencies, however. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or factory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily.  Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as guards are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005. High turnover and this occupa­ tion’s large size ranks it among those providing the greatest number of job openings in the entire economy. Many opportunities are ex­ pected for persons seeking full-time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at night or on weekends. However, some competition is expected for the higher paying in-house guard positions. Compared to contract security guards, in-house guards  Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is availa­ ble from local employers and the nearest State employment service office. Information about registration and licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish licensing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, guards with less responsibilty and training had median hourly earn­ ings of $6.00 in 1992. The middle half earned between $5.00 and $7.35 an hour. Guards with more specialized training and experi­ ence had median hourly earnings of $11.15, with the middle half earning between $9.05 and $13.34 an hour. Guards employed by in­ dustrial security and guard agencies generally started at or slightly above the minimum wage, which was $4.25 an hour in 1993. Unionized in-house guards tend to earn more than the average. Many guards are represented by the United Plant Guard Workers Of America. Other guards belong to the International Union of Guards or the International Union Of Security Officers. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned between $14,600 and $16,400 a year in 1993. Guards employed by the Federal Government averaged about $21,700 a year in 1993. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations for entry and conduct in the establishments at which they work. Re­ lated security and protective service occupations include: Bailiffs, border guards, correction officers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, police officers, and private inves­ tigators.  Service Occupations  Police, Detectives, and Special Agents (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work The safety of our Nation’s cities, towns, and highways greatly de­ pends on the work of police officers, detectives, and special agents, whose responsibilities range from controlling traffic to preventing and investigating crimes. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exercise their authority when­ ever necessary. As civilian police department employees and private security per­ sonnel increasingly assume routine police duties, police and detec­ tives are able to spend more time fighting serious crime. Police and detectives are also becoming more involved in community rela­ tions—increasing public confidence in the police and mobilizing the public to help the police fight crime. Police officers and detectives who work in small communities and rural areas have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police department, by con­ trast, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Most of­ ficers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to special work such as accident prevention. Others are experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms identifica­ tion, and handwriting and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle police, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs generally enforce the law in rural ar­ eas or those places where there is no local police department. Bailiffs are responsible for keeping order in the courtroom. U.S. marshals serve civil writs and criminal warrants issued by Federal judges and are responsible for the safety and transportation of jurors and pris­ oners. Detectives and special agents are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) special agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, theft of Government property, organized crime, espionage, sabotage, kid­ napping, and terrorism. Agents with specialized training usually work on cases related to their background. For example, agents with an accounting background may investigate white-collar crimes such as bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankruptcies and land deals. Frequently, agents must testify in court about cases that they inves­ tigate. Special agents employed by the U.S. Department of Treasury work for the U.S. Customs Service; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; the U.S. Secret Service; and the Internal Revenue Service. Customs agents enforce laws to prevent smuggling of goods across U.S. borders. Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms agents might investigate suspected illegal sales of guns or the underpayment of taxes by a liquor or cigarette manufacturer. U.S. Secret Service agents protect the President, Vice President, and their immediate families, Presidential candidates, ex-Presidents, and foreign dignita­ ries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, the forgery of Government checks or bonds, and the fraudulent use of credit cards. Internal Revenue Service special agents collect evidence against individuals and companies that are evading the payment of Federal taxes. Federal drug enforcement agents conduct criminal investigations of illicit drug activity. They compile evidence and arrest individuals who violate Federal drug laws. They may prepare reports that are used in criminal proceedings, give testimony in court, and develop  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  301  evidence that justifies the seizure of financial assets gained from ille­ gal activity. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol highways and enforce laws and regulations that govern their use. They issue traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment including ambulances. They also write reports that may be used to determine the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they may radio for road service for drivers with mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as during special occurrences such as parades and sports events. They some­ times check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driver ex­ aminations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibilities, State police in the major­ ity of States also enforce criminal laws. In communities and counties that do not have a local police force or a large sheriff’s department, the State police are the primary law enforcement agency, investigat­ ing crimes such as burglary or assault. They also may help city or county police catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. Most new police recruits begin on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on “foot” patrol. They work alone or with exper­ ienced officers in such varied areas as congested business districts or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers attempt to become thoroughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything unusual. They note suspi­ cious circumstances, such as open windows or lights in vacant build­ ings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen vehicles. At regular intervals, officers report to po­ lice headquarters from call boxes, radios, or telephones. Regardless of where they work, police, detectives, and special agents must write reports and maintain police records. They may be called to testify in court when their arrests result in legal action. Some officers, such as division or bureau chiefs, are responsible for training or certain kinds of criminal investigations, and those who command police operations in an assigned area have administrative and supervisory duties. Working Conditions Police, detectives, and special agents usually work 40 hours a week, but paid overtime work is common. Because police protection must  fmA.  "'F  Responsibilities ofpolice officers range from controlling traffic and preventing and investigating crimes.  302 Occupational Outlook Handbook be provided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers, detectives, and special agents are subject to call any time their ser­ vices are needed and may work overtime, particularly during crimi­ nal investigations. The jobs of some special agents such as U.S. Secret Service agents require extensive travel. Police, detectives, and special agents may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate among these law officers is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks taken in pursuing speeding motorists, apprehending criminals, and dealing with public disorders. Police work can be very dangerous, and this can be very stressful for the officer as well as for his or her family. Employment Police, detectives, and special agents held about 700,000 jobs in 1992. Most were employed by local governments, primarily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large po­ lice forces, while hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. State police agencies employed about 12 percent of all police, detectives, and special agents; various Federal agencies, particularly the Treasury Department and the Federal Bureau of In­ vestigation, employed an additional 5 percent. There are about 17,000 State and local police departments in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in practically all States and large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Eligibility for appointment depends on performance in competitive written examinations as well as on education and experience. Physi­ cal examinations often include tests of vision, strength, and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in police and detective work, candidates are interviewed by a senior officer at po­ lice headquarters, and their character traits and background are in­ vestigated. In some police departments, candidates also may be in­ terviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or be given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector exami­ nations and drug testing. Some police departments subject police of­ ficers in sensitive positions to drug testing as a condition of continu­ ing employment. Although police and detectives often work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with laws and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with peo­ ple and serving the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, appli­ cants usually must have a high school education. An increasing number of cities and States require some college training, and some hire law enforcement students as police interns; some departments require a college degree. A few police departments accept applicants as recruits who have less than a high school education, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an ap­ plicant either must be a graduate of an accredited law school; be a college graduate with a major in either accounting, engineering, or computer science; or be a college graduate with either fluency in a foreign language or 3 years of full-time work experience. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, between 23 and 35 years of age at the time of appointment, and willing to accept an assignment anywhere in the United States. They also must be in excellent physical condition with at least 20/200 vision corrected to 20/40 in one eye and 20/20 in the other eye. All new agents undergo 15 weeks of training at the FBI academy at the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Department of Treasury must have a bachelor’s degree, or a minimum of 3 years’ work experience of which at least 2 are in criminal investigation.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Candidates must be in excellent physical condition and be less than 35 years of age at the time they enter duty. Treasury agents undergo 8 weeks of training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia, and another 8 weeks of specialized training with their particular bureau. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration must have a college degree in any field and either 1 year of experience conducting criminal investigations or have achieved a record of scholastic excellence while in college. The mini­ mum age for entry is 21 and the maximum age is 36. Drug enforce­ ment agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. More and more, police departments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in law enforcement. Many entrants to police and detective jobs have completed some formal postsecon­ dary education and a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police career include psychology, counseling, En­ glish, American history, public administration, public relations, so­ ciology, business law, chemistry, and physics. Participation in phys­ ical education and sports is especially helpful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in areas that have concentrations of ethnic populations. Some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as civilian police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes and are appointed to the regular force at age 21 if qualified. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a pe­ riod of training. In small communities, recruits work for a short time with experienced officers. In State and large city police depart­ ments, they get more formal training that may last a number of weeks or months. This training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and super­ vised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-de­ fense, first aid, and handling emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a pro­ bationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large de­ partment, promotion may enable an officer to become a detective or specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory analysis of evidence, traffic control, communications, or working with juveniles. Promotions to sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job per­ formance. Many types of training help police officers and detectives improve their job performance. Through training given at police department academies—required annually in many States—and colleges, of­ ficers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil defense, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforce­ ment equipment. Many police departments pay all or part of the tui­ tion for officers to work toward associate and bachelor’s degrees in law enforcement, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn a degree. Job Outlook Employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. A more security- conscious society and growing concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services. However, employment growth will be tempered somewhat by continuing budgetary con­ straints faced by law enforcement agencies. In addition, private se­ curity firms may increasingly assume some routine police duties such as crowd surveillance at airports and other public places. Al­ though turnover in police, detective, and special agent jobs is among  Service Occupations the lowest of all occupations, the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of most job openings. The opportunity for public service through police work is attrac­ tive to many. The job frequently is challenging and involves much responsibility. Furthermore, in many communities, police officers may retire with a pension to pursue a second career while still in their 40’s. Because of attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates generally exceeds the number ofjob openings in many Federal agencies and some State and local police depart­ ments—resulting in increased hiring standards and selectivity by employers. Competition is expected to remain keen for higher pay­ ing jobs in larger police departments. Persons having college train­ ing in law enforcement should have the best opportunities. Opportu­ nities will be best in those communities whose departments are expanding and are having difficulty attracting an adequate supply of police officers. Competition is expected to be extremely keen for spe­ cial agent positions with the FBI, Treasury Department, and Drug Enforcement Administration as these prestigious jobs tend to at­ tract a far greater number of applicants than the number of job openings. Consequently, only the most highly qualified candidates will obtain jobs. The level of government spending influences the employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents. The number ofjob op­ portunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because early retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Police of­ ficers who lose their jobs from budget cuts usually have little diffi­ culty finding jobs with other police departments. Earnings In 1992, the median salary of nonsupervisory police officers and detectives was about $32,000 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between about $24,500 and $41,200; the lowest paid 10 percent were paid less than $ 18,400, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $51,200 a year. Generally, salaries tend to be higher in larger, more urban jurisdictions that usually have bigger police departments. Police officers and detectives in supervisory positions had a me­ dian salary of about $38,100 a year, also in 1992. The middle 50 per­ cent earned between about $28,300 and $49,800; the lowest paid 10 percent were paid less than $23,200, while the highest paid 10 per­ cent earned over $58,400 annually. Sheriffs, bailiffs, and other law enforcement officers had a median annual salary of about $25,800 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between about $20,500 and $30,900; the lowest paid 10 per­ cent were paid less than $15,600, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $38,800.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  303  In 1993, FBI agents started at about $30,600 a year, while Trea­ sury Department agents started at about $18,300 or $22,700 a year, and DEA agents at either $22,700 or $27,800 a year, depending on their qualifications. Salaries of experienced FBI agents started at around $47,900, while supervisory agents started at around $56,600 a year. Salaries of experienced Treasury Department and DEA agents started at $40,200, while supervisory agents started at $47,900. Federal agents may, however, be eligible for a special law enforcement compensation and retirement plan; applicants should ask their recruiter for more information. Total earnings frequently exceed the stated salary due to pay­ ments for overtime, which can be significant, especially during crim­ inal investigations or when police are needed for crowd control dur­ ing sporting events or political rallies. In addition to the common fringe benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life in­ surance—most police departments and Federal agencies provide of­ ficers with special allowances for uniforms and furnish revolvers, nightsticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. In addition, because police officers generally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service. I Related Occupations Police officers maintain law and order in the Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Workers in related law enforcement occupations in­ clude guards, bailiffs, correction officers, deputy sheriffs, fire mar­ shals, fish and game wardens, and U.S. marshals.  Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local civil service commissions or police depart­ ments. Contact any Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for pamphlets providing general information and instruc­ tions for submitting an application for jobs as Treasury special agents, drug enforcement agents, FBI special agents, or U.S. mar­ shals. Look under U.S. Government, Office of Personnel Manage­ ment, in your telephone directory to obtain a local telephone num­ ber. Information about law enforcement careers in general may be ob­ tained from: International Union of Police Associations, 1016 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. O’  Food and Beverage Preparation and Service Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers (D.O.T. 311.674-014; 313 except .131; 315.361, .371, and .381; 316.661, .684-010 and -014; 317; 318.687; and 319.484)  Nature of the Work A reputation for serving good food is essential to any restaurant, whether it prides itself on hamburgers and French fries or exotic foreign cuisine. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Some restau­ rants offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time consuming and difficult to prepare, requiring a highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants emphasize fast service, offering hamburgers and sandwiches that can be prepared in advance or in a few minutes by a fast-food or short-order cook with only limited cooking skills. Chefs and cooks are responsible for preparing meals that are tasty and attractively presented. Chefs are the most highly skilled, trained, and experienced kitchen workers. Although the terms chef and cook are still sometimes used interchangeably, cooks generally have more limited skills. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants, hotels, and institutions where they work because of their skill in artfully preparing the traditional fa­ vorites and in creating new dishes and improving familiar ones. (For information on executive chefs, see the Handbook statement on res­ taurant and food service managers.) Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools, in­ dustrial cafeterias, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a small selection of entrees, vegetables, and desserts, but in large quantities. Restaurant chefs and cooks generally prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking most individual servings to order. Whether in institutions or restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes. In the course of their work they use a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. They are often responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Some chefs and cooks also help plan meals and develop menus. Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs in some kitchens, produce baked goods for restaurants, institutions, and retail bakery shops. Unlike bakers who work at large, automated industrial bak­ eries, bread and pastry bakers need only supply the customers who visit their establishment. They bake smaller quantities of breads, rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing most of the work by hand. They measure and mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and apply fillings and decorations. Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburg­ ers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fried potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time. Prior to busy peri­ ods, they may slice meats and cheeses or prepare coleslaw or potato salad. During slow periods, they may clean the grill, food prepara­ tion surfaces, counters, and floors. Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which are prepared to order or kept warm until sold. Other kitchen workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks, perform tasks requiring less skill. They weigh and measure ingredi­ ents, fetch pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. They clean, peel, and slice potatoes, other vegetables, and fruits and make salads. They also may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in 304   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  preparation for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment and utensils, and dishes and silverware. The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depend partly on the type of restaurant. For example, fast-food outlets offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Smaller, full-service restaurants that offer casual dining often feature a lim­ ited number of easy-to-prepare items, supplemented by short-order specialties and readymade desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all of the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers. Large eating places may have more varied menus and prepare, from start to finish, more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or ap­ prentice chefs or cooks, a bread and pastry baker, and many less skilled kitchen workers. Each chef or cook usually has a special as­ signment and often a special job title—vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Executive chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modern equip­ ment, convenient work areas, and air-conditioning; but others, par­ ticularly in older and smaller eating places, are frequently not as well equipped. Other variations in working conditions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws gov­ erning food service operations. Workers generally must withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quarters during busy pe­ riods, stand for hours at a time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or other institutions may be more regular. Half of all short-order and fast-food cooks and other kitchen workers worked part time; a third  Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work.  Service Occupations of all bakers and restaurant and institutional cooks worked part time. Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Vaca­ tion resorts may offer only seasonal employment. Employment Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held nearly 3.1 million jobs in 1992. Short-order and fast-food cooks held 714,000 of the jobs; restaurant cooks, 602,000; institutional cooks, 406,000; bread and pastry bakers, 146,000; and other kitchen workers, 1,233,000. About three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers worked in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places. One-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospi­ tals, and nursing homes. The remainder were employed by grocery stores, hotels, and many other organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in one of the other less skilled kitchen positions that require little edu­ cation or training and that allow them to acquire their skills on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant cook or short- order cook position, but many years of training and experi­ ence are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an execu­ tive chef or cook in a fine restaurant. Even though a high school di­ ploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are particularly helpful. Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who wish to become cooks. Employees who have participated in these training programs often are selected for jobs as cooks. An increasing number of chefs and cooks are obtaining their training through high school or posthigh school vocational pro­ grams and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks may also be trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional culinary insti­ tutes, industry associations, and trade unions. An example is the 3year apprenticeship program administered by local chapters of the American Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training pro­ grams for cooks and chefs. People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job, and they may have an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training, but usually these courses are given by trade schools, vocational centers, colleges, professional associations, and trade unions. Postsecondary courses range from a few months to 2 years or more and are open in some cases only to high school graduates. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu planning, determination of portion size and food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is empha­ sized in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and university programs. Culinary courses are given by 550 schools across the nation. The American Culinary Federation accredited 70 of these programs in  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  305  1993. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and qual­ ity of instruction. The American Culinary Federation has only been accrediting culinary programs for a relatively short time, however, and many programs have not yet sought accreditation. Certification provides valuable formal recognition of the skills of a chef or cook. The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, working chef, executive chef, and master chef. It also certifies pastry professionals and culinary educa­ tors. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. The ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal cleanliness are important qualifications for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers. Most States require health certificates indicating that these workers are free from contagious diseases. Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food and beverage preparation and service occupa­ tions. Many acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Besides culinary skills, advance­ ment also depends on ability to supervise lesser skilled workers and limit food costs by minimizing waste and accurately anticipating the amount of perishable supplies needed. Some cooks and chefs gradu­ ally advance to executive chef positions or supervisory or manage­ ment positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restau­ rant owners; others may become instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and community colleges, and other academic institutions. Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are ex­ pected to be excellent through the year 2005. Growth in demand for these workers will create many new jobs, but most openings will arise from the need to replace the relatively high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial turnover in many of these jobs because their limited re­ quirements for formal education and training allow easy entry, and the many part-time positions are attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of the work­ ers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to attend school full time. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of the lesser skilled jobs in this occupation. The pool of young workers is expected to continue to shrink through the 1990’s, but then begin to grow. Many employers will be forced to offer higher wages, better benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers in these jobs. Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is ex­ pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking establishments is associated with the overall level of economic activity—workers’ lunches and entertainment of clients, for example—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the economy. Other factors contributing to employment growth will be population growth, rising family and personal incomes, and more leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. Also, as more women join the work force, families increasingly may find dining out a welcome convenience. Employment in restaurants is expected to grow rapidly. As the average age of the population increases, demand will grow for res­ taurants that offer table service and more varied menus—which will require more highly skilled cooks and chefs. The popularity of fresh  306  Occupational Outlook Handbook  baked breads and pastries in fine dining establishments should in­ sure continued rapid growth in the employment of bakers. How­ ever, employment of short-order and specialty fast-food cooks is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than other occupations in this group because most work in fast-food restaurants, which are expected to have slower growth than in the past. Employment of institutional and cafeteria chefs and cooks will grow about as fast as the average. Their employment is concentrated in the educational and health services sectors. Although employ­ ment in both sectors is expected to increase rapidly, growth of insti­ tutional and cafeteria cooks will not keep pace. Many high schools and hospitals are trying to make “institutional food” more attrac­ tive to students, staff, visitors, and patients. While some are employ­ ing more highly trained chefs and cooks to prepare more appealing meals, others are contracting out their food services. Many of the contracted companies emphasize fast-food chains and employ short-order and fast- food cooks instead of institutional and cafete­ ria cooks. Earnings Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers vary depending on the part of the country and, especially, the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are highest in elegant restau­ rants and hotels, and many executive chefs earn over $40,000 annu­ ally. According to a survey conducted by the National Restaurant Association, median hourly earnings of cooks were $6.57, with most earning between $6.00 and $8.00 in 1992. Assistant cooks had me­ dian hourly earnings of $6.00, with most earning between $5.50 and $6.50. According to the same survey, short-order cooks had median hourly earnings of $5.99 in 1992; most earned between $5.00 and $6.75. Median hourly earnings of bread and pastry bakers were $6.25; most earned within the range of $6.00 to $7.00. Salad prepa­ ration workers generally earned less, with median hourly earnings of $5.90; most earned between $5.00 and $6.00. Food preparation workers in fast-food restaurants had median hourly earnings of $4.68, with most earning between $4.25 and $5.30 per hour. Some employers provide uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers exercise this right. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but part-time workers generally do not receive such benefits. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restau­ rant Employees International Union and the Service Employees In­ ternational Union. Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers include butchers and meatcutters, cannery workers, and industrial bakers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen work­ ers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is availa­ ble from: tg>The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606.  For information on the American Culinary Federation’s appren­ ticeship and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of ac­ credited culinary programs, write to: ^■American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, FL 32085.  For general information on hospitality careers, write to: O’Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036-3097.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Food and Beverage Service Workers (D.O.T. 310.137-010 and .357; 311.472, .477, .674-010, and -018, and .677; 312; 319.474, .677-014, and .687; 350.677-010, -026, -030; and 352.677-018)  Nature of the Work Whether they work in small, informal diners or large, elegant res­ taurants, all food and beverage service workers deal with customers. The quality of service they provide determines in part whether the patron is likely to return. Waiters and waitresses all take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept pay­ ments—but the manner in which they perform these tasks varies considerably, depending on where they work. In coffee shops, they are expected to provide fast and efficient, yet courteous, service. In fine restaurants, where gourmet meals are accompanied by attentive formal service, waiters and waitresses serve the meal at a more lei­ surely pace and offer more personal service to patrons. For example, they may recommend a certain kind of wine as a complement to a particular entree, explain how various items on the menu are pre­ pared, or prepare some salads and other special dishes at tableside. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform duties associated with other food and beverage service oc­ cupations in addition to waiting on tables. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, set­ ting up and clearing tables, or cashiering. However, larger or more formal restaurants frequently relieve their waiters and waitresses of these additional duties. Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from customers seated at the bar. Because some people like their cocktails made a certain way, bartenders occasionally are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers have left, and may also serve food items to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders who work at service bars have little contact with cus­ tomers. They work at small bars in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where drinks are served only to diners at tables. However, the ma­ jority of bartenders work in eating and drinking establishments where they also directly serve and socialize with patrons. Some establishments, especially larger ones, use automatic equip­ ment to mix drinks of varying complexity at the push of a button. However, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable to prepare drinks not handled by the automatic equipment or mix drinks when it is not functioning. Also, equipment is no substitute for the friendly socializing most customers prefer. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also ar­ range the bottles and glassware into attractive displays and often wash glassware used at the bar. Hosts and hostesses try to evoke a good impression of the restau­ rant by warmly welcoming guests. They courteously direct patrons to where they may leave coats and other personal items and indicate where they may wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort them to their seats, and provide menus. Hosts and hostesses are restaurants’ personal representatives to patrons. They try to insure that service is prompt and courteous and the meal enjoyable; they may also adjust complaints of dissatisfied diners. Hosts and hostesses schedule dining reservations, arrange parties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restaurants, they also act as cashier.  Service Occupations Dining room attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, wait­ resses, and bartenders by keeping the serving area stocked with sup­ plies, cleaning tables, and removing dirty dishes to the kitchen. They replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the restaurant dining room, and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Bartender helpers also keep the bar equipment clean and wash glasses. Dining room attendants set ta­ bles with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter to patrons. At the conclusion of the meal, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from the tables. Cafeteria attendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters. In caf­ eterias, they serve food displayed on counters and steamtables as re­ quested by patrons, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill cups and glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter attendants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit the orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve the food when it is ready. They also fill cups and glasses with coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare fountain specialties such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. They often prepare some shortorder items, such as sandwiches and salads, and wrap or place or­ ders in containers to be taken out and consumed elsewhere. Counter attendants also clean counters, write up itemized checks, and accept payment. Fast-food workers take orders from customers standing at coun­ ters at fast-food restaurants. They get the ordered beverage and food items, serve them to the customer, and accept payment. Many fastfood workers also cook and package French fries, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using a drink-dispensing machine. Working Conditions Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are under pressure to serve cus­ tomers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and bums. Although some food and beverage service workers work 40 hours or more a week, the majority are employed part time—a larger pro­ portion than in almost any other occupation. The majority of those working part-time schedules do so on a voluntary basis because the wide range in dining hours creates work opportunities attractive to homemakers, students, and others seeking supplemental income. Many food and beverage service workers are expected to work eve­ nings, weekends, and holidays. Some work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few  di.4.  l»> 4  Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters in lunchrooms and coffee shops.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  307  hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the eve­ ning hours. Employment Food and beverage service workers held nearly 4.4 million jobs in 1992. Waiters and waitresses held almost 1.8 million of these jobs; counter attendants and fast-food workers, nearly 1.6 million; dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, 441,000; bar­ tenders, 382,000; and hosts and hostesses, 223,000. Restaurants, coffee shops, bars, and other retail eating and drink­ ing places employed two-thirds of all food and beverage service workers. Of the remainder, nearly half worked in hotels and other lodging places, and others in bowling alleys, casinos, and country clubs and other membership organizations. Jobs are located throughout the country but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal em­ ployment, and some workers alternate between summer and winter resorts instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and bever­ age service jobs. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter apd waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, completion of high school is generally not re­ quired for fast-food workers, counter attendants, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many persons, a job as a food and beverage service worker serves as a source of immediate income rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a ma­ jor source of part-time employment for high school students. Most employers place an emphasis on personal qualities. Food and beverage service workers should be well spoken and have a neat and clean appearance because they are in close and constant contact with the public. They should enjoy dealing with all kinds of people, and a pleasant disposition and sense of humor are important. State laws often require that food and beverage service workers obtain health certificates showing that they are free of contagious diseases. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers’ orders and to recall the faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. They also should be good at arithmetic if they have to total bills without the aid of a calculator or cash register. In restaurants specializing in foreign foods, knowledge of a foreign lan­ guage is helpful. Experience waiting on tables is preferred by restau­ rants and hotels which have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establishments often have higher earnings, but may also have higher educational requirements than less formal establishments. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, and em­ ployers prefer to hire persons who are 25 or older. They should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage service workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, particularly some fast-food restaurants, use self-instruc­ tion programs to teach new employees food preparation and service skills through audiovisual presentations and instructional booklets. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant associations, and large restaurant chains also provide classroom training in a gen­ eralized food service curriculum. Some bartenders acquire their skills by attending a bartending school or taking vocational and technical school courses that in­ clude instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Due to the relatively small size of most food-serving establish­ ments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gaining some  308  Occupational Outlook Handbook  experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bar­ tender helpers are able to advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, advancement usually is limited to finding a job in a larger restaurant or bar where pros­ pects for tip earnings are better. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Some hosts and hostesses and waiters and waitresses ad­ vance to supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, dining room su­ pervisor, or restaurant manager. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel at their work are often in­ vited to enter the company’s formal management training program. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) Job Outlook Job openings for food and beverage service workers are expected to be abundant through the year 2005. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because the limited formal education and training requirements for these jobs allow easy entry, and the pre­ dominance of part-time jobs is attractive to persons seeking a short­ term source of income rather than a career. Many of these workers simply move to other occupations; others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to attend school. Employment of food and beverage service occupations is ex­ pected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking places is associated with the overall level of economic activity—workers’ lunches and entertainment of clients, for example—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the economy. Growth in demand also will stem from population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time. Also, as more women join the work force, families may increasingly find din­ ing out a welcome convenience. Growth of the various types of food and beverage service jobs is expected to vary greatly. As the composition of the Nation’s popula­ tion becomes older, diners are expected to patronize full-service res­ taurants increasingly, spurring growth in demand for waiters and waitresses, hosts and hostesses, and dining room attendants. The employment of bartenders is expected to decline as drinking of alco­ holic beverages outside the home—particularly cocktails—contin­ ues to drop. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of food and beverage service jobs, particularly in fastfood restaurants. The pool of these young workers in the labor force is expected to shrink through the 1990’s, but begin to grow after the year 2000. To attract and retain workers, many employers will be forced to offer higher wages, better benefits, more training, and in­ creased opportunities for advancement and full-time employment. Because potential earnings are greatest in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, keen competition is expected for the lim­ ited number ofjobs in these restaurants. Earnings Food and beverage service workers derive their earnings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Their wages and the amount of tips they receive vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses generally do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses, who may earn more   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, waiters and wait­ resses contribute a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distrib­ uted among many of the establishment’s other food and beverage service workers and kitchen staff. Tip pools allow workers who nor­ mally do not receive tips, such as dining room attendants, to share in the rewards for a meal well served. In 1992, median weekly earnings (including tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were about $220. The middle 50 percent earned between $180 and $300; the top 10 percent earned at least $380 a week. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks, so waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants earn the most. Full-time bartenders had median weekly earnings (including tips) of about $250 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned from $200 to $330; the top 10 percent earned at least $440 a week. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders are often paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median weekly earnings (including tips) of full-time dining room attendants and bartender helpers were about $210 in 1992. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $175 and $275; the top 10 percent earned over $350 a week. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest was their share of the proceeds from tip pools. Full-time counter attendants and fast-food workers had median weekly earnings (including any tips) of about $220 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $170 and $250, while the highest 10 percent earned over $320 a week. Although some counter attend­ ants receive part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers gener­ ally do not. In establishments covered by Federal law, workers beginning at the minimum wage earn $4.25 an hour. Federal law also permits employers to credit an employee’s tip earnings toward the minimum hourly wage, up to an amount equaling 50 percent of the minimum, and some employers exercise this right. Employers are also permit­ ted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. However, many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but part-time workers generally do not receive such benefits. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage service workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Em­ ployees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, and tour busdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. General information on food and beverage service jobs is availa­ ble from: 13* The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association,  250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606.  For general information on hospitality careers, write to: 13* Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St.  NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097.  Health Service Occupations Dental Assistants (D OT. 079.361-018)  Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and labo­ ratory duties. They work at chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. They make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepare them for treatment, and obtain dental records. Assist­ ants hand dentists instruments and materials and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants also sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment; prepare tray setups for dental procedures; provide postoperative instruction; and instruct patients in oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and restorations, expose radi­ ographs, and process dental x-ray film as directed by a dentist. They may also remove sutures, apply anesthetic and caries- preventive agents to teeth and gums, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for indi­ vidual treatment. Those with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by dentists, clean and polish removable ap­ pliances, and make temporary crowns. Dental assistants with office duties arrange and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform a wider variety of clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Han­ dling radiographic equipment poses dangers, but they can be mini­ mized with safety procedures. Likewise, dental assistants wear gloves and masks to protect themselves from infectious diseases like hepatitis. Dental assistants, like dentists, work either standing or sitting. Their work area is usually near the dental chair, so that they can ar­ range instruments, materials, and medication, and hand them to the dentist when needed. Most dental assistants have a 32- to 40-hour workweek which may include work on Saturday or evenings. Employment Dental assistants held about 183,000jobs in 1992. Almost 1 out of 3 worked part time, sometimes in more than one dentist’s office. Almost all dental assistants work in private dental offices. Some work in dental schools, private and government hospitals, State and local public health departments, or in clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most assistants learn their skills on the job, though many are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior col­ leges, trade schools, and technical institutes. Some assistants are trained in Armed Forces schools. Assistants must be a dentist’s “third hand”; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, can work well with others, and have manual dexterity. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  w  M  Most dental assisting programs take less than 1 year to complete. The American Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Ac­ creditation approved 232 training programs in 1993. Programs in­ clude classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental as­ sisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most pro­ grams take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or di­ ploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior col­ leges lead to an associate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require typing or a science course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4- to 6month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifi­ cations and professional competence, but usually is not required for employment. In several States that have adopted standards for den­ tal assistants who perform radiologic procedures, completion of the certification examination meets those standards. Candidates may qualify to take the certification examination by graduating from an accredited training program or by having 2 years of full-time experi­ ence as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have taken a course in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Without further education, advancement opportunities are lim­ ited. Some dental assistants working the front office become office managers. Others, working chairside, go back to school to become dental hygienists. Job Outlook Employment of dental assistants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Population growth, higher incomes, and greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older people will fuel demand for dental services. Also, dentists are likely to employ more assistants, for several rea­ sons. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ assistants, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one, or even two. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, 309  310 Occupational Outlook Handbook they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so they may use their own time more profitably. Most job openings for dental assistants will arise from the need to replace assistants who leave the occupation. Many assistants leave the job to take on family responsibilities, return to school, or trans­ fer to another occupation. Earnings In 1992, median weekly earnings for dental assistants working full time were about $332. The middle 50 percent earned between $284 and $420 a week. According to the American Dental Association, dental assistants who worked 32 hours a week or more averaged $332 a week in 1991; the average hourly earnings for all dental as­ sistants were $9.20. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners in­ clude medical assistants, physical therapy assistants, occupational therapy assistants, pharmancy assistants, and veterinary techni­ cians. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant programs, and requirements for certification is available from: (S’ American  Dental Assistants Association, 203 N. Lasalle, Suite 1320, Chicago, IL 60601-1225. (S’ Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. O’ Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 216 E. Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611.  Medical Assistants (D.O.T. 078.361-038 and .364-014; 079.362-010, .364-010, and -014, and .374-018; 355.667-010)  Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform routine clinical and clerical tasks to keep offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and optome­ trists running smoothly. Medical assistants should not be confused with physician assistants, who examine, diagnose, and treat pa­ tients, under the direct supervision of a physician. Physician assist­ ants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, de­ pending on office location, size, and specialty. In small practices, medical assistants are usually “generalists,” handling both clerical and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, phy­ sician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area under the supervision of department administrators. Medical assistants perform many clerical duties. They answer telephones, greet patients, update and file patient medical records, fill out insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule appoint­ ments, arrange for hospital admission and laboratory services, and handle billing and bookkeeping. Clinical duties vary according to State law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs; explaining treatment procedures to patients; preparing patients for examination; and as­ sisting during the examination. Medical assistants collect and pre­ pare laboratory specimens or perform basic laboratory tests on the premises; dispose of contaminated supplies; and sterilize medical in­ struments. They instruct patients about medication and special di­ ets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  authorize drug refills as directed, telephone prescriptions to a phar­ macy, draw blood, prepare patients for x rays, take electrocardio­ grams, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants may also arrange examining room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Assistants who specialize have additional duties. Podiatric medi­ cal assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop x rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide medical eye care. They use precision in­ struments to administer diagnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test the functioning of eyes and eye muscles. They also show pa­ tients how to use eye dressings, protective shields, and safety glasses, and insert, remove, and care for contact lenses. Under the direction of the physician, they may administer medications, including eye drops. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and as­ sist the ophthalmologist in surgery. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. They constantly interact with other people, and may have to handle sev­ eral responsibilites at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. Some work evenings and weekends. Employment Medical assistants held about 181,000 jobs in 1992. Over 70 percent were employed in physicians’ offices, and about 12 percent worked in offices of other health practitioners such as chiropractors, optom­ etrists, and podiatrists. Others worked in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical assisting is one of the few health occupations open to indi­ viduals with no formal training. Although formal training in medi­ cal assisting is available, such training—while generally preferred— is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills are helpful. Vol­ unteer experience in the health care field may also be helpful. Formal programs in medical assisting are offered in vocationaltechnical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, commu­ nity and junior colleges, and in colleges and universities. Collegelevel programs usually last either 1 year, resulting in a certificate or mmmm  B MfesS  Medical assisting is one of the few health occupations open to individuals with no formal training.  Service Occupations diploma, or 2 years, resulting in an associate degree. Vocational pro­ grams can take up to 1 year and lead to a diploma or certificate. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insur­ ance processing. Students learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles and medication administration, and first aid. They are also instructed in office prac­ tices, patient relations, and medical law and ethics. Accredited pro­ grams may include an externship that provides practical experience in physicians’ offices, hospitals, or other health care facilities. Two agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education accredit programs in medical assisting: The American Medical As­ sociation’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accredita­ tion (CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). In 1993, there were 207 medical assisting pro­ grams accredited by CAHEA and 136 accredited by ABHES. The Joint Review Committee for Opthalmic Medical Personnel has ap­ proved 13 programs in ophthalmic medical assisting. Although there is no licensing for medical assistants, some States require them to take a test or a short course before they can take x rays, draw blood, or give injections. Employers prefer to hire exper­ ienced workers or certified applicants who have passed a national examination, indicating that the medical assistant meets certain standards of competence. The American Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Medical As­ sistants awards the Podiatric Medical Assistant Certified credential; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthal­ mology awards the Ophthalmic Medical Assistant credential at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic Assistant, Certified Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Medical Technologist. . Because medical assistants deal with the public, they need a neat, well-groomed appearance and a courteous, pleasant manner. Medi­ cal assistants must be able to put patients at ease and explain physi­ cians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager or become ward clerks, medical record clerks, phlebotomists, or EKG technicians in hospitals. Medical assistants may qualify for a wide variety of administrative support occupations, or may teach medical assisting. Some, with additional schooling, enter other health occu­ pations such as nursing and medical technology. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the health services industry expands. Employment growth will be driven by growth in the number of group and other health care practices that use support personnel. Medical assistants primarily work in outpatient settings, where fast growth is expected. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced assistants who leave the occupation. In view of the high turnover as well as the preference of many physicians for trained personnel, job prospects should be excellent for medical assistants with formal training or experience, particu­ larly those with certification. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary widely, depending on expe­ rience, skill level, and location. According to a survey conducted by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, the average starting salary for graduates of the medical assistant pro­ grams they accredit was about $15,059 a year in 1992. According to a 1991 survey by the American Association of Med­ ical Assistants, the average annual salary for medical assistants was  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  311  $18,334. Medical assistants with 2 years of experience or less aver­ aged $13,715, while those with 11 years of experience or more aver­ aged $20,885. Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include medical sec­ retaries, hospital admitting clerks, pharmacy helpers, medical re­ cord clerks, dental assistants, occupational therapy aides, and physi­ cal therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAHEA-accredited educa­ tional programs in medical assisting, and the Certified Medical As­ sistant exam is available from: {S’ The American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606-2903.  Information about career opportunities and the Registered Medi­ cal Assistant certification exam is available from: tar Registered Medical Assistants of American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068-5765.  For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, write: Kp Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514.  Information about career opportunities, training programs, and the Certified Ophthalmic Assistant exam is available from: B5" Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2995.  Information about careers for podiatric assistants is available from: B* American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 S. Austin Blvd.. Cicero, IL 60650.  Nursing Aides and Psychiatric Aides (D.O.T. 354.374-010, .377-010, and .677-010; 355.377-014 and -018 .674-014 and -018, and .677-014)  Nature of the Work  Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help care for physically or men­ tally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals confined to hospi­ tals, nursing or residential care facilities, and mental health settings. (Homemaker-home health aides, whose duties are similar but who work in clients’ homes, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nursing aides, also known as nursing assistants or hospital at­ tendants, work under the supervision of nursing and medical staff. They answer patients’ call bells, deliver messages, serve meals, make beds, and feed, dress, and bathe patients. Aides may also give massages, provide skin care to patients who cannot move, take tem­ peratures, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, and help patients get in and out of bed and walk. They may also escort patients to op­ erating and examining rooms, keep patients’ rooms neat, set up equipment, or store and move supplies. Aides observe patients’ physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nursing or medical staff. Nursing aides employed in nursing homes are sometimes called geriatric aides. They are often the principal caregivers, having far more contact with residents than other members of the staff do. Since residents may stay in a nursing home for months or even years, aides are expected to develop ongoing relationships with them and respond to them in a positive, caring way. Psychiatric aides are also known as mental health assistants, psy­ chiatric nursing assistants, or ward attendants. They care for men­ tally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychi­ atric nurses, social workers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients dress, bathe, groom, and eat, psychiatric aides socialize with them and lead them in educational and recreational activities.  312  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Psychiatric aides may play games such as cards with the patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities such as sports or field trips. They observe patients and report any signs which might be important for the professional staff to know. If nec­ essary, they help restrain unruly patients and accompany patients to and from wards for examination and treatment. Because they have the closest contact with patients, psychiatric aides have a great deal of influence on patients’ outlook and treatment. Working Conditions Most full-time aides work about 40 hours a week, but because pa­ tients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Many work part time. Aides spend many hours standing. Since they may have to move partially paralyzed pa­ tients in and out of bed or help them stand or walk, aides must guard against back injury. Nursing aides often have unpleasant duties; they empty bed pans, change soiled bed linens, and care for disoriented and irritable pa­ tients. Psychiatric aides are often confronted with violent patients. While their work can be emotionally draining, many aides gain sat­ isfaction from assisting those in need. Employment Nursing aides held about 1,308,000 jobs in 1992, and psychiatric aides held about 81,000 jobs. About one-half of all nursing aides worked in nursing homes, and about one-fourth worked in hospi­ tals. Some worked in residential care facilities, such as halfway houses and homes for the aged or disabled, or in private households. Most psychiatric aides worked in State and county mental institu­ tions, psychiatric units of general hospitals, private psychiatric facil­ ities and community mental health centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, neither a high school diploma nor previous work ex­ perience is necessary for a job as a nursing or psychiatric aide. A few employers, however, require some training or experience. Hospitals may require experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Nurs­ ing homes often hire inexperienced workers who must complete a minimum of 75 hours of mandatory training and pass a competency evaluation program within 4 months of employment. Aides who complete the program are placed on the State registry of nursing aides. Some States require psychiatric aides to complete a formal training program. These occupations can offer individuals an entry into the world of work. The flexibility of night and weekend hours also provides high school and college students a chance to work during the school year. The work is also open to middle-aged and older men and women.  One-half of nursing aides work in nursing homes.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nursing aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-tech­ nical centers, many nursing homes, and community colleges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, and communication skills. Personal care skills such as the bathing, feeding, and grooming of patients are also taught. Some facilities, other than nursing homes, provide classroom in­ struction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on in­ formal on-the-job instruction from a licensed nurse or an exper­ ienced aide. Such training may last several days to a few months. From time to time, aides may also attend lectures, workshops, and in-service training. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understanding, emotionally stable, dependable, and have a desire to help people. They should also be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are lim­ ited. To enter other health occupations, aides generally need addi­ tional formal training. Some employers and unions provide oppor­ tunities by simplifying the educational paths to advancement. Experience as an aide can also help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in the health care field. Job Outlook Job prospects for nursing aides should be very good through the year 2005. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations in response to an empha­ sis on rehabilitation and the long-term care needs of a rapidly grow­ ing population of those 75 years old and older. Employment will in­ crease as a result of the expansion of nursing homes and other long­ term care facilities for people with chronic illnesses and disabling conditions, many of whom are elderly. Also increasing employment of nursing aides will be modern medical technology which, while saving more lives, increases the need for the extended care provided by aides. As a result, nursing and personal care facilities are ex­ pected to grow very rapidly and to provide most of the new jobs for nursing aides. Employment also is expected to grow very rapidly in residential care facilities. Employment of psychiatric aides is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Employment will rise in response to the sharp increase in the number of older persons—many of whom will require mental health services. Employment of aides in private psychiatric facilities and community mental health centers is likely to grow because of increasing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism, and a lessening of the stigma at­ tached to those receiving mental health care. While employment in private psychiatric facilities may grow, employment in public mental hospitals is likely to be stagnant due to constraints on public spending. Replacement needs will constitute the major source of openings for aides. Turnover is high, a reflection of modest entry require­ ments, low pay, and lack of advancement opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of nursing and psychiatric aides who worked full time in 1992 were about $ 13,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $11,000 and $17,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9,500; the top 10 percent, more than $23,900. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of nursing aides, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differen­ tials, was $15,121 in October 1992. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, nursing aides in chain nursing homes had median annual earnings of approximately $11,600 in January, 1993. The middle 50 percent earned between $10,400 and $13,200 a year. Aides in hospitals generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans  Service Occupations also are available to many hospital and some nursing home employ­ ees. Related Occupations Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help people who need routine care or treatment. So do homemaker-home health aides, childcare attendants, companions, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapy aides.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  313  Sources of Additional Information For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write: e* American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Information about employment also may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing homes, psychiatric facilities, and State boards of nursing.  Personal Service and Building and Grounds Service Occupations _______  Animal Caretakers, Except Farm (D.O.T. 410.674-010, -022; 412.671-010, .674-014; 418.381- 010, .674-010, 677-010; and 449.671-010)  Nature of the Work Most people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, it is hard work taking care of them. Animal caretakers, sometimes called animal attendants, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals and clean and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide companionship, and observe behavioral changes that could indicate illness or injury. Kennels, animal shelters, pet stores, stables, veterinary facilities, laboratories, and zoological parks all house animals and employ caretakers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel staff usually care for small companion animals like dogs and cats. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs. Experienced attendants may give basic treat­ ment and first aid, bathe and groom animals and clean their ears and teeth. People who specialize in maintaining dogs’ appearance are called “dog groomers.” Some groomers work in kennels and others operate their own grooming business. Caretakers also sell pet food and supplies, teach obedience classes, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping. In addition to providing the basic maintenance of the animals, caretakers in animal shelters screen applicants for animal adoption, vaccinate newly admitted animals, and euthanize (put to death) seri­ ously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Pet store caretakers provide basic care, sell pet supplies, and give advice to customers. Workers in stables saddle and unsaddle horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them through a cool-off after a ride. They also feed and groom the horses, muck out stalls, polish saddles, clean and or­ ganize the tack room, and store supplies and feed. Experienced staff also train horses. Veterinary hospitals employ three types of caretakers: Veterinary technician, veterinary assistant, and animal attendant. Veterinary technicians, also known as animal health technicians, are the most skilled. They keep records, take specimens, perform laboratory tests, prepare animals and instruments for surgery, take and develop radiographs, dress wounds, and assist veterinarians with examina­ tions and surgery. However, they do not diagnose ailments, pre­ scribe medication, or perform surgery. Veterinary assistants feed and bathe animals, administer medica­ tion as prescribed by a veterinarian, and help veterinarians and the veterinary technicians treat animals. For example, the assistant may hold the animal while the technician gives it an injection. Animal attendants clean cages, exercise animals, and monitor the animals for symptoms of illnesses. This is the most basic job and is frequently performed by part-time workers. Laboratories also have three levels of animal caretakers: Labora­ tory animal technologist, laboratory animal technician, and assis­ tant laboratory animal technician. The highest level, laboratory animal technologist, supervises the daily care and maintenance of the animals by the technician and assistant; they may also assist in surgical care and other laboratory procedures. The laboratory animal technician provides the daily care of the animals—giving prescribed medications, taking specimens, performing laboratory tests, and assisting with minor surgery. Technicians also keep daily 314   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  records of the animals’ diets, behavior, and health. Assistant labora­ tory animal technicians clean cages and feed animals. Zookeepers prepare the diets, clean the enclosures, and monitor the behavior of exotic animals. Keepers sometimes assist in research studies on their wards. Depending upon the species, the keepers may also train the animals. An example is the elephant keeper who teaches the pachyderm to hold up its foot so that the veterinarian may examine the sole. In addition, keepers may put on shows and give lectures to the public. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping animals. However, some of the work may be physically de­ manding and unpleasant. Caretakers have to clean animal cages and lift heavy supplies like bales of hay. Also, the work setting is often noisy. Some duties like euthanizing a hopelessly injured or aged animal may be emotionally stressful. Animal caretakers can be exposed to bites, kicks, and disease from the animals they attend. Caretakers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular. Animals have to be fed every day, so caretakers rotate week-end shifts. In some animal hospitals and animal shelters an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. Most full-time caretakers work about 40 bours a week, some work 50 hours a week or more. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions. Employment Animal caretakers held about 103,000 jobs in 1992. Most were em­ ployed in veterinary facilities and boarding kennels. Other employ­ ers were animal shelters, stables, pet stores, grooming shops, zoolog­ ical parks, and local, State, and Federal agencies. One out of every 6 caretakers is self- employed. More than a third work part time.  m  i  Kennel staff usually care for small companion animals.  Service Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most animal caretakers working in kennels, pet stores, animal shel­ ters, and stables are trained on the job. There are few formal training programs, but the American Boarding Kennel Association offers a home-study program for kennel technicians. Some States require certification of caretakers who euthanize animals. Training may be through a veterinarian or a State Humane Society. Otherwise, there are no formal training requirements in these settings; nonetheless, many employers look for people with some experience with animals. Caretakers start by cleaning cages and advance to giving medication and grooming. Most dog groomers learn their trade through on-thejob training, but a few grooming schools do exist. Dog groomers may receive professional registration or certifica­ tion from the National Dog Groomers Association of America. The American Boarding Kennels Association accredits kennels and of­ fers a Certified Kennel Operator program, both of which show pro­ fessional competency. Forty-two States require veterinary technicians to be licensed; this is the only animal caretaker position requiring licensure. Licen­ sure requirements in most States include graduation from an ac­ credited animal technology program. In 1992, there were 63 associ­ ate programs and 5 bachelor’s degree programs accredited by the American Veterinary Medicine Association. Courses include animal pharmacology, veterinary physiology and anatomy, animal care and management, radiography, anesthetic nursing and moni­ toring, parasitology, animal husbandry, chemistry, biology, applied mathematics, communications, and the humanities. In States with­ out education requirements for veterinary technicians, veterinarians may employ applicants with a strong science background and train them on the job; however, most veterinarians prefer graduates of formal academic programs. There are no formal education requirements for animal attend­ ants and veterinary assistants in veterinary facilities. They are trained on the job. The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALS) tests and certifies three levels of caretakers—technologists, technicians, and assistants. To be eligible to take the certification ex­ amination, laboratory animal technologists must have 6 years of training, 4 years of which may be college-level courses in the life sci­ ences and at least 2 years of laboratory experience. Laboratory animal technicians need 3 years of experience in a laboratory. They may substitute 2 years of education in college-level life sciences for 2 years of experience. Laboratory animal assistants must have 1 year of work experience or 6 months of experience and 6 months of col­ lege-level life science education. Large zoological parks may require their keepers to have a bache­ lor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. They also require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer in a zoo or as a paid keeper in a smaller zoo. Advancement varies with employment setting. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and man­ ager. Caretakers with enough capital may open up their own ken­ nels. Pet store caretakers may become store managers. In laborato­ ries, assistant laboratory animal technicians may advance to laboratory animal technician, then to technologist; however, the technologist position requires a college-level background in the life sciences. Caretakers in animal shelters may become a humane agent, animal control officer, assistant shelter manager, or shelter director. The Humane Society of the United States offers a 2-week course for animal shelter and control personnel. Job Outlook Employment of animal caretakers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the popula­ tion and economy expand. The number of dogs and cats has in­ creased significantly over the last 10 years, and is expected to con­ tinue to increase.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  315  Despite growth in demand for animal caretakers, the overwhelm­ ing majority of jobs will result from the need to replace workers leaving the field. Many animal caretaker jobs that require little or no training have work schedules which tend to be flexible; therefore, it is an ideal first job for people entering the labor force as well as for students and others looking for temporary or part-time work. Be­ cause these workers have a weak attachment to the occupation, turnover is quite high and the overall availability of jobs should be very good. Much of the work of these animal caretakers is seasonal, particularly during vacation periods. The best prospects should be for graduates of training programs in veterinary technology. Many employers complain of a shortage of formally trained veterinary technicians. Job opportunities for certi­ fied laboratory animal technicians and technologists are also good. As concern for animal welfare increases, so will the need for certi­ fied personnel in laboratories. The outlook for zookeepers is not so favorable. Jobseekers will face keen competition because of expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover, and the fact that the oc­ cupation attracts many candidates. Additional opportunities will occur in kennels as owners increas­ ingly focus on the business aspects of the kennel and hire managers to operate the animal care department. Earnings In 1992, median weekly earnings for animal caretakers who usually worked full time were about $250, according to limited data. Gener­ ally, veterinary technicians, laboratory animal technologists, and zookeepers earn more than other animal caretakers. Related Occupation Other occupations working with animals include agricultural and biological scientists, veterinarians, retail sales workers in pet stores, gamekeepers, game-farm helpers, poultry breeders, ranchers, and artificial-breeding technician. Sources of Additional Information For more information on animal caretaking and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: 13= Animal Caretakers Information, The Humane Society of the United States, Companion Animals Division, Suite 100, 5430 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814.  To obtain a listing of grooming schools or the name of the nearest certified dog groomer in your area, send a stamped self-addressed envelope to: W National Dog Groomers Association of America, Box 101, Clark, PA 16113.  For information on training and certification of kennel staff and owners, contact:  13= American Boarding Kennel Association, 4575 Galley Rd., Suite 400-A, Colorado Springs, CO 80915.  For information on certification for laboratory animal techni­ cians and technologists, write to: 13= American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS), 70 Timber Creek Dr., Suite #5, Cordova, TN 93018.  Barbers and Cosmetologists (D.O.T. 330; 331; 332; 333; 339.361, .371)  Nature of the Work Acquiring the right “look” has never been easy. It requires that per­ fect hairstyle, exquisite nails, a neatly trimmed beard, or the proper make-up to accent your coloring. As people increasingly demand styles that are better suited to their individual characteristics, they rely on barbers and cosmetologists more and more. Although tastes and fashions change from year to year, the basic job of barbers and cosmetologists remains the same—to help people look their best.  316  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Many people still go to a barber for just a haircut, but an increasing number seek more personalized hairstyling services. Barbers trained in these areas work in barber shops and styling salons, many of which are consid­ ered to be “unisex” because they serve both men and women. It is not uncommon for a barber to color or perm a customer’s hair. In addition, barbers may fit hairpieces, provide hair and scalp treat­ ments, shave male customers, or give facial massages. In most States, barbers are licensed to perform all the duties of cosmetolo­ gists except skin care and nail treatment. Cosmetologists primarily shampoo, cut, and style hair. These workers, who are often called hairstylists, also may advise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently, they straighten or perma­ nent wave a customer’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetolo­ gists may also lighten or darken hair color. In addition, most cosme­ tologists are trained to give manicures and scalp and facial treatments, provide makeup analysis for women, and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Related workers include manicurists, who clean, shape, and polish customer’s fingernails and toenails; makeup artists, who apply makeup; electrologists, who remove hair from skin by electrolysis; and estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin. Cosmetologists offer all of the services that barbers do except shaving men. In addition to their work with customers, barbers and cosmetolo­ gists are expected to keep their work area clean and their hairdress­ ing implements sanitized. They may make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular patrons. Some sell hair products and other cosmetic sup­ plies. Barbers and cosmetologists who operate their own salons also have managerial duties that include hiring, supervising, and firing workers, as well as keeping records and ordering supplies. Working Conditions Barbers and cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant sur­ roundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important because these workers must stand a great deal. Prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may be hazardous and cause irritation, so special care must be taken when working with these chemicals. Full-time barbers and cosmetologists may work more than 40 hours a week. This often includes evenings and weekends, when beauty and barber shops and salons are busiest. Although weekends and lunch periods are generally very busy, bar­ bers and cosmetologists may have some time off during slack peri­ ods. Employment Barbers and cosmetologists held about 746,000 jobs in 1992; 9 of every 10 were cosmetologists. Most worked in beauty salons, barber shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals, hotels, and prisons. About 4 out of every 5 barbers and about half of all cosmetologists are self employed. Almost all cities and towns have barbershops and hair salons, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and states. Hairstylists usually work in cities and suburbs, where the greatest demand for their services exists. Stylists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. One of every 3 barbers and cosmetologists works part time. The abundance of part-time jobs attracts many persons who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require barbers and cosmetologists to be li­ censed, the qualifications necessary to obtain a license vary. Gener­ ally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, education requirements vary from State to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Cosmetologists work in a variety of settings to help people look their best. State—some require graduation from high school while others re­ quire as little as an eighth grade education. In a few States, comple­ tion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a writ­ ten test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetololgy services. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed bar­ bers and cosmetologists to practice in a different State without addi­ tional formal training. Other States do not recognize training or li­ censes obtained in another State; consequently, persons who wish to become a barber or a cosmetologist should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a training pro­ gram. Public and private vocational schools offer daytime or evening classes in barbering and cosmetology. These programs usually last 6 to 12 months. An apprenticeship program can last from 1 to 2 years. Formal training programs include classroom study, demonstra­ tions, and practical work. Students study the basic services—hair­ cutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments— and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Most schools also teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling. Students attend lectures on barber services, the use and care of in­ struments, sanitation and hygiene, and recognition of certain skin ailments. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. There are also advanced courses for experienced barbers in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Most schools teach hairstyling of men’s as well as women’s hair. After graduating from a training program, students can take the State licensing examination. The examination consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of cosmetology skills. A few States include an oral examination in which the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practi­ cal test. In some States, a separate examination is given for persons who want only a manicurist license or a facial care license. Persons who want to become barbers or cosmetologists must have finger dexterity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ in­ structions. Because hairstyles are constantly changing, barbers and cosmetologists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are important for those who plan to oper­ ate their own salons. Many schools help their graduates find jobs. During their first months on the job, new workers are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they  Service Occupations are gradually permitted to perform the more complicated tasks such as giving shaves, coloring hair, or applying a permanent. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in barber or cos­ metology schools. Others become sales representatives for cosmetics firms, open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants, or work as examiners for State licensing boards. Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers and cosmetologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Population growth, rising incomes, and a growing demand for the services that they provide will stimulate the demand for these workers. Within this occupation, however, different employment trends are expected. Cosmetologists will account for virtually all of the employment growth, reflecting the continuing shifts in con­ sumer preferences to more personalized services and in salons to full-service, unisex establishments. Demand for manicurists and for cosmetologists who are trained in nail care will be particularly strong. Employment of barbers is expected to decline slightly. The annual number of job openings in cosmetology should be quite large due to the large size of the occupation and expected rapid employment growth. However, there appears to be a large reserve pool of licensed cosmetologists who move into and out of the occu­ pation. Consequently, newly licensed jobseekers in this field are likely to compete for openings with an experienced pool of workers who choose to reenter the labor force. Despite a projected employment decline, a significant number of active barbers should soon retire and need to be replaced. Those who receive training to perform a wide range of services, as most currently do, will improve their chances of finding employment in the growing number of full- service salons. Opportunities for persons seeking part-time barbering and cosme­ tology positions should continue to be good. Earnings Barbers and cosmetologists receive income either from commissions or wages and tips. According to limited information, most full-time barbers and cosmetologists earned between $20,000 and $30,000 in 1992, including tips. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, the number of hours worked, customers’ tipping habits, com­ petition from other barbershops and salons, and the barber’s or cos­ metologist’s ability to attract and hold regular customers. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of improving a patron’s personal appearance include beauty consultants, make-up and wig specialists, and salon and health club managers. Other workers are employed in the cosmetology industry as instructors and beauty supply distributors. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: 13-National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11th St., Lin­ coln, NE 68502.  A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements for cosmetologists can be obtained from: t3" National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 901 North Stuart St., Suite 900, Arlington, VA 22203. ty Association of Accredited Cosmetology Schools, Inc., 5201 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041.  Information about barber and cosmetology schools also is availa­ ble from: ty Accrediting Commission of Career Schools/Colleges of Technology, 750 1st St. NE., Suite 905, Washington, DC 20002.  For details on State licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact the State board of barber examiners or the State board of cosmetology in your State capital.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  317  Preschool Workers (D.O.T. 092.227-018; 355.674-010; 359.677-010, -018, -026)  Nature of the Work Nurturing and teaching preschool children, those who are 5 years old or younger, is the job of preschool workers. Found in daycare centers, nursery schools, preschools, and family daycare homes, preschool workers play an important role in shaping the kind of ad­ olescent a child will become by caring for the child when the parents are at work or away for other reasons. Some parents enroll their child in a nursery school primarily to provide him or her with the opportunity to interact with other children. In addition to attending to children’s basic needs, these workers organize activities that stim­ ulate the children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore their interests, develop their tal­ ents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to behave with others. Preschool workers must work in two different worlds—the child’s and the parent’s. At the same time that they create a safe, comfortable environment in which children can grow and learn, they must also keep records of each child's progress and discuss the children’s progress and needs with the parents. Depending on their experience and educational background, some preschool workers—often called preschool teachers—are re­ sponsible only for children’s educational activities. Other workers— sometimes called child-care workers—provide only basic care to children. However, even by providing basic care, workers teach the children; the children learn trust and gain a sense of security. Most preschool workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoe teaches the child and also provides for that child’s basic care needs. Young children cannot be taught in the same manner as older stu­ dents because they are less physically, emotionally, and mentally de­ veloped. Children at this age learn mainly through play. What re­ sults is a less structured approach to teaching preschool children, including small group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities, such as art, dance, and music. Preschool workers greet children as they arrive, help them re­ move outer garments, and teach them how to dress and undress. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. In order to en­ sure a well-balanced program, preschool workers prepare daily and long-term schedules of activities. Each day’s activities must balance individual and group play with quiet and active time. Recognizing the importance of play, preschool workers build their program around it. They capitalize on children’s play to further language de­ velopment (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (working together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and intro­ duce scientific and mathematical concepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). (A statement on teacher aides—who assist classroom teachers—ap­ pears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Helping to keep children healthy is an important part of the job. Preschool workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They see to it that children have proper rest periods. They spot children who may not feel well or show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their supervisor and the child’s parents. Early identification of children with special needs, such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities, is im­ portant to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with these preschool children to provide the in­ dividual attention they need. (Special education teachers are cov­ ered in the statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers found elsewhere in the Handbook.)  318  Occupational Outlook Handbook  :  i-,v ,  Preschool workers help children gain independence, explore their interests, and gain independence. Working Conditions Preschool care facilities may be in private homes, schools, religious institutions, workplaces where employers provide care for employ­ ees’ children, or private buildings. Individuals who provide care in their own homes are generally called family daycare providers. (Child-care workers who work in the child’s home are covered in the statement on private household workers found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Watching children grow, enjoy learning, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. The work, however, can be physically and emo­ tionally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s interests and problems. Preschool work­ ers must be enthusiastic and constantly alert, anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, and provide fair but firm discipline. They must be able to communicate effectively with the children and parents. To ensure that children receive proper supervision, State regula­ tions require certain ratios of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the children. Child development experts generally recommend that a single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old), 5 or 6 toddlers (1 to 2 years old), or 10 preschool-age children (between 2 and 5 years old). The working hours of preschool workers vary widely. Daycare centers are generally open year round with long hours so that par­ ents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Daycare centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts in order to cover the entire day. Public and many private pre­ school programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Family day­ care providers have flexibile hours and daily routines, but may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Employment Preschool workers held about 941,000 jobs in 1992. Many worked part time. About half of all preschool workers are self-employed, most of whom are family daycare providers. About half of all salaried preschool workers are found in child daycare centers and preschools, and nearly 1 in 4 works for a relig­ ious institution. The rest work in other service organizations and in government. Some employers run for-profit operations; many are affiliated with a local or national chain. Other employers, such as re­ ligious institutions, community agencies, school systems, and State and local governments, are nonprofit. A growing number of busi­ ness firms operate daycare centers for the children of their employ­ ees.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training and qualifications required of preschool workers vary widely. Many States have licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training, which generally range from a high school di­ ploma to college courses or a college degree in child development or early childhood education. Some States require continuing educa­ tion for workers in this field. For instance, Virginia requires that all workers in daycare centers receive 8 hours of courses related to child care each year. Formal education requirements in some pri­ vate preschools and daycare centers exceed State requirements. Many States require a Child Development Associate (CDA) cre­ dential, which is offered by the Council for Early Childhood Profes­ sional Recognition. The CDA credential is recognized as a qualifi­ cation for teachers and directors in 49 States and the District of Columbia. There are two ways to become a CDA—through direct assessment or by completing a 1-year training program. Direct as­ sessment is appropriate for people who already have some back­ ground and experience in early childhood education, while the training program is designed for people with little or no child devel­ opment education or experience. In order to receive the credential, the applicant must demonstrate the knowledge and skills that meet certain nationally recognized standards for working with young children, whether acquired through formal training or experience, to a team of child-care professionals from the Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition. Some employers may not require a CDA credential, but may re­ quire secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early childhood education, and possibly work experience in a child­ care setting. Other schools require their own specialized training. For example, Montessori preschool teachers must complete an ad­ ditional year of training after receiving their bachelor’s degree in early childhood education or a related field. Public schools typically require a bachelor’s degree and State teacher certification. Teacher training programs include a variety of liberal arts courses, student teaching, and prescribed professional courses, including instruction in teaching gifted, disadvantaged, and other children with special needs. Preschool workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and articulate, and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling are also important. Those who work for themselves must have business sense and management abilities. As preschool workers gain experience, they may advance to su­ pervisory or administrative positions in large child- care centers or preschools. Often, however, these positions require additional train­ ing, such as a bachelor’s degree. With a bachelor’s degree, preschool workers may become certified to teach in public schools at the kin­ dergarten, elementary, and secondary school levels. Some workers set up their own child-care businesses. Job Outlook Employment of preschool workers is projected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job openings should be plentiful as many preschool workers leave the occupation each year for other—often better paying—jobs, fam­ ily responsibilities, or other reasons. The relatively high turnover, combined with an increased demand for preschool workers, is ex­ pected to create many openings. Qualified persons who are inter­ ested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Despite a slight decline in the number of children age 5 and under, the proportion of youngsters in daycare and preschool is ex­ pected to increase, reflecting a shift in the type of child-care arrange­ ments parents choose. Many parents turn to formal child-care ar­ rangements for a variety of reasons—they may need two incomes; they may find it too difficult to set up a satisfactory arrangement with a relative, babysitter, or live-in worker; or they may prefer the formal arrangements for personal reasons, such as a more struc­ tured learning and social environment.  Service Occupations Rising labor force participation among women age 20-44, though increasing more slowly than during the 1980’s, will also contribute to the growth of employment among preschool workers. Currently, mothers of very young children are almost as likely to work as other women, and this pattern is not expected to change. Moreover, wo­ men are returning to work sooner after childbirth. Earnings Pay depends on the employer and educational attainment of the worker. Although the pay is generally low, more education means higher earnings in some cases. In 1992, median weekly earnings of full-time, salaried child-care workers were $260; for early childhood teacher assistants, $220. The middle 50 percent of child-care workers earned between $210 and $320; assistants, between $190 and $300. The top 10 percent of child-care workers earned at least $460; assistants, at least $420. The bottom 10 percent of child-care workers earned less than $140; teacher assistants, less than $150. The small number of preschool workers in public schools who have State teacher certification generally have salaries and benefits comparable to kindergarten and elementary school teachers. Ac­ cording to the National Education Association, kindergarten and elementary school teachers earned an average salary of $34,800 in 1992. (A statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers is found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings of self-employed child-care workers vary depending on the hours worked, number and ages of the children, and the loca­ tion. Benefits for preschool workers also vary. Many employers offer free or discounted child care to employees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insurance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and work­ shops to help workers improve upon or learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Related Occupations Child-care work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organiza­ tional, and administrative abilities. Others who work with children and need these aptitudes include teacher aides, children’s tutors, kindergarten and elementary school teachers, early childhood pro­ gram directors, and child psychologists.  Flight Attendants (D.O.T. 352.367-010)  Nature of the Work It is the job of the flight attendant to see that all passengers have a safe, comfortable, and enjoyable flight. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain on such things as expected weather conditions and special passenger problems. The attendants see that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies of food, beverages, blankets, and reading ma­ terial are adequate, and that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order. As passengers board the plane, attendants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them in storing coats and carry-on luggage. Before the plane takes off, attendants instruct passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened and seat backs forward. In the air, they answer questions about the flight; distribute reading material, pil­ lows, and blankets; and help care for small children, elderly, and disabled persons. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Attendants also serve cocktails and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, flight attendants assist passengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare reports on medications given to passen­ gers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane’s cabin. Helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most im­ portant responsibility of the flight attendant. This may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong tur­ bulence to directing passengers in evacuating a plane following an emergency landing. Lead or first flight attendants aboard planes oversee the work of the other attendants while performing most of the same duties.  Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in educating children and issues affect­ ing preschool workers, contact: tw National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. tw Association for Childhood Education International, 11141 Georgia Ave., Suite 200, Wheaton, MD 20902.  For information on the Federally sponsored Head Start program, contact: XS“ Head Start Bureau, Chief, Education Service Branch, P.O. Box 1182,  Washington, DC 20013.  For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Devel­ opment Associate credential, write to; W Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition, 1341 G St. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005.  For information on salaries and efforts to improve compensation in child care, contact: XW Child Care Employee Project, 6536 Telegraph Ave., A201, Oakland, CA 94618.  State Departments of Human Services or Social Services can sup­ ply State regulations and training requirements for child-care work­ ers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  319  Flight attendants are briefed on weather conditions by the pilot.  320  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock year round, attendants may work at night and on holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month. In addition, they generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flight, writing re­ ports following completed flights, and waiting for planes that arrive late. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 11 or more days off each month. At­ tendants may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. How­ ever, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served. A rough flight can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Flight attendants are susceptible to injury because of the job demands in a moving air­ craft. Employment Flight attendants held about 93,000 jobs in 1992. Commercial air­ lines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines’ home bases. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operate their own aircraft for business purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines prefer to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can deal comfortably with strangers. Applicants usually must be at least 19 to 21 years old, but some airlines have higher mini­ mum age requirements. Flight attendants must fall into a specific weight range depending on their height and must have excellent health, good vision, and the ability to speak clearly. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or experience in dealing with the public are pre­ ferred. More and more attendants being hired are college graduates. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines require that newly hired flight attendants complete 4 to 6 weeks of intensive training in their own schools. The airlines that do not operate schools generally send new employees to the school of another airline. Transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies may be pro­ vided. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, operating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attend­ ants also are taught flight regulations and duties, and company op­ erations and policies. Trainees receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations and dealing with terrorism. Towards the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Attendants must receive 12 to 14 hours of training in emergency procedures and passenger relations annually. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New attendants are placed in “reserve status” and are called on either to staff extra flights or fill in for at­ tendants who are sick or on vacation. Reserve attendants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually remain on re­ serve for at least 1 year; at some cities, it may take 5 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced attendants are remaining in this career for more years than they used to. Attendants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assignments. Because these as­ signments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of base and flights.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Some attendants transfer to flight service instructor, customer service director, recruiting representative, or various other adminis­ trative positions. Job Outlook As more career minded people have entered this occupation, turno­ ver—which traditionally has been very high—has declined. Still, most job openings through the year 2005 should flow from replace­ ment needs. Thousands of job openings will arise each year to re­ place flight attendants who transfer to another occupation or who leave the labor force. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth in population and income is expected to increase the number of air­ line passengers. Airlines enlarge their capacity by increasing the number and size of planes in operation. Since Federal Aviation Ad­ ministration safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. Competition for jobs as flight attendants is expected to remain very keen because the number of applicants is expected to greatly exceed the number of job openings. The glamour of the airline in­ dustry and the opportunity to travel and meet people attract many applicants. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance of being hired. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel de­ clines, many flight attendants are put on part-time status or laid off. Until demand increases, few new attendants are hired. Earnings Beginning flight attendants had median earnings of about $13,000 a year in 1992, according to data from the Association of Flight At­ tendants. Flight attendants with 6 years of flying experience had median annual earnings of about $20,000, while some senior flight attendants earned as much as $40,000 a year. Flight attendants re­ ceive extra compensation for overtime and for night and interna­ tional flights. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most other airlines. Many flight attendants belong to the Association of Flight At­ tendants. Others are members of the Transport Workers Union of America, The International Brotherhood of Teamsters, or other un­ ions. Flight attendants are required to buy uniforms and wear them while on duty. Uniform replacement items are usually paid for by the company. The airlines generally provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional and require the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances in­ clude emergency medical technician, firefighter, maritime crew or camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and in­ formation about job opportunities and salaries, contact: X3* Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., Atlanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-JetJobs.)  Service Occupations  Gardeners and Groundskeepers (D.O.T. 182.167-014; 406.381-010, .683-010, .684-010, -014,-018, .687-010; 408.161-010, .662-010, .684-010, -014, -018, and .687-014)  Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, trees, and shrubbery create a positive first impression, establish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. A growing number of individuals and organizations rely on gardeners and groundskeepers to care for them. Some landscape gardeners work on large construction projects, such as office buildings and shopping malls. Following the plans drawn up by the landscape architect, gardeners plant trees, hedges, and flowering plants and apply mulch for protection. For residential customers, these workers terrace hillsides, build retaining walls, and install patios, as well as plant flowers, trees and shrubs. Gardeners working for homeowners, estates, and public gardens feed, water, and prune the flowering plants and trees and mow and water the lawn. Some landscape gardeners, called lawn service workers, specialize in maintaining lawns and shrubs for a fee. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as man­ agers of office buildings, shopping malls, multiunit residential build­ ings, and hotels and motels favor this full-service landscape mainte­ nance. These workers perform a full range of duties, including mowing, edging, trimming, fertilizing, dethatching, and mulching. Those working for chemical lawn service firms are more specialized. They inspect lawns for problems and apply fertilizers, weed killers, and other chemicals. Groundskeepers, often classified as either grounds managers or grounds maintenance personnel, maintain a variety of facilities in­ cluding, athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, and parks. Grounds managers usually participate in many of the same tasks as mainte­ nance personnel but typically have more extensive knowledge on pest, disease, and erosion control. Managers also may have supervi­ sory responsibilities. Groundskeepers who care for athletic fields keep natural and arti­ ficial turf fields in top condition and mark out boundaries and paint turf with team logos and names before events. Groundskeepers must make sure the underlying soil on natural turf fields has the proper consistency to sustain new sod. They regularly mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields. In addition, groundskeepers apply chemicals and fungicides to control weeds, crabgrass, and prevent diseases. Groundskeepers also vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after use in order to prevent growth of harmful bacteria. They periodically re­ move the turf and replace the cushioning pad. Those who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. They do many of the same things athletic turf groundskeepers do. In addi­ tion, greenskeepers periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to eliminate uneven wear of the turf and add interest and challenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball wash­ ers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Cemetery workers prepare graves and maintain cemetery grounds. They dig graves to specified depth, generally using a backhoe. They may place concrete slabs on the bottom and around the sides of the grave to line it for greater support. When readying a site for the burial ceremony, they position the casket-lowering device over the grave, cover the immediate area with an artificial grass car­ pet, erect a canopy, and arrange folding chairs to accommodate mourners. They regularly mow grass, prune shrubs, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. They also must periodically build the ground up around new gravesites to compensate for settling. Groundskeepers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs, maintain athletic fields and playgrounds, clean buildings, and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. They may also remove snow and ice from roads  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  321  and walkways, erect and dismantle snow fences, and maintain swimming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equipment, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. Gardeners and groundskeepers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, pruning saws, saws, hedge and brush trimmers, and axes, as well as power lawnmowers, chain saws, snow blowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehi­ cles. Park, school, cemetery, and golf course groundskeepers may use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Ath­ letic turf groundskeepers use magnetic sweepers and vacuums and other devices to remove water from athletic fields. In addition, some workers in large operations use spraying and dusting equipment. Working Conditions Many of the jobs for gardeners and groundskeepers are seasonal, mainly in the spring and summer, when cleanup, planting, and mowing and trimming take place. Gardeners and groundskeepers work outdoors in all kinds of weather. They frequently are under pressure to get the job completed, especially when they are prepar­ ing for scheduled events, such as athletic competitions or burials. They may work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals and must exercise safety precautions to prevent exposure. They also work with dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers, chain saws, and electric clippers. Employment Gardeners and groundskeepers held about 884,000 jobs in 1992. Four of every 10 worked for lawn and garden service companies. One of every 10 worked for private households and estates. Many worked for firms that operate real estate and for local government, including parks departments, and recreational facilities such as golf courses, race tracks, and amusement parks. Others were employed by schools, hospitals, cemeteries, hotels, retail nurseries, and garden stores. One of every 5 gardeners and groundskeepers was self-employed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on a con­ tract basis. One of every 4 worked part time, most likely students working their way through school. Others working part time were older workers who might have been cutting back their hours as they approached retirement. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entrance requirements for gardeners and groundskeepers are mod­ est. Most workers are high school graduates, although a high school diploma is not necessary for some jobs. Experience can be attained through home gardening or working in a nursery, a sod production  Many jobs for gardeners and groundskeepers are seasonal, mainly in the spring and summer.  322  Occupational Outlook Handbook  operation, or a tree service. High school students may gain experi­ ence in the Future Fanners of America and other associations. There are no national standards for gardeners and ground­ skeepers, but most States require certification for workers who ap­ ply pesticides. Certification requirements vary, but usually include passing a test on the safe use and disposal of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Employers prefer applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Workers who deal directly with custom­ ers must get along well with people. Employers also look for respon­ sible, self-motivated individuals, since many gardeners and ground­ skeepers work with little supervision. Courses in agronomy, horticulture, and botany are helpful for ad­ vancement. There are many 2- and 4-year programs in landscape management, turfgrass management, interiorscape, and ornamental horticulture. Courses include equipment use and care, landscape de­ sign, plant biology, and irrigation. There are cooperative education programs in which students work alternate semesters or quarters for a lawn care or landscape contractor. Generally, a gardener or groundskeeper can advance to supervisor after several years of pro­ gressively responsible experience, including the demonstrated abil­ ity to deal effectively with both coworkers and customers. Supervi­ sors can advance to grounds manager or superintendent for a golf course or other athletic facility, a cemetery, a campus, a school sys­ tem, or manager of a lawn maintenance firm. Many gardeners and groundskeepers become landscape contractors. The Professional Grounds Management Society offers certifica­ tion to those managers who have a combination of 8 years of experi­ ence and formal education beyond high school. Job Outlook Employment of gardeners and groundskeepers is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to increasing demand for gardening and landscap­ ing services. Furthermore, a large number of job openings are ex­ pected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Expected growth in the construction of commercial and indus­ trial buildings, shopping malls, homes, highways, and parks and recreational facilities should stimulate demand for these workers. Developers are increasingly using landscaping services, both inte­ rior and exterior, to attract prospective buyers and tenants. In addi­ tion, owners of many existing buildings and facilities are upgrading their landscaping. Also, a growing number of homeowners are using lawn maintenance and landscaping services to enhance the beauty and value of their property as well as to conserve their leisure time. Growth in the number of parks, athletic fields, golf courses, ceme­ teries, and similar facilities also can be expected to add to the de­ mand for these workers. Job openings should be plentiful because the occupation is large and turnover is high. This occupation attracts many young people who are not committed to the occupation. Some take gardening or groundskeeping jobs to earn money for school, others only take these jobs until a better paying job is found. Because wages for be­ ginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many em­ ployers have difficulty attracting enough workers to fill all openings. Employment opportunities in landscaping are tied to local eco­ nomic conditions. During economic downturns, many individuals turn to landscaping as a second source of income or a new career. At the same time, demand for landscaping services often slows as cor­ porations, governments, and homeowners reduce spending on all nonessential expenditures, increasing noticeably the level of compe­ tition for available jobs. Earnings Median weekly earnings of gardeners and groundskeepers were about $275 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $210 and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  $365. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $175, and the top 10 percent earned more than $475 a week. Related Occupations Gardeners and groundskeepers perform most of their work out­ doors. Others whose jobs may be performed outdoors or are other­ wise related are construction workers, landscape architects, nursery workers, farmers, horticultural workers, tree surgeon helpers, tree trimmers and pruners, and forest conservation workers. Sources of Additional Information For career information, contact: ^Associated Landscape Contractors of America, Inc., 12200 Sunrise Val­ ley Dr., Suite 150, Reston, VA 22091. National Landscape Association, 12501 St. NW„ Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005.  For career and certification information, contact: Professional Grounds Management Society, 12 Galloway Ave., Suite IE, Cockeysville, MD 21030.  Homemaker-Home Health Aides (D.O.T. 309.354-010 and 354.377-014)  Nature of the Work Homemaker-home health aides help elderly, disabled, and ill per­ sons live in their own homes instead of in a health facility. Most work with elderly or disabled clients who require more extensive care than spouse, family, or friends can provide. Some homemakerhome health aides work with families in which a parent is incapaci­ tated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. These workers are sometimes called home care aides and personal care attendants. Homemaker-home health aides provide housekeeping services, personal care, and emotional support for their clients. They clean clients’ houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may also plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Home health aides provide personal care services, also known as “hands on” care because they physically touch the patient. These aides may help clients move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. They may also check pulse, temperature, and respiration; help with simple prescribed exercises; and assist with medication routines. Oc­ casionally, they may change nonsterile dressings, use special equip­ ment such as a hydraulic lift, give massages and alcohol rubs, or as­ sist with braces and artificial limbs. Some accompany clients outside the home, serving as guide, companion, and aide. Homemaker-home health aides also provide instruction and psy­ chological support. For example, they may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child or just listen to clients talk about their problems. Aides keep records of services performed and of the client’s condition and progress. In home care agencies, homemaker-home health aides are super­ vised by a registered nurse, a physical therapist, or a social worker, who assigns them specific duties. Aides report changes in the cli­ ent’s condition to the supervisor or case manager. Homemakerhome health aides also participate in case reviews, consulting with the team caring for the client—registered nurses, therapists, and other health professionals. Working Conditions The homemaker-home health aide’s daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. More commonly, however, aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Aides often go to four or five clients on the same day.  Service Occupations  323  voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry stan­ dards. Successful homemaker-home health aides like to help people and do not mind hard work. They have a sense of responsibility, com­ passion, emotional stability, and a cheerful disposition. Aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet since they work in private homes. Homemaker-home health aides must be in good health. A physi­ cal examination including State regulated tests like those for tuber­ culosis may be required. Advancement is limited. In some agencies, workers start out per­ forming homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on personal care duties. The most exper­ ienced aides may assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe.  Job prospects are excellent for people seeking work as homemakerhome health aides. Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, while others are untidy or depressing. Some clients are an­ gry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult; others are pleasant and cooperative. Homemaker-home health aides generally work on their own with periodic visits by their supervisor. They have detailed instructions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform. Many aides work part time, and weekend hours are common. Most aides generally travel by public transportation, but some need an automobile. In any event, they are responsible for getting to the client’s home. Aides may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. Employment Homemaker-home health aides held about 475,000 jobs in 1992. Most aides are employed by homemaker-home health agencies, home health agencies, visiting nurse associations, residential care fa­ cilities with home health departments, hospitals, public health and welfare departments, community volunteer agencies, and tempo­ rary help firms. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or su­ pervision, and accordingly accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Federal Goverment has enacted guidelines for home health aides whose employers receive reimbursement from Medicare. The Federal law requires home health aides to pass a competency test covering 12 areas: Communication skills; observation, reporting, and documentation of patient status and the care or services fur­ nished; reading and recording vital signs; basic infection control procedures; basic elements of body function and changes; mainte­ nance of a clean, safe, and healthy environment; recognition of and procedures for emergencies; the physical, emotional, and develop­ mental characteristics of the patients served; personal hygiene and grooming; safe transfer techniques; normal range of motion and positioning; and basic nutrition. A home aide may also take training before taking the competency test. The Federal law requires at least 75 hours of classroom and practical training supervised by a regis­ tered nurse. Training and testing programs may be offered by the employing agency, but they must meet the standards of the Health Care Financing Administration. Training programs may vary de­ pending upon State regulations. Thirteen States have specific laws on personal care services. The Foundation for Hospice and Home Care offers a National Homemaker-Home Health Aide certification. The certification is a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook A large number of job openings is expected for homemaker- home health aides, due to very rapid growth and very high turnover. Homemaker-home health aides is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005—more than doubling in employment size. The number of people in their seventies and beyond is projected to rise substantially. This age group is characterized by mounting health problems that require some assistance. Also, there will be an increasing reliance on home care for patients of all ages. This trend reflects several developments: Efforts to contain costs by moving pa­ tients out of hospitals and nursing facilities as quickly as possible; the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar sur­ roundings rather than clinical surroundings; and the development of portable medical equipment for in-home treatment. In addition to jobs created by the increase in demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to produce numerous openings. Turnover is high, a reflection of the relatively low skill re­ quirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work. For these same reasons, many people are unwilling to do this kind of work. Therefore, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have excellent job opportunities, particularly those with experience or training as homemaker-home health aides or nursing aides. Earnings Earnings for homemaker-home health aides vary considerably. Ac­ cording to the National Association for Home Care, home health aides’ average starting hourly wage in July 1992 was $6.31, and the average maximum hourly wage was $8.28. Wages were somewhat higher than these national averages in the Northeast and West and somewhat lower in the Midwest and South. Some aides were paid on a salary or per-visit basis. Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time worked in the home. They normally are not paid for travel time be­ tween jobs. Some employers offer a full package of vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan. Others hire only “on-call” hourly workers, with no benefits. Related Occupations Homemaker-home health aide is a service occupation that combines duties of health workers and social service workers. Workers in re­ lated occupations that involve personal contact to help or instruct others include attendants in children’s institutions, childcare at­ tendants in schools, child monitors, companions, nursing aides, nursery school attendants, occupational therapy aides, nursing aides, physical therapy aides, playroom attendants, and psychiatric aides.  324  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Sources of Additional Information General information about training and referrals to State and local agencies about opportunities for homemaker-home health aides, a list of relevant publications, and information on national certifica­ tion are available from: O'5 Foundation for Hospice and Homecare/National Certification Program, 519 C St. NE., Washington, DC 20002.  Janitors and Cleaners and Cleaning Supervisors (D.O.T. 321.137-010, -014; 323.137-010, .687; 350.137-026; 358.687-010; 381.137-010, .687 except -010; 382.664-010; 389.667-010, .683-010; 739.687-198; 891.687-010 and -018; and 952.687-010)  Nature of the Work Janitors and cleaners—also called building custodians—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some only do clean­ ing; others have a wide range of duties. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor re­ pairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. In hospitals, where they are mostly known as maids and housekeepers, they may also wash bed frames, brush mattresses, make beds, and disinfect and sterilize equipment and supplies using germicides and sterilizing equipment. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, they may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. Janitors and cleaners use different equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need a mop and bucket; for an­ other, an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equip­ ment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but janitors must know how to use equipment and cleaners properly to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the ac­ tivities ofjanitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect build­ ing areas to see that work has been done properly. They issue supplies and equipment and inventory stocks to ensure adequate supplies. They screen and hire job applicants, and recom­ mend promotions, transfers or dismissals; they also train new and experienced employees. Supervisors may prepare reports concern­ ing room occupancy, hours worked, and department expenses. Some also perform cleaning duties. Working Conditions Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaners work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Most full-time janitors and cleaners and supervisors worked about 40 hours a week. Part-time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on weekends. Janitors and cleaners usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings. However, sometimes they work outdoors sweeping walk­ ways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer minor cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. Janitors and cleaners spend most of their time on their feet, some­ times lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  New technology is expected to have little effect on employment of janitors and cleaners. such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Employment Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors, held 3,018,000 jobs in 1992. One-third worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Janitors and cleaners held about 19 jobs out of 20. They worked in every type of establishment. About 1 in 5 worked in a school, includ­ ing colleges and universities. One in five worked for a firm supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis. One in eight worked in a hotel. Others were employed by hospitals, restaurants, operators of apartment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate, churches and other religious organizations, manufac­ turing firms, and government agencies. Supervisors held about 1 job in 20. About a third were in hotels, and about one-fifth in hospitals. Others were employed by firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis, nurs­ ing care facilities, and educational facilities. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apartment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most cleaning jobs, but begin­ ners should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instruc­ tions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs that involve re­ pair work. Most janitors and cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. They are given more complicated work as they gain experience. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean build­ ings thoroughly and efficiently, how to select and safely use various cleansing agents, and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs may also be given. Those who come in contact with the public should have a pleasant personality and good communication skills. Em­ ployers usually look for dependable, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. Janitors and cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements, applying directly to organizations where they would like to work, or contacting State employment service offices.  Service Occupations Advancement opportunities for janitorial workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, janitors can be promoted to supervisor and to area supervisor or manager. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance business. Supervisors usually move up through the ranks. In many estab­ lishments, supervisors are required to take some in- service training to perfect housekeeping techniques and procedures, and to enhance supervisory skills. Job Outlook Employment of janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the number of office buildings, apartment houses, schools, factories, hospitals, and other buildings increases. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will create most job openings. The occupation of janitors and cleaners is easy to enter since there are few require­ ments for formal education and training, turnover is high, and part­ time and temporary jobs are plentiful. New technology is expected to have little effect on employment of janitors and cleaners. Robots now under development are limited to performing a single cleaning task and may not be usable in many places, particularly cluttered areas such as hotel and hospital rooms. Earnings Janitors and cleaners who usually worked full time averaged about $277 a week in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $212 and $374. Ten percent earned less than $176; 10 percent earned more than $477. Cleaning supervisors who usually worked full time averaged about $347 a week in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $285 and $497. Ten percent earned less than $228; 10 percent earned more than $690. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, janitors had median earnings of $260 for a 40-hour week week in 1992. The middle half earned between $214 and $305 a week. Most building service workers receive paid holidays and vaca­ tions and health insurance. Related Occupations Private household workers have job duties similar to janitors and cleaners. Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include refuse collectors, floor waxers, street sweepers, window cleaners, gardeners, boiler tenders, pest control­ lers, and general maintenance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from a local State employment service office. For information about education and training or starting a janitorial company, contact:  ty Building Service Contractors Association International, 10201 Lee Hwy., Suite 225, Fairfax, VA 22030.  Private Household Workers (D.O.T. 301 except 687-018; 302; 305; 309 except .354-010, .367-010, .677-010 and-014)  Nature of the Work Private household workers clean homes, care for children, plan and cook meals, do laundry, administer the household, and perform nu­ merous other duties. Private household workers are employed by many types of households of various income levels. Although  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  325  wealthy families may employ a large staff, it is much more common for one worker to be employed in a household where both parents work. Many workers are employed in households having one par­ ent. A number of household workers work for two or more employ­ ers. Most household workers are general houseworkers and usually the only worker employed in the home. They dust and polish furni­ ture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrig­ erators, and bathrooms. They also wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes. A few wash windows. Other duties may include looking after a child or an elderly person, cooking, feeding pets, answering the telephone and doorbell, and calling and waiting for repair workers. General houseworkers may also take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and do other errands. Household workers whose primary responsibility is taking care of children are called child-care workers. Those employed on an hourly basis are usually called baby-sitters. Child-care workers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play, wash their clothes, and clean their rooms. They may also waken them and put them to sleep, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies generally take care of children from birth to age 10 or 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. Governesses look after children in addition to other house­ hold duties. They may help them with schoolwork, teach them a for­ eign language, and guide them in their general upbringing. (Child­ care workers who work outside the child’s home are covered in the statement on child-care workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those who assist elderly, handicapped, or convalescent people are called companions or personal attendants. Depending on the em­ ployers’ needs, a companion or attendant might help with bathing and dressing, preparing and serving meals, and keeping the house tidy. They also may read to their employers, write letters for them, play cards or games, and go with them on walks and outings. Com­ panions may also accompany their employers to medical appoint­ ments and handle their social and business affairs. Households with a large staff may include a housekeeper or a but­ ler, a cook, a caretaker, and a launderer. Housekeepers and butlers hire, supervise, and coordinate the household staff to keep the household running smoothly. Butlers also receive and announce guests, answer telephones, deliver messages, serve food and drinks, chauffeur, or act as a personal attendant. Cooks plan and prepare meals, clean the kitchen, order groceries and supplies, and may also serve meals. Caretakers do heavy housework and general home maintenance. They wash windows, wax floors, and hang draperies. They maintain heating and other equipment and do light carpentry, painting, and odd jobs. They may also mow the lawn and do some gardening if the household does not have a gardener. Working Conditions Private household workers usually work in pleasant and comforta­ ble homes or apartments. Most are dayworkers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their em­ ployer, generally with their own room and bath. Live-ins usually work longer hours. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off. Living in may isolate them from family and friends. On the other hand, they often become part of their em­ ployer’s family and may derive satisfaction from caring for them. Being a general houseworker can also be isolating, since work is usu­ ally done alone. Housekeeping is hard work. Both dayworkers and live- ins are on their feet most of the day and do much walking, lifting, bending, stooping, and reaching. In addition, some employers may be very demanding. Employment Private household workers held about 869,000 jobs in 1992. More than half were general houseworkers, mostly dayworkers. About 40  326  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Private household child-care workers are often employed only while children are young. percent were child-care workers, including baby-sitters. About 4 percent were housekeepers, butlers, cooks, and launderers. Most jobs are in big cities and their affluent suburbs. Some are on large es­ tates or in resorts away from cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Private household workers generally do not need any special train­ ing. Individuals who cannot find other work because of limited lan­ guage or other skills often turn to this work. Most jobs require the ability to clean well, cook, or take care of children. These skills are generally learned by young people while helping with housework at home. Some training takes place on the job. Employers show the household workers what they want done and how. For child-care workers and companions, general education, background, and abil­ ity to get along with the person they will care for are most impor­ tant. Home economics courses in high schools and vocational and adult education schools offer training in cooking and child care. Courses in child development, first aid, and nursing in postsecon­ dary schools are also useful. Special schools for butlers, nannies, and governesses teach house­ hold administration, early childhood education, nutrition, child care, and bookkeeping. Private household workers must be honest, discreet, dependable, courteous, and neat. They need physical stamina. Opportunities for advancement within this occupation are very limited. There are very few large households with big staffs where general houseworkers can advance to cook, executive housekeeper, or butler, and these jobs may require specialized training. Advance­ ment usually consists of better pay and working conditions. Work­ ers may move to similar jobs in hotels, hospitals, and restaurants, where the pay and fringe benefits are usually better. Others transfer into better paying unrelated jobs. Job Outlook Job opportunities for people wishing to become private household workers are expected to be excellent through 2005, as the demand for these services continues to far outpace the supply of workers willing to provide them. For many years, demand for household help has outstripped the supply of workers willing to take domestic jobs. The imbalance is   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  expected to persist—and possibly worsen—through the year 2005. Demand is expected to grow as more women join the labor force and need help running their households. Demand for companions and personal attendants is also expected to rise due to projected rapid growth in the elderly population. The supply situation is not likely to improve. Unattractiveness of the work, low status, low pay, lack of fringe benefits, and limited ad­ vancement potential deter many prospective household workers. In addition, demographic factors will continue to aggravate the supply situation. Teenagers and young adults, the age group from which many child-care workers and baby-sitters come, will rebound in ab­ solute terms, but continue to slip further as a share of the workforce. Due to the limited supply of household workers, many employers have turned to domestic cleaning firms, child-care centers, and tem­ porary help firms to meet their needs for household help. This trend is expected to continue. (See the statements on janitors and cleaners, child-care workers, and homemaker-home health aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although employment of private household workers is expected to decline through 2005, many jobs will be available because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave these occupa­ tions every year. Persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have no trouble finding and keeping jobs. Earnings Earnings of private household workers depend on the type of work, the number of hours, household and staff size, geographic location, training, and experience. Nearly 2 out of 3 private household workers work part time, or less than 35 hours a week. Some work only 2 or 3 days a week, while others may work half a day 4 or 5 days a week. Earnings vary from about $ 10 an hour or more in a big city to less than the Federal mini­ mum wage in some rural areas (some domestic workers are not cov­ ered by minimum wage laws). Those covered by the Federal mini­ mum wage receive $4.25 an hour. In addition, dayworkers often get carfare and a free meal. Live-in domestics usually earn more than dayworkers and also get free room and board. However, they often work longer hours. Baby-sitters usually have the lowest earnings. In 1992, median earnings for full-time private household workers were about $179 a week. The median for cleaners was about $191 and for child-care workers, about $154 a week. Some full-time live-in housekeepers or butlers, nannies, and gov­ ernesses earn much higher wages than these. In New York City, for example, an experienced cook may earn up to $900 a week. Trained nannies start at $300-$375 per week, and with experience may earn up to $800 per week. A major domo, or senior butler, who runs a large household and supervises a staff of six people or more can ex­ pect to start at $20,000 and with experience earn over $35,000 per year. Private household workers who live with their employers may be given room and board, medical benefits, a car, vacation days, and other benefits. However, most private household workers receive very limited or no benefits. Related Occupations Other workers with similar duties are building custodians, hotel and restaurant cleaners, child-care workers in day care centers, home health aides, cooks, kitchen workers, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities for private household workers is available from local private employment agencies and State em­ ployment service offices.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Related Occupations Farm Operators and Managers (D.O.T. 180.117, .161, .167-018, -026 through -046, -058, and -066; 401.161; 402.161; 403.161; 404.161; 405.161; 407.161; 410.161; 411.161; 412.161; 413.161; and 421.161)  Nature of the Work American farm operators and managers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricultural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export huge quantities to countries around the world. Farm operators may be farmer-owners or tenant fanners who rent the use of land. Their specific tasks are determined by the type of farm they operate. On crop farms- -farms growing grain, cotton and other fibers, fruit, and vegetables—farm operators are responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are properly stored or packaged, loaded, and promptly marketed. On livestock, dairy, and poultry farms, farm operators must plan, feed, and care for the animals and keep bams, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in repair. They also oversee breeding, some slaughtering, and marketing activities. On horticultural specialty farms, farm operators oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery products—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses. Farm operators must make many managerial decisions. Their farm output is strongly influenced by the weather, disease, fluctua­ tions in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and, in many cases, Federal farm programs. Farm operators must determine the best time to seed, fertilize, cultivate, harvest, and market. They must carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so that, if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from an­ other to make up for it. Also, prices of crops and livestock change from one month to another, and farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take ad­ vantage of better prices later in the year. Farm operators may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of ma­ chinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. They also keep extensive fi­ nancial and inventory records of the farm operation; increasingly, farm operators are turning to computers to assist in these tasks. Farm operators perform tasks ranging from caring for livestock, to operating machinery, to erecting fences and sheds. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle themselves. Operators of large farms have employees who do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Oper­ ators are responsible for training workers in the use of equipment and supervising them in the performance of their work. Although employment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these workers are in nonfarm occupations, such as truckdriver, sales representa­ tive, bookkeeper, and computer specialist. Farm managers have duties and responsibilities that vary widely. For example, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a farm manager to oversee a single activity such as feeding livestock. When managing a small crop farm for an absentee owner, on the other hand, the farm manager may assume responsibility for all functions, from planning the crop to participating in planting and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  harvesting activities. Farm management firms and corporations in­ volved in agriculture employ highly trained professional farm man­ agers who may manage some or all farm operations or oversee ten­ ant operators of several farms. In these cases, farm managers may establish output goals, determine financial constraints, and monitor production and marketing. Working Conditions The soil, topography of the land, and the climate of an area gener­ ally determine the type of farming that is done. For example, wheat, corn, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large farms on level land where large, complex machinery can best be used. Thus, these crops are prevalent on the prairies of Iowa and Illinois or the plains of Nebraska and Kansas. Crops that require longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country’s fruits and vegetables come from California, Texas, and Florida. Many dairy herds are found in the areas of good pastureland, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Min­ nesota. Livestock production requires large tracts of land for graz­ ing and feed grain production and thus is concentrated in Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, and some Western States. Many types of farming are seasonal. Although many farm opera­ tors and managers on crop farms work from sunup to sundown dur­ ing the planting and harvesting seasons, they often work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year, and many have second jobs off the farm. On farms that raise animals for meat or dairy products, work goes on constantly throughout the year. Because animals must be fed and watered every day and cows must be milked twice daily, operators of these farms must share work with others or they will rarely get the chance to be away. Farm work can be hazardous. Farmers may be injured by plant­ ing and harvesting machinery or large livestock. In addition, they —  fl| i  On some large farms, farm operators and managers direct 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. 327  328  Occupational Outlook Handbook  are subject to illnesses and diseases from improper handling and breathing of dangerous pesticides and chemicals. On very large farms, farm operators spend substantial time meet­ ing with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various ac­ tivities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet with farm operators and planning and scheduling farm operations while in their offices.  must keep abreast of complex safety regulations, requirements of government agricultural support programs, and paperwork faced by other small businesses. Familiarity with computers is important, es­ pecially on large farms, where computers are often used for record­ keeping and business analysis. For example, some farmers use per­ sonal computers connected to telephones to get the latest information on prices of farm products and other agricultural news.  Employment Farm operators and managers held about 1,218,000 jobs in 1992. Most managed crop production activities while others managed livestock production. A relatively small number were involved in agricultural services such as contract harvesting and farm labor contracting.  Job Outlook Employment of farm operators and managers is expected to con­ tinue to decline through the year 2005. The expanding world popu­ lation is increasing the demand for food and fiber. However, in­ creasing productivity in the highly efficient U.S. agricultural sector is expected to easily meet domestic and export requirements with fewer but larger farms. Although requirements for machinery and equipment will remain stable or increase slightly, land and labor re­ quirements in the agricultural sector will decrease, but at a slower rate than in the past. The overwhelming majority of job openings will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons. The trend toward fewer and larger farms, primarily through mergers, is expected to continue to reduce the number of jobs for farm operators. A farm can be acquired by inheritance; however, purchasing a farm is expensive and requires substantial capital. In addition, sufficient funds are required to withstand the adverse ef­ fects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income and to cover operating costs—livestock, feed, seed, and fuel. Also, the complexity of modern farming and keen competition among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful farmer or the “gentleman” farmer who considers farming a hobby rather than a necessity. Small and medium-size farms, many of which do not gen­ erate sufficient income to support the desired standard of living, are expected to decrease in number. However, the small but increasing number of horticultural farms may provide some employment op­ portunities. The increase in the average size of farms and in the complexity of farming are expected to spur demand for highly trained and exper­ ienced farm managers. Additional demand will come from the in­ creasing number of absentee owners who, rather than work their farms, often hire farm managers to run the farm or oversee tenant farmers.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in agricultural pro­ grams for young people sponsored by the National FFA Organiza­ tion or the 4-H youth educational programs are important sources of training for those interested in pursuing agriculture as a career. However, modem farming requires increasingly complex scientific, business, and financial decisions. Thus, even young people who have lived on farms must acquire a strong educational background. High school training should include courses in mathematics and the sci­ ences. Completion of a 2-year and preferably a 4-year program in a college of agriculture is becoming increasingly important. Not all people who want to become a farm manager grew up on a farm. For these people, a bachelor’s degree in agriculture is essen­ tial. In order to qualify for a farm manager position, they will need several years’ work experience in many different phases of farm op­ eration. Students should select the college most appropriate to their spe­ cific interests and location. All States have land-grant universities that include a college of agriculture; their major programs of study include areas such as dairy science, agricultural economics and busi­ ness, horticulture, crop and fruit science, soil science, and animal science. Also, colleges usually offer special programs of study cover­ ing products important to the area in which they are located, such as animal science programs at colleges in the Western and Plains States. Whatever one’s interest, the college curriculum should in­ clude courses in farm production and in business, finance, and eco­ nomics. Professional status can be enhanced through voluntary certifica­ tion as an accredited farm manager (AFM) by the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers. Certification requires sev­ eral years’ farm experience and the appropriate academic back­ ground—a bachelor’s degree or preferably a master’s degree in a field of agricultural science—and passing courses and examinations relating to business, financial, and legal aspects of farm manage­ ment. Farm operators and managers need to keep abreast of continuing advances in farming methods both in the United States and abroad. They should be willing to try new processes and adapt to constantly changing technologies to produce their crops or raise their livestock more efficiently. Keeping abreast of changing foreign agricultural policies and international exchange rates is important to operators of farms producing internationally traded crops and livestock. Op­ erators also must have enough technical knowledge of crops and growing conditions and plant and animal diseases to be able to make decisions that ensure the successful operation of their farms. Knowledge of the relationship between farm operations—for exam­ ple, the use of pesticides—and environmental conditions is essential. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for the operator of a small farm, who often must maintain and repair machinery or farm structures. Farm operators and managers must have the managerial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. A basic knowledge of accounting and bookkeeping can be helpful in keeping financial records, and a knowledge of credit sources is essential. They also  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Farmers’ incomes vary greatly from year to year, since prices of farm products fluctuate depending upon weather conditions and other factors that influence the amount and quality of farm output and the demand for those products. A farm that shows a large profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Many farmers— primarily operators of small farms—have income from off-farm business activities often several times larger than their farm income. Farm income also varies greatly depending upon the type and size of farm. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, average cash income net of expenses in 1993 was over $ 100,000 for operators of vegetable and fruit, cotton, and poultry and egg farms. On the other hand, cattle and tobacco farms generated less than $15,000 in cash income, on the average. Generally, large farms generate more income than small farms. Exceptions include some specialty farms producing low-volume but high-value horticultural and fruit prod­ ucts. Farm managers who were paid a wage or salary and who worked full time had median earnings of $382 a week in 1992. The middle half earned between $382 and $545 a week. The highest paid manag­ ers earned over $696 a week in 1992, while the lowest paid made less than $185 a week. Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own provi­ sions for benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may de­ rive benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance premiums. Salaried farm managers may receive housing and the usual benefits such as paid vacations and health insurance.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Related Occupations 329  Farms are decreasing in number but increasing in size. Number of farms (thousands)  Average size (acres)  2,450 Farms  2,350  2,100  - 460  -  2,050 -  Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture  Related Occupations Farmers and farm managers strive to improve the quality of agricul­ tural products and the efficiency of farms. Workers with similar functions include agricultural engineers, animal breeders, animal scientists, county agricultural agents, dairy scientists, extension ser­ vice specialists, feed and farm management advisors, horticulturalists, plant breeders, and poultry scientists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and agricultural occupa­ tions, contact: tw American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touhy Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  For information about certification as an accredited farm man­ ager, contact: tS’ American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 South Cherry St., Suite 106, Denver, CO 80222.  For general information about farm occupations, opportunities, and 4-H activities, contact your local county extension service of­ fice.  Fishers, Hunters, and Trappers (D.O.T. 197.133-010, -018; 441; 442; 443; 446 except .133 and .134; 447; 449 except .674; and 461)  Nature of the Work Fishers, hunters, and trappers gather aquatic and animal species for human consumption, animal feed, bait, and other uses, and manage animals for research and control purposes. The range of occupa­ tional functions reflects the wide variety of aquatic and animal life and their environments. Gathering fish hundreds of miles from shore with commercial fishing vessels—large boats capable of hauling a catch of tens of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  thousands of pounds of fish—requires a crew including a captain, or skipper, a first mate and sometimes a second mate, boatswain, and deckhands. The captain plans and oversees the fishing operation—the fish to be sought, the location of the best fishing grounds, the method of capture, the duration of the trip, and the sale of the catch. The cap­ tain ensures that the fishing vessel is in suitable condition; oversees the purchase of supplies, gear, and equipment such as fuel, netting, and cables; and hires qualified crew members and assigns their du­ ties. The vessel’s course is plotted with navigation aids such as com­ passes, sextants, and charts; it is navigated using electronic equip­ ment such as autopilots, a loran system, and satellites to ascertain position. The ships also use radar to avoid obstacles and depth sounders to indicate the water depth and the existence of marine life between the vessel and sea bottom. The captain directs the fishing operation through his mates and other officers, and records daily ac­ tivities in the ship’s log. Upon returning to port, the captain ar­ ranges for the sale of the catch directly to buyers or through a fish auction and ensures that each crew member receives the prear­ ranged portion of the adjusted net proceeds from the sale of the catch. The first mate—the captain’s assistant, who must be familiar with navigation requirements and the operation of all electronic equip­ ment—assumes control of the vessel when the captain is off duty. These duty shifts, called watches, usually last 6 hours. The mate’s regular duty, with the help of the boatswain and under the captain’s oversight, is to direct the fishing operations and sailing responsibili­ ties of the deckhands. These include the operation, maintenance, and repair of the vessel and the gathering, preservation, stowing, and unloading of the catch. The boatswain, a highly experienced deckhand with supervisory responsibilities, directs the deckhands as they carry out the sailing and fishing operations. Prior to departure, the boatswain directs the deckhands to load equipment and supplies, either manually or with hoisting equipment, and untie lines from other boats and the dock. When necessary, they repair fishing gear, equipment, nets, and ac­ cessories. They operate the fishing gear, letting out and pulling in nets and lines. They extract the catch—such as pollock, flounder, menhaden, and tuna—from the nets or lines’ hooks. Deckhands use dip nets to prevent the escape of small fish and gaffs to facilitate the landing of large fish. The catch is then washed, salted, iced, and stowed away. Additionally, deckhands must ensure that the decks are clear and clean at all times and that the vessel’s engines and equipment are kept in good working order. Upon return to port, they secure the vessel’s lines to and from the docks and other vessels. Unless lumpers, or laborers, are hired, the deckhands unload the catch. The number of large fishing vessels that operate in deep water is increasing. These vessels generally have more technologically ad­ vanced equipment, and some may have facilities on board where the fish are processed and prepared for sale. They are equipped for longer stays at sea and can perform the work of several smaller boats. (For information about merchant marine occupations, see the statement on water transportation occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some full-time and many part-time fishers work on small boats in relatively shallow waters and often in sight of land. Navigation and communication needs are modest, and there is little need for much electronic equipment or provisions for long stays at sea. Crews are small—usually only one or two people collaborate on all aspects of the fishing operation. This may include placing gill nets across the mouths of rivers or inlets, entrapment nets in bays and lakes, or pots and traps for shellfish such as lobsters and crabs. Dredges and scrapes are sometimes used to gather shellfish such as oysters and scallops. A very small proportion of commercial fishing is con­ ducted as diving operations. Depending upon the water’s depth, di­ vers—wearing a regulation diving suit with an umbilical (air line) or a scuba outfit and equipment—may use spears to catch fish and nets and other equipment to gather shellfish, coral, sea urchins, abalone, and sponges. In very shallow waters, fish are caught from small  330  Occupational Outlook Handbook  boats having an outboard motor, or from rowboats, or by wading. Fishers use a wide variety of hand-operated equipment—for exam­ ple, nets, tongs, rakes, hoes, hooks, and shovels—to gather fish and shellfish, catch amphibians and reptiles such as frogs and turtles, and harvest marine vegitation such as Irish moss and kelp. Although most fishers are involved with commercial fishing, some captains and deckhands are primarily employed in sport or recreational fishing. Typically a group of people charter a fishing vessel—for periods ranging from several hours to a number of days—for sport fishing, socializing, and relaxation, and employ a captain and possibly several deckhands. Hunters track, stalk, and kill their quarry, either for a govern­ ment agency or for bounty. They may hunt alone or with others and may use dogs to locate and corner the quarry. They use guns or poi­ sons to kill predatory animals such as coyotes. Alligator hunters may shoot their quarry after snaring it with baited hooks. A few hunters collect animals for museums. All legal hunting activities are approved and monitored by the appropriate Federal, State, or local government agencies. Exceptions are made for Native Americans on their own reservations and Alaska Natives. Trappers catch animals or birds using baited, scented, or camou­ flaged traps, snares, cages, or nets. Many hunters and trappers skin animals and prepare and sell the pelts and skins. Trappers also may be involved with animal damage control, wildlife management, dis­ ease control, and research activities. Animal damage control in­ volves the disposition or relocation of animals that are a nuisance or pose a potential danger—for example, bears. Wildlife management involves the relocation of animals—for example, muskrats and bea­ vers—to deal with environmental disruption or animal population imbalance. Disease control involves the capture and destruction of rabid animals that threaten public or animal health. Research activ­ ities include blood sampling for health determination and the band­ ing of wildfowl to ascertain migratory movements. Working Conditions Fishing, hunting, and trapping operations are conducted under vari­ ous environmental conditions, depending on the region of the coun­ try and the kind of species being sought. Fishing vessels may be hampered or imperiled by storms, fog, or wind. Divers are affected by murky water and unexpected shifts in underwater currents.  Commercial fishing is hard, physical work.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Hunters and trappers are hampered or disrupted by storms and rough terrain. Fishers, hunters, and trappers work under hazardous conditions, and often help is not readily available. Malfunctioning navigation or communication equipment may lead to collisions or even ship­ wrecks. Malfunctioning fishing gear poses the danger of injury to the crew, who also must guard against entanglement in fishing nets and gear, slippery decks resulting from fish processsing operations, ice formation in the winter, or being swept overboard—a fearsome situation. Treatment for serious injuries may have to await transfer to a hospital. Divers must guard against entanglement of air lines, malfunction of scuba equipment, decompression problems, or at­ tacks by predatory fish. Hunters and trappers face numerous hazards such as assault by predators, falling branches and trees, slippery ground, danger of drowning by falling through ice on ponds, accidental self-inflicted gunshot, and snake and insect bites. Danger from incapacitating injuries is especially high, because these individuals often work alone in isolated areas. A disabled individual may die of injuries that could be routinely treated in an urban area. This occupation entails strenuous outdoor work and long hours. Fishing trips may require a stay of several weeks or months hun­ dreds of miles away from home port. The pace of work varies—in­ tense while netting and hauling the catch aboard and relatively re­ laxed while traveling between home port and the fishing grounds. However, lookout watches—usually 6 hours long—are a regular re­ sponsibility and crew members must be prepared to stand watch at prearranged times of the day or night. Although fishing gear has im­ proved and operations have become more mechanized, netting and processing fish are strenuous activities. Even though newer vessels have improved living quarters and amenities such as television and shower stalls, crews still experience the aggravations of confined conditions, continuous close personal contact, and the absence of family. Hunters and trappers generally must travel many miles by car or truck and then carry equipment and supplies on foot through swamps or forests, over rugged terrain. Long hours—dawn to dusk—often are the rule, and many spend lonely nights camped out in sparsely populated, forested, or mountainous areas. Employment Fishers, hunters, and trappers held an estimated 60,000 jobs in 1992. Over half were self-employed. About 1 in 5 of them worked part time, particularly in the summer, when demand for these work­ ers peaks. Captains, mates, and deckhands on fishing vessels accounted for the majority of these jobs. Trappers, and to a lesser extent hunters, accounted for the remaining jobs. Outside of the fishing, hunting, and trapping industry, some peo­ ple employed in this occupation are involved in sport fishing activi­ ties, while small numbers are employed in museums. Others work for government or buy and sell fur. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Fishers generally acquire their occupational skills on the job, many as members of families involved in fishing activities. No formal aca­ demic requirements exist. Under a Coast Guard legislative propo­ sal, operators of federally documented commercial fishing vessels will be required to complete a Coast Guard-approved training course. Young people can expedite their entrance into these occupa­ tions by enrolling in 2-year vocational-technical programs offered by secondary schools, primarily in coastal areas. In addition, the University of Rhode Island offers a bachelor’s degree program in fishery technology that includes courses in seamanship, vessel oper­ ations, marine safety, navigation, vessel repair and maintenance, health emergencies, and fishing gear technology, and is accompa­ nied by hands-on experience. Experienced fishers may find short-term workshops offered through various postsecondary institutions especially useful. These programs provide a good working knowledge of electronic equip­ ment used in navigation and communication and the latest improve­ ments in fishing gear.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Related Occupations Captains and mates on larger fishing vessels of at least 200 gross tons must be licensed. Captains of sport fishing boats used for char­ ter, regardless of size, also must be licensed. Crew members on cer­ tain fish processing vessels may need a merchant mariner’s docu­ ment. These documents and licenses are issued by the U.S. Coast Guard to individuals who meet the stipulated health, physical, and academic requirements. Fishers must be in good health and possess physical strength. Co­ ordination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to operate, main­ tain, and repair equipment and fishing gear. They need perseverance to work long hours on the sea, often under difficult conditions. On larger vessels, they must be able to work as members of a team. They must be patient, yet always alert, to overcome the boredom of long watches when not engaged in fishing operations. The ability to as­ sume any deckhand’s functions, on short notice, is important. Mates must have supervisory ability and be able to assume any deckhand’s and the captain’s duties, when necessary. The captain must be highly experienced, mature, decisive, and possess the necessary bus­ iness skills. Captains with initiative and the required capital often become boat owners. On fishing vessels, most fishers begin as deckhands. Deckhands whose experience and interests are in ship engineering—mainte­ nance and repair of ship engines and equipment—can eventually be­ come licensed chief engineers on large commercial vessels after meeting the U.S. Coast Guard’s experience, physical, and academic requirements. Divers in fishing operations can enter commercial diving activity—for example, ship repair and pier and marina main­ tenance—usually after completion of a certified training program sponsored by an educational institution or industry association. Ex­ perienced, reliable deckhands who display supervisory qualities may become boatswains. Boatswains may, in turn, become second mates, first mates, and finally captains. Almost all captains become selfemployed, and the overwhelming majority eventually own or have an interest in one or more fishing ships. Some may choose to run a sport or recreational fishing operation. When their seagoing days are over, experienced individuals may work in or, with the necessary capital, own stores selling fishing and marine equipment and sup­ plies. Some captains may assume advisory or administrative posi­ tions in industry trade associations or government offices such as harbor development commissions, or teaching positions in industrysponsored workshops or in educational institutions. Hunters and trappers generally acquire their knowledge of wild­ life and hunting and trapping equipment and supplies gradually, through experience. Some are members of rural families for whom hunting and trapping have been a way of life for generations. For­ mal training for hunters consists of a federally mandated and State sponsored hunter safety class, covering safety and ethics, which must be passed prior to being issued a hunting license in almost every State. Inexperienced individuals may join an established sports association to observe professional demonstrations and gain knowledge of hunting weapons and related equipment and tracking and survival techniques. After acquiring the mandatory State hunt­ ing license, they should hunt with an experienced hunter as an ap­ prentice. Government hunters who hunt rabid or nuisance animals may be trained in the use of airplanes or helicopters. Trappers may undergo various forms of training. For those inter­ ested in the sale of animals and their skins, pelts, or furs, experience is fundamental. Inexperienced trappers may serve an internship under the supervision of a professional trapper and take trapper ed­ ucation programs. Trapper education programs are offered by State wildlife departments or State trappers associations; in some States, these programs are mandatory. A trapper’s license permits the trap­ ping of animals forbidden to unlicensed trappers. Trappers inter­ ested in research asssociated with control and management of wild­ life populations and disease may take courses, or even complete a degree program, in wildlife biology, wildlife management, or related fields. Hunters and trappers must be in good health, possess physical strength and stamina, and have the desire, patience, and ability to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  331  work outdoors, sometimes for long periods, under difficult condi­ tions. Maturity and judgment are important to deal with hazards. Good physical coordination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to safely and skillfully use hunting weapons and trapping equipment and to maintain camping and other gear. Some hunters are employed by the Federal or State governments to work in such areas as predator control. Other hunters who have extensive experience may work as guides for hunting parties. Those with initiative, business skills, and the required capital may become self-employed outfitters, some of whom own sites in the wilds. Out­ fitters organize hunting parties, select hunting areas, and assume re­ sponsibility for the hunting expedition—providing for equipment and supplies, instructing the party members in hunting techniques and safety measures, and overseeing leisure activities during the ex­ pedition. Most States require a hunter to obtain a license in order to work as a hunting guide. Experienced trappers with the appropriate academic background may enter other occupations, such as wildlife technician, or wildlife refuge manager. Professional trappers with business skills and initi­ ative may become self-employed fur traders. Job Outlook Overall, employment of fishers, hunters, and trappers is expected to increase much more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Hunting, fishing, and trapping occupations depend on the natural ability of stock to replenish itself through growth and reproduction. Many operations are currently at or be­ yond maximum sustainable yield, limiting potential for occupa­ tional growth. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Some fishers, hunters, and trappers leave the occupation because of the strenuous and hazardous nature of the job, and the lack of steady, year-round income. Different factors will affect employment among these occupa­ tions. In many areas, particularly the North Atlantic, overfishing and pollution have adversely affected the stock of fish and, conse­ quently, the demand for fishers. However, this also has helped spur the growth of a closely related field, aquaculture—the raising and harvesting of fish and other aquatic life in ponds or artificial bodies of water for commercial purposes. Aquaculture should be most prominent in the South, where the climate is best suited for the growth of most freshwater fish, except perhaps salmon and trout. Employment growth of fishers also may be somewhat restrained by the growing number of large fishing vessels; the use of sophisti­ cated electronic equipment for navigation, communication, and fish location; and improvements in fishing gear, which have greatly in­ creased the efficiency of fishing operations and have limited the ex­ pansion in crew size. Likewise, the use of highly automated “float­ ing processors,” where the catch is processed aboard the vessel, may limit employment opportunities. Sport fishing boats will continue to provide some job opportunities. Limited growth is expected in the employment of hunters and trappers. The U.S. Forest Service and State fish and wildlife agen­ cies may provide some jobs. Some qualified hunters should be able to obtain positions as hunting guides or outfitters, although the work generally is seasonal. Trapping activities increasingly are be­ coming ancillary duties of wildlife scientists and technicians and re­ lated workers. Opportunities should be best for trappers in pest con­ trol activities.  Earnings Earnings of fishers, hunters, and trappers generally are highest in the summer and fall—when demand for their services peaks and en­ vironmental conditions are favorable—and lowest during the win­ ter. Many full-time and most part-time workers supplement their in­ come by working in other activities during the off-season. For example, fishers may work in seafood processing plants, establish­ ments selling fishing and marine equipment, or in construction. Hunters may work as self-employed guides, for an outfitter, or in  332  Occupational Outlook Handbook  stores selling guns or hunting and related equipment. Trappers may work in stores selling trapping and related equipment. Earnings of fishers vary widely depending upon the specific occu­ pational function, the size of the ship, and the amount and value of the catch. The costs of the fishing operation—operating the ship, re­ pair and maintenance of gear and equipment, and the crew’s sup­ plies—are deducted from the sale of the catch. The net proceeds are distributed among the crew members in accordance with a prear­ ranged percentage. Generally, the ship’s owner—usually its cap­ tain—receives half of the net proceeds, which covers any profit as well as the depreciation, maintenance, and replacement costs of the ship. Related Occupations Numerous occupations involve outdoor activities similar to those of fishers, hunters, and trappers. Among these are zoo keepers, log­ gers, animal control officers, forest rangers, fishing guides, fish hatchery and aquaculture workers, game wardens, harbor pilots, merchant marine officers and seamen, and wildlife management specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about fishing occupations, contact: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Fisheries Conservation and Management, 1335 East-West Hwy., Silver Spring, MD 20910.  Information about sport or recreational fishing occupations is available from:  W Sport Fishing Institute, 1010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Names of postsecondary schools offering fishing and related marine educational programs are available from: Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036-5104.  Information on licensing of captains and mates and requirements for merchant mariner documentation is available from the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office or Marine Safety Office in your State, or:  ^■Licensing and Evaluation Branch (G-MPV-2), U.S. Coast Guard, 2100 Second St. SW., Washington, DC 20593.  For information about certified training programs for diving (um­ bilical) careers, contact: (^College of Oceaneering, Internationa] Diving School, 272 S. Fries Ave., Wilmington, CA 90744.  Information on licensing of hunting guides is available from the department of fish and game in your State.  Forestry and Logging Occupations (D.O.T. 451.687; 452.364-010, .687-010, -018; 453; 454 except .134; 455 except .134; 459.387, .687; 669.485-010, .687-022; 921.364, .664-014, .667-014, .687-014, -030; 922.687-082; 929.663-010)  Nature of the Work The Nation’s forests are a rich natural resource, providing beauty and tranquility, varied recreational areas, and wood for commercial use. Managing forests and woodlands requires many different kinds of workers. Forestry and conservation workers help develop, main­ tain, and protect these forests by growing and planting new tree seedlings, fighting insects and diseases that attack trees, and helping to control soil erosion. Timber cutting and logging workers harvest thousands of acres of forests each year for the timber that provides the raw material for countless consumer and industrial products. Generally working under the direction of a professional forester, forestry technicians compile data on the characterises of forest land tracts such as size, content, and condition. These workers travel through sections of forest to gather basic information such as species and population of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may cause fire danger. One of the main jobs of the forestry technician is to determine which timber in a particular tract of forest is ready to be harvested. They also train  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and lead conservation workers in seasonal activities such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities. Forest workers are less skilled workers who perform a variety of different tasks to reforest and conserve timberlands and maintain forest facilities such as roads and campsites. Some forest workers called tree planters plant new tree seedlings to reforest timberland areas, using a mattock and planting hoe. They also remove diseased or undesirable trees with a powersaw or handsaw and spray trees with herbicides to kill insects and to protect against disease. Forest workers also clear away brush and debris from camp trails, road­ sides, and camping areas. Some clean kitchens and rest rooms at rec­ reational facilities and campgrounds. Other forestry and conservation workers work in forest nurseries sorting out tree seedlings, discarding those that do not meet predescribed standards of root formation, stem development, and foilage condition. Some forestry workers work on tree farms, where they plant, cul­ tivate, and harvest many different kinds of trees. Their duties also include shearing the tops and limbs to control growth, increase limb density, and improve the shape. Others classify trees into specified categories by examining the tree’s limbs and foilage for color and growth pattern. Other forest workers gather products from the woodlands such as decorative greens, tree cones and barks, moss, or other wild plant life from the forest by hand or using handtools, and others tap trees for sap to make syrup or to produce chemicals. The timber cutting and logging process is carried out by a variety of workers. Fallers cut down trees with chain saws or mechanical felling equipment. Buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. These workers usually use gas-powered chain saws. Choker setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cable yard­ ing system to the landing. Riggers set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the cable yarding system. Logging tractor operators drive crawler or wheeled tractors to skid logs from the felling site to the landing, and log handling equip­ ment operators operate tracked or wheeled equipment to load or un­ load logs and pulpwood onto or off trucks or gondola railroad cars. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. Other timber cutting and logging workers have a variety of re­ sponsibilities. Some workers hike through forests to assess logging conditions and estimate the volume of marketable timber. Laborers clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activi­ ties and to promote growth of desirable species of trees. Other work­ ers use sledge hammers, mallets, wedges, and froes (cleaving tools) to split logs to form posts, pickets, stakes, and other objects. The timber cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four or fewer workers—primarily fallers, buckers, choker setters, and others whose jobs are labor in­ tensive. Most of these crews work for self-employed logging con­ tractors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to purchase equipment, and the skills needed to run a small business successfully. Most contractors work alongside their crews as work­ ing supervisors. Many manage more than one crew and function as owner-supervisors. Although timber cutting and logging equipment has greatly im­ proved and operations are becoming increasingly mechanized, many logging jobs are still labor intensive. These jobs require vari­ ous levels of skill, ranging from manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or loading. Skillful operation of vehicles and equipment is necessary to avoid accidents and to minimize damage to the equipment and environment. The ability to maintain and repair equipment is in­ creasingly necessary to reduce costs and increase productivity. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a variety of logging operations.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Related Occupations  Most forestry and conservation workers work for government at some level. One-half of these workers are employed by the U.S. De­ partment of Agriculture’s Forestry Service. Although forestry workers and conservation workers are located in every State, em­ ployment is concentrated in the Western and Southeastern States where many national and private forests and parks are located. While seasonal demand for forestry and logging workers will vary slightly by region, employment generally is highest in the summer and lowest in the winter.  ts*<3§Sk***®  Increased mechanization of logging operations will reduce demand for timber cutting and logging workers. Working Conditions Forestry and logging occupations are physically demanding. Most for­ estry and logging workers often work outdoors in all kinds of weather sometimes in isolated areas. To get to these areas, they may use air­ planes, helicopters, four wheel drive vehicles, and horses. A few lumber camps in Alaska house workers in bunkhouses or company towns. Workers in sparsely populated Western States daily commute long dis­ tances between their homes and logging sites. In the densely populated Eastern States, commuting distances are much shorter. Most logging occupations involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities. Logging workers work under unusually haz­ ardous conditions. Falling trees and branches are a constant men­ ace, as are the dangers associated with log handling operations and use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Strong winds require special care and can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency but pre­ sent a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants and brambles are minor annoy­ ances. Over long periods of time, if safety precautions are not taken, hearing may be impaired by the high noise level of sawing and skid­ ding operations. Experience, exercise of caution, and use of proper safety measures and equipment—such as hardhats, eye and hearing protection, and safety clothing and boots—are extremely important to avoid injury. The jobs of forestry and conservation workers are generally much less hazarduous although it may be necessary for some forestry aides or forest workers to walk long distances through densely wooded areas to carry out their work. Employment Forestry and logging workers held about 131,000 jobs in 1992, dis­ tributed among the following occupations: Forest and conservation workers................................................... Fallers and buckers ........................................................................ Logging tractor operators............................................................... Log handling equipment operators................................................ All other cutting and related logging occupations........................  35,000 33,000 26,000 15,000 22,000  Most salaried logging workers are employed in the logging camps and logging contractors industry. Others work in the sawmills and planing mills and arborist services industries. Although logging op­ erations are found in most States, Oregon and Washington account for about 1 out of every 4 logging workers. Self-employed logging contractors account for 1 of every 4 log­ ging workers—a much higher proportion of self-employment than for most occupations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  333  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forestry and logging workers develop their skills through onthe-job training. Instruction comes primarily from experienced workers. Logging workers must familiarize themselves with the character and potential dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. However, larger logging companies and trade associations such as the Northeastern Loggers Association and the American Pulpwood Association may offer special programs, particularly for workers training to operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a representative of the manufacturer or company may spend several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly purchased ma­ chinery. Safety training is a vital part of instruction for all logging workers. Log graders and scalers make up the only logging occupation that requires certification on a nationwide basis. However, in recent years, several States in the Northeast have established certification training programs for logging. To be certified individuals have to meet certain training requirements and pass an on site field inspec­ tion that tests their skills. Experience in other occupations can expedite entry into various logging occupations. For example, woodworkers such as carpenters and sawyers can become buckers. Equipment operators such as truckdrivers and bulldozer and crane operators can assume skid­ ding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in sawmills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Some logging con­ tractors were formerly crew members of family-owned businesses operated over several generations. Generally, little formal education is required for most forestry and logging occupations. The minimum requirement for a forestry aide is a high school education. Many secondary schools, including vocational and technical schools, and a few community colleges offer courses in general forestry, wildlife, conservation, and forest harvesting which could be helpful in obtaining a job. A curriculum that includes field trips to observe or participate in forestry or logging activities provides a par­ ticularly good background. There are no educational requirements for forest worker jobs Many of these workers may be high school or college students who are hired on a part-time or seasonal basis. Forestry and logging workers must be in good health and be able to work outdoors every day and to work as part of a team. Many logging occupations require physical strength and stamina. Matur­ ity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary qualities for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are responsible for repair and mainte­ nance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are nec­ essary for success as a self-employed logging contractor. Experience working at a nursery or as a laborer can be useful in obtaining a job as a forest worker. Logging workers generally ad­ vance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes complicated ma­ chinery and equipment. Inexperienced entrants generally begin as laborers, carrying tools and equipment, clearing brush, and loading and unloading logs and brush. For some, familiarization with log­ ging operations may lead to jobs such as choker setter and log han­ dling equipment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs in­ volving the operation of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the mo­ tor skills required for the efficient use of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers. Some logging workers who can readily assess the marketable volume of timber or identify defects in logs may become cruisers and graders.  334 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Little change in the overall employment of forestry and logging workers is expected through the year 2005. Most job openings for forestry and logging workers will result from replacement needs. Many logging workers transfer to other jobs that are less physically demanding and dangerous. In addition, many forestry workers are younger workers who are not committed to the occupation on a long term basis. Some take jobs to earn money for school, others only take these jobs until they find a better paying job. Employment in timber cutting and logging occupations is ex­ pected to decline. Despite an increase in demand for lumber and wood products, increased mechanization of logging operations and improvements in logging equipment will depress the demand for workers. In addition, forest conservation efforts may restrict the volume of public timber available for harvesting, further dampening demand for timber cutting and logging workers. Employment of forestry and conservation workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations as environ­ mental concerns help spur the demand for workers who maintain and conserve our woodlands. However, applicants for forestry and conservation worker positions are expected to face competition be­ cause many young people seek these jobs as an opportunity to work outdoors and enjoy nature without being exposed to hazardous con­ ditions and or extremely hard physical labor. Increasing mechanization will have differing effects on timber cutting and logging workers. Employment of fallers, buckers, choke setters, and other workers whose jobs are labor intensive should de­ cline as safer, laborsaving machinery and equipment are increas­ ingly used. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as logging tractor and log handling equipment operators, should be less adversely affected. Weather can force curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season, dry summer periods, and cold winter months. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residential, also affect logging activities. In addition, logging operations must be relocated when timber harvesting in a particular area has been completed. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equipment; others are forced to find jobs in other occupations or be without work.  Earnings of logging workers vary widely by size of establishment and geographic area. Earnings of workers in the largest establishments are much higher than those in the smallest establishments. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn substantially more than those in the South. In 1993, forestry aides who worked for the Federal Government averaged about $26,600. Most forestry and conservation workers work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms, which generally offer more generous benefits—for example, pension and retirement plans, health and life insurance, and paid vacations—than smaller firms. Small logging contractors generally offer timber cutting and logging workers few benefits. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic benefits such as medical coverage and provide safety apparel and equipment. Many logging workers in the Northwest, where the larger estab­ lishments are concentrated, are members of either one of two un­ ions—the International Woodworkers of America or the Western Council of Industrial Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their envi­ ronment include arborist, gardener, groundskeeper, landscaper, nursery worker, range aide and soil conservation technician. Sources of Additional Information For information about forestry and conservation occupations con­ tact: ^American Forestry Association, 1516 P St. NW., Washington, DC 20015.  For information about forestry jobs with the Federal Govern­ ment contact: (S Chief, U.S. Forest Service, U.S Department of Agriculture, 14th St. and  Independence Ave. SW., Washington DC 20013.  For information about timber cutting and logging careers and secondary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupations, contact: (S’ Northeastern Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69, Old Forge, NY 13420.  Earnings Median weekly earnings for all full-time forestry and logging techni­ cians who were not self-employed were $296 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $210 and $408 weekly. The lowest 10 per­ cent earned less than $ 159, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $556. Generally, earnings of more skilled workers, such as fall­ ers and yarder operators, are substantially higher than those of less skilled workers, such as laborers and choker setters.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ^•Timber Producers Association of Michigan and Wisconsin, P.O. Box 39, Tomahawk, WI 54487.  The school of forestry at your State land-grant college or univer­ sity should also be able to provide useful information. A list of State forestry associations and other forestry-related State associations is available at most public libraries and the Amer­ ican Forest & Paper Association, 1250 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft Mechanics and Engine Specialists (D.O.T. 621.261-022, 621.281 except -030, .381-014, .684-014; 693.261-022­ 806.384-038; 807.261, .381-014, and .684-018)  Nature of the Work To keep aircraft in peak operating condition, mechanics perform scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and complete inspections re­ quired by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics specialize in maintenance. Following a schedule that is based on the number of hours flown, calendar days, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors, mechanics in­ spect the engines, landing gear, instruments, pressurized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for example—and other parts of the aircraft and do the necessary maintenance. They may examine an engine through specially de­ signed openings while working from ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After tak­ ing the engine apart, mechanics may use precision instruments to measure parts for wear, and use X-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective parts are repaired or replaced. They also may repair sheet-metal or composite surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, or check for corro­ sion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. After completing all repairs, mechanics must test the equipment to ensure that everything works properly. Mechanics specializing in repair work rely on the pilot’s descrip­ tion of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may check the electrical connections, replace the gauge, or use electrical test equipment to make sure no wires are broken or shorted out. They work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Mechanics may work on one or many different types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters, or, for effi­ ciency, may specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine or hydraulic or electrical system. As a result of technological advances, mechanics spend an increasing amount of time repairing electronic systems such as computerized controls. In small, independent repair shops, mechanics usually inspect and re­ pair many different types of aircraft. Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas, al­ though they may work outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather, when the hangars are full or when repairs must be made quickly. This occurs most often to airline mechanics who work at airports because, to save time, minor repairs and preflight checks often are made at the terminal. Mechanics often work under time pressure to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from incon­ veniencing customers. At the same time, mechanics have a tremen­ dous responibility to maintain safety standards and this can cause the job to be stressful. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull as much as 50 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasion­ ally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when testing engines. Aircraft mechanics generally work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Aircraft mechanics inspect aircraft on a regularly scheduled basis. Employment Aircraft mechanics held about 131,000 jobs in 1992. Over threefifths of salaried mechanics worked for airlines, nearly one-fifth for aircraft assembly firms, and nearly one-sixth for the Federal Gov­ ernment. Most of the rest were general aviation mechanics, the ma­ jority of whom worked for independent repair shops or companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Very few mechanics were self-employed. Most airline mechanics work at major airports near large cities. Civilians employed by the Armed Forces work at military installa­ tions. Others work for the FAA, many in the headquarters at Oklahoma City. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certifi­ cated by the FAA as “airframe mechanic,” “powerplant mechanic,” or “repairer.” Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and propellers. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and to do limited work on propellers. Technicians called repairers—who are employed by FAA- certificated repair stations and air carriers—work on instruments and on propellers. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics—called A & P mechanics—can work on any part of the plane, and those with an inspector’s authorization can certify inspection work completed by other mechanics. Uncertificated mechanics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or repairer’s certificate. For a combined A & P certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both en­ gines and airframes are required. To obtain an inspector’s authori­ zation, a mechanic must have held an A & P certificate for at least 3 years. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. Most airlines require that mechanics have a high school diploma and an A & P certificate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the- job training, most learn their job in one of about 180 trade schools certi­ fied by the FAA. Student enrollment in these schools varies greatly; some have as few as 50 students while at least one school has about 335  336  Occupational Outlook Handbook  800 students. FAA standards established by law require that certifi­ cated mechanic schools offer students a minimum of 1,900 actual class hours. Courses in these trade schools generally last from 2 years to 30 months and provide training with the tools and equip­ ment used on the job. For an FAA certificate, attendance at such schools may substitute for work experience. However, these schools do not guarantee jobs or FAA certificates. Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on newer technologies such as turbine en­ gines, aviation electronics, and composite materials including graphite, fiberglass, and boron, all of which are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Less emphasis is being placed on older technologies such as woodworking and welding. Employers prefer mechanics who can perform a wide variety of tasks. Mechanics learn many different skills in their training that can be applied to other jobs. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certi­ fying exam. Generally, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most mechanics have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, com­ puter science, and mechanical drawing are helpful because many of their principles are involved in the operation of an aircraft and knowledge of the principles often is necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills are also important because mechanics are often required to submit reports. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, more employers are requiring mechanics to take on-going training to update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance neces­ sitate a strong background in electronics—both for acquiring and retaining jobs in this field. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employers, usually through outside contractors. Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work that re­ quires a high degree of mechanical aptitude. Employers seek appli­ cants who are self-motivated, hard- working, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is im­ portant for the reaching and climbing necessary for the job. Be­ cause, they may work on the top of wings and fuselages on large jet planes, aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they have the opportunity for advancement. Opportunities are best for those who have an air­ craft inspector’s authorization. A mechanic may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, and shop super­ visor. In the airlines, where promotion is often determined by exam­ ination, supervisors may advance to executive positions. Those with broad experience in maintenance and overhaul have become inspec­ tors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities.  Employment of aircraft mechanics is expected to increase slower than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. A grow­ ing population and rising incomes are expected to stimulate the de­ mand for airline transportation, and the number of aircraft is ex­ pected to grow. However, employment growth will be restricted somewhat by increases in productivity resulting from greater use of automated inventory control and modular systems that speed re­ pairs and parts replacement. Job opportunities are likely to be best in general aviation. Because wages in small companies tend to be relatively low, there are fewer applicants for these jobs than for airline jobs. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced mechanics leave for higher paying jobs with airlines or transfer to another occupation. Mechanics will face more competition for airline jobs because the high wages and travel benefits attract more qualified applicants. Prospects will be best for applicants with significant experience in another setting. The number of job openings for aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government should decline as the size of the Armed Forces is re­ duced. Mechanics who keep abreast of technological advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. Declines in air travel during recessions force airlines to curtail the number of flights, which results in less aircraft maintenance and, consequently, layoffs for aircraft mechanics.  Job Outlook Most job openings for aircraft mechanics through the year 2005 will stem from replacement needs. Each year, as mechanics transfer to other occupations or retire, several thousand job openings will arise Aircraft mechanics have a comparatively strong attachment to the occupation, reflecting their significant investment in training. How­ ever, because aircraft mechanics’ skills are transferable to other oc­ cupations, some mechanics leave for other work that requires a background in electronics.  Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., Atlanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-JETJOBS.)   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings In 1992, the median annual salary of aircraft mechanics was about $32,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,000 and $39,000. The top 10 percent of all aircraft mechanics earned over $47,500 a year and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $17,700. Mechanics who worked on jets generally earned more than those working on other aircraft. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Earnings of airline mechanics generally are higher than mechan­ ics working for other employers. Average hourly pay for beginning aircraft mechanics ranged from $8.66 at the regional airlines to $13.09 at the major airlines in 1992, according to the Future Avia­ tion Professionals of America. Earnings of experienced mechanics ranged from $15 to $25 an hour. Mechanics with an A & P license in the Federal Government started at about $18,300 a year in 1993. All mechanics employed by the Federal Government averaged about $35,200 a year in 1993. Some mechanics, including those employed by some major air­ lines, are covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, elevator repairers, and tele­ phone maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and sala­ ries, contact:  For general information about aircraft mechanics, write to: XS" Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box 2826, Redmond, WA  98073. [iT Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 500 Northwest Plaza, Suite 401, St. Ann, MO 63074.  For information on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the State employment service.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers  337  Automotive Body Repairers (D.O.T. 620.364, .684-034; 807.267, .281, .361-010, .381-010, -018, -022, and -030, .484, .684-010; and 865.684-010)  •  Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents every day. Although some are sold for salvage or scrapped, most can be repaired to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can repair all types of vehicles, but most body repairers work on cars and small trucks. A few work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought into the shop, body repairers generally receive instructions from their supervisors, who have de­ termined which parts are to be restored or replaced and how much time the job should take. Automotive body repairers use special machines to restore dam­ aged metal frames and body sections to their original shape and lo­ cation. They chain or clamp the frames and sections to alignment machines that usually use hydraulic pressure to align the damaged metal. “Unibody” designs, which are built without frames, must be returned to precise alignment, so repairers use bench systems to guide them and measure how much each section is out of alignment. Body repairers remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metal-cutting gun or acetylene torch and weld in new sections to replace them. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases in the metal by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. They remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches. Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts used increasingly on newer model vehicles. They remove the damaged panels and determine the type of plastic from which they are made. With most types, they can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water, and press the softened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts which are more difficult to repair. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which can­ not be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they then file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automotive painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed in the Handbook statement on painting and coating machine operators.) In smaller shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body re­ pairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender repairing. Some body repairers also specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Glass installers remove broken, cracked, or pitted windshields and window glass. Curved windows sometimes must be cut from a sheet of safety glass. Glass installers apply a moisture­ proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehi­ cle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weatherproof. Body repair work has variety and challenge—each damaged vehi­ cle presents a different problem. Repairers must develop appropri­ ate methods for each job, using their broad knowledge of automo­ tive construction and repair techniques. Body repairers usually work alone with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  '  X1  Repairing damaged motor vehicles requires a broad knowledge of reconstruction techniques. Working Conditions Most automotive body repairers work 40 to 60 hours a week. They work indoors in body shops which are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated to partially disperse dust and paint fumes. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, burns from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. Employment Automotive body repairers held about 202,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for shops that specialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and automobile rental companies. A few worked for motor vehicle manufacturers. Nearly 1 automotive body repairer out of 5 was selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire persons who have completed formal training programs in automotive body repair, but these programs are able to supply only a portion of employers’ needs. Formal train­ ing is highly desirable because advances in technology in recent years have greatly changed the structure, the components, and even the materials used in automobiles. As a result, many new repair techniques have been created and many new skills are required. For example, the bodies of newer automobiles are increasingly made of a combination of materials—the traditional steel, plus aluminum and a growing variety of metal alloys and plastics—each requiring the use of somewhat different techniques to reshape and smooth out dents and small pits. Automotive body repair training programs are offered by high schools, vocational schools, private trade schools, and community colleges. Formal training in automotive body repair can enhance chances for employment and speed promotion to a journeyman position. Employers also hire many persons without formal automotive body repair training, but most prefer to hire high school graduates who know how to use handtools. Good reading and basic mathe­ matics skills are essential because restoring unibody automobiles to their original form requires such precision that body repairers often must follow instructions and diagrams in technical manuals and make very precise measurements of the position of one body section relative to another. Many automotive body repairers enter the occu­ pation by transferring from related helper positions.  338  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Persons without formal training learn the trade as helpers, pick­ ing up skills on the job from experienced body repairers. Helpers be­ gin by assisting body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more diffi­ cult tasks such as straightening body parts and returning them to their correct alignment. Generally, skill in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), which is voluntary, is recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive body repairers. To be certified, a body repairer must pass a written examination and must have at least 2 years of experience in the trade. Completion of a high school, voca­ tional school, trade school, or community college program in auto­ motive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experi­ ence. Automotive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification. Automotive body repairers must buy their own handtools, but employers usually furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumu­ late tools as they gain experience, and many workers have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Continuing education throughout a career in automotive body re­ pair is becoming increasingly important. Automotive parts, body materials, and electronics continue to change and become more complex and technologically advanced. Gaining new skills, reading technical manuals, and attending seminars and classes is important for keeping up with these technological advances. An experienced automotive body repairer with supervisory abil­ ity may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile damage appraisers for insurance companies. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Opportunities should be best for persons with formal training in au­ tomotive body repair and mechanics. Requirements for body repairers will increase because as the number of motor vehicles in operation grows with the Nation’s pop­ ulation, the number damaged in accidents will increase as well. New automobile designs increasingly have body parts made of steel al­ loys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more difficult to work with than the traditional steel body parts. Also, new, lighter weight automotive designs are prone to greater collision damage than older, heavier designs and, consequently, are more time con­ suming to repair. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced re­ pairers who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons will still account for the majority of job openings. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. However, most employers hire fewer new workers during an ec­ onomic slowdown. Although major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of mi­ nor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred. Earnings Body repairers earned median weekly earnings of $401 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $289 and $525 a week. The low­ est-paid 10 percent earned less than $227 a week, while the highestpaid 10 percent earned over $757 a week. Helpers and trainees usu­ ally earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. The majority of body repairers employed by automotive dealers and repair shops are paid on an incentive basis. Under this method, body repairers are paid a predetermined amount for various tasks, and earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee work­ ers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to be paid on an incen­ tive basis. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, bus­ lines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usu­ ally receive an hourly wage. Many automotive body repairers are members of unions, includ­ ing the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brother­ hood of Teamsters. Most body repairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and bus­ lines. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often involves working on their mechanical components as well as their bodies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with several related occupations includ­ ing automotive and diesel mechanics, automotive repair service es­ timators, painters, and body customizers. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities may be obtained from auto­ motive body repair shops and motor vehicle dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employ­ ment service. The State employment service also is a source of infor­ mation about training programs. For general information about automotive body repairer careers, write to:  Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76095­ 0929. . 13” Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035.  For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: {S’ ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415.  For a directory of certified automotive body repairer programs, contact:  {S’ National Automotive Technician Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071.  Automotive Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-010, -012, -030, -034, .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -062, -066, -070, .381-010, -022, .684-018, -022; 706.381-046; 806.361-026, .684-038; 807.664, .684-022; 825.381-014)  Nature of the Work Automotive mechanics, often called automotive service technicians, repair and service automobiles and occasionally light trucks, such as vans and pickups, with gasoline engines. (Mechanics who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics. Motorcycle mechanics— who repair and service motorcycles, motorscooters, mopeds, and occasionally small all-terrain vehicles—are discussed in the Hand­ book statement on motorcycle, boat, and small- engine mechanics.) Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the im­ portance of the mechanic’s job. The ability to diagnose the source of the problem quickly and accurately, one of the mechanic’s most val­ uable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowl­ edge of automobiles. In fact, many mechanics consider diagnosing “hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, mechanics first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a dealership or large shop, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have to test drive the vehicle or use  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers a variety of testing equipment, such as engine analyzers, spark plug testers, or compression gauges to locate the problem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part is damaged or worn beyond repair, or cannot be fixed at a rea­ sonable cost, it is replaced, usually after consultation with the vehi­ cle owner. During routine service, mechanics inspect, lubricate, and adjust engines and other components, repairing or replacing parts before they cause breakdowns. They usually follow a checklist to be sure they examine all important parts, such as belts, hoses, steering sys­ tems, spark plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel bearings, and other potentially troublesome items. Mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and re­ pair exhaust systems and other parts; jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines; and a growing variety of electronic service equipment, such as infrared engine analyzers and computerized diagnostic devices. They also use many common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Automotive mechanics in larger shops have increasingly become specialized. For example, automatic transmission mechanics work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of auto­ matic transmissions. Because these are complex mechanisms and in­ clude electronic parts, their repair requires considerable experience and training, including a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up mechanics adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or re­ place spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine perform­ ance. They often use electronic test equipment to help them adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control sys­ tems. Automotive air-conditioning mechanics install and repair air-con­ ditioners and service components such as compressors and condens­ ers. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steer­ ing mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, repair hy­ draulic cylinders, turn discs and drums, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and frontend work. Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solu­ tions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores or com­ plete replacement radiators. They also may repair heaters and airconditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Working Conditions Most automotive mechanics work a standard 40-hour week, but some self-employed mechanics work longer hours. Generally, mechanics work indoors. Most repair shops are well ventilated and lighted, but some are drafty and noisy. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, but serious accidents are avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive mechanics held about 739,000 jobs in 1992. The major­ ity worked for retail and wholesale automotive dealers, independent automotive repair shops, and gasoline service stations. Others were employed at automotive service facilities at department, automo­ tive, and home supply stores, or maintained the automobile fleets of taxicab and automobile leasing companies, Federal, State, and local governments, and other organizations. Motor vehicle manufactur­ ers employed some mechanics to test, adjust, and repair cars at the end of assembly lines. Over 25 percent of automotive mechanics were self-employed.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  339  The ability to diagnose mechanical and electrical problems quickly is one of the mechanic's most valuable skills. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking trainee automotive mechanic jobs complete a formal training pro­ gram after graduating from high school. However, some automotive mechanics still learn the trade solely by assisting and working with experienced mechanics. Automotive mechanic training programs are offered in high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools, but postsecondary programs generally provide more thorough career preparation than high school programs. High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in quality. Some offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for the future consumer or hobbyist, while others aim to equip graduates with enough skills to get a job as a mechanic’s helper or trainee mechanic after graduation. Postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs vary greatly in format, but generally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on prac­ tice. Some trade and technical school programs concentrate the training to only 6 months or a year, depending on how many hours the student must attend each week. Community college programs normally spread the training out over 2 years, supplement the auto­ motive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, and other subjects, and award an associate degree. The various automobile manufacturers and their participating dealers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at about 117 com­ munity colleges across the Nation. The manufacturers provide ser­ vice equipment and late model cars on which students practice new skills, and insure that the programs teach the latest automotive tech­ nology. Curriculums are updated frequently to reflect changing technology and equipment. Students in these programs typically spend alternate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service departments of sponsoring dealers. Because students spend time gaining valuable work experience, these programs may take as long as 4 years to complete, instead of the normal 2 years required to earn an associate degree in automo­ tive service technology. However, they offer students the opportu­ nity to earn money while going to school and promise a job upon  340  Occupational Outlook Handbook  graduation. Also, some sponsoring dealers provide students with fi­ nancial assistance for tuition or the purchase of tools. The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Ser­ vice Excellence (ASE), certifies automobile mechanic training pro­ grams offered by high schools and postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges. While NATEF certifi­ cation is voluntary, and many institutions have not sought it, certifi­ cation does signify that the program meets uniform standards for in­ structional facilities, equipment, staff credentials, and curriculum. In early 1993, over 650 high school and postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs had been certified by NATEF. Knowledge of electronics is increasingly desirable for automotive mechanics because electronics is being used in a growing variety of automotive components. Engine controls and dashboard instru­ ments were among the first components to use electronics, but now electronics are being used in brakes, transmissions, steering systems, and a variety of other components. In the past, problems involving electrical systems or electronics were usually handled by a specialist, but electronics are becoming so commonplace that most automotive mechanics must be familiar with at least the basic principles of elec­ tronics in order to recognize when an electronic malfunction may be responsible for a problem. In addition, automotive mechanics fre­ quently must be able to test and replace electronic components. For trainee mechanic jobs, employers look for people with good reading and basic mathematics skills who can study technical manu­ als to keep abreast of new technology. People who have a desire to learn new service and repair procedures and specifications are excel­ lent candidates for trainee mechanic jobs. Trainees also must pos­ sess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how automobiles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive mechanics at a postsecondary insti­ tution as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is also valuable. Completion of high school is required by a growing num­ ber of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, English, and mathematics can provide a good basic edu­ cational background for a career as an automotive mechanic. Beginners usually start as trainee mechanics, helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline service station attendants and gradually ac­ quire and practice their skills by working with experienced mechan­ ics. Although a beginner can perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, it usually takes 1 to 2 years of experience to acquire adequate proficiency to become a journey service mechanic and quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. However, graduates of the better postsecondary mechanic training programs are often able to earn promotion to the journey level after only a few months on the job. An additional 1 to 2 years are usually required to become thoroughly experienced and familiar with all types of repairs. Diffi­ cult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, automotive radiator mechanics and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of automotive repair, may learn their jobs in considera­ bly less time. In the past, many persons have become automotive mechanics through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, as formal automotive training programs have increased in popularity, the number of employers willing to make such a long-term appren­ ticeship commitment has greatly declined. Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and beginners are ex­ pected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many exper­ ienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Em­ ployers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive mechanics to factory training centers to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components such as electronic fuel  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  injection or air- conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers may also send promising beginners to factory-sponsored mechanic training pro­ grams. Factory representatives come to many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by ASE is widely recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive mechanics. Mechanics are certified in one or more of eight different service areas, such as electrical sys­ tems, engine repair, brake systems, suspension and steering, and heating and air conditioning. Master automotive mechanics are cer­ tified in all eight areas. For certification in each area, mechanics must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written examina­ tion; completion of an automotive mechanic program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. Certified mechanics must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops. Job Outlook Job opportunities in automotive mechanics are expected to be plen­ tiful for persons who complete automotive training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community col­ leges. Persons whose programs include some basic electronics should have the best opportunities. Persons without formal mechanic training are likely to face competition for entry level jobs. Mechanic careers are attractive to many because they afford the op­ portunity for good pay and the satisfaction of skilled work with one’s hands. Employment of automotive mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth in mechanic employment in automobile dealerships, independent automotive repair shops, specialty car care chains, and other establishments will be offset somewhat by declining employ­ ment in gasoline service stations, because fewer stations offer repair services. Nevertheless, the number of mechanics is expected to increase be­ cause expansion of the driving age population will increase the num­ ber of motor vehicles on the road. The growing complexity of auto­ motive technology, such as the use of electronic and emissions control equipment, increasingly necessitates that cars be serviced by skilled workers, contributing to growth in demand for highly trained mechanics. In addition, if the average age of automobiles in operation continues to be high, a significant proportion of consum­ ers’ vehicle operating expenditures will be spent on service and re­ pairs, and less on purchasing vehicles. However, improvements in the reliability of automobiles, together with less frequent require­ ments for routine service, are expected to result in continued de­ clines in the service and repair needs of cars. More job openings are expected for automotive mechanics than for most other occupations because replacement needs, the main source of job openings, will be substantial, due in large part to the size of the occupation. Replacements will be needed as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Most persons who enter the occupation may expect steady work because changes in economic conditions have little effect on the au­ tomotive repair business. During a downturn, however, some em­ ployers may be more reluctant to hire inexperienced workers. Earnings Median weekly earnings of automotive mechanics who were wage and salary workers were $408 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $320 and $523 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $230 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $746 a week.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Many experienced mechanics employed by automotive dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the la­ bor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earn­ ings depend on the amount of work completed by the mechanic. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics a mini­ mum weekly salary. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work­ ers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brother­ hood of Teamsters.  341  For general information about the work of automotive mechan­ ics, write to:  electric generators and compressors and pumps used in oil well drilling and irrigation systems. Most diesel mechanics work on heavy trucks used in industries such as mining and construction to carry ore and building materials, and by private and commercial trucking lines for general freight hauling. Most light trucks are gasoline powered, and although some diesel mechanics may occasionally service gasoline engines, most work primarily on diesel engines. For information on mechanics who work primarily on gasoline engines, see the Handbook state­ ment on automotive mechanics. Mechanics who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to as­ sure safe operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a maintenance check on a truck, for ex­ ample, they usually follow a regular checklist that includes the in­ spection of brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. They usually repair or adjust a part that is not working properly. Parts that cannot be fixed are replaced. In many shops, mechanics do all kinds of repairs, working on a vehicle s electrical system one day and doing major engine repairs the next. In some large shops, mechanics specialize in one or two types of work. For example, one mechanic may specialize in major engine repair, another in transmission work, another in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or brake systems. Diesel mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to re­ move and repair exhaust systems and other parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Diesel mechanics also use a variety of test­ ing equipment, including ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters when working on electrical systems and electronic components; and tachometers, dynamometers, and engine analyzers to locate engine malfunctions. For heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get their assign­ ments from shop supervisors or service managers, who may check the mechanics’ work or assist in diagnosing problems.  O Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76095­ 0929. O’ Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. ty American Automobile Manufacturers Association, 7430 Second Ave., Suite 300, Detroit, MI 48202.  Working Conditions Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, although they may occa­ sionally make repairs on the road. They are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty  Related Occupations Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include diesel truck and bus mechanics, motorcycle mechanics, and automotive body repairers, painters, customizers, and repair service estimators. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automo­ tive dealers and repair shops, or the local office of the State employ­ ment service. The State employment service also may have informa­ tion about training programs. A list of certified automotive mechanic training programs may be obtained from: O’ National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415.  Information on automobile manufacturer sponsored 2-year asso­ ciate degree programs in automotive service technology may be ob­ tained from: ty ASSET Program, Training Department, Ford Parts and Service Divi­ sion, Ford Motor Company, Room 109, 3000 Schaefer Rd., Dearborn, MI 48121. 13° Chrysler Dealer Apprenticeship Program, National C.A.P. Coordinator, SIMS 423-21-06, 26001 Lawrence Ave., Center Line, MI 48015. O’ General Motors Automotive Service Educational Program, National College Coordinator, General Motors Service Technology Group, 30501 Van Dyke Ave., Warren, MI 48090, or by calling 1-800-828-6860.  Information on how to become a certified automotive mechanic is available from: O’ ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415.  Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-046, -050, and -058; 625.281-010, -014, -022, and .361)  Nature of the Work Diesel engines usually are more durable and heavier than gasoline engines. In addition, they are more fuel efficient than gasoline en­ gines, in part because the higher compression ratios found in diesel engines help convert a higher percentage of the fuel into power. Be­ cause of their greater durability and efficiency, diesel engines are used to power most of the Nation’s heavy vehicles and equipment. Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment, such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomo­ tives; construction equipment such as bulldozers, cranes, and road graders; and farm equipment such as tractors and combines. A small number work on diesel-powered automobiles. Diesel mechan­ ics also service a variety of other diesel-powered equipment, such as  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  *  A*  Diesel mechanics spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safety and to reduce breakdowns.  342  Occupational Outlook Handbook  parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions to re­ pair vehicles and equipment. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Employment Diesel mechanics held about 263,000jobs in 1992. Nearly one-quar­ ter serviced trucks and other diesel-powered equipment for custom­ ers of vehicle and equipment dealers, leasing companies, and inde­ pendent automotive repair shops. Over one-fifth worked for local and long-distance trucking companies, and over one-sixth main­ tained the buses and trucks of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, and Federal, State, and local government. The re­ mainder maintained the fleets of trucks and other equipment of manufacturing, construction, and other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Diesel mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, bus­ lines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training authorities recommend that persons seeking diesel mechanic jobs complete a formal diesel mechanic training program. Diesel technology is becoming more sophisticated and diesel en­ gines increasingly use electronic components to control a growing variety of functions. Knowledge of basic electronics is becoming es­ sential for diesel mechanics to diagnose whether a malfunction is caused by an electronic component or whether it can be traced to another source. Most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs in diesel mechanics, and completion of such a program can speed advancement to the journey mechanic level. These 1- to 2-year programs, given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. They provide a foundation in the basics of the latest diesel technology and electronics, and enable trainees to more quickly master the service and repair of the actual vehicles and equipment encountered on the job. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another good way to learn die­ sel mechanics. However, apprenticeships are becoming less com­ mon because employers are reluctant to make such a long-term in­ vestment in training, especially when graduates of postsecondary diesel mechanic programs are increasing in number. Competition for the limited number of apprenticeship slots is often extremely keen. Typical apprenticeship programs for diesel truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of practical experi­ ence working on transmissions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of formal instruction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, engine theory, and safety. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine repair. Even though most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal post secondary training programs in diesel mechanics, the number of persons who complete such programs are too few to meet their needs. As a result, many diesel mechanics still learn their skills on the job. Unskilled beginners usually do tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, begin­ ners—especially those having automobile service experience—start as mechanics’ helpers. Most helpers can perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs after a few months’ experience. They advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. After they master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related compo­ nents such as brakes, transmissions, or electrical systems. Gener­ ally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is necessary to qualify as an all-round diesel truck or bus mechanic. Additional training on other components, such as hydraulic systems, may be  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  necessary for mechanics who wish to specialize in other types of die­ sel equipment. For unskilled entry level jobs, employers generally look for appli­ cants who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is re­ quired by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, English, mathematics, and physics provide a good basic educational background for a career as a diesel mechanic. Good reading and basic mathematics skills are needed to study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. A State commercial driver’s license is needed for test driving trucks or buses on public roads. Practical experience in automobile repair in a gaso­ line service station, in the Armed Forces, or as a hobby also is valua­ ble. Employers sometimes send experienced mechanics to special training classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, parts, and equipment manufacturers where they learn the latest technology or receive special training in subjects such as diagnosing engine mal­ functions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as a standard of achieve­ ment for diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certified as Master Heavy-Duty Truck Technician or may be certified in one or more of six different areas of heavy- duty truck repair: Brakes, gasoline en­ gines, diesel engines, drive trains, electrical systems, and suspension and steering. For certification in each area, mechanics must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience. High school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5 years. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisors or service managers. Mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become sales representatives. A few mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Be­ cause this is a large occupation, more job openings are expected for diesel mechanics than for most other occupations. Although em­ ployment growth will create many new jobs, most job openings will arise from the need to replace diesel mechanics who transfer to other fields of work or retire or stop working for other reasons. Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to grow as freight transportation by truck increases. More trucks will be needed for both local and intercity hauling due to the increased production of goods. Additional diesel mechanics will be needed to repair and maintain growing numbers of buses and heavy construction graders, cranes, earthmovers, and other equipment. Due to the greater dura­ bility and economy of the diesel relative to the gasoline engine, buses and trucks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels, also creating new jobs for diesel mechanics. Careers in diesel mechanics are attractive to many because wages are relatively high and skilled repair work is challenging and varied. Opportunities should be good for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges and vocational and technical schools, but others may face competition for entry level jobs. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in over 160 metropolitan areas, diesel mechanics earned median earnings of $14.10 an hour in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.60 and $17.00 an hour.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers However, earnings may vary by industry and by geographic loca­ tion. Beginning apprentices usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled mechanics. Most mechanics work between 40 and 59 hours per week. Those employed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends. They usually re­ ceive a higher rate of pay for this work. Many diesel mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work­ ers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Work­ ers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Diesel mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment and keep them in good working order. Related mechanic occupations include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, boat engine mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, and motorcycle mechanics and small-engine specialists. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. Local State employ­ ment service offices also may have information about apprentice­ ships and other training programs. For general information about careers as truck, bus, and diesel mechanics, write to: XS* Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk  Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. American Trucking Associations, Inc., Maintenance Council, 2200 Mill Rd„ Alexandria, VA 22314-4677. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel mechanics, contact: rs* National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415.  Information on how to become a certified heavy-duty diesel mechanic is available from: XW ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071- 3415.  Electronic Equipment Repairers Nature of the Work Electronic equipment repairers, also called service technicians or field service representatives, install, maintain, and repair electronic equipment used in offices, factories, homes, hospitals, aircraft, and other places. Equipment includes televisions, radar, industrial equipment controls, computers, telephone systems, and medical di­ agnosing equipment. Repairers have numerous job titles, which often refer to the kind of equipment they work with. (Electronics technicians, who use the principles and theories of science, engineer­ ing, and mathematics in their work, but may also do some repairs, are discussed in the statement on engineering technicians elsewhere in the Handbook. For information on workers who operate and maintain electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs, see the statement on broadcast technicians. Additional information about electronic equipment repairers is given in the separate statements in this section.)  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  343  Electronic repairers install, test, repair, and calibrate equipment to ensure that it functions properly. They keep detailed records on each piece of equipment to provide a history of tests, performance problems, and repairs. When equipment breaks down, repairers first examine work or­ ders, which indicate problems, or talk to equipment operators. Then they check for common causes of trouble such as loose connections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to blueprints and manufacturers’ specifications that show connections and provide instruction on how to locate problems. They use voltmeters, ohmmeters, signal generators, ammeters, and oscilloscopes and run diagnostic pro­ grams to pinpoint malfunctions. It may take several hours to locate a problem but only a few minutes to fix it. However, more equip­ ment now has self-diagnosing features, which greatly simplifies the work. To fix equipment, repairers may replace defective compo­ nents, circuit boards, or wiring, or adjust and calibrate equipment, using small handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, and soldering irons. Field repairers visit worksites in their assigned area on a regular basis to do preventive maintenance according to manufacturers’ rec­ ommended schedules, and whenever emergencies arise. During these calls, repairers may also advise customers on how to use equip­ ment more efficiently and how to spot problems in their early stages. They also listen to customers’ complaints and answer questions, promoting customer satisfaction and good will. Some field repairers work full time at installations of clients with a lot of equipment. Bench repairers work at repair facilities, in stores, factories, or service centers. They repair portable equipment such as televisions and personal computers brought in by customers or defective com­ ponents and machines requiring extensive repairs that have been sent in by field repairers. They determine the source of a problem in the equipment, and may estimate whether it is wiser to buy a new part or machine or to fix the broken one. Working Conditions Some electronic equipment repairers work shifts, including week­ ends and holidays, to service equipment in computer centers, manu­ facturing plants, hospitals, and telephone companies which operate round the clock. Shifts are generally assigned on the basis of senior­ ity. Repairers may also be on call at any time to handle equipment failure. Repairers generally work in clean, well-lighted, air- conditioned surroundings—an electronic repair shop or service center, hospital, military installation, or a telephone company’s central office. How­ ever, some, such as commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, may be exposed to heat, grease, and noise on factory floors. Some may have to work in cramped spaces. Telephone in­ stallers and repairers may work on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. The work of most repairers involves lifting, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. Adherence to safety precautions is essen­ tial to guard against work hazards such as minor bums and electri­ cal shock. Employment Electronic equipment repairers held about 398,000 jobs in 1992. Many worked for telephone companies. Others worked for elec­ tronic and transportation equipment manufacturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, hospitals, electronic repair shops, and firms that provide maintenance under contract (called third-party main­ tenance firms). The distribution of employment in each occupation is presented in the following tabulation: Computer and office machine repairers.......................................... 143,000 Communications equipment repairers........................................... 108,000 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........ 68,000 Telephone installers and repairers....................................................... 40,000 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers........................ 39,000  344  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics—acquired formally or on the job—is re­ quired for entry level jobs. Formal training is offered by public post secondary vocational-technical schools, private vocational schools and technical institutes, junior and community colleges, and some high schools and correspondence schools. Programs take 1 to 2 years. The military services also offer formal training and work ex­ perience. Training includes general courses in mathematics, physics, elec­ tricity, electronics, schematic reading, and troubleshooting. Stu­ dents also choose courses which prepare them for a specialty, such as computers, commercial and industrial equipment, or home en­ tertainment equipment. A few repairers complete formal appren­ ticeship programs sponsored jointly by employers and locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Applicants for entry-level jobs may have to pass tests that mea­ sure mechanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, manual dexterity, and general intelligence. Newly hired repairers, even those with formal training, usually receive some training from their employer. They may study electronic and circuit theory and math. They also get hands-on experience with equipment, doing ba­ sic maintenance, and using diagnostic programs to locate malfunc­ tions. Training may be in a classroom or it may be self- instruction, consisting of videotapes, programmed computer software, or work­ books that allow trainees to learn at their own pace. Experienced technicians attend training sessions and read manu­ als to keep up with design changes and revised service procedures. Many technicians also take advanced training in a particular system or type of repair. Good eyesight and color vision are is needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts and good hearing to detect malfunctions re­ vealed by sound. Because field repairers usually handle jobs alone, they must be able to work without close supervision. For those who have frequent contact with customers, a pleasant personality, neat appearance, and good communications skills are important. Repair­ ers must also be trustworthy because they may be exposed to money and other valuables in places like banks and securities offices, and some employers require that they be bonded. A security clearance may be required for technicians who repair equipment or service machines in areas where people are engaged in activities related to national security. The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians and the Electronics Technicians Association each administered as a voluntary certification program. In both, an electronics repairer with 4 years of experience may become a Certified Electronics Tech­ nician. Certification, which is by examination, is offered in com­ puter, radio-TV, industrial and commercial equipment, audio, and radar systems repair. An Associate Level Test, covering basic elec­ tronics, is offered for students or repairers with less than 4 years of experience. Those who test and repair radio transmitting equip­ ment, other than business and land mobile radios, need a General Operators License from the Federal Communications Commission. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become spe­ cialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose diffi­ cult problems, or work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Because of their familiarity with equipment, repairers are particu­ larly well qualified to become manufacturers’ sales workers. Work­ ers with leadership ability also may become maintenance supervi­ sors or service managers. Some experienced workers open their own repair services or shops, or become wholesalers or retailers of elec­ tronic equipment. Job Outlook Overall, employment of electronic equipment repairers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Although the amount of electronic equipment in use will grow very rapidly, improvements in product reliability and ease of service and lower equipment prices will cause  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  a decline in the need for repairers. The following tabulation presents the expected job growth for the various electronic equipment re­ pairer occupations: Computer and office machine repairers............................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers............. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers......................... Communications equipment repairers................................................. Telephone installers and repairers.......................................................  30 —5 —38 — 50  Employment of computer and office machine repairers will grow faster the than average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the number of computers in service increases rapidly. Employment of industrial equipment repairers outside the Federal Government will increase about as fast as the average as the amount of equipment grows. Mainly because of cuts in the defense budget, employment of repairers in the Federal Government will decline. Employment of those who repair electronic home entertainment equipment will de­ cline modestly as equipment becomes more reliable and easy to ser­ vice. Employment of repairers who handle telephone industry equipment—telephone installers and repairers and communication equipment repairers—is expected to decline sharply because of im­ provements in equipment reliability and ease of maintenance. Earnings In 1992, median weekly earnings of full-time electronic equipment repairers were $521. The middle 50 percent earned between $406 and $629. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $312, while the top 10 percent earned more than $729. Earnings vary widely by oc­ cupation and the type of equipment repaired, as shown in the fol­ lowing tabulations: Telephone installers and repairers........................................................... $626 Data processing equipment repairers......................................................... 619 Electronic repairers, communications and industrial equipment....... 484 Office machine repairers.............................................................................. 476  Central office installers, central office technicians, PBX installers, and telephone installers and repairers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned between $752 and $824 a week in 1992. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, beginning maintenance electronics technicians had median earnings of $12.34 an hour in 1992, with the middle half earning between $11.22 and $13.52 an hour. The most experienced repairers had me­ dian earnings of $18.28 an hour, with the middle half earning be­ tween $14.98 and $20.79 an hour. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equipment include appliance and powertool repairers, automotive electricians, broadcast technicians, electronic organ technicians, and vending machine repairers. Elec­ tronics engineering technicians may also repair electronic equip­ ment as part of their duties. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information, contact:  (W The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708  West Berry St., Fort Worth, TX 76109.  For certification, career, and placement information, contact:  If Electronics Technicians Association, 604 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135.  For information about the general radiotelephone operator li­ cense, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20554.  For information on the telephone industry and career opportuni­ ties in it, request copies of Phonefacts from:  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers W United States Telephone Association, Small Companies Division, 900  19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  For information on electronic equipment repairers in the tele­ phone industry, write to: X3- Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington,  DC 20001.  Commercial and Industrial Electronic Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 726.361-022, .381-014, .684-090; 828.251-010, .261-014, -022, -026, and .281-022)  Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, also called industrial electronics technicians, install and repair industrial controls, radar and missile control systems, medical diagnostic equipment, and communications equipment. Those who work for the Defense Department install radar, mis­ sile control, and communication systems on aircraft, ships, and tanks, and in buildings and other structures. Some set up and service electronic equipment which controls machines and production processes in factories. They often coordinate their efforts with work­ ers installing mechanical or electromechanical components. (See the statements on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights else­ where in the Handbook). Employment Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers held about 68,000 jobs in 1992. About 1 out of 3 repairers was employed by the Federal Government, almost all in the Department of De­ fense at military installations around the country. Repairers also were employed by electronic and transportation equipment manu­ facturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, telephone compa­ nies, hospitals, electronic repair shops, and firms that provide main­ tenance under contract (called third-party maintenance firms).  'r. '  ■t&k • ■«  -  mm  a*!.:*'  About 1 out of 3 repairers was employed by the Federal Government.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  345  Job Outlook Employment of commercial and industrial electronic equipment re­ pairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment in nondefense in­ dustries is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu­ pations, as business and industrial firms install more electronic equipment to boost productivity and improve product quality. In addition, more electronic equipment will be used in energy conser­ vation and pollution control. Because of cuts in the defense budget, however, employment is expected to decline significantly in the Fed­ eral Government. Besides employment growth arising from in­ creased demand for these workers, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of addi­ tional information.)  Communications Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 722.281; 726.381-014; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, -022, -026, -030 and -034, .361-014, .381-010, -018, -022, and .684-010; 823.261-010, -018, -022, and -030, .281-014, and -022; 825.261-010; and 829.281-022)  Nature of the Work Installing, repairing, and maintaining complex and sophisticated telephone communications equipment are the responsibilities of communications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics—sometimes referred to as telecommunica­ tion technicians—work either in telephone company central offices or on customers’ premises installing and repairing telephone switch­ ing and transmission systems. Central office equipment installers, or equipment installation technicians, set up, rearrange, and remove the switching and dialing equipment used in central offices. They install equipment in new central offices, add equipment in expanding offices, or replace out­ dated equipment. Frame wirers, sometimes referred to as frame workers or frame at­ tendants, connect, disconnect, inspect, and repair wires that run from telephone lines and cables to the central office. Central office repairers, often referred to as central office technicians or switching equipment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all types of local and toll switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble locators working at special switchboards— sometimes called testboards—find the source of the problem. Trouble locators who work for cable television companies ensure that subscribers’ television sets receive the proper signal. They may work with cable installers to track down the cause of the interfer­ ence and make repairs. Most telephone companies are replacing trouble locators with maintenance administrators. Their jobs are largely automated; in­ stead of using testboards and associated equipment to perform com­ plex circuit tests, they enter instructions into a computer terminal and analyze the output. Maintenance administrators also update and maintain computerized files of trouble status reports. PBX installers, also called systems technicians, install complex telephone equipment, often creating customized switchboard sys­ tems. PBX repairers, with the assistance of trouble locators, locate the malfunction in customers’ PBX or other telephone systems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equip­ ment such as batteries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX repair­ ers maintain and repair equipment for mobile radiophones, micro­ wave transmission equipment, switching equipment, and data processing equipment.  346  Occupational Outlook Handbook (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of addi­ tional information.)  Computer and Office Machine Repairers (D.O.T. 633.261-010, -014, .281; 706.381-010 and -030; and 828.261-014)  Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to decline sharply through the year 2005. Radio repairers and mechanics install and repair stationary and mobile radio transmitting and receiving equipment. Some repair mi­ crowave and fiber optics installations. Office electricians handle sub­ marine cable repeater and terminal circuits and related equipment. When trouble arises, they may rearrange cable connections to en­ sure that service is not interrupted. Submarine cable equipment technicians repair, adjust, and maintain the machines and equip­ ment used in submarine cable offices or stations to control cable traffic. Signal or track switch maintainers install electric gate cross­ ings, signals, track switches, and communication systems in a rail­ road network. Other communications equipment mechanics include instrument repairers, sometimes referred to as shop repairers or shop techni­ cians, who repair, test, and modify a variety of communications equipment. Data communications technicians install and repair data communications lines and equipment for computer systems. They connect microcomputers or terminals to data communication lines. Employment Communications equipment mechanics held about 108,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for telephone companies. Others worked for electrical repair shops, cable television firms, railroads, air transpor­ tation, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to decline sharply through the year 2005. The telephone industry has almost completed a dramatic transformation from an elec­ tromechanical system to a completely electronic one. Digital sys­ tems, the most recent version of electronic switching, use computers and software to switch calls. Fewer workers are needed for mainte­ nance and repair because the new systems are more reliable and compact and permit more efficient, centralized maintenance. In ad­ dition, the systems have self-diagnosing features which detect the source of problems and direct repairers to the defective part, which usually can simply be replaced. Once the transformation of the sys­ tem has been completed, some time before 2005, the need for install­ ers will drop sharply. Decreased labor requirements due to improved technology have already caused layoffs of communications equipment mechanics. Competition for available openings should intensify, making it much more difficult for other telephone workers to move into these positions without experience or formal training and virtually impos­ sible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to compete for jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nature of the Work Computer and office machine repairers install equipment, do pre­ ventive maintenance, and correct problems. Computer repairers work on computers (mainframes, minis, and micros), peripheral equipment, and word processing systems, while office machine re­ pairers work on photocopiers, cash registers, mail processing equip­ ment, and typewriters. Some repairers service both computer and office equipment. They make cable and wiring connections when in­ stalling equipment, and work closely with electricians, who install the wiring. (A description of the work of electricians can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Even with preventive maintenance, computers and other ma­ chines do break down. Repairers run diagnostic programs to locate malfunctions. Although some of the most modern and sophisticated computers have a self-diagnosing capacity that identifies problems, computer repairers must know enough about systems software to determine if the malfunction is in the hardware or in the software. Employment Computer and office machine repairers held about 143,000 jobs in 1992. Approximately 83,000 worked mainly on computer equip­ ment, and the other 60,000 repaired mainly office machines. Three of every five were employed by wholesalers of computers and other office equipment, including the wholesaling divisions of equipment manufacturers, and by firms that provide maintenance services for a fee. Others worked for retail establishments and some with organi­ zations that serviced their own equipment. Repairers work throughout the country, even in relatively small communities. Most repairers, however, work in large cities, where computer and office equipment is concentrated. -  1  k“-Wn»M BMl  r *__: '\fr ' *>■  ci H® Repairers run diagnostic programs to locate malfunctions.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers  347  Job Outlook Employment of computer and office machine repairers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, employment of repairers will grow less rapidly than the anticipated increase in the amount of equipment because of the improved reliability of computer and office machines and ease of re­ pair. Employment of those who repair computers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Demand for com­ puter repairers will increase as the amount of computer equipment increases—organizations throughout the economy should continue to automate in search of greater productivity and improved service. The development of new computer applications and lower computer prices, will also spur demand. More repairers will be needed to in­ stall, maintain, and repair these machines. Employment of those who repair office machines is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Slow growth in the amount of non-computer- based office equipment will dampen the demand for these repairers. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of addi­ tional information.) B&il  Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 720.281, 726.381-014, 729.281-010, 730.281-018, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010)  Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, also called ser­ vice technicians, repair radios, televisions, stereos, recorders, public address systems, slide and motion picture projectors, video cameras, video games, home security systems, microwave ovens, and elec­ tronic organs. Some repairers specialize in one kind of equipment; others repair many types. They replace faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a tele­ vision set. They may also make recordings and listen to playbacks to detect problems. Some install and repair automobile radios. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers held about 39,000 jobs in 1992. Nearly one-third were self- employed, a larger proportion than in most other repairer occupations. Most repairers work in electronic repair shops and service centers or in stores that sell and service electronic home entertainment products. Employ­ ment is distributed in much the same way as the population. Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Improvements in relia­ bility and ease of servicing should reduce service requirements even though the amount of equipment in use is expected to increase. Nev­ ertheless, opportunities for electronic home entertainment equip­ ment repairers should be good, in large part because many repairers transfer to higher paying occupations requiring a knowledge of elec­ tronics, such as computer and office machine repairer. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of addi­ tional information.)  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  .*  Nearly one-third of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers were self-employed.  Telephone Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 822.261-022, .281-018; 959.367-014)  Nature of the Work Telephone installers and repairers install, service, and repair tele­ phones and other communications equipment on customers’ prop­ erty. When customers move or request new types of service, install­ ers relocate telephones or make changes to existing equipment. In buildings under construction, they install wiring and telephone jacks. Telephone installers, sometimes called station installers, assemble equipment and install wiring on the customers’ premises. They con­ nect telephones to outside service wires and sometimes climb poles or ladders to make these connections. In apartment and office build­ ings, they make connections to service wires or terminals in base­ ments or in wire closets and test equipment to make sure it works properly. Some experienced installers and repairers have multiple skills. They are considered especially valuable by many small companies. Installers and repairers may handle special cases such as complaints to public service commissions, illegal or unauthorized use of equip­ ment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Employment Telephone installers and repairers held about 40,000 jobs in 1992. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time for telecommunications companies. Job Outlook Employment of telephone installers and repairers is expected to de­ cline sharply through the year 2005. Employment will continue to fall due to technological improvements. For example, prewired buildings that enable customers to buy telephones and plug them into prewired jacks have effectively eliminated the functions of the installer. The modular assembly of telephones, where components  348  Occupational Outlook Handbook  ....  ;  -a.  Telephone installers assemble equipment and install wiring on the customers ’ premises. plug in and out, also will reduce the time and skills needed for re­ pair. Also, fewer phones will be worth repairing as prices continue to decline. In addition, the use of portable terminals which hook into a central testing system makes repairers more efficient. With employment projected to decline, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Traditionally, most openings for telephone installers and repairers have been filled by workers in other telephone company jobs. As technology continues to displace installers and repairers, it will remain difficult for telephone workers without additional training and virtually impossible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to get these jobs. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of addi­ tional information.)  Elevator Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 825.261-014, .281-030, -034, and .361-010)  Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equip­ ment is in service, they maintain and repair it. They sometimes mod­ ernize older equipment. In order to install, repair, and maintain modem elevators, which are almost all electronically controlled, elevator constructors must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydrau­ lics. Many elevators today are installed with microprocessors, which are programmed to constantly analyze traffic conditions to dispatch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these com­ puter controls, it is now possible to get the greatest amount of ser­ vice with the least number of cars. Elevator constructors begin by studying blueprints to determine the equipment layout of the framework to install rails, machines, car enclosures, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once the layout analysis is completed, mechanics begin equipment installation. Working on scaffolding or platforms, constructors bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator up and down. Elevator mechanics install electrical wires and controls by run­ ning tubing called conduit along the shaft’s walls from floor to floor.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Once the conduit is in place, mechanics pull plastic-covered electri­ cal wires through it. They install electrical components and related devices required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Mechanics bolt or weld together the steel frame of the elevator car at the bottom of the shaft, install the car’s platform, walls, and doors, and attach guide shoes and rollers which minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. Mechanics also in­ stall the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cabled elevators, workers install geared or gearless machines with a traction drive sheave which moves heavy steel cables con­ nected to the elevator car and counterweight. The counterweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and aids in its swift and smooth movement. These workers also install elevators in which a car sits on a hy­ draulic plunger that is driven by a pump. The cylinder pushes the el­ evator car from underneath, like a lift in an auto service station. Elevator constructors also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs, and the tracks, and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, elevator constructors in­ stall devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts, which are simi­ lar to elevators in design, and moving walkways, which more closely resemble escalators. After installation, adjusters fine-tune the equipment to make sure that the elevator is working according to specifications, such as stopping correctly at each floor or picking up passengers within a specified time period. Once an elevator is operating properly, it must be maintained and serviced regularly to keep it in safe, perfect con­ dition. Maintenance mechanics generally do preventive mainte­ nance—oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also troubleshoot and do emergency repairs. A service crew usually handles major repairs—for example, re­ pairing and setting doors back on their tracks. This may require cut­ ting torches or rigging equipment—tools the maintenance mechanic doesn’t normally carry. Service crews also do major modernization and alteration work such as moving and replacing electrical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels. Elevator constructors usually specialize in installation, mainte­ nance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need more knowledge of electricity and electronics than installers because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshoot­ ing. Similarly, construction adjustors need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers to ensure that newly installed elevators operate properly. Working Conditions Most elevator constructors work a 40-hour week. However, mainte­ nance and service mechanics often work overtime when repairing essential elevator equipment. They are sometimes on 24-hour call. Maintenance mechanics, unlike most elevator constructors, are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts and are exposed to falls and electrical shocks. They also may work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Because most eleva­ tor constructors’ work is performed indoors in buildings under con­ struction or in existing buildings, they lose less worktime due to in­ clement weather than other building trades workers. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 22,000 jobs in 1992. Most were employed by special trade contractors. Others were em­ ployed by field offices of elevator manufacturers; wholesale distribu­ tors; small, local elevator maintenance and repair contractors; or by  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers :---- ——iJ,  349  Some installers advance to mechanic-in-charge, adjuster, supervi­ sor, or elevator inspector. Others may move into management, sales, or product design. Job Outlook Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The job outlook for these workers is largely dependent on activity in the construction industry. Growth will occur as the con­ struction of buildings with elevators and escalators increases and as the stock of equipment needing maintenance grows. In addition, de­ mand will be spurred by the need to modernize older equipment, which can involve anything from improving appearance to intro­ ducing new computer controls. However, most job openings will re­ sult from replacement of experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Job prospects should be best for those with postsecondary training in electronics. Opportunities for elevator installers vary from year to year as conditions change in the construction industry. Economic down­ turns generally have less adverse affects on maintenance and repair mechanics because the equipment must still be kept in operating condition. More maintenance and repair work also will be needed as elevators become increasingly complex. The more intricate the equipment, the more maintenance it requires to keep it running smoothly.  Elevator constructors often receive training throughout their careers. government agencies or businesses that do their own elevator main­ tenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most elevator constructors apply for their jobs through a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors, and learn their trade in programs administered by joint committees of employers and the union. These programs, through which the trainee learns everything from installation to repair, combine on-the-job training with class­ room instruction in electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. Elevator installers and repairers in nonunion shops may complete training programs sponsored by independent contractors. Most trainees or helpers assist experienced elevator mechanics. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, they learn to do more difficult tasks, such as wiring, which requires a knowledge of local and national electrical codes. Generally, helpers must complete a 6-month probationary pe­ riod. After successful completion, they work toward becoming fully qualified mechanics within 4 to 5 years. Most States and cities re­ quire elevator constructors to pass a licensing examination. Many elevator installers and repairers also receive training from their employers to become familiar with the company’s particular equipment. Retraining is very important to keep abreast of techno­ logical developments in elevator repair. In fact, elevator construc­ tors typically receive training throughout their careers, either through correspondence courses or seminars. Although voluntary, this training greatly improves one’s chances for promotion. Applicants for trainee positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school education, and pass an aptitude test; courses in elec­ tricity, mathematics, and physics provide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly sophisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more advanced formal education—for exam­ ple, in postsecondary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Workers with more formal education gen­ erally advance more quickly than their counterparts. Better edu­ cated workers often can forego some of the union training if they successfuly complete the examinations required during their train­ ing. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude also are im­ portant.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Average weekly earnings for elevator installers and repairers were about $740 in 1992, according to data from the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Probationary helpers started at about 50 percent of the rate for experienced elevator mechanics, or $370 per week, while non-probationary helpers earned 70 percent of this rate, or $518 per week. Mechanics-in-charge averaged $830 a week. In addition to free continuing education, elevator installers and repairers receive basic benefits enjoyed by most other workers. A large percentage of elevator constructors are members of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Related Occupations Elevator constructors combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boilermaker, electrician, industrial machinery repairer, millwright, sheet-metal worker, and structural ironworker. Sources of Additional Information For further details about opportunities as an elevator constructor, contact elevator manufacturers, elevator repair and maintenance contractors, a local of the International Union of Elevator Con­ structors, or the nearest local public employment service office.  Farm Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 624.281-010 and -014, .361-014, .381-010 and -014, .684; 629.281-018)  Nature of the Work Today’s farm is typically much larger than in the past, so few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized ma­ chines. Farm equipment has grown in size, complexity, and variety. Many farms have several tractors equipped with from 40- to 400horsepower diesel engines. Self-propelled combines, hay balers, swathers, crop dryers, planters, tillage equipment, and elevators are common.  350  Occupational Outlook Handbook  As farm machinery has grown larger with more electronic and hydraulic controls, farmers have increasingly turned to farm equip­ ment dealers for service and repair of the machines they sell. These dealers employ farm equipment mechanics, often called service technicians, to do this work and also to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors many dealers sell to suburban homeowners. Mechanics spend much of their time repairing and adjusting mal­ functioning equipment that has been brought to the shop. But dur­ ing planting and harvesting seasons, they may travel to farms to make emergency repairs on equipment so that important farming operations are not unduly delayed. Mechanics also perform preventive maintenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in certain types of work, such as diesel en­ gine overhaul, hydraulics, or clutch and transmission repair. Others specialize in repairing the air-conditioning units often included in the cabs of combines and large tractors, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair milk­ ing, irrigation, and other equipment on farms. In addition, some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assem­ ble new implements and machinery and sometimes do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet metal on tractors or other machinery. Mechanics use many basic handtools, including wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screwdrivers. They also may use precision equip­ ment, such as micrometers and torque wrenches; engine testing equipment, such as dynamometers, to measure engine performance; and engine analysis units and compression testers, to find worn pis­ ton rings or leaking cylinder valves. They may use welding equip­ ment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modem farm equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not offer these advantages. Farm equipment mechanics come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also be used to avoid burns from hot engine parts, cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and hazards asso­ ciated with farm chemicals. As with most agricultural occupations, the hours of work of farm equipment mechanics vary according to the season of the year. Dur­ ing the busy planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, however, mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week, and some may be laid off.  Uli** II  Hi*  t  Farm equipment mechanics repair farm machinery that is enormous in size, complexity, and variety.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Farm equipment mechanics held nearly 47,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, and in shops on large farms. Most farm equipment mechanics worked in small repair shops. Nearly 1 out of 10 farm equipment mechanics was self-employed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the United States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. Employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, making this an attractive career choice for people who do not wish to live in a large city. However, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment mechanics who prefer the conveniences of city life need not live in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Farm equipment mechanics must have an aptitude for mechanical work. With the development of more complex farm implements, technical training has become more important. A growing number of employers prefer to hire trainee farm equipment mechanics who have completed a 1- or 2-year training program in agricultural or diesel mechanics at a vocational or technical school or community or junior college. In general, employers seek persons with training or previous experience in diesel and gasoline engines, the mainte­ nance and repair of hydraulics, and welding, all of which may be learned in many high schools and vocational schools. Mechanics also need a basic knowledge of electronics and must be able to read circuit diagrams and blueprints in order to make complex repairs to electrical and other systems. Most farm equipment mechanics enter the occupation as trainees and become proficient in their trade by assisting experienced mechanics. The length of training varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. At least 2 years of on-the-job training usually are necessary before a mechanic can efficiently do the more routine types of repair work, and additional training and experience are re­ quired for highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a re­ lated occupation. For instance, they may have experience working as diesel mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, or auto­ motive mechanics. A farm background is an advantage since work­ ing on a farm usually provides experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Persons who enter from related occupations also may start as trainees or helpers, but they may not require as long a period of on-the-job training. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship program, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and in­ cludes on-the-job as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment repair and maintenance. Applicants for these programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment technology requires a great deal of careful study of service manuals and analysis of com­ plex diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics and trainees re­ ceive refresher training in short- term programs conducted by farm equipment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A company service representative explains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send em­ ployees to local vocational schools that hold special weeklong clas­ ses in subjects such as air-conditioning repair or hydraulics. Persons considering a career in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equipment. Occasionally, strength is required to lift, move, or hold heavy parts in place. Diffi­ cult repair jobs require problem-solving abilities to diagnose the source of the machine’s malfunction. Experienced mechanics should be able to work independently with minimum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equip­ ment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers tools as they gain experience. Experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor, ser­ vice manager, or manager of a farm equipment dealership. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equipment mechanics advance to service representatives for farm equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of farm equipment mechanics is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The increasing complexity of equipment will force more farm­ ers to rely on mechanics for service and repairs, but the continued consolidation of farmland and the use of new farming practices will allow equipment to be used more efficiently. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire. Opportunities should be good for persons who have completed for­ mal training in farm equipment repair or diesel mechanics; persons without such training are expected to encounter increasing diffi­ culty entering mechanic jobs. The increasing sophistication of newer farm equipment is making it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs, forcing them to rely more on skilled mechanics in the future. For instance, many newer tractors have much larger, electronically controlled engines and air-conditioned cabs and feature advanced transmissions with many speeds. New planting equipment uses electronics to spread seeds more uniformly, and electronic controls help harvesters re­ duce waste. Farm machinery is expensive and generally designed and manu­ factured to withstand many years of rugged use. A longer life of farm machinery, the continued consolidation of farmland into fewer and larger farms, and the withdrawal of land from agricultural pro­ duction are also expected to limit the growth in demand for farm equipment and slow the growth of farm equipment mechanic em­ ployment. However, a growing number of large farms are expected to employ their own mechanics. Sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment constitute a growing share of the business of most farm equipment dealers. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now offer a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. Although relatively few mechanics are required to service this equipment, more will be needed as household demand for lawn and garden equipment increases as the Nation’s population grows. The agricultural equipment industry experiences periodic de­ clines—mostly in sales. Layoffs of mechanics, however, are uncom­ mon because farmers often elect to repair old equipment rather than purchase new equipment.  351  Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about the occupation, write to: EjT North American Equipment Dealers Association, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, MO 63127. W Deere and Co., John Deere Rd., Moline, IL 61265.  General Maintenance Mechanics (D.O.T. 899.261-014 and .381-010)  Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work such as plumbing or carpentry. General maintenance mechanics use the skills of many different crafts. They repair and maintain machines, mechanical equipment, and buildings, and work on plumbing, electrical, and air-conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or drywall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also maintain and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include troubleshooting and fixing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-conditioning motors, and unclogging drains. Those in small establishments, where they are often the only maintenance worker, do all repairs except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to the gen­ eral maintenance of everything in a workshop or a particular area. General maintenance mechanics inspect and diagnose problems and determine the best way to correct them, often checking blueprints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distributors or storerooms. They use common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers as well as specialized equipment and electronic test devices. They replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments. These mechanics also do routine preventive maintenance and en­ sure that machinery continues to run smoothly, building systems operate efficiently, and that the physical condition of buildings does not deteriorate. Following a check list, they may inspect drives, mo­ tors, and belts, check fluid levels, replace filters, and so forth. Main­ tenance mechanics keep records of maintenance and repair work.  Earnings Farm equipment mechanics had median weekly earnings of about $355 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $308 and $428 a week. The top 10 percent earned over $608 a week. Most farm equipment mechanics also have the opportunity to work overtime during the planting and harvesting seasons, for which they generally are paid time and one-half. Very few farm equipment mechanics belong to labor unions, but those who do are members of the International Association of Ma­ chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair large mobile machinery include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, diesel mechanics, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A general maintenance mechanic often is responsible for the maintenance of all the systems in a building, such as this rooftop air conditioning unit.  352  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Working Conditions General maintenance mechanics often do a variety of tasks in a sin­ gle day, generally at a number of different locations in a building, or in several buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environ­ ments. Like other maintenance craft workers, they may work in awkward and cramped positions or on ladders. They are subject to electrical shock, burns, falls, and cuts and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening, night, or weekend shifts, or may be on call for emergency repairs. Those employed in small establishments, where they may be the only maintenance worker, often operate with only limited supervi­ sion. Those working in larger establishments may work under the direct supervision of an experienced craft worker. Employment General maintenance mechanics held about 1,145,000 jobs in 1992. They worked in almost every industry. More than one-third worked in service industries; most of these worked for elementary and sec­ ondary schools, colleges and universities, hospitals and nursing homes, and hotels. About 18 percent were employed in manufactur­ ing industries. Others worked for real estate firms that operate office and apartment buildings or for wholesale and retail firms, govern­ ment agencies, or gas and electric companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general maintenance mechanics learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learning from skilled maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing light bulbs and progress to more difficult tasks such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Others learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers. Necessary skills can also be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training or school, or a combi­ nation of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always re­ quired, for entry into this occupation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, woodworking, blueprint reading, science, and mathematics are useful. Mechanical aptitude, ability to use shop math, and manual dexterity are important. Good health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reach­ ing, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct super­ vision. A growing proportion of new buildings rely on computers to control building systems, so familiarity with computers may be helpful. Many general maintenance mechanics in large organizations ad­ vance to maintenance supervisor or to one of the crafts such as elec­ trician, heating/air-conditioning mechanic, or plumber. In small or­ ganizations, promotion opportunities are limited. Job Outlook Job opportunities for people who want to be general maintenance mechanics should be plentiful through the year 2005. Employment is related to the number of buildings and amount of equipment need­ ing maintenance and repair. Employment growth—expected to be faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005— will occur as the number of office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, and factories increases. Although the pace of construction of these facilities is expected to be slower than in the past, many opportunities arise because this is a large occupation with significant turnover, and many replacements are needed for those who leave the occupation.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  General maintenance mechanics who work in manufacturing in­ dustries may be laid off during recessions. Most mechanics, how­ ever, work in relatively stable nonmanufacturing industries and are not usually subject to layoff. Earnings Earnings vary widely by industry, geographic area, and skill level. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, gen­ eral maintenance mechanics had median earninings of about $9.37 an hour in 1992, with the middle half earning between $7.85 and $11.05 an hour. Median earnings were about $8.75 an hour in ser­ vice businesses and about $9.90 an hour in manufacturing busi­ nesses. Mechanics earn overtime pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week. Some general maintenance mechanics are members of unions, in­ cluding the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Workers. Related Occupations Some of the work of general maintenance mechanics is similar to that of carpenters, plumbers, industrial machinery mechanics, elec­ tricians, and air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics. Sources of Additional Information  Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the Job Service.  Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Technicians (D.O.T. 637.261-014, -026, -030, and -034, and .381; 827.361-014; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869.281-010)  Nature of the Work What would those living in Chicago do without heating, those in Miami do without air-conditioning, or blood banks in all parts of the country do without refrigeration? People always have sought ways to make their environment more comfortable. Today, heating and air-conditioning systems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. Refrigeration systems make it possible to store and trans­ port food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-condi­ tioning, and refrigeration technicians install, maintain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical, electrical, and electronic components, including motors, compressors, pumps, fans, ducts, pipes, thermostats, and switches. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats the air that is then distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Technicians must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems within the entire system—the ducts as well as the other components. They adjust system controls to rec­ ommended settings and test the performance of the entire system us­ ing special tools and test equipment. Technicians may specialize in installation or in maintenance and repair. They may further specialize in one type of equipment, such as oil burners, solar panels, or commercial refrigerators. However, more and more technicians do both installation and servicing, and work with heating, cooling, and refrigeration equipment. The fol­ lowing describes some of the specific jobs in this field. Furnace installers, also called heating equipment technicians, fol­ low blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multifuel heating systems. After putting the equip­ ment in place, they may install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electri­ cal wiring and controls and check the unit for proper operation. To ensure the proper functioning of the system, furnace installers often use combustion test equipment such as carbon dioxide and oxygen testers. After a furnace has been installed, technicians often perform rou­ tine maintenance and repair in order to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, when the system is needed most, they service and adjust burners and blowers. If the system is not operating properly, they check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts in order to diagnose the problem and then correct it by adjusting or replacing parts. During the summer, tech­ nicians do maintenance work, such as replacing filters and vacuum­ cleaning vents, ducts, and other parts of the heating system that may accumulate soot, ash, and dust during the operating season. Air-conditioning and refrigeration technicians install and service central air-conditioning systems and a variety of refrigeration equip­ ment. Technicians follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufacturers’ instructions to install motors, compressors, con­ densing units, evaporators, and other components. They connect this equipment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, technicians diagnose the problem and make repairs. To find defects, they test parts such as compressors, relays, and thermostats. During the winter, air-conditioning technicians inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. When ser­ vicing equipment, heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration tech­ nicians must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorcarbon (CFC) refrigerants used in air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. The release of CFC’s contributes to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects plant and animal life from ultraviolet radiation. Technicians conserve the refrigerant by mak­ ing sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by vent­ ing the refrigerant into proper cylinders; and they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians use a va­ riety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene torches, to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check air flow, refrigerant pressure, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craft workers. For example, on a large air-conditioning in­ stallation job, especially where workers are covered by union con­ tracts, duct work might be done by sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other components by plumbers and pipefitters. Room air-condition­ ers and household refrigerators are serviced by home appliance re­ pairers. Additional information about each of these occupations ap­ pears elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians work in homes, supermarkets, hospitals, office buildings, factories—any­ where there is climate control equipment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day, or they may be dis­ patched to jobs by radio or telephone. Technicians may work outside in cold or hot weather or in build­ ings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. In addition, technicians often work in awk­ ward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Technicians usually work a 40-hour week, but during peak sea­ sons they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  353  Air-conditioning mechanics diagnose the problem and make repairs. workers, including those that provide maintenance services under contract, often work evening or weekend shifts, and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round by doing both installation and maintenance work. Therefore, in most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, em­ ployment is very stable throughout the year. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians held about 212,000 jobs in 1992. One of every 2 worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder were employed in a wide variety of in­ dustries. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and air-con­ ditioning service and repair shops and schools. Others were em­ ployed by the Federal Government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigera­ tion, or heating systems. Approximately 1 of every 8 technicians was self-employed. Jobs are found throughout the country, reflect­ ing the widespread dependence on climate control systems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the increased sophistication of heating, air- conditioning, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to hire those with tech­ nical school or apprenticeship training. A sizable number of these workers, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many secondary and postsecondary technical and trade schools, junior and community colleges, and the Armed Forces offer 1- to 2year programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Stu­ dents study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, maintenance, and repair. Apprenticeship programs are frequently run by joint committees representing local chapters of the Air- Conditioning Contractors of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contrac­ tors, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa­ tion or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Ca­ nada. Other apprenticeship programs are sponsored by local chap­ ters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Home Builders Institute of the National Association of Home Builders. These programs generally last 4 or 5 years and combine on-the-job training with 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in related subjects, such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and air-conditioning theory. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assist­ ing experienced technicians and doing simple jobs. They may carry  354  Occupational Outlook Handbook  materials, insulate refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time, they do more difficult jobs, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. In 4 to 5 years, new technicians should be able to do all types of repair and installa­ tion. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, and blueprint reading provide a good back­ ground for those interested in entering this occupation. A basic un­ derstanding of microelectronics is becoming more important be­ cause of the increasing use of this technology in solid-state equipment controls. Because technicians frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, especially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. Provisions of the Clean Air Act require that all air- conditioning and refrigeration technicians be certified by November 1994 to work on systems involving refrigerant recovery or recycling. Training programs designed to prepare workers for the certification examina­ tion, as well as for general skills improvement training, are provided by heating and air-conditioning equipment manufacturers; the Re­ frigeration Service Engineers Society (RSES); the Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA); the Mechanical Service Contrac­ tors of America; local chapters of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating-Cooling Contractors; and the United Associa­ tion of Plumbers and Pipefitters. RSES also offers a basic self-study course for individuals with limited experience. Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some tech­ nicians advance to positions as supervisors. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contracting busi­ ness. Job Outlook Job prospects for air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration techni­ cians are expected to be very good. In addition to jobs created by ec­ onomic growth, thousands of openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although relatively few heating, air-conditioning, and refrig­ eration technicians transfer to other occupations—reflecting their lengthy investment in training and the relatively high wages and benefits in this trade—the number of retirements is expected to rise as more of these workers reach retirement age. Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration tech­ nicians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2005. As the population and economy grow and new residential, commercial, and industrial structures are built, more technicians will be needed to install and maintain climate con­ trol systems. A growing concern about energy management and conservation also should prompt installation of new energy-saving heating and air-conditioning systems in existing homes and build­ ings. Regulations in the 1990 Clean Air Act prohibiting the inten­ tional discharge of CFC refrigerants and banning CFC production by the year 2000 could result in additional retrofiting and replace­ ment of existing equipment and create more jobs for heating, air­ conditioning, and refrigeration technicians. Those who specialize in the installation of new systems may expe­ rience periods of unemployment when the level of construction ac­ tivity declines. On the other hand, employment of those doing main­ tenance work is relatively stable—people and businesses depend on their climate control systems regardless of economic conditions. Earnings Median weekly earnings of air-conditioning, heating, and refrigera­ tion technicians who worked full time were $474 in 1992. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $356 and $596. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $280 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $743 a week.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians enjoy a variety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addition to some typical benefits like health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for work-related training and provide uniforms, company vans, and a few tools. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical mo­ tors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermakers, electrical appliance servicers, electricians, plumbers and pipefitters, and sheetmetal workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment and training opportuni­ ties in this trade, contact local vocational and technical schools; lo­ cal heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a local chapter of the Associated Build­ ers and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportunities and training, write to: ©•Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St. NW, Rossyln, VA 22209. ©= Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016-3552. ©“National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1010 Vermomnt Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. 13= National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors, P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. ©•New England Fuel Institute, P.O. Box 888, Watertown, MA 02172. ©•Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4329. ©• Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 1501 Wilson Blvd., Arling­ ton, VA 22209.  Home Appliance and Power Tool Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-010 and -018; 723.381 and .584; 729.281-022; and 827.261, and .661)  Nature of the Work Appliance and power tool repairers, often called service technicians, repair home appliances such as ovens, washers, dryers, refrigera­ tors, window air-conditioners, and vacuum cleaners, as well as power tools such as saws and drills. Some repairers only service small appliances such as microwaves and vacuum cleaners; others specialize in major appliances such as refrigerators, dishwashers, washers, and dryers; and others only handle power tools or gas ap­ pliances. To determine why an appliance or power tool fails to operate properly, repairers visually inspect it and run it to check for unusual noises, excessive vibration, fluid leaks, or loose parts. They may have to consult service manuals and troubleshooting guides to diag­ nose particularly difficult problems. They may disassemble the ap­ pliance or tool to examine its internal parts for signs of wear or cor­ rosion. To check electrical systems for shorts and faulty connections, repairers follow wiring diagrams and use testing de­ vices, such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. After identifying problems, they replace or repair defective belts, motors, heating elements, switches, gears, or other items and  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers tighten, align, clean, and lubricate parts as necessary. Repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, wrenches, files, and pli­ ers, as well as soldering guns and special tools designed for particu­ lar appliances. When servicing appliances with electronic parts, re­ pairers may replace circuit boards or other electronic components. Repairers servicing gas appliances may check the heating unit and replace pipes, thermocouples, thermostats, valves, and indica­ tor spindles. Repairers also answer emergency calls for gas leaks. To install gas appliances, they may have to install pipes in customers’ homes to connect the appliances to the gas line. They measure, lay out, cut, and thread pipe and connect it to a feeder line and to the appliance. They may have to saw holes in walls or floors and may hang steel supports from beams or joists to hold gas pipes in place. Once the gas line is in place, they turn on the gas and check for leaks. Repairers also answer customers’ questions about the care and use of appliances. For example, they may demonstrate how to load automatic washing machines, arrange dishes in dishwashers, or sharpen chain saws. Repairers write up estimates of the cost of repairs for customers, keep records of parts used and hours worked, prepare bills, and col­ lect payment. Working Conditions Home appliance and power tool repairers who handle portable ap­ pliances usually work in repair shops which generally are quiet, well lighted, and adequately ventilated. Those who repair major appli­ ances usually make service calls to customers’ homes. They carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van and may spend several hours a day driving. They may work in clean comfortable rooms such as kitchens, or in other areas of the home that may be damp, dirty, or dusty. Repairers sometimes work in cramped and uncomfortable positions when replacing parts in hard-to-reach areas of appliances. Repairer jobs generally are not hazardous, but they must exercise care and follow safety precautions to avoid electrical shocks and in­ juries when lifting and moving large appliances. When servicing gas  Home appliance and power tool repairers may disassemble parts to examine for signs of wear and corrosion.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  355  appliances and microwave ovens, they must be aware of the dangers of gas and radiation leaks. Many home appliance and power tool repairers work a standard 40-hour week. Some work early mornings, evenings, and Saturdays. During hot weather, repairers of air- conditioners and refrigerators are in high demand by consumers and may have to work overtime. Repairers of power tools such as saws and drills may also have to work ovei rime during spring and summer months when use of such tools increases and breakdowns are more frequent. Home appliance and power tool repairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that appeals to many people. Employment Home appliance and power tool repairers held about 74,000 jobs in 1992. Roughly 1 out of 7 was self-employed. About 2 out of 3 sala­ ried repairers worked in retail establishments such as department stores, household appliance stores, and for fuel dealers. Others worked for gas and electric utility companies, electrical repair shops, and wholesalers. Appliance and power tool repairers are employed in almost every community, but jobs are concentrated in the more highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally require a high school diploma for home appli­ ance and power tool repairer jobs. Employers prefer to hire people with formal training in appliance repair and electronics and many repairers complete 1- or 2-year formal training programs in appli­ ance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are becoming increasingly necessary as more manufac­ turers are installing circuit boards and other electronic control sys­ tems in home appliances. Mechanical aptitude also is desirable, and those who work in customers’ homes must be courteous and tactful. Many other repairers still learn the trade primarily on the job. No matter how their basic skills are developed, trainees usually get ad­ ditional training from their employer. In shops that fix portable ap­ pliances, they work on a single type of appliance, such as vacuum cleaners, until they master its repair. Then they move on to others, until they can repair all those handled by the shop. In companies that repair major appliances, beginners assist experienced repairers on service visits. They may also study on their own. They learn to read schematic drawings, analyze problems, determine whether to repair or replace parts, and follow proper safety procedures. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repair of the more complex appliances. Some appliance and power tool manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs which include home study and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstration ap­ pliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive sup­ plemental instruction through 2- or 3-week seminars conducted by appliance and power tool manufacturers. Experienced repairers also often attend training classes and study service manuals. Some States and areas require repairers to be licensed or regis­ tered. Applicants for licensure must meet standards of education, training, and experience. They also must pass an examination, which can include a written examination, hands-on practical test, or a combination of both. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. A few ad­ vance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Preference is given to those who demonstrate technical competence and show an ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced re­ pairers who have sufficient funds and knowledge of small business management may open their own repair shop.  356  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook Employment of home appliance and power tool repairers is ex­ pected to decline slightly through the year 2005. Although the num­ ber of home appliances and power tools in use is expected to increase as the number of households and businesses grows and new and im­ proved appliances and tools are introduced, increasing use of elec­ tronic parts such as solid-state circuitry, microprocessors, and sens­ ing devices in appliances reduce the frequency of repairs. Virtually all openings for repairers will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Nevertheless, prospects should continue to be good for welltrained repairers, particularly those with a strong background in electronics. Most people with the electronics training needed to re­ pair appliances go into other repairer occupations. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appliance repair services continues even during economic downturns. Earnings Home appliance and power tool repairers who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $467 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $656 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $257 a week or less, while the highest paid 10 per­ cent earned $780 a week or more. Earnings of home appliance and power tool repairers vary widely according to skill level, geographic location, and the type of equipment serviced. Trainees usually earn less and senior technicians more. Earnings tend to be highest in large firms and for those servicing gas appliances. Repairers are compensated when working overtime, and many receive commis­ sion in addition to their hourly wage salary. Many larger dealers and service stores may offer benefits such as health insurance coverage, sick leave, and retirement and pension programs. Some home appliance and power tool repairers belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and electronic equipment in­ clude heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics; pinsetter mechanics; office machine and cash register servicers; electronic home entertainment equipment repairers; and vending machine ser­ vicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs in the home appliance and power tool repair field, contact local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of home appliance re­ pairers contact: ^Appliance Service News, P.O. Box 789, Lombard, IL 60148. ^•National Association of Service Dealers, 10 East 22nd St., Suite 310, Lombard, IL 60148. National Appliance Service Association, 9240 N. Meridian, Indianapo­ lis, IN 46260. W Service Dealers Newsletter, 1400 Easton Rd., Roslyn, PA 19001.  Industrial Machinery Repairers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Industrial machinery repairers maintain and repair machinery found in a plant or factory. This must be done accurately and quickly because an idle machine will delay production. In addition, a machine that is not properly repaired and maintained may damage the final product. All these factors cost companies money.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Industrial machinery repairers—often called maintenance mechanics—spend much of their time doing preventive mainte­ nance. This includes keeping machines and their parts well oiled, greased, and cleaned. Repairers regularly inspect machinery and check performance. For example, they adjust and calibrate auto­ mated manufacturing equipment such as industrial robots and re­ build components of other industrial machinery. By keeping com­ plete and up- to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service equipment before factory production is interrupted. Maintenance mechanics must be able to spot minor problems and correct them before they become major ones. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the mechanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or some other problem. Computerized maintenance-management and self-diag­ nostic systems are making this task easier. Self-diagnostic features on new industrial machinery can determine the cause of a malfunc­ tion and, in some cases, can alert the mechanic to potential trouble spots before symptoms develop. After diagnosing the problem, the mechanic disassembles the equipment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. The final step is to test the machine to ensure that it is running smoothly. When re­ pairing electronically controlled machinery, these mechanics may work closely with electronic repairers or electricians who maintain the machine’s electronic parts. However, industrial machinery re­ pairers increasingly need electronic skills to repair sophisticated equipment on their own. (Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers and electricians ap­ pears elsewhere in the Handbook.) A wide range of tools may be used when doing preventive mainte­ nance or making repairs. For example, repairers may use a screw­ driver and wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, repairers may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Repairers use catalogs to or­ der replacement parts and often follow blueprints and engineering specifications to maintain and fix equipment. Some of the industrial machinery repairer’s duties may be per­ formed by millwrights. (See the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Working conditions for repairers who work in manufacturing are similar to those of production workers. However, they often work underneath or above large machinery in cramped conditions or on the top of a ladder. These workers are subject to common shop inju­ ries such as cuts and bruises and often use protective equipment such as hard hats, protective glasses, and safety belts. Because factories and other organizations cannot afford break­ downs in industrial machinery, industrial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Although most mechanics usually work a standard 40 hour week, overtime is often necessary. Employment Industrial machinery repairers held about 477,000 jobs in 1992. Seven of every 10 worked in manufacturing industries, primarily food processing, textile mill products, chemicals, fabricated metal products, and primary metals. Others worked for government agen­ cies, public utilities, mining companies, and any other business that relies on machinery. About 20,000 of these mechanics are contrac­ tors. Because industrial machinery repairers work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every part of the country. Employment is concentrated, however, in heavily industrialized areas.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers  i/  *  357  Job Outlook Employment of industrial machinery repairers is expected to de­ cline through the year 2005 as more firms introduce automated pro­ duction equipment. All job openings will result from the need to re­ place repairers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. More companies are choosing to schedule the orderly replace­ ment of machinery before it wears out completely because the total costs associated with repairs increasingly are higher than the costs of new equipment. New equipment has lower operating costs per volume of output, requires less maintenance than many existing ma­ chines, and often has diagnostic devices that isolate potential mechanical problems before they lead to costly breakdowns. If this trend continues, it could further reduce demand for mechanics. Unlike many other manufacturing occupations, industrial ma­ chinery repairers are not usually affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. Although these workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek when eco­ nomic conditions are particularly severe, they generally are less af­ fected than other workers because machines have to be maintained regardless of the level of production. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full time industrial machinery repairers were $498 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $384 and $626 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $296, and the top 10 percent earned more than $773. However, earnings often vary by industry and the area of the country. Labor unions to which some industrial machinery repairers be­ long include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Auto­ mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aero­ space Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electri­ cal, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers.  Industrial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends to make emergency repairs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many workers learn their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program that combines 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year with on-the-job-training. These programs are usually sponsored by a local trade union. Others start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally and by taking courses offered by machinery manufacturers. Repairers learn from experienced repairers how to operate, disas­ semble, repair, and assemble machinery. Classroom instruction fo­ cuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, blueprint reading, and welding. In addition, electronics and computer training are an in­ creasingly important part of the apprenticeship program. Most employers prefer to hire those who have completed high school. However, opportunities do exist for those without a high school diploma. High school courses in mechanical drawing, mathe­ matics, blueprint reading, physics, and electronics are useful. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifi­ cations for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agil­ ity are also necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment located high above the floor. Opportunities for advancement are limited. Industrial machinery repairers advance either by working with more complicated equip­ ment or by becoming a supervisor. Some of the most highly skilled repairers can be promoted to master mechanic or can become a ma­ chinist or a tool and die maker.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing machinery include aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, automotive and motorcycle mechanics, diesel mechanics, elevator installers and repairers, farm equipment mechanics, machinists, general maintenance mechanics, heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics, millwrights, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities in this field may be obtained from local offices of the State employment service or from: ®°The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., Mclean, VA 22102. W Equipment Service Association, PO Box 485, Plymouth, IN 46563.  Line Installers and Cable Splicers (D.O.T. 821.261-014, -022, and -026, .281-010, .361-010, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -038, .687-010; 822.381-014; 823.261-014; 829.361-010 and -014; and 959.367-010)  Nature of the Work Vast networks of wires and cables transmit the electric power pro­ duced in generating plants to individual customers, connect tele­ phone central offices to customers’ telephones and switchboards, and extend cable TV to residential and commercial customers. These networks are constructed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers.  358  Occupational Outlook Handbook  To install new electric power or telephone lines, line installers or line erectors install poles and terminals, erect towers, and place wires and cables. They usually use power equipment to dig holes and set poles. Line installers climb the poles or use truck-mounted buckets (aerial work platforms) and use handtools to attach the cables. When working with electric power lines, installers bolt or clamp insulators onto the pole before attaching the cable. They may also install transformers, circuit breakers, switches, or other equip­ ment. To bury underground cable, they use trenchers, plows, and other power equipment. Line installers also lay cable television lines underground or hang them on poles with telephone and utility wires. These lines transmit broadcast signals from microwave towers to customers’ homes. In­ stallers place wiring in the house, connect the customers’ television sets to it, and check that the television signal is strong. After telephone line installers place cables in position, cable splic­ ers, also referred to as cable splicing technicians, complete the line connections. (Electric power line workers install and splice the cables simultaneously.) Splicers connect individual wires or fibers within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. They first read and interpret service orders and circuit diagrams to determine splicing specifications. Splices are then made by twisting, soldering, or joining wires and cables with small handtools, epoxy, or mechanical equipment. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor, and seal the splice with a lead sleeve or cover it with some other type of protective covering. They may fill the cable sheathing on critical transmission routes with compressed air so that leaks in the sheathing can be monitored and repaired. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in base­ ments of large buildings. Fiber optic cables are being used to replace worn or obsolete cop­ per cables. These tiny hair-thin strands of glass are able to carry more signals per cable because they transmit pulses of light instead of electricity. Splices of fiber optic cables are completed in a van positioned near the splice point. These vans house workshops that contain all the necessary equipment, such as machines that heat the glass fibers so they can be joined. Line installers and cable splicers also maintain and repair tele­ phone, power, and cable television lines. They periodically make sure lines are clear of tree limbs or other obstructions that could cause problems and check insulation on cables and other equipment on line poles. When bad weather or earth quakes break wires or cables, knock poles down, or cause underground ducts to collapse, they make emergency repairs. Working Conditions Because telephone, electric, and television cables are strung from utility poles or are underground, line installers and cable splicers must climb and lift or work in stooped and cramped positions. They usually work outdoors in all kinds of weather and are subject to 24hour call. Most usually work a 40-hour week, but for example, when severe weather damages transmission and distribution lines, they may work long and irregular hours to restore service. At times, they may travel to distant locations—and occasionally stay for a lengthy period to help restore damaged facilities or build new ones. Line installers and cable splicers face many situations in which safety procedures must be followed. They wear safety equipment when entering manholes and test for the presence of gas before going underground. They may be exposed to hazardous chemicals from the solvents and plugging compounds that they use when splicing cables. Electric power line workers have the most hazardous jobs. They typically work at higher elevations because the electric cable is always above telephone and cable TV lines. Moreover, the voltages in electric power lines are lethal.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Line installers climb poles or use truck-mounted buckets to attach cables. Employment Line installers and cable splicers held about 273,000 jobs in 1992. More than half were telephone and cable TV line installers and re­ pairers. Nearly all worked for telephone, cable television companies, or electric power companies, or for construction companies special­ izing in power line, telephone, and cable TV construction. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Line installers are often hired as helpers or ground workers. Most employers prefer high school graduates. Many employers test appli­ cants for basic verbal, arithmetic, and abstract reasoning skills. Some employers test for physical ability such as balance, coordina­ tion, and strength and mechanical aptitude. Because the work en­ tails a lot of climbing, applicants should have stamina and must be unafraid of heights. Knowledge of basic electricity and training in installing telephone systems obtained in the Armed Forces or voca­ tional education programs may be helpful. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables usually are coded by color. Motivation, self-discipline, and the ability to work as part of a team are needed to work efficiently and safely. Line installers and cable splicers in electric companies and con­ struction firms specializing in cable installation generally complete a formal apprenticeship program. These are administered jointly by the employer and the union representing the workers, either the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Communica­ tions Workers of America. These programs last several years and combine formal instruction with on-the-job training. Workers in telephone companies generally receive several years of informal onthe-job training, in some cases learning other skills like telephone in­ stallation and repair. They may also attend training provided by equipment manufacturers. A growing number of employers are using computer- assisted in­ struction, video cassettes, movies, or “programmed” workbooks. Some training facilities are equipped with poles, cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures, to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to work on poles while keeping their hands free. In one exercise, for example, they play catch with a bas­ ketball while on the poles.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Formal training includes instruction in electrical codes, blueprint reading, and basic electrical theory. Afterwards trainees learn on the job and work with a crew of experienced line installers under a line supervisor. Line installers and cable splicers receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. Since deregulation of the telephone industry, many telephone companies have reduced the scope of their training programs in or­ der to reduce their costs and to remain competitive. Increasingly, workers are responsible for their own training, which is provided by community colleges and postsecondary vocational schools. For installers in the telephone industry, advancement may come about through promotion to splicer. Splicers can advance to engi­ neering assistants or may move into other kinds of work, such as sales. Promotion to a supervisory position also is possible. In the electric industry, promotion is usually to a supervisory position. Job Outlook Overall employment of line installers and cable splicers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Technological advances will result in divergent trends within this occupation. Employment of electri­ cal power line installers is expected to grow more slowly than the av­ erage for all occupations as the demand for electricity grows. Em­ ployment of telephone and cable TV line installers and repairers is expected to decline sharply, despite growth in telephone and cable TV usage. Layoffs of telephone line workers have already occured, due to increased efficiency being built into telephone systems. New ways of transmitting information—satellites, microwave towers, and underground fiber optic cable, for example—are not as vulnera­ ble to adverse weather conditions as aerial wires, and fewer workers are needed to maintain them. Fiber optic cables will continue to re­ place copper cables, and this will generate short-term demand for installers. Over the longer term, however, employment will fall as the conversion to fiber optics is completed and as maintenance re­ quirements are reduced. Improved splicing techniques as well as new power tools and equipment also will continue to improve the ef­ ficiency of cable splicers. Finally, most areas of the country that can economically be served by cable TV have already been wired, and at some point fewer installers will be needed. Job prospects will be best for electrical line workers employed by electric utilities and construction firms because the impact of tech­ nology is expected to be less than for telephone line workers. In tele­ phone companies, those who combine knowledge of line installa­ tion, fiber optic or copper cable splicing, and repair of many types of equipment should enjoy better prospects. Earnings Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers vary greatly across the country and depend on length of service; specific information may be obtained from local telephone, electric power, and cable TV com­ panies. It generally takes about 5 years to go from the bottom to the top of the pay scale. In 1992, line installers and repairers who worked full time earned a median weekly wage of $648. The middle 50 percent earned between $503 and $770. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $350; the top 10 percent earned more than $874 a week. Line installers and cable splicers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned between $752 and $824 a week in 1992. Because of low job turnover in these occupations, many workers earn salaries near the top of the pay scale. Most line installers and cable splicers belong to unions, princi­ pally the Communications Workers of America and the Interna­ tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to ad­ vance from one step to the next. These contracts require extra pay  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  359  for overtime and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Most con­ tracts provide for additional pay for night work. Time in service de­ termines the length of paid vacations. Depending on the locality, there are 9 to 12 holidays a year. Related Occupations Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who work with tools and machines include communications equipment mechanics, biomedi­ cal equipment technicians, telephone installers and repairers, elec­ tricians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the tele­ phone or electric power company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent these workers. For general information on line installer and cable splicer jobs, write to: ©■Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts from: ©■United States Telephone Association, Small Companies Division, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  Millwrights (D.O.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, -026, .281-018, and -022)  Nature of the Work Millwrights install, repair, replace, and dismantle the machinery and heavy equipment used in almost every industry. These responsi­ bilities require a wide range of skills—from blueprint reading and pouring concrete to diagnosing and solving mechanical problems. The millwright’s responsibilities begin when machinery arrives at the job site. The new equipment must be unloaded, inspected, and then moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, mill­ wrights may use rigging and hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables. In other cases, they require the assistance of hydraulic lifttruck or crane operators to position the machinery. Because mill­ wrights often decide what device to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of ropes, cables, hoists, and cranes. New machinery sometimes requires a new foundation. Mill­ wrights either personally prepare the foundation or supervise its construction, so they must know how to read blueprints and work with building materials such as concrete, wood, and steel. When assembling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts according to the man­ ufacturer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and align­ ment are important in the assembly process; millwrights must have good mathematical skills so that they can measure angles, material thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and micrometers. When a high level of precision is required, devices such as lasers may be used. Millwrights also use hand and power tools, cutting torches, welding machines, and soldering guns. Some millwrights use metalworking equipment such as lathes or grinders to modify parts to specifications. The increasing level of automation found in most industries means that there are more sophisticated machines for millwrights to install and maintain. This machinery often requires special care and knowledge, so millwrights often work closely with computer or elec­ tronic experts, electricians, and manufacturer’s representatives to install it. (Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers and electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to installing and dismantling machinery, many mill­ wrights repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive  360  Occupational Outlook Handbook  maintenance, such as lubrication, and fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further information on machinery maintenance, see the statement on industrial machinery repairers elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Working Conditions Working conditions of millwrights depend upon the industries in which they are employed. Millwrights employed in manufacturing often work in a typical shop setting and use protective equipment to avoid common hazards. For example, injuries from falling objects or machinery are avoided by protective devices such as safety belts, protective glasses, and hard hats. Millwrights work independently as well as part of a team. They must work quickly and precisely because non- functioning machin­ ery costs a company time and money. Millwrights generally work 40 hours per week but overtime is common during peak periods of pro­ duction. Employment Millwrights held about 73,000 jobs in 1992. Seven of every 10 worked in manufacturing, primarily in durable goods industries such as motor vehicles and equipment and basic steel products. Most of the rest were employed by construction firms and machin­ ing and equipment wholesalers. Although millwrights work in every State, employment is con­ centrated in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Millwrights receive their training from a formal apprenticeship pro­ gram or informally on the job. Apprenticeship programs normally last 4 years and combine on-the-job training with a minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. Apprenticeship programs include training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing ma­ chinery. Apprentices may also work with concrete and receive in­ struction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheetmetal work. Classroom instruction is given in mathematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, electricity, and increasingly, com­ puters or electronics. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma and some vocational training or experience. Courses in science, mathe­ matics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are useful. Because millwrights assemble and disassemble complicated ma­ chinery, mechanical aptitude is very important. Strength and agility also are important because the work can re­ quire a considerable amount of lifting and climbing. Millwrights need good interpersonal and communication abilities in order to work as part of a team and give detailed instructions to others.  \\\v  Advancement for millwrights usually takes the form of higher wages. Some advance to supervisor. Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Mill­ wrights will continue to be needed to maintain and repair existing machinery, to dismantle old machinery, and to install and maintain new equipment. In addition to the small number ofjobs that will be created each year by rising demand for the services of millwrights, several thousand openings will arise annually as experienced mill­ wrights transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of millwrights is somewhat sensitive to changes in economic conditions. In the construction industry, for example, em­ ployment fluctuates with the level of commercial and industrial building activity. When construction activity falls, jobs are scarce, and even experienced millwrights may face layoffs or shortened workweeks. However, in capital intensive industries such as manufacturing, the need to replace, maintain, and repair machinery should give most millwrights a relative degree of job stability. In addition, a trend towards replacing rather than repairing machinery may cause some employers to hire more millwrights and fewer industrial re­ pairers because millwrights are trained in the installation and align­ ment of machinery as well as its repair. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time millwrights were $596 in 1992; the middle 50 percent earned between $479 and $724. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $335, and the top 10 percent earned more than $849. However, earnings vary by industry and geographic lo­ cation. Many millwrights belong to labor unions. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices and how to assemble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are industrial machinery repairers, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, diesel mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, ironworkers, and machine assemblers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on apprenticeship programs, write to the Apprenticeship Council of your State’s labor department, local of­ fices of your State employment service, or local firms that employ millwrights. In addition, you may contact: O’ The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Con­ stitution Ave. NW., Washington DC 20001. XW Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., Mc­ lean, VA 22102. liT Equipment Service Association, P.O. Box 485, Plymouth, IN 46563. ^Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20006.  Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-022, .281-042, .381-014)  Millwrights align new equipment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nature of the Work Mobile heavy equipment is indispensable to construction, logging, surface mining, and other industrial activities. Mobile heavy equip­ ment mechanics service and repair the engines, transmissions, hy­ draulics, electrical systems, and other components of equipment such as motor graders, trenchers and backhoes, crawler-loaders,  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers and stripping and loading shovels. (Mechanics who specialize in ser­ vicing only diesel engines are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics.) Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform routine mainte­ nance on the diesel engines that power most heavy equipment, and, if an operator reports a malfunction, they search for its cause. First, they inspect and operate the equipment to diagnose the nature of the repairs required. They may partially dismantle the engine, examin­ ing parts for damage or excessive wear. Then they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate the parts as necessary, and reassemble and test the engine for operating efficiency. If repairs to the drive train are needed, mechanics may remove and repair the transmission or dif­ ferential. Many types of mobile heavy equipment use hydraulics to raise and lower movable parts such as scoops, shovels, log forks, or scraper blades. Repairing malfunctioning hydraulic components is an important responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. When the hydraulic apparatus loses power, mechanics examine it for hydraulic fluid leaks and replace ruptured hoses or worn gaskets on fluid reservoirs. Occasionally, more extensive repairs are re­ quired, such as replacing a defective hydraulic pump. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform a variety of other types of repairs. They diagnose and correct electrical problems and replace defective electronic components. They also may disassemble and repair crawler undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasion­ ally, mechanics may weld broken body and structural parts, using electric or gas welders. Many mechanics work in small repair shops of construction con­ tractors, logging and mining companies, and local government road maintenance departments. They typically perform routine mainte­ nance and minor repairs necessary to keep the equipment in opera­ tion. Mechanics in larger repair shops—particularly those of mobile heavy equipment dealers and the Federal Government—perform more difficult repairs, such as rebuilding or replacing engines, re­ pairing hydraulic fluid pumps, or correcting electrical problems. Mechanics in some large shops specialize in one or two types of work, such as hydraulics or electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics use a variety of tools in their work, including common handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers and power tools such as pneumatic wrenches. They use micrometers and gauges to measure wear on parts, and a variety of testing equipment. For example, they often use tachometers and dy­ namometers to locate engine malfunctions; when working on elec­ trical systems, they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters. Working Conditions Most mobile heavy equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated. Many mechanics work mostly indoors in shops, but others work as field service mechanics and spend much of their time away from the shop working outdoors. When mobile heavy equipment breaks down at a construction site, it may be too difficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so a field service mechanic is sent to the job site to make repairs. Generally, the more exper­ ienced mobile heavy equipment mechanics specialize in field service; they usually drive specially equipped trucks and sometimes must travel many miles to reach disabled machinery. For many mechan­ ics, the independence and challenge of field work outweigh the occa­ sional long hours or bad weather, but other mechanics are more comfortable with the routine of shop work and the opportunity to work as part of a team. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and often work in awk­ ward or cramped positions. They sometimes must lift heavy tools and parts. Mechanics must be careful to avoid burns, bruises, and cuts from hot engine parts and sharp edges of machinery. However, serious accidents may be prevented when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  361  Repairing hydraulic components and cables are important duties of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. Employment Mobile heavy equipment mechanics held about 96,000 jobs in 1992. Half worked for mobile heavy equipment dealers and construction contractors. Over one-fifth were employed by Federal, State, and lo­ cal governments; the Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer. Other mobile heavy equipment mechanics worked for surface mine operators, public utility companies, logging camps and contractors, and heavy equipment rental and leasing companies. Still others repaired equipment for machinery manufacturers, air­ lines, railroads, steel mills, and oil and gas field companies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 mobile heavy equipment mechanics was self-em­ ployed. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics are employed in every sec­ tion of the country, but most work near cities and towns, where most construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are high school graduates and at least 18 years of age. They seek persons knowledgeable about the fundamentals of diesel en­ gines, transmissions, electrical systems, and hydraulics. Although some persons are able to acquire these skills on their own or by working as helpers to experienced mechanics, most employers pre­ fer to hire graduates of formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. As heavy equipment has become more technologically advanced, formal training programs have become a recommended way of ob­ taining the knowledge and skills needed for mobile heavy equipment repair. Training programs in diesel and heavy equipment mechanics are given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a certificate of completion; others lead to an associate degree if they are supple­ mented with additional academic courses. They provide a founda­ tion in the basics of diesel and heavy equipment technology, includ­ ing hydraulics, and enable trainee mechanics to advance more rapidly to the journey, or experienced worker, level. Training in the fundamentals of electronics is also essential because new mobile heavy equipment increasingly features electronic controls and sens­ ing devices.  362  Occupational Outlook Handbook  High school courses in automobile mechanics, physics, chemis­ try, and mathematics provide an essential foundation for a career as a mechanic. Good reading and basic mathematics skills and a basic understanding of scientific principles are needed to help a mechanic learn important job skills and to keep abreast of new technology through the study of technical manuals. Experience working on die­ sel engines and heavy equipment acquired in the Armed Forces also is valuable. Persons who learn the basics of mobile heavy equipment mechan­ ics largely on the job start as helpers—cleaning parts, lubricating, fueling equipment, and cleaning up the shop. By studying training and technical manuals and observing and working with experienced mechanics, they may earn promotion to a trainee mechanic posi­ tion. Through a combination of formal and on-the-job training, trainee mechanics acquire the knowledge and skills to efficiently service and repair the particular types of equipment handled by the shop. Beginners are assigned relatively simple service and repair tasks. As they gain experience and become more familiar with the equipment, they are assigned increasingly difficult jobs, and are exposed to a greater variety of equipment. Many employers send trainee mechanics to training sessions con­ ducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to 1 week, provide intensive instruction in the re­ pair of a manufacturer’s equipment. Some sessions focus on particu­ lar components found in all of the manufacturer’s equipment, such as diesel engines, transmissions, axles, and electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawlerloaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodi­ cally attend additional training sessions. Experienced mechanics also occasionally attend training sessions to gain familiarity with new technology or with types of equipment they may never have re­ paired. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equip­ ment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics may advance to field service jobs, where they have greater opportunity to tackle problems independently and earn overtime pay. Mechanics who have leadership ability may be­ come shop supervisors or service managers. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of mobile heavy equipment mechanics is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increasing numbers of mechanics will be required in re­ pair shops of equipment dealers and rental and leasing companies as the growing complexity of mobile heavy equipment necessitates more repairs being done by professionals. More mechanics also will be needed by all levels of government to service construction equip­ ment that is used to repair and maintain the country’s system of highways and bridges. But employment of mechanics will increase more slowly at the Federal level as defense-related spending is trimmed. Employment of mechanics by construction contractors will increase more slowly as more of the equipment in use is rented or leased. The majority of job openings will result from the need to replace mechanics who retire or leave the labor force. Opportunities should generally be good for persons who have completed formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Persons without formal training are expected to encounter growing diffi­ culty entering this occupation. As the economy grows, growth of construction activity should re­ sult in the use of more mobile heavy equipment, which would in­ crease the requirements for periodic service and repair. Various kinds of equipment will be needed in increasing numbers to grade construction sites, excavate basements, lay water and sewer lines,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and put in streets. In addition, construction of new highways and bridges and repair or rebuilding of existing ones will also require more mechanics for servicing the equipment. Since construction and mining are sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity, mobile heavy equipment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is traditionally the slack season for construction activity, particularly in colder regions. Fewer mechan­ ics may be needed during periods when equipment is used less inten­ sively, but employers usually try to retain experienced workers. However, employers may be reluctant to hire inexperienced workers during slack periods. Earnings Median weekly earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechanics were about $516 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned from around $412 to $644 a week; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $318 a week, and the top 10 percent earned over $845 a week in 1992. Some mobile heavy equipment mechanics are members of unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Operating Engi­ neers; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and service diesel-pow­ ered vehicles and heavy equipment include railcar repairers and die­ sel, farm equipment, and mine machinery mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for mobile heavy equipment mechanics may be obtained from local mobile heavy equipment dealers, construction contractors, surface mining companies, and government agencies. Local offices of the State employment service may also have information on work opportunities and training pro­ grams.  Motorcycle, Boat, and Small-Engine Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-054, .684-026; 623.261, .281-038, -042; 625.281-018, -026, -030, -034, .381; 721.281-022)  Nature of the Work Although the engines that power motorcycles, boats, and lawn and garden equipment are usually smaller than those that power auto­ mobiles and trucks, they have many things in common, including breakdowns. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics repair and service power equipment ranging from chain saws to yachts. Small engines, like larger engines, require periodic servicing to minimize the possibility of breakdowns and keep them operating at peak efficiency. At routine intervals, mechanics adjust, clean, lubri­ cate, and, when necessary, replace worn or defective parts such as spark plugs, ignition points, valves, and carburetors. Routine main­ tenance is normally a major part of the mechanic’s work. When breakdowns occur, mechanics diagnose the cause and re­ pair or replace the faulty parts. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical, fuel, and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimum amount of time. A quick and accu­ rate diagnosis requires problem-solving ability as well as a thorough knowledge of the equipment’s operation. The mechanic first obtains a description of the symptoms of the problem from the owner, and then, if possible, operates the equipment to observe the symptoms. The mechanic may have to use special testing equipment and disas­ semble some components for further examination. After pinpoint­ ing the cause of the problem, the needed adjustments, repairs, or  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers replacements are made. Some jobs require only the adjustment or replacement of a single item, such as a carburetor or fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, a complete en­ gine overhaul may require a number of hours, because the mechanic must disassemble and reassemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as power tools such as drills and grinders. Engine analyzers, compres­ sion gauges, ammeters and voltmeters, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Hoists may be used to lift heavy equipment such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, or boats. Mechanics often refer to service manuals for detailed direc­ tions and specifications while performing repairs. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products. Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and all-terrain vehicles. Besides engines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition systems, and make mi­ nor body repairs. Because many motorcycle mechanics work for dealers that service only the products they sell, mechanics may spe­ cialize in servicing only a few of the many makes and models of motorcycles. Motorboat mechanics repair and adjust the engines and electrical and mechanical equipment of inboard and outboard marine engines. Most small boats have portable outboard engines that can be re­ moved and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats, are powered by diesel or gas­ oline inboard or inboard-outdrive engines, which are only removed for major overhauls. Motorboat mechanics may also work on pro­ pellers, steering mechanisms, marine plumbing, and other boat equipment. Small-engine mechanics service and repair outdoor power equip­ ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. They also may occasionally work on portable generators, go-carts, and snowmobiles. Working Conditions Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics usually work in re­ pair shops that are well lighted and ventilated, but which are some­ times noisy when engines are being tested. However, motorboat mechanics may work outdoors in all weather when repairing in­ board engines aboard boats; they may have to work in cramped or awkward positions to reach a boat’s engine. In northern States, motorcycles, boats, lawnmowers, and other equipment are used less, or not at all, during the winter, and  Motorboat mechanics repair the engines and electrical and mechanical equipment of marine engines.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  363  mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week; many mechanics are only hired temporarily during the busy spring and summer sea­ sons. Some of the winter slack is taken up by scheduling time-con­ suming engine overhauls and working on snowmobiles and snow­ blowers. Many mechanics may work considerably more than 40 hours a week when the weather is warmer in the spring, summer, and fall. Employment Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics held over 46,000jobs in 1992. About 11,000 were motorcycle mechanics, while the re­ mainder specialized in the repair of boats or outdoor power equip­ ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. More than one-quarter of all motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechan­ ics worked for dealers of boats, motorcycles, and miscellaneous ve­ hicles. Others were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boat yards, equipment rental companies, and hardware and lawn and garden stores. Nearly one-third were self- employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the increasing complexity of motorcycles, most employers prefer to hire motorcycle mechanics who are graduates of formal training programs. However, because technology has not had as great an impact on boat and outdoor power equipment, most boat and small-engine mechanics learn their skills on the job. For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of small 2- and 4-cycle en­ gines. Many trainees develop an interest in mechanics and acquire some basic skills through working on automobiles, motorcycles, boats, or outdoor power equipment as a hobby, or through mechanic vocational training in high school, vocational and techni­ cal schools, or community colleges. A growing number also prepare for their careers by completing training programs in motorcycle, marine, or small-engine mechanics, but only a relatively small num­ ber of such specialized programs exist. Trainees begin by learning routine service tasks under the gui­ dance of experienced mechanics, such as replacing ignition points and spark plugs, or taking apart, assembling, and testing new equip­ ment. Equipment manufacturers’ service manuals are an important training tool. As trainees gain experience and proficiency, they pro­ gress to more difficult tasks, such as diagnosing the cause of break­ downs or overhauling engines. Up to 3 years of training on the job may be necessary before an inexperienced beginner becomes skilled in all aspects of the repair of some motorcycle and boat engines. Employers sometimes send mechanics and trainees to special training courses conducted by motorcycle, boat, and outdoor power equipment manufacturers or distributors. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker’s skills and provide information on repairing new models. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the sum­ mer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small-engine repair, automobile mechanics, science, and business arithmetic. Knowledge of basic electronics is increasingly desirable for mo­ torcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics. Electronics are increas­ ingly being used in engine controls, instrument displays, and a vari­ ety of other components of motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment. Mechanics should be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics in order to recognize when an electronic malfunction may be responsible for a problem, and be able to test and replace electronic components. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics are sometimes re­ quired to furnish their own handtools. Employers generally provide  364  Occupational Outlook Handbook  some tools and test equipment, but beginners are expected to gradu­ ally accumulate handtools as they gain experience. Some exper­ ienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Some mechanics are able to use skills learned through repairing motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment to advance to higher paying jobs as automobile, truck, or heavy equipment mechanics. In larger shops, mechanics with leadership ability can advance to supervisory positions such as shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who are able to raise enough capital may open their own repair shops or equipment dealerships. Job Outlook Employment of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The majority ofjob openings are expected to occur because many experienced motorcycle, boat, and small-en­ gine mechanics leave each year to transfer to other occupations, or retire or stop working for other reasons. Job prospects should be es­ pecially favorable for persons who complete mechanic training pro­ grams. Growth of personal disposable income over the 1992-2005 period should provide consumers with more discretionary dollars to buy boats, lawn and garden power equipment, and motorcycles—requir­ ing more mechanics to keep the growing amount of equipment in operation. In addition, beginning in the late 1990’s, the number of persons between the ages of 18 and 24 should begin to grow. Motor­ cycle usage should continue to be popular with persons in this age group, who historically have the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Motorcycles have also been increasing in popularity with persons between the ages of 25 and 40, a group with more dis­ posable income to spend on recreational equipment such as motorcycles and boats. Recreational boating is expected to continue to be popular, and construction of new single-family houses will result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increasing the need for mechanics. The continuing shift of the Nation’s population to the South and West where warm weather seasons are longer—and equipment use greater—should also contribute to an increase in de­ mand for mechanics. In addition, more mechanics may be required if the growing complexity of the engines of motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment forces more consumers to turn to profes­ sional mechanics for maintenance and repair services. Earnings Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $435 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $330 and $499 a week. The low­ est paid 10 percent earned less than $263 a week, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $749 a week. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics tend to receive few fringe benefits in small shops, but those employed in larger shops often receive paid vacations and sick leave and health insurance. Some employers also pay for work-related training and provide uniforms. Related Occupations The work of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is closely related to that of mechanics and repairers who work on other types of mobile equipment powered by internal combustion engines. Related occupations include automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, farm equipment mechanic, and mobile heavy equipment mechanic. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcy­ cle, boat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, and boat yards and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information about employment and training opportunities.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners (D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010, .684-022, -026, and -094)  Nature of the Work Musical instruments are a source of entertainment and recreation for millions of people. Maintaining these instruments so they per­ form properly is the job of musical instrument repairers and tuners. The occupation includes piano tuners and repairers (often called pi­ ano technicians); pipe-organ tuners and repairers; and brass, wood­ wind, percussion, or string instrument repairers. Piano tuners adjust piano strings to the proper pitch. A string’s pitch is the frequency at which it vibrates—and produces sound— when it is struck by one of the piano’s wooden hammers. Tuners first adjust the pitch of the “A” string. Striking the key, the tuner compares the string’s pitch with that of a tuning fork. Using a tun­ ing hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of each of the other strings is set in rela­ tion to the “A” string. The standard 88-key piano has 230 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. The performance of a piano also can be affected by problems with any of its thousands of wooden, steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts. Pi­ ano repairers locate and correct these problems. Repairers also tune pianos. To diagnose problems, repairers talk with customers and partially dismantle pianos to inspect parts. Repairers may realign moving parts, replace old or worn ones, or completely rebuild pianos. Re­ pairers use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regu­ lating, repining, and restringing tools. Some piano tuners service pianos that have built-in computers that control humidity, assist in recording, or convert the piano into an automatic player-piano. As sales of these sophisticated pianos in­ crease, more piano repair work will require some knowledge of elec­ tronics. Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, and install organs that make music by forcing air through flue pipes or reed pipes. (Repairers who service electronic organs are included in the statement on elec­ tronic home entertainment equipment repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.) The flue pipe sounds when a current of air strikes a metal lip in the side of the pipe. The reed pipe sounds when a current of air vibrates a brass reed inside the pipe. To tune an organ, repairers first match the pitch of the “A” pipes with that of a tuning fork. The pitch of other pipes is set by compar­ ing it with that of the “A” pipes. To tune a flue pipe, they move the metal slide that increases or decreases the pipe’s “speaking length.” To tune a reed pipe, the tuner alters the length of the brass reed. A day or more may be needed to do this because most organs have hundreds of pipes. Pipe-organ repairers locate problems, repair or replace worn parts, and clean pipes. Repairers also assemble organs onsite in churches and auditoriums, following manufacturer’s blueprints. They use hand and power tools to install and connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes, and other components. They may work in teams and be assisted by helpers. A job may take several weeks or even months, depending on the size of the organ. Violin repairers adjust and repair bowed instruments, such as vio­ lins, violas, and cellos, using a variety of handtools. They find de­ fects by inspecting and playing instruments. They remove cracked or broken sections, repair or replace defective parts, and restring in­ struments. They also fill in scratches with putty, sand rough spots, and apply paint or varnish. Guitar repairers inspect and play the instrument to determine de­ fects. They remove and replace levels using handtools, and fit wood  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers and metal replacement parts. They reassemble and string the gui­ tars. Brass and woodwind instruments include trumpets, cornets, French horns, trombones, tubas, clarinets, flutes, saxophones, oboes, and bassoons. Brass and wind instrument repairers clean, ad­ just, and repair these instruments. They move mechanical parts or play scales to find defects. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, and pistons, and remove soldered parts using gas torches. They repair dents in metal instruments using mallets or burnishing tools. They fill cracks in wood instruments by inserting pinning wire and covering them with filler and also replace worn pads and corks. Percussion instrument repairers work on drums, cymbals, and xy­ lophones. In order to repair a drum, they remove drum tension rod screws and rods by hand or using a drum key. They cut new drum­ heads from animal skin, stretch the skin over rimhoops and tuck it around and under the hoop using hand tucking tools. They may op­ erate a drill press or hand power drill to drill holes at the inside end of cracks in cymbals, gongs, or similar instruments, to prevent their advance, and cut out sections around cracks using shears or grind­ ing wheels. They also replace xylophone bars and wheels. Working Conditions The work of musical instrument repairers and tuners is relatively safe, although they may suffer small cuts and bruises. Most brass, woodwind, percussion, and string instrument repairers work in re­ pair shops or music stores. Piano and organ repairers and tuners usually work on instruments in homes, schools, and churches and may spend several hours a day driving. Salaried repairers and tuners work out of a shop or store; the self-employed generally work out of their homes. Employment Musical instrument repairers and tuners held about 12,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked on pianos. About two-thirds were self-em­ ployed. Eight of 10 wage and salary repairers and tuners worked in music stores, and most of the rest worked in repair shops or for mu­ sical instrument manufacturers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For musical instrument repairer and tuner jobs, employers prefer people with posthigh school training in music repair technology. Some musical instrument repairers and tuners learn their trade on the job, but employers willing to provide on-the-job training are dif­ ficult to find. A few music stores, large repair shops, and self-em­ ployed repairers and tuners hire inexperienced people as trainees to  365  learn to tune and repair instruments under the supervision of exper­ ienced workers. Trainees may also sell instruments, clean up, and do other routine work. Usually 2 to 5 years of training and practice are needed to become fully qualified. A small number of technical schools and colleges offer courses in piano technology or brass, woodwind, string, and electronic musical instrument repair. A few music repair schools offer 1- or 2-year courses. There are also home-study (correspondence school) courses in piano technology. Graduates of these courses generally refine their skills by working for a time with an experienced tuner or technician. Music courses help develop the student’s ear for tonal quality. The ability to play an instrument is helpful. Knowledge of wood­ working is useful for repairing instruments made of wood. Repairers and tuners need good hearing, mechanical aptitude, and manual dexterity. For those dealing directly with customers, a neat appearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner are important. Musical instrument repairers keep up with developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and manufacturers’ service manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its members improve their skills through training conducted at local chapter meetings and at regional and national seminars. Guild members also can take a series of tests to earn the title Registered Piano Technician. Re­ pairers and technicians who work for large dealers or repair shops can advance to supervisory positions or go into business for them­ selves. Job Outlook Musical instrument repairer and tuner jobs are expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although the number of people employed as musicians will increase, the number of students of all ages playing musical instru­ ments is expected to grow only slowly. Yet, consumers should con­ tinue to buy more expensive instruments, so they should be willing to spend more on tuning and repairs to protect the value of their in­ struments. Replacement needs will be high because many repairers and tun­ ers are near retirement age. However, training is difficult to get be­ cause there are only a few schools that offer training programs, and few experienced workers are willing to take on apprentices. There­ fore, opportunities for those who do get training should be excellent. In fact, unless training opportunities expand, the number of people employed as tuners and repairers could decline. Earnings According to the limited information available, repairers and tuners employed by retail music stores averaged about $20,000 in 1992. Self-employed repairers and tuners averaged almost 340,000. Related Occupations Musical instrument repairers need mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, vending machine servicers and repairers, home appliance and power tool repairers, and computer and office machine repairers all require similar talents. Sources of Additional Information Details about job opportunities may be available from local music instrument dealers and repair shops. For general information about piano technicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano technology, write to: bp Piano Technicians Guild,  3930 Washington St., Kansas City, MO 64111­  2963.  For general information on musical instrument repair, write to: Piano tuners adjust piano strings to the proper pitch.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Techni­ cians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761.  366 Occupational Outlook Handbook  Vending Machine Servicers and Repairers (D.O.T. 319.464-014 and 639.281-014)  Nature of the Work Coin-operated vending machines are a familiar sight. These ma­ chines dispense many types of refreshments, from cold soft drinks to hot meals. Vending machine servicers and repairers install, service, and stock these machines and keep them in good working order. Vending machine servicers periodically visit coin-operated ma­ chines that dispense soft drinks, candy and snacks, and food items. They collect coins from the machines, restock merchandise, change labels to indicate new selections, and adjust temperature gauges so that items are kept at the right temperature. They are also responsi­ ble for keeping the machines clean. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers must comply with State and local pub­ lic health and sanitation standards. Servicers make sure machines operate correctly. When checking complicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks properly and that refrigeration and heating units work correctly. On the rela­ tively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check handles, springs, plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When installing the machines, they make the necessary water and electrical connections and recheck the machines for proper operation. They also must comply with lo­ cal plumbing and electrical codes. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of these workers. For example, they periodically clean re­ frigeration condensers, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust ma­ chines to perform properly. If a machine breaks down, vending machine repairers inspect it first for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, they may refer to technical manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as electrical circuit testers to find defective parts. Repairers sometimes fix faulty parts at the site, but they often install replacements and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. When servicing electronic machines, repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component. They also repair microwave ovens used to heat food dispensed from machines. In repair and maintenance work, repairers use hammers, pliers, pipe cutters, soldering guns, wrenches, screwdrivers, and electronic testing devices. In the repair shop, they may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. Vending machine servicers and repairers employed by small com­ panies may both fill and fix machines on a regular basis. These com­ bination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and repair machines when necessary. Servicers and repairers also do some clerical work, such as filing re­ ports, preparing repair cost estimates, ordering parts, and keeping daily records of merchandise distributed. However, many of the new comput­ erized machines reduce the paperwork that a servicer performs. Working Conditions Some vending machine repairers work primarily in company repair shops, but many servicers and repairers spend much of their time on the road visiting machines wherever they have been placed. Vending machines operate around the clock, so repairers often work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending machine repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing machines on location, the work may be done where pedestrian traffic is heavy, such as in busy supermarkets, industrial complexes, offices, or schools. Repair work is relatively safe, although servicers and re­ pairers must take care to avoid hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. They also must follow safe  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  V \7 Sasaki,  Electronic circuits are important components of vending machines. work procedures, especially when moving heavy vending machines or working with electricity and radiation from microwave ovens. Employment Vending machine servicers and repairers held about 20,000 jobs in 1992. Most repairers work for vending companies that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coin-operated machines. Some work for companies that own video games, pin-ball machines, juke boxes, and similar types of amusement equipment. Although vending ma­ chine servicers and repairers are employed throughout the country, most are located in areas with large populations and many coin and vending machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some vending machine servicers and repairers enter the occupation as route drivers or general shop helpers and learn to fill and fix ma­ chines informally on the job by observing, working with, and receiv­ ing instruction from experienced repairers. Many employers prefer to hire high school graduates, but em­ ployers often hire applicants without a diploma if they are otherwise qualified. High school or vocational school courses in electricity, re­ frigeration, and machine repair are an advantage in qualifying for entry jobs. Employers usually require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scor­ ing well on mechanical aptitude tests. Because vending machine ser­ vicers and repairers sometimes handle thousands of dollars in mer­ chandise and cash, employers hire persons who have a record of honesty and respect for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is important. A commercial driver’s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repairer jobs. Electronics are becoming more prevalent in vending machines, so employers increasingly prefer applicants to have some training in electronics. Technologically advanced machines with features such as multilevel pricing, inventory control, and scrolling messages ex­ tensively use electronics and microchip computers. Some vocational high schools and junior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training programs in basic electronics for vending machine servicers and repairers. Beginners may start their training with simple jobs such as cleaning or painting machines. They then may learn to rebuild machines—re­ moving defective parts, repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on service calls, and fi­ nally make visits on their own. This learning process may take from 6 months to 3 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous edu­ cation, types of machines, and the quality of instruction. The National Automatic Merchandising Association has estab­ lished an apprenticeship program for vending machine repairers. Apprentices receive 144 hours of home-study instruction in subjects such as basic electricity and electronics, blueprint reading, customer relations, and safety. Upon completion of the program, performance and written tests must be passed to become certified. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes attend training sessions sponsored by manufacturers, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Both trainees and experienced workers sometimes take evening courses in basic electricity, elec­ tronics, microwave ovens, refrigeration, and other related subjects. Skilled servicers and repairers may be promoted to supervisory jobs. Job Outlook Employment of vending machine servicers and repairers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. More vending machines are likely to be installed in industrial plants, hospitals, stores, and other business establishments to meet the public demand for vend­ ing machine items. In addition, the range of products dispensed by machine can be expected to increase as vending machines become more automated and more are built with microwaves, mini- refrig­ erators, and freezers. However, improvements in technology should reduce breakdowns, so the employment of repairers will not grow. Nevertheless, job openings will arise as experienced workers trans­ fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with some background in electronics should have the best job prospects because electronic circuitry is an important compo­ nent of vending machines. If firms cannot find trained or exper­ ienced workers, they are likely to train qualified route drivers or hire   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  367  inexperienced people who have acquired some mechanical, electri­ cal, or electronic training by taking high school or vocational courses. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the National Automatic Mer­ chandising Association, the average hourly wage rate for nonunion vending machine servicers was $7.63 in 1992, with rates ranging from just under $5.00 to nearly $14.00 an hour, depending on the size of the firm and the region of the country. Nonunion repairers averaged $9.53 an hour, but rates ranged from $5.00 to $18.00. Ser­ vicers and repairers who were members of unions generally earned slightly more. Most vending machine repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Some vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic components include home appliance and power tool repairers, elec­ tronic equipment repairers, and general maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportunities in this field can be ob­ tained from local vending machine firms and local offices of the State employment service. For general information and a list of schools offering courses in vending machine repair, write to: 0P National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr Suite 3500, Chicago, IL 60606-3102.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Bricklayers and Stonemasons (D.O.T. 779.684-058; 861.361-010 and -014, .381-010 through -042, except -034, .684-010 and -014; and 899.364-010)  Nature of the Work Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely related trades that produce attractive, durable surfaces and structures. The work they perform varies in complexity, from laying a simple masonry walk­ way to installing the ornate exterior of a highrise building. Bricklay­ ers build walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Some specialize in installing firebrick lin­ ings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone— natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone and artificial stone made from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materi­ als. Stonemasons usually work on structures such as houses of wor­ ship, hotels, and office buildings. In putting up a wall, bricklayers traditionally have built the cor­ ners of the structure first. Because of the necessary precision, these comer leads are very time consuming to erect and require the skills of the most experienced bricklayers on the job. After the corner leads are complete, less experienced bricklayers fill in the wall be­ tween the corners, using a line from corner to comer to guide each course or layer of brick. Because of the expense associated with building comer leads, an increasing number of bricklayers are using corner poles, also called masonry guides, that enable them to build the entire wall at the same time. They fasten the corner posts or poles in a plumb position to define the wall line and stretch a line be­ tween them. The line serves as a guide for each course of brick. Bricklayers then spread a bed of mortar (cement, sand, and water mixture) with a trowel (a flat, bladed metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and then press and tap it into place. As blueprints specify, they either cut brick with a hammer and chisel or saw them to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools for a sealed, neat, and uniform appearance. Although bricklayers generally use steel supports or “lintels” at window and door openings, they some­ times build brick arches that support and enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or helpers, who bring brick and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move the scaf­ folding. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and bring the prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator us­ ing a hoist may be needed to lift large pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They align the stones with wedges, plumblines, and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and courses of stone. As the work progresses, they remove the wedges and fill the joints between stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive fin­ ish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to 368  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the stone and weld or bolt them to anchors in the wall. Finally, ma­ sons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer and chisel to cut stone. They cut it along the grain to make various shapes and sizes. Valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is similar to set­ ting large pieces of stone. Bricklayers and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks or replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Refractory masons are bricklayers who install firebrick and re­ fractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most work in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Many masons are qualified to work with a variety of materials and, in areas that experience lower demand for full-time stone and marble masons, bricklayers also will install these materials. Working Conditions Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work outdoors. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and may have to lift heavy materi­ als. In addition, they are exposed to injuries from tools and from falls from scaffolds. Employment Bricklayers and stonemasons held about 139,000 jobs in 1992. The vast majority were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts are em­ ployed primarily by special trade, building, or general contractors. They work throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Three of every 10 bricklayers and stonemasons are self- em­ ployed. Many of the self-employed specialize in contracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces.  Apprenticeship programs provide the most thorough training.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bricklayers and stonemasons pick up their skills informally by observing and learning from experienced workers. Many get train­ ing in vocational education schools. The best way to learn these skills, however, is through an apprenticeship program, which gener­ ally provides the most thorough training. Individuals who learn the trade on the job usually start as helpers, laborers, or mason tenders. They carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they are taught to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experi­ ence, they make the transition to full-fledged craft workers. The learning period generally lasts much longer than an apprenticeship program, however. Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stonemasons usually are sponsored by local contractors or by local union-management com­ mittees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom instruc­ tion each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, carrying mater­ ials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes them with job routines and materials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Apprentices also learn to work with stone and concrete. This en­ ables them to be certified to work with more than one masonry ma­ terial. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable, and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. The International Masonry Institute operates training cen­ ters in several large cities that help jobseekers develop the skills they will need to successfully complete the formal apprenticeship pro­ gram. Experienced workers can advance to supervisory positions or be­ come estimators. They also can open contracting businesses of their own. Job Outlook Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Population and business growth will create a need for new fac­ tories, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. Also stimu­ lating demand will be the increasing use of brick for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Brick exteriors con­ tinue to be very popular as the trend continues toward more durable exterior materials requiring less maintenance. Employment of bricklayers who specialize in refractory repair will decline, along with employment in other occupations in the primary metal indus­ tries. In addition to jobs created by an increase in demand for these workers, openings will result from the need to replace bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the trades for other reasons. Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. Earnings Median weekly earnings for bricklayers and stonemasons were about $480 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $335 and $640 weekly. The highest 10 percent earned more than $785 weekly; the lowest 10 percent, less than $260. Earnings for workers in these trades may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and down­ turns in construction activity limit the time they can work. In each trade, apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 per­ cent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. The rate in­ creases as they gain experience.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  369  Some bricklayers and stonemasons are members of the Interna­ tional Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, concrete block, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect very attractive yet highly durable structures. Workers in other occu­ pations with similar skills include concrete masons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble set­ ting contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact: r=r International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW„ Wash­ ington, DC 20005.  Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: tS” Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Brick Institute of America, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1525. iw National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1090 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. tae National Concrete Masonry Association, 2302 Horse Pen Rd., Herndon, VA 22071.  Carpenters (D.O.T. 806.281-058; 860.281-010 through .684-014; 863.684-010­ 869.361-018, .381-010, -034, .684-018, -034, -042, and -058- and 962.281-010)  Nature of the Work Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction ac­ tivity. They cut, fit, and assemble wood and other materials in the construction of buildings, highways and bridges, docks, industrial plants, boats, and many other structures. The duties of carpenters vary by type of employer. A carpenter employed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in one or two activities such as setting forms for concrete construction or erecting scaffolding, while a carpenter employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, hanging kitchen cabinets, and installing panel­ ing and tile ceilings. Although each carpentry task is somewhat dif­ ferent, most tasks involve the following steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpenters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials. Local building codes often dictate where certain materials can be used, and carpenters have to know these requirements. Carpenters cut and shape wood, plastic, ceiling tile, fiberglass, and drywall, with hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders. Carpenters then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, they check the accu­ racy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares and make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter’s task is somewhat simpler because it does not require as much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. These components are designed for easy and fast installation and can generally be installed in a single operation.  370  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Carpenters employed outside the construction industry do a vari­ ety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabinets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, carpenters may install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken fur­ niture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery. (For more information on workers who install this machinery, see the statements on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As in other building trades, carpentry work is sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are nec­ essary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from working with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Many carpenters work outdoors. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a con­ struction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs. Employment Carpenters—the largest group of building trades workers—held about 990,000 jobs in 1992. Three of every 4 worked for contractors who build, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, wholesale and retail establishments, and schools. About 4 of every 10 were self-employed. Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training and through formal training programs. Some pick up skills informally by working under the supervision of experienced workers. Many ac­ quire skills through vocational education. Others participate in em­ ployer training programs or apprenticeships. Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their  Carpenters must be very careful when operating power equipment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are admin­ istered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and by local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, Inc., as well as by local joint union-management committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America and the Associated General Contractors, Inc. or the National Association of Home Builders. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants generally must be at least 17 years old and meet local requirements. For exam­ ple, some union locals test an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the ap­ prentice’s skill. On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and be­ come familiar with common carpentry jobs such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading and freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Informal on-the-job training usually is less thorough than an ap­ prenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small contractor who special­ izes in homebuilding may only provide training in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. A high school education is desirable, including courses in carpen­ try, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, good physical condition, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is helpful. Employers and ap­ prenticeship committees generally view favorably training and work experience obtained in the Armed Services. Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisors or general con­ struction supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construc­ tion supervisors because they are exposed to the entire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contractors. Job Outlook Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005, due primarily to extensive replacement needs. Well over 100,000 jobs will become available each year as carpenters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters each year usually is greater than for other craft occupations because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but eventually leave the occupation because they find they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment. Increased demand for carpenters will create additional job open­ ings. Employment is expected to increase about as fast as the aver­ age for all occupations through the year 2005. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and com­ mercial and industrial plants and the need to renovate and modern­ ize existing structures. The demand for carpenters will be offset somewhat by expected productivity gains resulting from the increas­ ing use of prefabricated components that can be installed much more quickly than by traditional construction methods. In addition, light, cordless pneumatic and combustion tools such as nailers and drills as well as sanders with electronic speed controls reduce fatigue and make workers more efficient. Although employment of carpenters is expected to grow over the long run, people entering the occupation should expect to experi­ ence periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term na­ ture of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, the number of job openings for carpenters is reduced. The introduction of new and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials has vastly increased carpenters’ versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportunities than those who can only do relatively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and busi­ nesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. There­ fore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportuni­ ties in a given year may vary widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings of carpenters who were not self- employed were $425 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $320 and $585 per week. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpenters were more than $770; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $255. Earnings may be reduced on occasion because carpenters lose work time in bad weather and when jobs are unavailable. A large proportion of carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include bricklayers, concrete ma­ sons, electricians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work op­ portunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, a local of the union mentioned above, a local joint union-contractor ap­ prenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State employ­ ment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this trade, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW , Washineton DC 20005. ’ Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW. Washington, DC 20006. O’Home Builders Institute, Educational Arm of the National Association of Home Builders, 1090 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. O’ United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitu­ tion Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  trim the excess. Finally, they attach the carpet to a stripping to hold it in place. Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall instal­ lations require installers to tape or sew sections together for large rooms. They join the seams by sewing them with a large, curved nee­ dle and special thread or by using heat-taped seams (a special plastic tape made to join seams when activated with heat). Carpet installers use handtools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, and rubber mallets. They also use carpet-laying tools, such as carpet knives, knee kickers, and power stretchers. Working Conditions Installers work under better conditions than most other construc­ tion workers. Because carpets are installed in finished or nearly fin­ ished structures, work areas usually are clean, well lighted, safe, and comfortable. Installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet. Installers generally work regular daytime hours. However, when recarpeting stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Employment Carpet installers held about 62,000 jobs in 1992. Many worked for flooring contractors or floor covering retailers. Two of every 3 car­ pet installers are self-employed. Installers are employed throughout the Nation, but are concen­ trated in urban areas that have high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally on the job as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training is often sponsored by individual contractors and generally lasts about 1 1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments, such as installing stripping and padding, and helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored pro­ grams provide comprehensive training in all phases of carpet laying. Most union-sponsored apprenticeship programs consist of weekly classes and on-the-job training that usually last 3 to 4 years. Helpers and apprentices should be 18 years old and have manual dexterity. Employers also want individuals who are clean, courte­ ous, and tactful. A high school education is preferred, though not necessary. Courses in general mathematics and shop may be helpful.  Carpet Installers (D.O.T. 864.381-010)  Nature of the Work Many homes, offices, stores, restaurants, and other buildings have carpet that was installed by a carpet installer. Before installing the carpet, these craft workers first inspect the floor to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any imperfections that could show through the carpet. Then they measure the area to be carpeted and plan the layout of the carpet, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and maximum wear. For wall-to-wall carpet, installers first lay and tack or tape a cush­ ion or underlay. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the car­ pet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of extra carpet on each side for the fi­ nal fitting. They then install the carpet by stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  371  Carpet installers get paid either an hourly wage or by the number of yards installed.  372  Occupational Outlook Handbook  A driver’s license and a criminal background check are usually re­ quired. Carpet installers may advance to supervisors or installation man­ agers for large installation firms. Some installers become salesper­ sons or estimators. Many installers also go into business for them­ selves as independent subcontractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpet installers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures and a growing demand for carpet in new industrial plants, schools, hos­ pitals, and other structures. The use of carpet as a floor covering continues to be popular. In the many houses built with plywood rather than hardwood floors, wall-to-wall carpet is a necessity. Similarly, offices, hotels, motels, and shopping centers often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall carpet. Carpet will continue to be used in renovation work. Moreo­ ver, new fibers that are more durable, stain, and crush resistant and that come in fashionable colors will contribute to the growing de­ mand for carpet and, consequently, for carpet installers. Despite this growth in demand, however, most openings will arise as exper­ ienced installers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although this occupation is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than most other construction crafts, it too is affected by downturns in the economy. When the economy slows down, the de­ mand for new carpet falls, lowering the demand for carpet installers. However, because much of their work involves replacing carpet in existing buildings, employment generally remains relatively stable even when new construction activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings of all full-time carpet installers were about $375 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $275 and $510 per week. The top 10 percent earned more than $700 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $185. Carpet installers get paid either on an hourly basis or by the num­ ber of yards installed. The rates vary widely depending on the geo­ graphic location and whether the installer is affiliated with a union. According to limited information available, union carpet installers earned between $16 and $25 an hour in 1992, including fringe bene­ fits. Starting wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually are about half of the experienced worker’s rate. Some installers be­ long to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Nonunion carpet installers are usually paid by the number of yards installed. In 1992, they received between $1.50 and $2.75 a yard. Related Occupations Carpet installers measure, cut, and fit carpet materials. Workers in other occupations involving different materials but which require similar skills include carpenters, cement masons, drywall installers, floor layers, lathers, painters and paperhangers, roofers, sheet-metal workers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact lo­ cal flooring contractors or retailers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers, con­ tact: 13* Floor Covering  Installation Contractors Association, P.O. Box 948, Dal­ ton, GA 30722-0948. 0= United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitu­ tion Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information concerning training contact:  t3= New York City District Council of Carpenters Labor Technical College, 395 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014.  Concrete Masons and Terrazzo Workers (D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014,. 461-010, .684-010; and 861.381-046, and -050)  Nature of the Work Concrete—a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water— is used for many types of construction projects. These range from small jobs such as patios and floors to huge dams or miles of road­ way. Concrete masons place and finish the concrete for these projects. They also may color concrete surfaces, expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of ter­ razzo workers is similar to that of concrete masons. In preparing a site for placing concrete, masons set the forms for holding the concrete to the desired pitch and depth and properly align them. They then direct the casting of the concrete and super­ vise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread the concrete. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to screed (level) the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the concrete, masons carefully smooth the concrete surface with a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches (called a bull float) to cover coarser materials and bring a rich mix­ ture of fine cement paste to the surface. After the concrete has been leveled and floated, finishers press an edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. They use a special tool (called a groover) to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help con­ trol cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface with a powered trowel or by hand with a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. This troweling removes most imperfections and brings the fine cement paste to the surface. As the final step, masons retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they use colored premixed concrete. On concrete surfaces that will remain exposed after forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete ma­ sons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a Portland cement paste and smooth the surface with a rubbing carborundum stone. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich Portland cement mixture using ei­ ther a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Attractive, marble-chip terrazzo requires three layers of materi­ als. First, concrete masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers place a 1-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal ferrule strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the dif­ ferent designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place a fine  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations marble chip mixture that may be color-dyed into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the fer­ rule strips. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier). Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and strenuous. Since most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel a lot. Many jobs are outdoors, but work is generally halted during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chemical burns from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers usually wear water-repellent boots while work­ ing in wet concrete. Employment Concrete masons and terrazzo workers held about 100,000 jobs in 1992; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion of the total. Most concrete masons work for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways, bridges, shopping malls, or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number are employed by firms that manufacture concrete products. Most terrazzo workers work for special trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. About 1 out of 17 concrete masons and terrazzo workers is selfemployed, a smaller proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialize in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 2- or 3-year ap­ prenticeship programs. Many masons first gain experience as con­ struction laborers. On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction from experienced workers in which helpers learn to use the tools, equipment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they progress, assignments become more com­ plex, and trainees usually can do finishing work within a short time.  :  >iP'.  Improved materials, equipment, and tools are making concrete masons and terrazzo workers more productive.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  373  Two- and 3-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly spon­ sored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in addition to a recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom in­ struction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be re­ quired. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics, plan reading, and safety. Apprentices generally receive special in­ struction in layout work and cost estimating. When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical con­ dition, and licensed to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons frequently work in teams. High school courses in shop mathematics and blueprint reading or mechanical drawing provide a helpful background. Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to supervisors or contract estimators. Some open their own concrete contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to job openings that will stem from the rising demand for the services of these workers, other jobs will be­ come available as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The demand for concrete masons and terrazzo workers will rise as the population and the economy grow. More masons will be needed to build highways, bridges, subways, factories, office build­ ings, hotels, shopping centers, schools, hospitals, and other struc­ tures. In addition, the increasing use of concrete as a building mate­ rial—particularly in nonresidential construction—will add to the demand. More concrete masons also will be needed to repair and renovate existing highways, bridges, and other structures. Employ­ ment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, however, will not keep pace with the demand for these construction projects because of rising productivity resulting from improved materials, equip­ ment, and tools. Greater use of improved concrete pumping sys­ tems, quicker setting cement, troweling machines, prefabricated masonry systems, and other timesaving technologies are enabling concrete masons and terrazzo workers to work more efficiently. Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to ups and downs in the econ­ omy. Workers in these trades can experience periods of unemploy­ ment when the level of nonresidential construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas dur­ ing peak periods of building activity. Earnings According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings—including benefits—for concrete masons who belonged to a union and worked full time ranged between $15 and $37 in 1992. Concrete masons in Boston, New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Concrete masons often work overtime, with premium pay, be­ cause once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Annual earnings of concrete masons and terrazzo workers may be lower than the hourly rates suggest because bad weather and down­ turns in construction activity can limit the time they can work. Many concrete masons and terrazzo workers belong to the Oper­ ative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Some terrazzo workers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of the United States.  374  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Related Occupations Concrete masons and terrazzo workers combine skill with knowl­ edge of building materials to construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklayer, form builder, marble setter, plasterer, stonemason, and tilesetter. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors; locals of unions pre­ viously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about concrete masons and terrazzo workers, contact:  Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. XS' International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. X3* Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. xw National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Suite 132, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  Drywall Workers and Lathers (D.O.T. 842.361-010, -014, and -030, .664-010, .684-014; and 869.684-050)  Nature of the Work Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum sandwiched between two layers of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings in most buildings because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster. There are two kinds of drywall workers: installers and finishers. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes—usu­ ally 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally assists the in­ staller in positioning and securing the panel. A lift is often used when placing ceiling panels. After the drywall is installed, finishers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the joint compound into and along each side of the joint with brushlike strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfec­ tions—into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are imperfections caused by the installation of air- conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats, sanding the treated areas after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and almost perfect surface. Some finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Lathers apply metal or gypsum lath to walls, ceilings, or orna­ mental frameworks to form the support base for plaster coatings. Gypsum lath is similar to a drywall panel, but smaller. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  water, or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Lathers usually nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural framework. Working Conditions As in other construction trades, drywall and lathing work some­ times is strenuous. Applicators, tapers, finishers, and lathers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some finishers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds, and injuries from power tools. Be­ cause sanding joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection. Employment Drywall workers and lathers held about 121,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for contractors who specialize in drywall or lathing installa­ tion; others worked for contractors who do many kinds of construc­ tion. Most installers, finishers, and lathers are employed in urban ar­ eas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall worker or lather employed full time, the work is usually done by carpenters and painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most drywall and lathing workers start as helpers and learn their skills on the job. Installer and lather helpers start by carrying mater­ ials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Finisher apprentices begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other im­ perfections. They soon learn to install comer guards and to conceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, they learn to es­ timate the cost of installing and finishing drywall and gypsum lath. Some installers and lathers leam their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an ap­ prenticeship program in carpentry that includes instruction in drywall and lath installation. In addition, local affiliates of the Associ­ ated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders conduct a similar training program for nonunion workers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades conducts a 2-year apprenticeship program for drywall fin­ ishers. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a  Drywall installation can be very strenuous.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic. Drywall workers and lathers with a few years’ experience and leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses. Job Outlook Replacement needs will account for almost all job openings for drywall workers and lathers through the year 2005. Tens of thousands ofjobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occupation is very high, reflecting the lack of for­ mal training requirements and the ups and downs of the business cy­ cle to which the construction industry is very sensitive. Because of their relatively weak attachment to the occupation, many workers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find they dislike the work or because they can’t find steady employment. Additional job openings will be created by the rising demand for drywall work. Employment is expected to grow faster than the aver­ age for all occupations as the level of new construction and renova­ tion increases. In addition to traditional interior work, the growing acceptance of insulated exterior wall systems will add to the demand for drywall workers. Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall installa­ tion, finishing, and lathing are usually done indoors. Therefore, these workers lose less work time because of bad weather than some other construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed between construction projects and during downturns in construc­ tion activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for drywall workers and lathers were about $420 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $305 and $645 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $870 and the bottom 10 per­ cent earned less than $235 a week. Trainees start at about half the rate paid to experienced workers and receive wage increases as they become more highly skilled. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40hour week is standard, but sometimes the workweek may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Related Occupations Drywall workers and lathers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters, floor covering installers, form builders, insulation workers, and plasterers. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing, contact local drywall installation contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employ­ ment service or State apprenticeship agency. For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing, write to: W Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW Washing­ ton, DC 20005.  (3- International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information on training programs in drywall application and lathing, write to:  375  Electricians (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 806.381-062; 822.361-018, -022' 824 261 281-010 -018, .381, .681; 825.381-030, -034; 829.261-018; and 952.364 and .381) ’  Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for light, power, air- conditioning, and refrig­ eration. Electricians install and maintain electrical systems for a va­ riety of purposes, including climate control, security, and communi­ cations. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in either construction or maintenance, a growing number do both. Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical sys­ tems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blueprints indicate the location of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the wall small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to com­ plete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as residential, plastic-covered wire usually is used rather than conduit. Regardless of the type of wire being used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. Wires are joined by twisting ends together with pliers and covering the ends with special plastic connectors. When stronger connections are re­ quired, electricians may use an electric “soldering gun” to melt metal onto the twisted wires, which they then cover with durable electrical tape. When the wiring is finished, they test the circuits for proper connections. In addition to wiring a building’s electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other tele­ communications equipment. A growing number of electricians in­ stall telephone and computer wiring and equipment. They also may connect motors to electrical power and install electronic controls for industrial equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electri­ cian is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and electronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all kinds of electrical equipment. Maintenance electricians spend much of their time in preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. When break­ downs occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. Electricians may re­ place items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex elec­ tronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering techni­ cians, or industrial machinery repairers. (For information about each of these occupations, see the statements located elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electricians also may advise management whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools and testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps.  tap United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitu­ tion Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  ta" National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute 1090 Vermont Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20005.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Electricians’ work is sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. They often  376  Occupational Outlook Handbook connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can be­ gin to learn the trade informally by working as helpers for exper­ ienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also are taught safety practices. Many help­ ers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence  Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers. work in awkward or cramped positions. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must fol­ low strict safety procedures. Most electricians work a standard 40hour week, although overtime may be required. Those in mainte­ nance work may have to work nights, on weekends, and be on call. Employment Electricians held about 518,000 jobs in 1992. More than half were employed in the construction industry. Others worked as mainte­ nance electricians and were employed in virtually every industry. In addition, about 1 out of 10 electricians was self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to learn the electrical trade is by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally im­ proves their ability to find a job. Although more electricians are trained through apprenticeship than workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Large apprenticeship programs are usually sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the Na­ tional Electrical Contractors Association. Training may also be pro­ vided by company management committees of individual electrical contracting companies and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and Independent Electrical Contractors. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who com­ plete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work. The typical large program provides at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year and 8,000 hours of on-thejob training over the course of the apprenticeship. In the classroom, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electri­ cians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, fabricate, and install conduit, as well as install,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  courses. , Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. Special training offered in the Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dex­ terity also are important. Good color vision is needed because work­ ers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice positions to be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or its equivalent. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manu­ facturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although li­ censing requirements vary from area to area, electricians generally must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, materials, or methods of installation. Experienced electricians can become supervisors and then super­ intendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor’s license. Job Outlook Employment of electricians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As the popu­ lation and the economy grow, many electricians will be needed to in­ stall and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. Increasingly, buildings will be prewired during construction to accommodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. More and more factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing sys­ tems. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase, also should stimulate demand for electricians. Additional jobs will be created by rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for electrical work, many openings will occur each year as electricians transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Because of their lengthy training and relatively high earnings, a smaller proportion of electricians than other craft workers leave their occupation each year. The number of retirements is expected to rise, however, as more electricians reach retirement age. Although the employment outlook for electricians is expected to be very good over the long run, people wishing to become construc­ tion electricians should be prepared to experience periods of unem­ ployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods. Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automo­ tive and other manufacturing industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, ef­ forts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity through  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations the increased use of contracting out for electrical services may limit opportunities for maintenance electricians in many industries. How­ ever, this should be partially offset by increased demand by electri­ cal contracting firms. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by geographic area. Employment opportunities follow the movement of people and busi­ nesses among States and local areas and reflect differences in local economic conditions. The number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Some parts of the coun­ try may experience an oversupply of electricians, for example, while others may have a shortage. Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time electricians who were not selfemployed were $550 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $412 and $717 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $321, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $887. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, maintenance electricians had median hourly earnings of $16.68 in 1992. The middle half earned between $13.10 and $19.65 an hour. Annual earnings of electricians also tend to be higher than those of other building trades workers because electricians are less affected by the seasonal nature of construction. Depending on experience, apprentices usually start at 30-50 per­ cent of the rate paid to experienced electricians. As they become more skilled, they receive periodic increases throughout the course of the apprenticeship program. Many employers also provide train­ ing opportunities for experienced electricians to improve their skills. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing maintenance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Elec­ trical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Asso­ ciation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and a knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include air­ conditioning mechanics, cable installers and repairers, electronics mechanics, and elevator constructors. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local electrical contractors; local chapters of the Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., the National Electrical Contractors Association, Home Builders Institute, or the Associ­ ated Builders and Contractors; a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; a local union-management elec­ trician apprenticeship committee; local firms that employ mainte­ nance electricians; or the nearest office of the State employment ser­ vice or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: O" Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., P. O. Box 10379, Alexandria, VA 22310. tw National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA), 3 Bethesda Metro Center, # 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814. W International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 1125 15th St NW„ Washington, DC 20005. W Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rossyln, VA 22209. Homebuilders Institute, 1010 Vermomnt Ave. NW., Washington DC 20005.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  377  Glaziers (D.O.T. 865.361 and .381)  Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modem buildings. Insulated and specially treated glass keeps in warmed or cooled air and provides good con­ densation and sound control qualities; tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure. In large commercial buildings, glass panels give skyscrapers a distinctive look while re­ ducing the need for artificial lighting. The creative use of large win­ dows, glass doors, skylights, and sunspace additions make homes bright, airy, and inviting. Glaziers select, cut, install, and remove all types of glass as well as plastics and similar materials used as glass substitutes. They also in­ stall mirrors, shower doors and bathtub enclosures, and glass for ta­ ble tops and display cases. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. Some­ times glaziers build the metal framework needed to install glass panels or curtainwalls in large commercial buildings. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a fac­ tory or a contractor’s shop. It arrives at the job site ready for glaziers to position and secure it in place. These workers may use a crane or hoist with suction cups to lift large, heavy pieces of glass. They then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Once glaziers have the glass in place, they secure it with mastic, putty or other pastelike cement, bolts, rubber gaskets, glazing com­ pound, metal clips, or metal or wood molding. When they use a rub­ ber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half-tube with a split running its length—to secure glass, they first secure the gasket around the pe­ rimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When they use metal clips and wood molding, glaziers first secure the molding to the opening, place the glass in the molding, and then force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When a glazing compound is used, glaziers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the com­ pound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with glazing compound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually at the job site. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or A-frame or flat against a cutting table. They then mea­ sure and mark the glass for the cut. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diameter. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glasscutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. An increasing number of glaziers use computers in the shop or at the job site to improve their layout work and reduce the amount of glass that is wasted.  378  Occupational Outlook Handbook electronics in order to be able to install electrochromatic glass and electronically controlled glass doors. In addition, the growing use of computers in glass layout requires more and more that glaziers be familiar with personal computers. Advancement consists of increases in pay for most glaziers; some may advance to supervisory jobs or become contractors or estima­ tors.  Glazier secures glass in window frame with glazing compound. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors—sometimes in inclement weather. At times they work on scaffolds at great heights. The job requires a con­ siderable amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing. Gla­ ziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaf­ folds, or from improperly lifting heavy glass panels. Employment Glaziers held about 39,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, alteration, and repair. Others worked for retail glass shops that install or replace glass and wholesale distributors of products containing glass. Glaziers work throughout the country, but jobs are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers recommend that glaziers learn the trade through an ap­ prenticeship program that lasts 3 to 4 years. Apprenticeship pro­ grams, which are administered by the National Glass Association and local union-management committees or local contractors’ as­ sociations, consist of on-the-job training as well as 144 hours of classroom instruction or home study each year. On the job, apprentices learn to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the class­ room, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching, general construction techniques, safety practices, and first aid. Many glaziers learn the trade informally on the job. These work­ ers usually start by carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. They often practice cutting on discarded glass. After a while they are given an opportunity to cut glass for a job. Eventually, help­ ers assist experienced workers on a simple installation job. Learning the trade this way may not provide training as complete as an ap­ prenticeship program, however, and may take longer. Local apprenticeship administrators determine how apprentices are recruited and selected. In general, applicants for apprenticeships and for helper positions must be in good physical condition and at least 17 years old. High school or vocational school graduates are preferred. In some areas, applicants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Courses in general mathematics, blueprint reading or mechan­ ical drawing, general construction, and shop provide a good back­ ground. Standards for acceptance into apprenticeship programs are rising to reflect changing requirements associated with new products and equipment. Glaziers need a basic understanding of electricity and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of glaziers is expected to increase faster than the aver­ age for all occupations through the year 2005. This growth will be in response to anticipated increases in residential and non-residential construction and a need to modernize and repair existing structures. Glass is expected to remain popular in bathroom and kitchen de­ sign, causing demand for glaziers to grow. Improved glass perform­ ance in insulation, privacy, safety, condensation control, and noise reduction are also expected to stimulate the demand for glaziers. Although the employment outlook for glaziers is expected to be good over the long run, people wishing to become construction gla­ ziers should expect to experience periods of unemployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During bad economic times, job openings for glaziers are reduced as the level of construc­ tion declines. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. Consequently, some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of these workers while others may have a shortage. Employment and apprenticeship opportunities should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing con­ tractors and glass shops are located. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for glaziers, openings will occur each year from the need to replace experienced workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other jobs. Earnings According to the Engineering News Record, union glaziers received an average hourly wage of $24.75 in 1992, including fringe benefits. Wages ranged from a low of $15.80 in Dallas to a high of $35.92 in New York City. Glaziers covered by union contracts generally earn more than their non-union counterparts. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced gla­ ziers and increase every 6 months. Because glaziers can lose time due to weather conditions and fluctuations in construction activity, their overall earnings may be lower than their hourly wages suggest. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of construction materials and tech­ niques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, carpenters, floor lay­ ers, paperhangers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work oppor­ tunities, contact local glazing or general contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency; or the nearest of­ fice of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: ^International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information concerning training for glaziers contact: tST Member Services, National Glass Association, 8200 Greensboro Dr., McLean, VA 22102. f3> Flat Glass Marketing Association, White Lakes Professional Building, 3310 Southwest Harrison St., Topeka, KS 66611-2279.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations  379  Insulation Workers (D.O.T. 863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, .664-010, .685-010; and 869.684-082)  Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keeping heat in during the winter and out in the summer. Refrigerated stor­ age rooms, vats, tanks, vessels, boilers, and steam and hot water pipes also are insulated to prevent the wasteful transfer of heat. In­ sulation workers install this insulating material. Insulation workers cement, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers mea­ sure and cut sections of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the material, and slip it over the pipe. They fasten the insulation with adhesive, staples, tape, or wire bands. Sometimes they wrap a cover of aluminum, plastic, or canvas over it and cement or band the cover in place. Sometimes in­ sulation workers screw on sheet metal around insulated pipes to protect the insulation from weather conditions or physical abuse. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insulation onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh pro­ vides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may then install drywall or apply a final coat of plaster for a finished appearance. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers blow in loose-fill insulation. A helper feeds a machine with shredded fi­ berglass, cellulose, or rock wool insulation while another worker blows the insulation from the compressor hose into the space being filled. In new construction or major renovations, insulation workers sta­ ple fiberglass or rockwool batts to exterior walls and ceilings before drywall, paneling, or plaster walls are put in place. In major renova­ tions of old buildings or when putting new insulation around pipes and industrial machinery, insulation workers often must first re­ move the old insulation. In the past, asbestos—now known to cause cancer in humans—was used extensively in walls and ceilings and for covering pipes, boilers, and various industrial equipment. Be­ cause of this danger, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regula­ tions require that asbestos be removed before a building undergoes major renovations or is demolished. When removing asbestos, insu­ lation workers must follow carefully prescribed asbestos removal techniques and work practices. First they seal and depressurize the area that contains the asbestos, then they remove it using hand tools and special filtered vacuum cleaners and air-filtration devices. Insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, saws, pliers, and stapling guns. They use power saws to cut insulating materials, welding machines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors for blowing or spraying in­ sulation. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some­ times they work from ladders or in tight spaces. However, the work is not strenuous; it requires more coordination than strength. Insu­ lation work is often dusty and dirty. The minute particles from insu­ lation materials, especially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Removing cancer-causing asbestos insula­ tion is a hazardous task and is done by specially trained workers. To protect themselves from the dangers of asbestos and irritants, work­ ers follow strict safety guidelines, wear protective suits, masks, and respirators, take decontamination showers, and keep work areas well ventilated.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  iM  Insulation workers use handtools such as knives, trowels, and stapling guns. Employment Insulation workers held about 57,000 jobs in 1992; most worked for insulation or other construction contractors. Others worked for the Federal Government, in wholesale and retail trade, in shipbuilding, and in other manufacturing industries that have extensive installa­ tions for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In less populated areas, insulation work may be done by carpenters, heating and air-conditioning installers, or drywall installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade informally on the job. Trainees are assigned to experienced insulation workers for instruc­ tion and supervision. They begin with simple tasks, such as carrying insulation or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-thejob training can take up to 2 years, depending on the work. Learning to install insulation in homes generally requires less training than in­ sulation application in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experience, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibil­ ity, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in formal apprenticeship programs receive in-depth instruction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship pro­ grams may be provided by a joint committee of local insulation con­ tractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, to which many insula­ tion workers belong. Programs normally consist of 4 years of onthe-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. Insulation workers who work with asbestos usually have to be li­ censed. Although licensure requirements vary from area to area, most States require asbestos removal workers to complete a 3-day training program in compliance with the 1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Act (AHERA). The National Asbestos Council (NAC) provides this training in over 100 locations. This program empha­ sizes “hands-on” training. Typically, students build a decontamina­ tion unit, handle a respirator and filtered vacuum cleaners, and per­ form simulated asbestos removal. In addition, they receive classroom instruction on a wide variety of topics, such as govern­ ment regulations, health effects and worker protection, sampling for asbestos, and work practices. NAC also offers a 2-day course on compliance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations governing industrial asbestos removal in plants and factories, and an annual AHERA recertification program. For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school gradu­ ates who are in good physical condition and are licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheet-metal  380  Occupational Outlook Handbook  layout, and general construction provide a helpful background. Ap­ plicants seeking apprenticeship positions must have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop su­ perintendent, insulation contract estimator, or set up their own in­ sulation or asbestos abatement business. Job Outlook Employment of insulation workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflect­ ing the demand for insulation associated with new construction and renovation as well as the demand for asbestos removal in existing structures. Construction of new residential, industrial, and commer­ cial buildings will drive employment demand for insulation work­ ers. In addition, renovation and retrofitting work in existing struc­ tures will increase demand. Asbestos removal also will provide many jobs for insulation workers, not only because insulation workers often remove asbestos, but because they replace it with another insulating material. The 1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Act requires that all public and private schools have an asbestos management plan. Federal regula­ tions also require that asbestos be removed from buildings that are to be demolished or will undergo major renovations. In addition, many banks require that buildings be free of asbestos before a real estate loan will be granted. All these regulatory requirements are ex­ pected to stimulate asbestos removal and employment growth. The need to maintain, remove, and replace asbestos insulation on old pipes, boilers, and a variety of equipment in chemical and refrigera­ tion plants and petroleum refineries will also add to employment re­ quirements. Despite this growth in demand, replacement needs will account for most job openings. This occupation has the highest turnover of all the construction trades. Each year thousands ofjobs will become available as insulation workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as insulation work­ ers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creat­ ing many job openings. Insulation workers in the construction industry may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of construction activ­ ity. Workers employed in industrial plants generally have more sta­ ble employment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Unlike other construction occupations, insulation workers usu­ ally do not lose work time when weather conditions are poor. Most insulation is applied after buildings are enclosed. Earnings Median weekly earnings for insulation workers who worked full time were $446 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $334 and $608. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $279, and the top 10 percent earned more than $796. According to the Engineering News Record, union insulation workers received an average hourly wage of $28.65 in 1992, includ­ ing benefits. Wages ranged from a low of $ 19.73 an hour in New Or­ leans to a high of $42.47 in New York City. Insulation workers do­ ing commercial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine a knowledge of insulation materials with the skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in occupations involving similar skills include carpenters, carpet in­ stallers, drywall applicators, floor layers, roofers, and sheet-metal workers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportuni­ ties in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor; a local of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbes­ tos Workers; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency, or: O’National Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association, 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 222, Alexandria, VA 22314. Insulation Contractors Association of America, 1321 Duke St., Suite 303, Alexandria, VA 22314.  Painters and Paperhangers (D.O.T. 840.381, .681, and .684; 841.381; and 845.681)  Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make surfaces clean, attractive and bright. In addition, paints and other sealers protect outside walls from wear caused by exposure to the weather. Although some people do both painting and paperhanging, each requires different skills. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to build­ ings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account customers’ wishes, durability, ease of handling, and method of application. They first prepare the surfaces to be covered so the paint will adhere properly. This may require removing the old coat by stripping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, or water and abrasive blasting. Painters also may wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare them for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. There are several ways to apply paint and similar coverings. Painters must be able to choose the right paint applicator for each job, depending on the surface to be covered, the characteristics of the finish, and other factors. Some jobs may only need a good bristle brush with a soft, tapered edge; others may require a dip or fountain pressure roller; still others can best be done using a paint sprayer. Many jobs need several types of applicators. The right tools for each job not only expedite the painter’s work but also produce the most attractive surface. When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, in­ cluding “swing stages” (scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables at­ tached to roof hooks). When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a “bosun chair” (a swinglike device). Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall cover­ ings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying “sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying solvents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering. After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers must prepare the paste or other adhesive. Then they measure the area to be cov­ ered, check the covering for flaws, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, and closely examine the pattern to match it when the strips are hung. The next step is to brush or roll the adhesive onto the back of the covering, then to place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the edges butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, paperhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles, trim the top and bottom with a razor knife, and wipe off any excess adhesive.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 5STT  Painters need to develop a knowledge ofpaint composition and color harmony. Working Conditions Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina because much of the work is done with their arms raised overhead. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. They may sometimes work with hazardous materials. Painters often work outdoors, but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint; some can be hazardous if masks are not worn or if ventilation is poor. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 440,000 jobs in 1992; most were held by painters. The majority of painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restora­ tion, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings, such as apartment complexes, employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, and factories. One of every 2 painters and paperhangers is self-employed, com­ pared to 1 out of 4 other building trades workers. Many painters work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Although training authorities rec­ ommend completion of an apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger, most painters learn the trade informally on the job. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers because few paperhangers have a need for helpers. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use and care of tools and equipment, surface prepa­ ration, application techniques, paint mixing and matching, charac­ teristics of different finishes, blueprint reading, wood finishing, and safety. On-the-job instruction covers similar skill areas for both appren­ tices and helpers. Under the direction of experienced workers, train­ ees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do simple tasks while they learn about paint and painting equipment. Within 2 or 3 years, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating techniques. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  381  equivalent that includes courses in mathematics is generally re­ quired to enter an apprenticeship program. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or esti­ mating jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many estab­ lish their own painting and decorating businesses. Job Outlook Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the level of new construction increases and the stock of buildings and other structures that require maintenance and renovation grows. In addition to job openings created by rising demand for the services of these workers, many tens of thousands of jobs will be­ come available each year as painters and paperhangers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as painters or paperhangers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Be­ cause the number of paperhangers is comparatively small, many fewer openings will exist in this occupation. Prospects for persons seeking jobs as painters or paperhangers should be quite favorable, due to the high turnover and minimal training requirements. Despite the favorable overall conditions, job­ seekers considering these occupations should expect some periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical and seasonal nature of construction activ­ ity. Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects, however, often provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity declines. The most versatile painters and paperhangers are most apt to be kept on the payroll during down­ turns in the economy. Earnings Median weekly earnings for painters who were not self-employed were about $376 in 1992. Most earned between $283 and $534 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $703 and the bottom 10 per­ cent earned less than $202 a week. In general, paperhangers earn more than painters. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically. Many painters and paperhangers are members of the Interna­ tional Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some mainte­ nance painters are members of other unions. Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, drywall, metal, and other surfaces. Other occupations in which workers apply paints and similar finishes include billboard posterers, metal sprayers, undercoaters, and transportation equip­ ment painters. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contrac­ tors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or State employment service. For general information about the work of painters and paperhang­ ers, contact:  13= Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW„ Washington DC 20005. 8 ’ International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. XS- National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1090 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  382  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Plasterers (D.O.T. 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014)  Nature of the Work Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—is en­ joying a resurgence in popularity because of the introduction of newer, less costly materials and techniques. Plasterers apply plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces. They also apply plaster veneer over drywall to create smooth or textured abrasion-resistant finishes. They apply durable plasters such as polymer-based acrylic finishes and stucco to exterior surfaces, and may install prefabricated exterior insula­ tion systems over existing walls for good insulation and interesting architectural effects. In addition, they may cast ornamental designs in plaster. Drywall workers and lathers—a related occupation—use drywall instead of plaster when erecting interior walls and ceilings. (See the statement on drywall workers and lathers elswehere in the Handbook.) When plasterers work with interior surfaces such as cinder block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat of gypsum plaster that provides a base, followed by a second or finish coat (also called white coat), which is a lime-based plaster. When plastering metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, they apply a preparatory or scratch coat with a trowel. They spread this rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, they scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges so the subsequent brown coat will bond to it tightly. Laborers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plas­ terers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface, then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, plaster of Paris, and water. They quickly apply this onto the brown coat using a hawk (a light, metal plate with a handle), trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, du­ rable finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This thin-coat or gypsum veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of Paris and is mixed with water on the job site. It provides a smooth, durable, abrasion resistant finish on interior ma­ sonry surfaces, special gypsum base board, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers may create decorative interior surfaces as well. They do this by pressing a brush or trowel firmly against the wet plaster sur­ face and using a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, plasterers usually apply a mixture of portland cement, lime, and sand (stucco) over cement, concrete, masonry, and lath. Stucco is also applied directly to a wire lath with a scratch coat followed by a brown coat and then a finish coat. Plasterers may also embed marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a pebblelike, decorative finish. Increasingly today, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam in­ sulation board and reinforcing mesh and then trowel on a polymerbased or polymer-modified base coat. They apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an archi­ tect’s blueprint, they may pour or spray a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place according to the plan.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  i Plasterers create decorative interior surfaces. Working Conditions Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers work outside when applying stucco or exterior wall insulation and decorative fin­ ish systems. Because plaster can freeze, heat is usually necessary to complete plastering jobs in cold weather. Sometimes plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground. Plastering is physically demanding—requiring considerable standing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty; plaster materials also soil shoes and clothing and can irritate skin and eyes. Employment Plasterers held about 32,000 jobs in 1992. Most plasterers work on new construction, particularly where special architectural and light­ ing effects are part of the work. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plasters with decorative finishes are very popular. Most plasterers work for independent contractors. About 3 out of every 10 plasterers are self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, many people learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced plasterers. Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for lay­ out work. In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plaster­ ing, blueprint reading, and safety. They also learn how to use vari­ ous tools, such as hand and powered trowels, floats, brushes, straightedges, power tools, plaster-mixing machines, and pistontype pumps. Some apprenticeship programs also allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying materials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and finish coats. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 17 years old, be in good physical condition, and have manual dexter­ ity. Applicants who have a high school education are preferred.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. Plasterers may advance to supervisors, superintendents, or es­ timators for plastering contractors, or may become self-employed contractors. Job Outlook Employment of plasterers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to job openings due to rising demand for plastering work, additional jobs will open up as plasterers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to continue growing as a result of greater appreciation for the durability and attractiveness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering or veneering, in particular, is gaining greater acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, quality of finish, and fire-retard­ ant qualities. New polymer-based or polymer-modified acrylic exte­ rior insulating finishes are also gaining popularity, not only because of their durability, attractiveness, and insulating properties but also because of their lower cost. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plaster work in older structures and create special architec­ tural effects such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials. Most plasterers work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades be­ cause most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers may lose time because materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Best employment opportunities should continue to be in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exte­ rior plaster and decorative finishes are expected to remain popular. Earnings According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings—including benefits—for plasterers who belonged to a union and worked full time ranged between $15 and $33 in 1992. Plasterers in Boston, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Ange­ les, and other large cities received the higher hourly earnings. Ap­ prentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers. Annual earnings for plasterers and apprentices may be less than the hourly rate would indicate because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity may limit their work time. Many plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Asso­ ciation of the United States and Canada, or the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include drywall finishers, bricklayers, concrete masons, marble set­ ters, stonemasons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship commit­ tee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers, contact: 13= International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ET Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  383  Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 806.381-062, 862.261, .281-010, -014, and -022, .361-014, -018, and -022, and .381 except -010 and -038, .681, .682-010, and .684-034)  Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with the plumber who comes to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to this, how­ ever, plumbers and pipefitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water to a municipal water treatment plant, and then to residential, commercial, and public buildings. Others dispose of waste. Some bring in gas for stoves and furnaces. Others supply air-conditioning. Pipe systems in powerplants carry the steam that powers huge tur­ bines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Although plumbing and pipefitting sometimes are considered a single trade, workers generally specialize in one or the other. Plumb­ ers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial buildings. They also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, showers, sinks, and toi­ lets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefit­ ters install and repair both high- and low-pressure pipe systems that are used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling buildings. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters in­ stall automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Plumbers and pipefitters use many different materials and con­ struction techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, use copper, steel, and increasingly plastic pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast iron pipes; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all plumbers and pipefitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervi­ sors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. The following example illustrates how plumbers install piping in a house. Construction plumbers work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appli­ ances. They lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material and within the confines of the structure. They measure and mark areas where pipes will be in­ stalled and connected. They check for obstructions, such as electri­ cal wiring, and, if necessary, plan the pipe installation around the problem. Sometimes they have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors. For some systems, they may have to hang steel supports from ceiling joists to hold the pipe in place. To assemble the system, plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bend­ ing machines. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the method depends on the type of pipe used. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhesives. For copper pipe, they slide fittings over the end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place with a torch. After the piping is in place, plumbers install the fixtures and ap­ pliances and connect the system to the outside water or sewer lines. Using pressure gauges, they check the system to insure that the plumbing works properly. Working Conditions Because plumbers and pipefitters frequently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions, they need physical strength as well as stamina. They may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. They also  384  Occupational Outlook Handbook  ,  •  •  Most plumbers work for plumbing contractors. are subject to falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and burns from hot pipes or from soldering equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters engaged in construction generally work a standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe sys­ tems, including those who provide maintenance services under con­ tract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time trav­ eling to and from work sites. Employment Plumbers and pipefitters held about 351,000 jobs in 1992. About two-thirds worked for mechanical and plumbing contractors en­ gaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, com­ mercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, where manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. One of every 6 plumbers and pipe­ fitters is self-employed. Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are distributed across the coun­ try in about the same proportion as the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Virtually all plumbers undergo some type of apprenticeship train­ ing. Many programs are administered by local union-management committees comprising members of the United Association of Jour­ neymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada, the Mechanical Contractors Asso­ ciation of America, Inc., the National Association of Plumbing­ Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Asso­ ciation, Inc. Nonunion training and apprenticeship programs are adminis­ tered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contrac­ tors, the American Fire Sprinkler Association, and the National As­ sociation of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute. Apprenticeships—both union and nonunion—consist of 4 to 5 years on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include draft­ ing and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chem­ istry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unloading of materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowl­ edge of all aspects of the trade. Although most plumbers are trained through appenticeship, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship commit­ tees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in plumbing and pipefitting is considered very good preparation. In fact, persons with this back­ ground may be given credit for previous experience when entering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or postsecondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, and physics also are good preparation. Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing re­ quirements vary from area to area, but most localities require work­ ers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. Some plumbers and pipefitters may become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing contractors. Others go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Construction activity—residential, industrial, and commercial—is expected to grow significantly over the next decade. Building reno­ vation, including the increasing installation of sprinkler systems; maintenance of powerplants, water and wastewater treatment plants, pipelines, office buildings, factories, and other projects that have large pipe systems; and maintenance of existing residential sys­ tems are expected to spur the demand for these workers. However, the growing use of plastic pipe and fittings, which are much easier to use; more efficient sprinkler systems; and other technologies will mean that employment will not grow as fast as it has in past years. In addition, several thousand positions will become available each year from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the oc­ cupation. Traditionally, many organizations with pipe systems have em­ ployed their own plumbers and pipefitters to maintain their equip­ ment and keep everything running smoothly. In order to reduce their labor costs, many of these firms are relying on workers pro­ vided, under service contracts, by plumbing and pipefitting contrac­ tors. Because of the temporary nature of construction projects, plumb­ ers and pipefitters may experience short bouts of unemployment when the project on which they are working ends. Because con­ struction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic condi­ tions. Employment of these workers generally is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than in some of the other construc­ tion trades. Maintenance, rehabilitation, and replacement of ex­ isting piping systems as well as the growing installation of fire sprin­ kler systems provide jobs for many plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, even when construction activity declines. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, maintenance pipefitters had median earnings of $18.05 an hour in 1992, with the middle half earning between $16.15 and $19.66. In  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations comparison, the average wage for all nonsupervisory and produc­ tion workers in private industry, except farming, was $10.59. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced plumbers or pipefitters. This increases periodi­ cally as they improve their skills. After an initial waiting period, ap­ prentices receive the same benefits as experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Many plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Asso­ ciation of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe­ fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers, stationary engineers, electri­ cians, elevator installers, heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics, industrial machinery repairers, millwrights, and sheetmetal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in plumbing and pipefitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air­ conditioning contractors; a local or State chapter of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Association; a local of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb­ ing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprentice­ ship agency; or the National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1090 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For general information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, contact: ^•National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ^National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. XS“ American Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc., 12959 Jupiter Rd., Suite 142, Dallas, TX 75238-3200. X2T Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850. ®=Home Builders Institute, 1090 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Roofers  spread hot bitumen over it and under the next layer. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps to build up the desired number of layers (called plies). The top layer is either glazed to make a smooth finish, or has gravel embedded in the hot bitumen for a rough surface. An increasing number of flat roofs are covered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or thermoplastic compounds. Roofers roll these sheets over the roofs insulation and seal the seams. Adhesive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballasts hold the sheets in place. The building must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. Most residential roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shin­ gles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, they nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherever two roof surfaces in­ tersect or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail flashing (strips of metal or shingle) over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with roofing ce­ ment or caulking to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and con­ crete walls and floors. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots or remove them with a rub­ bing brick before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing com­ pound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usually spray a bitumen-based coating on inte­ rior or exterior surfaces. Working Conditions Roofers’ work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and bums from hot bitumen. In fact, of all construction industries, the roofing industry has the highest accident rate. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when making repairs. Roofs are extremely hot during the summer. Employment Roofers held about 127,000 jobs in 1992. Almost all wage and salary roofers work for roofing contractors. Two of every 5 roofers are selfemployed. Many self-employed roofers specialize in residential work.  (D.O.T. 866.381-010, -014, and .684-010)  Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To protect buildings and their contents from water damage, roofers repair and install roofs of tar or asphalt and gravel, rubber, thermoplastic, and metal; and shingles made of asphalt, slate, fiberglass, wood, tile, or other material. Repair and reroofing—replacing old roofs on ex­ isting buildings—provide many work opportunities for these work­ ers. Roofers also may waterproof foundation walls and floors. There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched (sloped). Most com­ mercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have flat or slightly sloping roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Some roofers work on both types; others specialize. Most flat roofs are covered with several layers of materials. Roof­ ers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. They then spread a coat of molten bitumen (a tar-like substance) over the insulation. Next, they install partially overlapping layers of roofing felt (fabric saturated in bitumen) over the insulation surface and use a mop to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  385  Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather.  386  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for experienced roofers. They start by carrying equipment and ma­ terial and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months, they are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing materials and then to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. Because some roofing materials are used infrequently, it can take several years to get experience work­ ing on all the various types of roofing applications. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs ad­ ministered by local union-management committees representing roofing contractors and locals of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. The apprenticeship program gen­ erally consists of a minimum of 1,400 hours of on-the-job training annually, plus 144 hours of classroom instruction a year in subjects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job train­ ing for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the ap­ prenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential. A high school education or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in mechanical drawing and basic mathematics. Most apprentices are at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing con­ tractor or become contractors themselves.  materials for protection and decoration include carpenters, concrete masons, drywall applicators, floor covering installers, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters.  Job Outlook Jobs for roofers should be plentiful through the year 2005, primarily because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupa­ tions or who leave the labor force. Turnover is high; roofing work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, and a significant number of workers treat roofing as a temporary job until something better comes along. Some roofers leave the occupation to go into other construction trades. Employment of roofers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Roofs deteriorate faster than most other parts of buildings and periodically need to be repaired or replaced. About 75 percent of roofing work is repair and reroofing, a higher proportion than in most other construction work. As a result, demand for roofers is less susceptible to down­ turns in the economy than some of the other construction trades. In addition to repair and reroofing work on the growing stock of build­ ings, new construction of industrial, commercial, and residential buildings will add to the demand for roofers. However, many inno­ vations and advances in materials, techniques, and tools have made roofers more productive and will restrict the growth of employment at least to some extent. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer, when most roofing is done.  Nature of the Work Much of the routine physical labor and maintenance in and around oil fields, gas facilities and pipelines is performed by roustabouts. They dig ditches or trenches for foundations or for drainage, load and unload trucks and boats, mix concrete, paint equipment, cut down trees and brush, and connect pipes and hydraulic hoses. They also may assemble and perform minor repairs on oil field machinery and equipment—such as pumps, boilers, valves, and steam engines. Much of their work is done using handtools, such as hammers, wrenches, and shovels. With increasing mechanization in the oil in­ dustry, however, roustabouts also operate equipment such as motor­ ized lifts, power tools, electronic testers, and hand-held computers for reading tanks. With such laborsaving equipment, roustabouts are able to assume more maintenance responsibilities. Most roustabouts work with crews around existing oil wells. Others work for companies engaged in drilling wells, almost all of which is done by specialized companies known as drilling contrac­ tors. Roustabouts frequently assist skilled workers such as welders, electricians, and mechanics. They generally work under the supervi­ sion of a maintenance superintendent.  Sources of Additional Information For information about roofing apprenticeships or work opportuni­ ties in this trade, contact local roofing contractors; a local of the Roofers union; a local joint union-management apprenticeship com­ mittee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: W National Roofing Contractors Association, 10255 W. Higgins Rd., Rosemont, IL 60018. IS” United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers, 1125 17th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036.  Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.684-046 and 939.687-018)  Earnings Median weekly earnings for roofers working full time were about $315 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $295 and $595 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $830 weekly and the lowest 10 percent, less than $230. According to the Engineering News Record, average hourly earn­ ings—including benefits—for union roofers were $23.63 in 1992. Wages ranged from a low of $14.85 in Atlanta to a high of $35.13 in New York City. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced roofers and receive periodic raises as they acquire the skills of the trade. Earnings for roofers are reduced on occasion because poor weather often limits the time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers. Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, single-ply plastic or rub­ ber sheets, or other materials to waterproof building surfaces. Workers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Roustabouts’ work is fairly strenuous and requires frequent bending, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Working Conditions Roustabouts’ work is fairly strenuous and requires frequent bend­ ing, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting. Hazards include falls from rigs or derricks and other platforms, injuries from falling ob­ jects, cuts and abrasions from various tools and equipment, and sore or strained muscles from heavy lifting. Roustabouts work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Those working on offshore rigs and plat­ forms can experience strong ocean currents, tides, and storms. Roustabouts who work on offshore drilling rigs generally work 7 days a week, 12 hours a day, and then have 7 days off. They live on the drilling platform for a week at a time and return to shore by heli­ copter or crewboat. In contrast, those who work onshore in oil pro­ duction operations generally work regular 5-day, 40-hour weeks. Many drilling operations continue 24 hours a day until oil is discov­ ered or the location is abandoned as a dry hole. This requires three 8-hour shifts or “tours,” 7 days a week. Roustabouts working with drilling crews move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in a few weeks or months. Those who work on production wells usually re­ main in the same location for long periods. Employment Roustabouts held about 33,000 jobs in 1992. Seven of every 10 jobs were in the oil and gas field services industry. The remaining jobs were in the crude petroleum and natural gas industry. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in a large number of States, about 85 percent of all workers are employed in eight States. Texas leads in the number of oil field jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklahoma, Cali­ fornia, Colorado, Wyoming, Alaska, and New Mexico. Most jobs are full-time, permanent positions. However, some roustabouts are temporary workers, such as students during the summer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People with little or no formal training or work experience can get jobs as roustabouts. However, with extremely keen competition for jobs in recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this oc­ cupation have previous work experience as a roustabout or a 2-year degree in petroleum technology—providing knowledge of oil field operations and familiarity with computers and other automated equipment. Applicants must be physically fit and able to pass a physical ex­ amination. Employers seek candidates who have mechanical ability, agility, coordination, and good eyesight. Companies may administer aptitude tests to prospective employees or screen them for drug abuse. Roustabouts usually are hired in the field by the maintenance su­ perintendent or by a local company representative. Companies gen­ erally hire workers who live near the work site. Employers are often reluctant to invest in training because of the relatively high turnover rate among roustabouts. However, some employees are given an opportunity to take courses offered by vari­ ous junior colleges. In some companies, roustabouts participate in educational assistance programs that pay for job-related courses taken on the employee’s own time. New hires without postsecondary training or previous work expe­ rience learn through on-the-job training under the supervision of a more skilled worker. Roustabouts start by performing basic laborer tasks such as unloading trucks and digging trenches. As they gain experience, they progress to more complex tasks such as fixing mo­ tors or repairing pumps. During their training, they learn about safety, maintenance of equipment and machinery, and general oil field operations. Roustabouts on maintenance and operation crews can advance to jobs as switcher, gauger, pumper, lease operator, or, for those who demonstrate leadership qualities, to chief operator or maintenance superintendent. Those on drilling crews may advance to roughneck, floor hand, or rotary helper in 3 to 6 months. (Roughnecks guide  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  387  pipe sections to and from oil well openings and help operate drilling machinery.) Roughnecks and other crew members may advance to derrick operator and, after several years, to driller. A driller with significant experience and supervisory skills can advance to tool pusher in charge of one or more drilling rigs. Roustabouts who are graduates of petroleum technology pro­ grams—generally 2 years long—can advance to engineering techni­ cian or related jobs. Some attend company schools where they re­ ceive specialized training in electricity, welding, or other subjects, and later advance to various craft jobs—electrician, welder, or pipefitter, for example. During periods of rapid growth in the oil industry, advancement opportunities are plentiful for capable workers. Because new jobs have been scarce in recent years, however, advancement opportuni­ ties have been limited. Job Outlook Job opportunities for roustabouts are expected to be limited. Em­ ployment of roustabouts is expected to decline through the year 2005 as a result of reduced exploration and falling production in the domestic oil industry, as well as increasing automation of oil field operations. Replacement needs will account for virtually all job openings in this occupation, but as employment of roustabouts declines, many of those who leave these jobs will not be replaced. Like many entry level occupations, turnover among roustabouts is relatively high, particularly for those workers involved in offshore drilling. Some roustabouts find the work too strenuous or dirty and leave the occu­ pation. Many people take roustabout jobs to earn money for a spe­ cific purpose—for example, a college education—and quit after a short time. Still others stay only long enough to acquire the mini­ mum skills to advance into more highly skilled jobs. In recent years, there has been a worldwide surplus of oil. Major oil finds around the world and increased production by key foreign oil producers, such as the Middle Eastern and North Sea nations, have increased the supply of oil. At the same time, domestic conser­ vation of oil by industry and the public has reduced the demand for oil. This surplus has resulted in lower oil prices and a reduced incen­ tive for exploration and drilling. Many “stripper” oil wells—labor­ intensive operations that employ many roustabouts—have been forced to close down, resulting in layoffs of some roustabouts. In an effort to cut costs, oil companies have streamlined operations and maintained their production levels with fewer workers. The number ofjob openings for roustabouts should continue to be limited, so employers should continue to be selective in hiring. Job opportunities will be best for persons with previous experience as a roustabout or formal training in petroleum technology. Job oppor­ tunities are expected to be better on offshore rigs than in onshore ac­ tivities. Employment of roustabouts is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, particularly to the level of activity in the oil industry. During a slowdown in activity, roustabouts are subject to layoffs. Earnings In 1992, estimated earnings for roustabouts averaged $11.90 an hour. Roustabouts in the oil and gas field industry earned an esti­ mated average of $ 13.30 an hour. Those working offshore had an es­ timated hourly rate of $14.40, while onshore workers earned an esti­ mated $12.50 an hour. Roustabouts working in the contract drilling industry averaged an estimated $9.90 an hour; those working on­ shore earned an estimated $9.70, and offshore workers earned an es­ timated $10.60. Average earnings for roustabouts varied by area— ranging from an estimated $10.20 in the Middle Atlantic States to an estimated $12.70 in the Western Mountain States. Only about one-fourth of all firms employing oil field operation workers and less than 5 percent of firms employing contract drilling workers were covered by union contracts. Workers in establish­ ments with collective bargaining agreements are represented by the  388  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Associated Petroleum Employees Union or by the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. Related Occupations Roustabouts assist skilled oil field workers. Other laborers who as­ sist skilled workers include construction laborers, dockhands, and material handlers. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities for roustabouts may be available from local offices of the State employment service or oil companies and drilling contractors. The names and addresses of oil companies are listed in either the U.S.A. Oil Industry Directory or the Time Oil and Gas Directory.  Sheetmetal Workers (D.O.T. 804.281-010 and -014)  Nature of the Work Sheetmetal workers make, install, and maintain air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and pollution control duct systems; roofs; sid­ ing; rain gutters and downspouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; outdoor signs; and many other building parts and products made from metal sheets. They may also work with fiberglass and plastic materials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installa­ tion, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. (This statement does not include workers employed in the mass production of sheetmetal products.) Sheetmetal workers usually fabricate their products at a shop away from the construction site. They first study plans and specifi­ cations to determine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make duct work, counter tops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheetmetal workers use computerized metalworking equipment. This enables them to ex­ periment with different layouts and to select the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut or form the parts with com­ puter-controlled saws, lasers, shears, and presses. In shops without computerized equipment and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheetmetal workers use hand calculators to make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools. Before assembling the pieces, sheetmetal workers check each part for accuracy and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten the seams and joints together with welds, bolts, ce­ ment, rivets, solder, specially formed sheetmetal drive clips, or other connecting devices. They then take the parts to the construction site where they further assemble the pieces as they install them. These workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts at the worksite or to alter parts made in the shop. Some jobs are done completely at the job site. When installing a metal roof, for example, sheetmetal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, they fasten machinemade molding at joints, along corners, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  In addition to installation, some sheetmetal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Sheetmetal workers may also perform safe removal of asbestos and toxic materials. Working Conditions Sheetmetal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabri­ cate sheetmetal products work in shops that are well lighted and well ventilated. They stand for long periods and may have to lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheetmetal workers must fol­ low safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be dangerous. They may be subject to cuts from sharp metal, burns from soldering and welding, and falls from ladders and scaf­ folds. They generally wear safety glasses and must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily get caught in a machine. Those doing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quarters or in awkward positions. Although installing duct systems and kitchen equipment is done indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gut­ ters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheetmetal workers to work in all kinds of weather. Employment Sheetmetal workers held about 91,000 wage and salary jobs in the construction industry in 1992. Seven of every 10 worked for plumb­ ing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; 1 of every 5 worked for roofing and sheetmetal contractors; and the rest worked for other special trade contractors and for general contractors engaged in residential and commercial building. Unlike many other con­ struction trades, very few sheetmetal workers are self- employed. Jobs for sheetmetal workers are distributed throughout the coun­ try in about the same proportion as the total population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sheetmetal contractors consider apprenticeship the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours per year of class­ room instruction. Apprenticeship programs provide comprehensive instruction in both sheetmetal fabrication and installation. They are administered by local joint committees composed of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association, or by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin with basic  In many shops, sheet-metal workers use computerized equipment to cut parts.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, fittings, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and other non-metallic materials. In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, plan and specifica­ tion reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of computerized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices learn the relation­ ship between sheetmetal work and other construction work. A relatively small number of persons pick up the trade infor­ mally, usually by working as helpers to experienced sheetmetal workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they learn to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the job site to learn installation. Those who acquire their skills this way often take vocational school courses in mathematics or sheetmetal fabrication to supplement their work ex­ perience. Helpers usually must pass an exam to be promoted to the journey level. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude. Good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and manual dexterity are also important. Local apprenticeship commit­ tees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in Al­ gebra, trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop pro­ vide a helpful background for learning the trade, as does work experience obtained in the Armed Services. It is important that experienced sheetmetal workers keep abreast of new technolgical developments such as the growing use of com­ puterized layout and laser cutting machines. Workers often take ad­ ditional training provided by the union or by their employer in order to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. Sheetmetal workers may advance to supervisory jobs. Some take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet­ metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Job Outlook Employment of sheetmetal workers in construction is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for sheetmetal installation should increase as more industrial, commercial, and residential structures are built. Grow­ ing demand for more energy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in the growing stock of older buildings, as well as other types of renovation and maintenance work, also should boost employment. In addition, the greater use of decorative sheet­ metal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheetmetal workers. Despite this growth in demand, most job openings will arise as experienced workers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Job prospects are expected to be excellent for skilled sheetmetal workers over the long run, although workers may experience peri­ ods of unemployment when construction projects end and when ec­ onomic conditions reduce the amount of construction activity. Be­ cause local economic conditions can vary so widely, there can be shortages of experienced workers in some areas and an oversupply in other parts of the country. Nevertheless, employment of sheet­ metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is less af­ fected by economic fluctuations than new construction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheetmetal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also continues during construction slumps as individuals and businesses seek more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. Because a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  389  large proportion of sheetmetal installation and maintenance is done indoors, these workers usually lose less work time due to bad weather than other construction workers. Apprenticeship opportunities also should be plentiful as unions and employers strive to meet the rising demand for skilled workers. However, the availability of training slots fluctuates with economic conditions, so the number of openings may vary from year to year and by geographic area. Earnings According to the Engineering News Record, average hourly earn­ ings—including benefits—for union sheetmetal workers were S27.62 in 1992. Wages ranged from a low of $18.06 in Birmingham, Alabama, to a high of $42.47 in New York City. Apprentices gener­ ally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced work­ ers. Throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, they re­ ceive periodic increases as they acquire the skills of the trade. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened work­ weeks. A large proportion of sheetmetal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheetmetal products, sheetmetal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materi­ als and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include layout workers, machinists, metal fabricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and tool and die mak­ ers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowl­ edge include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians and glaziers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work oppor­ tunities, contact local sheetmetal contractors or heating, refrigera­ tion, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers Union; a local of the Sheetmetal and Air Conditioning Contractors Association; a local joint union-management appren­ ticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about sheetmetal workers, contact: *3= The Sheet Metal National Training Fund, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. W Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St. NW., Rossyln, VA 22209. XW The Sheetmetal and Air Conditioning Contractors Association, 4201 La­ fayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 22021. tyThe Sheet Metal Workers International Association, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Structural and Reinforcing Ironworkers (D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018, -022, .381-010, .684-026; and 809.381-022, and -026)  Nature of the Work Materials made from iron, steel, aluminum, and bronze are used ex­ tensively in the construction of highways, bridges, office buildings, power transmission towers, and other large buildings. These struc­ tures have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. In ad­ dition, reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or wire fabric—is an important material in buildings, bridges, and other structures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, and window frames, as well as lampposts, railings, fences, and decorative ironwork are used to make these structures more functional and attractive. Structural  390  Occupational Outlook Handbook  and reinforcing ironworkers fabricate, assemble, and install these products. These workers also repair, renovate, and maintain older buildings and structures such as steel mills, utility plants, automo­ bile factories, highways, and bridges. Before construction can begin, ironworkers must erect the steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other materials and equipment around the construction site. This equip­ ment arrives at the construction site in sections. There it is lifted into position by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect the sections and set up the cables that do the hoisting. Once this job has been completed, ironworkers begin to connect steel columns, beams, and girders according to blueprints and in­ structions from supervisors and superintendents. Structural steel, reinforcing rods, and ornamental iron generally are delivered to the construction site ready for erection—cut to the proper size with holes drilled for bolts and numbered for assembly. This work is done by ironworkers in fabricating shops located away from the construc­ tion site. There they lay out the raw steel received from a steel mill and cut, bend, drill, bolt, and weld each piece according to the speci­ fications for that particular job. Ironworkers at the construction site unload and stack the fabricated steel so it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, ironworkers attach cables from the crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope (tag line) attached to the steel to pre­ vent it from swinging. The steel is hoisted into place in the frame­ work, where several workers using spud wrenches position it with connecting bars and jacks. Workers use driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—to align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Then they bolt the piece in place temporarily, check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs, laser equipment, transits, or levels and then bolt or weld it permanently in place. Reinforcing ironworkers set the bars in the forms that hold con­ crete, following blueprints that show the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars. They fasten the bars together by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the deck. Al­ though these materials usually arrive ready to use, ironworkers may occasionally have to cut the bars with metal shears or acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc­ welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire fabric. Workers cut and fit the fabric and, while a concrete crew places the concrete, ironworkers use hooked rods to position it prop­ erly in the concrete. Ornamental ironwork and related pieces are installed after the ex­ terior of the building has been completed. As the pieces are hoisted into position, ironworkers bring them into position, make sure they fit correctly, and bolt, braze, or weld them for a secure fit. They also erect metal tanks used to store petroleum, water, or other fluids and assemble prefabricated metal buildings according to plans or specifi­ cations. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing ironworkers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work when it is wet, icy, or extremely windy. Because the danger of injuries due to falls is so great, ironworkers use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce the risk. Employment Structural and reinforcing ironworkers held about 66,000 jobs in 1992. Almost all of these workers were employed in the construc­ tion industry. Nearly 6 of every 10 worked for structural steel erec­ tion contractors; most of the remainder worked for a variety of con­ tractors specializing in the construction of homes, factories, commercial buildings, churches, schools, bridges and tunnels, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  water, sewer, communications, and power lines. Very few are selfemployed. Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where most commercial and industrial construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn this trade. Apprenticeship programs are usually administered by joint union-management committees made up of representatives of local unions of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers and local chapters of contractors’ as­ sociations. The apprenticeship consists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours a year of classroom instruc­ tion. In the classroom, apprentices study blueprint reading, mathemat­ ics for layout work, the basics of structural erecting, rigging, rein­ forcing, welding and burning, ornamental erection and assembling, and the care and safe use of tools and materials. On the job, appren­ tices work in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, connecting structural steel, and welding. Some ironworkers learn informally on the job. These workers generally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive training programs. On-the-job trainees usually begin by assisting experienced ironworkers by doing simple jobs like carrying various materials. With experience, they perform more difficult tasks like cutting and fitting different parts. Learning through work experience alone may not provide training as com­ plete as an apprenticeship program, however, and usuaally takes longer. Ironworkers generally must be at least 18 years old. AJiigh school diploma may be preferred by employers and may be required by some local apprenticeship committees. Courses in general mathe­ matics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Because materials used in ironworking are heavy and bulky, iron­ workers must be in good physical condition. They also need good agility, balance, eyesight, and spatial perception in order to work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Ironworkers should not be afraid of heights or suffer from dizziness. Some experienced workers become supervisors. Others may go into the contracting business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of structural and reinforcing ironworkers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth in industrial and commercial construction as  ft M  I “  Reinforcing workers work together to tie-wire reinforcing bars.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations well as the rehabilitation and maintenance of an increasing number of older buildings, factories, power plants, and highways and bridges is expected to increase employment demand. In addition, more ironworkers will be needed to build incinerators and other structures to contain hazardous materials as part of ongoing toxic waste cleanup. Despite this rising demand for structural and rein­ forcing ironworkers, most openings will result from the need to re­ place experienced ironworkers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The number of job openings fluctuates from year to year as eco­ nomic conditions and the level of construction activity change. Dur­ ing economic downturns, ironworkers can experience high rates of unemployment. Similarly, job opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Job openings for ironworkers usually are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction ac­ tivity increases. Earnings According to the Engineering News Record, prevailing union wage rates—including benefits—for ironworkers averaged about $27 an hour in 1992. Their wages ranged from a low of about $18 in New Orleans, to a high of between $38-49 in New York City. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, they receive periodic increases as they acquire the skills of the trade. Earnings for ironworkers may be reduced on occasion because work can be limited by bad weather and the short-term nature of construction jobs. Many workers in this trade are members of the International As­ sociation of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing ironworkers play an essential role in er­ ecting buildings, bridges, highways, powerlines, and other struc­ tures. Others who also work on these construction jobs are operat­ ing engineers, concrete masons, and welders.  391  centers, tunnels, lobbies of buildings, bathrooms, food preparation areas, and hospitals. Tilesetters, like the ancient artists, apply tile to floors, walls, and ceilings. To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1 inch to 12 inches square, they use cement or mastic (a very sticky paste). When using cement, tilesetters nail a support of metal mesh to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement mortar, called a scratch coat, onto the metal screen and a small tool, similar to a rake, to scratch the surface of the soft mortar. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply another coat of mortar to level the surface and then apply mortar to the back of the tile and place it onto the surface. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive (called thin set), tileset­ ters need a flat, solid surface such as drywall, concrete, plaster, or wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then properly position it. Because tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This allows workers to examine the pattern and make changes. In order to cover all exposed areas, including comers and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins, tilesetters cut tiles to fit with a machine saw or a special cutting tool. Once the tile is placed, they gently tap the sur­ face with their trowel handle or a small block of wood to seat the tiles evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with grout—a very fine cement. They then scrape the surface with a rub­ ber-edged device called a squeegee to dress the joints and remove ex­ cess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Working Conditions Tilesetters generally work indoors. Because most of the structure has been completed, the work area is relatively clean and unclut­ tered. Much of the workday is spent bending, kneeling, and reach­ ing, activities that require endurance but not exceptional strength. To protect their knees, most workers wear kneepads.  Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportuni­ ties, contact local general contractors; a local of the Ironworkers union; a local joint ironworkers’ union-management apprenticeship committee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about ironworkers, contact: O’Associated General Contractors of American, Inc., 1300 North 17th St., Rossyln, VA 22209-3883 O’ International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. O’National Erectors Association, 1501 Lee Hwy., Suite 202, Arlington, VA 22209. O’ National Association of Reinforcing Steel Contractors, P.O. Box 280, Fairfax, VA 22030.  Tilesetters sp**®  (D.O.T. 861.381-054, -058, and .684-018)  Nature of the Work In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for mosaics—an art form using small, decorative ceramic squares. Over the years, tile has been a popular building material because it is durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean. It is used today, for instance, in shopping  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1 1 Tilesetters generally work indoors.  392 Occupational Outlook Handbook Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazard­ ous as some other construction occupations. Employment Tilesetters held about 30,000 jobs in 1992. Most wage and salary tilesetters were employed by tilesetting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construction projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. One of every 2 tilesetters is self-em­ ployed, compared to 1 of every 4 construction workers. Most selfemployed tilesetters work on residential projects. Tilesetters are employed throughout the country but are found largely in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship pro­ gram, which consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as blueprint reading, layout, and basic mathematics. In practice, however, most tilesetters acquire their skills infor­ mally by working as helpers to experienced workers. They begin by familiarizing themselves with the tools of the trade, and then they learn to mix and apply cement and to apply mastic. As they pro­ gress, they learn to cut and install tile, apply grout, and do finishing work. When hiring apprentices or helpers, employers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathemat­ ics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, man­ ual dexterity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Skilled tilesetters may start their own contracting businesses or may become supervisors or estimators for other contractors. Job Outlook Employment of tilesetters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Population and business growth, which should result in more construction of shop­ ping malls, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and other structures where tile is used extensively, will stimulate demand for tilesetters.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Tile is also being used more extensively in more expensive homes, and construction of these homes is expected to increase. Increasing popularity of tile as a building material is also expected to increase the demand for tilesetters. Despite the increased demand for tilesetting, most job openings will result from the need to replace tilesetters who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Job opportunities will not be as plenti­ ful as in other construction occupations because the occupation is small and turnover is relatively low. Earnings According to the limited information available, hourly rates for ex­ perienced tilesetters ranged from $10 to $28 in 1992. Apprentices usually start earning 50 percent ofjourney workers’ wages. The principal union organizing workers in this trade is the Inter­ national Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Some tileset­ ters also belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Join­ ers of America. Related Occupations Tilesetters use their knowledge of tools and masonry materials along with skill and dexterity to produce attractive, durable sur­ faces. Other workers with similar abilities include bricklayers, con­ crete masons, marblesetters, plasterers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeship or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tilesetting contractors; locals of the unions pre­ viously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of tilesetters, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, Internationa] Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20005. W United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers Division, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Production Occupations Assemblers Precision Assemblers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Workers who put together the parts of manufactured products are called assemblers. In some instances, such as the building of a car, hundreds of assemblers work on a single product; in others, such as the assembly of a toy doll, a single assembler may be responsible for each product. Assembly work varies from simple, repetitive jobs that are relatively easy to learn to those requiring great precision and many months of experience and training. Precision assemblers are the highly experienced and trained workers who assemble com­ plicated products. The work of precision assemblers requires a high degree of accu­ racy. Workers must be able to interpret detailed specifications and instructions and apply independent judgment. Some experienced as­ semblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling proto­ types or test products. Precision assemblers involved in product de­ velopment must know how to read and interpret engineering specifications from text, drawings, and computer-aided drafting sys­ tems, and how to use a variety of tools and precision measuring in­ struments. Precision assemblers may work on subassemblies or the complete final assembly of finished products or components of products such as electronic equipment, machinery, or aircraft. For example, preci­ sion electrical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify prototypes or final assemblies of items such as missile con­ trol systems, radio or test equipment, computers, machine-tool nu­ merical controls, radar, sonar, telemetering systems, and appli­ ances. Precision electromechanical equipment assemblers prepare and test equipment or devices such as dynamometers, ejection seat mechanisms, magnetic drums, and tape drives. Precision machine builders construct, assemble, or rebuild engines and turbines, and office, agricultural, construction, oil field, rolling mill, textile, woodworking, paper, printing, and food wrapping machinery. Pre­ cision aircraft assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes, space vehicles, or missiles, such as wings or landing gear. Precision structural metal fitters align and fit structural metal parts according to detailed specifications prior to welding or riveting. The manufacturing process is changing. Flexible manufacturing systems, which include the manufacturing applications of robotics, computers, programmable motion control, and various sensing technologies, are changing the way goods are made and affecting the jobs of those who make them. As manufacturing firms strive for greater precision and productivity, jobs that can be performed more economically or more accurately by automated equipment will be restructured; many of them will be upgraded or disappear. Until re­ cently, however, relatively few precision assembly jobs have been eliminated by automation. The need for precision, independent judgment, and knowledge has placed many jobs beyond the capabil­ ities of robots. Because much precision assembly work is done in difficult-to-reach locations unsuited for robots—inside airplane fuse­ lages or inside gear boxes, for example—replacement of these workers by automated processes will be slower and less comprehen­ sive than replacement of welders and painters. Working Conditions The conditions under which precision assemblers work depend on the manufacturing plant where they are employed. Electronics as­ semblers sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well lighted, and free  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  k?...  One out of 3 precision assemblers works in the electronics industry. from dust. Assemblers of aircraft and industrial machinery, how­ ever, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. In some plants, workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Employment Virtually all of the 334,000 precision assembler jobs in 1992 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. Almost one-third of all jobs involved assembly of electronic and electrical machinery, equip­ ment, and supplies including electrical switches, welding equip­ ment, electric motors, lighting equipment, household appliances, and radios and television sets. Nearly one-quarter involved assem­ bly of industrial machinery (diesel engines, steam turbine genera­ tors, farm tractors, mining and construction machinery, and office machines). Other industries employing many precision assemblers were transportation equipment (aircraft, autos, trucks, and buses) and instruments. The following tabulation lists the industries that provided most wage and salary jobs for precision assemblers in 1992: Total (percent)....................................................................................  i oo  Electronic and other electrical equipment............................................ Industrial machinery and equipment.................................................... Transportation equipment..................................................................... Instruments and related products.......................................................... Fabricated metal products..................................................................... Other industries......................................................................................  32 24 20 18 4  2  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision assemblers often are promoted from the ranks of workers in less skilled jobs in the same firm. Sometimes, outside applicants may be hired if they possess suitable experience. The ability to do ac­ curate work at a rapid pace is a key job requirement. A high school diploma is helpful but usually is not required. For some precision assembly jobs, applicants need specialized training. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. 393  394  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and elec­ tronic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color vision. As precision assemblers become more experienced, they may pro­ gress to jobs that require more skill and be given more responsibil­ ity. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly oper­ ations and understand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles that opera­ tors or inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also may advance to quality control jobs or be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Those with a background in math, science, and computers may advance to programmers or operators of more highly auto­ mated production equipment. Job Outlook Opportunities for those who wish to become precision assemblers depend on the industries in which the jobs are located. For instance, there should be keen competition for assembly jobs in the aerospace and electronics industries. The aerospace industry is anticipating re­ ductions in defense contracts through the 1990’s, uncertain funding for space projects, and weaker commercial aircraft demand than was expected in the late 1980’s. The electronics industry, on the other hand, faces the decade ahead with excellent prospects for growth. As firms invest in more automated production equipment and processes, however, the number of assembly jobs in electronics will fall. Other industries employing precision assemblers, such as indus­ trial machinery and instruments, may provide more opportunities for employment than the aerospace or electronics industries. But many firms in these industries sell their products all over the world and are subject to growing international competition. The effect of automation on precision assembler employment will depend on how rapidly and extensively new manufacturing technol­ ogies are adopted. Not all precision assemblers can be replaced effi­ ciently by automated processes. Flexible manufacturing systems are expensive, and a large volume of repetitive work is required to jus­ tify their purchase. Also, where the assembly parts involved are ir­ regular in size, new technology is only now beginning to make in­ roads. For example, robot assembly works best where products are  designed specifically to be assembled by robots. In addition, manu­ facturers are less willing to invest in product and equipment rede­ sign as long as existing operations are profitable. An alternative to automation for many firms is to send their sub­ assembly or component production functions to countries where la­ bor is cheaper. If this trend continues, assembly work sent abroad may well cost more jobs than robots or other automated manufac­ turing systems. Employment of precision assemblers is expected to decline through the year 2005, with increasing automation offsetting any in­ crease in employment that would have occurred due to industrial growth. Despite the expected decline in employment, a moderate number ofjob openings will occur as workers transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Earnings Earnings information is somewhat limited for precision assemblers. Full-time workers who assemble electrical and electronic equipment had median weekly earnings of $318 in 1992. Most earned between $248 and $418; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $201 a week and the highest 10 percent, over $546. In many unionized companies manufacturing autos, aircraft, and electronic equipment, wages of precision assemblers ranged from $400 to $600 per week in 1992. Many precision assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri­ cultural Implement Workers of America; the International Brother­ hood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and assembling things are welders, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is available from local offices of the State employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier.  Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work For the millions of workers who assemble manufactured goods, ser­ vice electronics equipment, build office buildings, load trucks, or perform thousands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervi­ sor is the boss. These supervisors ensure that workers, equipment, and materials are used properly and efficiently to maximize produc­ tivity. They are often responsible for very expensive and complex equipment or systems. Supervisors make sure machinery is set up correctly and schedule or perform repairs and maintenance work. Supervisors create work schedules, keep production and employee records, monitor employees and ensure that work is done correctly and on time. They organize the workers’ activities and make any necessary adjustments to ensure that work continues uninterrupted. Supervisors also train new workers and ensure the existence of a safe working environment. Blue-collar worker supervisors may have other titles, such as first-line supervisors, foremen, or forewomen. In the textile indus­ try, they may be referred to as second hands; on ships they may be called boatswains. In the construction industry, they can be referred  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  to as superintendents, crew chiefs or foremen/forewomen depend­ ing upon the type and size of their employer. Toolpushers or gang pushers are the common terms used to describe blue- collar supervi­ sors in the oil drilling business. Regardless of industry setting or job title, a supervisor’s primary responsibility is to ensure that the work gets done. The way supervi­ sors accomplish this task is changing in some organizations. In com­ panies that have restructured their operations for maximum effi­ ciency, supervisors use computers to schedule work flow, monitor the quality of their workers’ output, keep track of materials used, update their inventory control system, and perform other supervi­ sory tasks. New management philosophies emphasize fewer levels of management and greater employee power and decision making. In the past, supervisors used their power and authority to direct the ef­ forts of their subordinates; increasingly, supervisors are assuming the role of a facilitator for groups of workers, aiding in group deci­ sion making and conflict resolution. Blue-collar worker supervisors have many interpersonal tasks re­ lated to their job as well. They inform workers about company plans and policies; recommend good performers for wage increases, awards, or promotions; and deal with poor performers by outlining  Production Occupations expectations, counseling workers in proper methods, issuing warn­ ings, or recommending disciplinary action. They also meet on a reg­ ular basis with their managers, reporting any problems and discuss­ ing possible solutions. Supervisors also meet among themselves to discuss goals, company operations, and performance. In companies with labor unions, supervisors must follow all provisions of labormanagement contracts. Working Conditions Many blue-collar worker supervisors work in a shop environment. They may be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates and may be subjected to the noise and grime of ma­ chinery. Other supervisors, such as those in construction and oil ex­ ploration and production, may work outdoors and are subject to all kinds of weather conditions. Supervisors may be on the job before other workers arrive and stay after they leave. Some supervisors work in plants that operate around the clock and may work any one of three shifts as well as on weekends and holidays. In some cases, supervisors work all three shifts on a rotating basis; in others, shift assignments are made on the basis of seniority. Employment Blue-collar worker supervisors held about 1,757,000 jobs in 1992. Although salaried supervisors are found in almost all industries, 4 of every 10 worked in manufacturing—supervising the production of industrial machinery, motor vehicles, appliances, and thousands of other products. One of every 8 worked in the construction industry and 1 of every 9 worked in wholesale and retail trade establish­ ments. Others were employed in public utilities, repair shops, trans­ portation, and government agencies. Employment is distributed in much the same way as the population, and jobs are located in all cit­ ies and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When choosing supervisors, employers generally look for experi­ ence, job knowledge, organizational skills, and leadership qualities. Employers emphasize the ability to motivate employees, maintain high morale and command respect. In addition, employers desire  m*:  395  well rounded applicants who are able to deal with different situa­ tions and different types of people. Communication and interper­ sonal skills are extremely important to most employers. Although completion of high school is often the minimum educa­ tional requirement for supervisors, and many supervisors still rise through the ranks, employers are increasingly hiring college gradu­ ates with technical degrees. While work experience creates the ad­ vantage of knowing how jobs should be done and what problems may arise, individuals without advanced education need further technical and administrative training. Large companies generally offer better opportunities than smaller companies for promotion to blue-collar worker supervisory positions. In high-technology industries, such as aerospace and electronics, employers require a bachelors degree or technical school back­ ground. Employers in the manufacturing sector generally prefer a background in engineering, mathematics, science, business adminis­ tration, or industrial relations. In most manufacturing companies, a business or engineering master’s degree or in-house training is needed to advance to jobs such as department head or production manager. Supervisors in the construction industry may use the experience and skills they gain to become contractors, although a degree in construction management or engineering is required for advancement to project manager, op­ erations manager, or general superintendent. Supervisors in repair shops may open their own business. Job Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Job prospects vary by industry. In manufacturing, employment of supervisors is expected to decline slightly as the trend continues for supervisors to supervise more workers. This reflects the increasing use of computers to meet supervisory responsibilities such as sched­ uling, as well as the effects of worker empowerment programs that relieve supervisors of some of the more time-consuming tasks. In construction and most other nonmanufacturing industries, employ­ ment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to rise along with the employment of the workers they supervise. Because of their skill and seniority, blue-collar worker supervi­ sors often are protected from layoffs during a recession. However, some in the highly cyclical construction industry may be laid off when construction activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings for blue-collar worker supervisors were about $590 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $434 and $790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $323, and the highest 10 percent earned over $1,010. Most supervisors earn significantly more than their subordinates. While most blue-collar workers are paid by the hour, most supervisors receive an annual salary. Some supervisors receive extra pay when they work overtime. Related Occupations Other workers with supervisory duties include those who supervise professional, technical, sales, clerical, and service workers. Some of these are retail store or department managers, sales managers, cleri­ cal supervisors, bank officers, head tellers, hotel managers, postmas­ ters, head cooks, head nurses, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information For information on educational programs for blue-collar worker su­ pervisors, contact: American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020.  Supervisors teach employees safe work practices and enforce safety regulations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tw National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. ts* American Institute of Constructors, 9887 North Gandy St., St. Peters­ burg, FL 33702.  396  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Food Processing Occupations Butchers and Meat, Poultry, and Fish Cutters (D.O.T. 316.681-010, .684 except -014; 525.361, .381, .664, .684 except -026, -034, and -040, and .687-074.)  Nature of the Work Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters reduce animal car­ casses into small pieces of meat suitable for sale to consumers. In meatpacking plants, butchers slaughter cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep and cut the carcasses into large wholesale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks to facilitate handling, distribution, and mar­ keting. Meat trimmings are used to prepare sausages, luncheon meats, and other fabricated meat products. Butchers usually work on assembly lines, with each individual responsible for only a few of the many cuts needed to process a carcass. Depending on the type of cut, they may use knives, cleavers, meat saws, bandsaws, and other equipment. In grocery stores, wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants, and institutional food service facilities, meatcutters sep­ arate the wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or individual size servings. They cut the meat into steaks and chops using knives and electric saws, shape and tie roasts, and grind beef for sale as hamburger meat. Boneless cuts are prepared using knives, slicers, or power cutters, while bandsaws are required on bone-in pieces. Meatcutters in retail food stores also may weigh, wrap, and label the cuts and arrange them in refrigerated cases for display to customers. They also may prepare special cuts of meat ordered by customers. Poultry cutters slaughter and cut up chickens, turkeys, and other types of poultry. However, these tasks are increasingly being per­ formed by machines, and some modern poultry processing plants use hand cutters only for tasks, such as deboning breast meat, that are difficult for machines to perform with precision. Fish cleaners cut, scale, and dress fish in fish processing plants and wholesale and retail fish markets. They remove the head, scales, and other inedible portions and cut the fish into steaks or boneless fillets. In markets, they may wait on customers and clean fish to or­ der. Retail meat, poultry, and fish cutters also prepare ready-to-heat foods. This often entails filleting meat or fish or cutting it into bite­ sized pieces, preparing and adding vegetables, or applying sauces or breading. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by the type and size of establishment. In meatpacking plants and larger retail food establishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail markets, the meatcutter or fish cleaner may work in a space behind the meat counter. To avoid viral and bacterial infections, work areas must be clean and sanitary. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters often work in cold, damp rooms. Cutting rooms are refrigerated to prevent meat from spoiling; they are damp because meat cutting generates large amounts of blood and fat. The low temperature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time, makes the work tiring. Butch­ ers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are more susceptible to injury than most other workers; in 1992, meatpacking plants had the high­ est incidence of work-related injury and illness of any industry. Inju­ ries often occur when insufficient care is used when working with knives, cleavers, and power tools. The repetitive nature of their  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ■HR  Fish cutters in fish markets may wait on customers and clean fish to order. work often leads to cumulative trauma injuries, such as carpal tun­ nel syndrome. To reduce the incidence of cumulative trauma disor­ ders, many employers have reduced work loads, redesigned jobs and tools, and increased awareness of early warning signs. Nevertheless, workers in this occupation still face a serious threat of a permanent, crippling injury. Employment Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters held about 349,000jobs in 1992. Over four-fifths worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants and retail grocery stores, while others were employed by meat and fish markets, restaurants, hotels, and whole­ sale establishments. The majority of the 222,000 skilled butchers and meatcutters worked in retail grocery stores, while almost 9 out of 10 of the semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants. Skilled butch­ ers and meatcutters are employed in almost every city and town in the Nation, while semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutter jobs are concentrated in communities with food processing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters acquire their skills informally on the job or through apprenticeship programs. A few learn their basic skills by attending trade and vocational schools. However, graduates of these schools may need additional on-the-job training and experience to work as butchers and meatcut­ ters. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing less difficult jobs, such as removing bones. Under the guidance of experienced work­ ers, they learn the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts of meat. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees may learn to roll and tie  Production Occupations roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those in retail food estab­ lishments may learn marketing operations such as inventory con­ trol, meat buying, and recordkeeping. Meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship pro­ grams generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training supplemented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices must pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, apprentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Skills important in meat, poultry, and fish cutting are manual dexterity, good depth perception, color discrimination, and good eye-hand coordination. Also, strength is sometimes needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Meatcutters and fish cleaners who wait on customers must have a pleasant personality, a neat appear­ ance, and the ability to communicate clearly. A health certificate may be required for employment. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters may progress to su­ pervisory jobs, such as meat or seafood department managers in su­ permarkets. A few become meat or seafood buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some become grocery store managers or open their own meat or fish markets. In processing plants, butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters can move up to supervisory posi­ tions. Job Outlook Overall employment of butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as more meat cutting and processing shifts from the retail store to the plant. Nevertheless, many job opportuni­ ties should arise due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s population grows, the demand for meat should continue to increase. Although red meat consumption has been dropping and poultry consumption has been rising in recent years, both of these trends are likely to slow as people consume more lowfat meat products. The consumption of fish is expected to increase robustly in the coming years. Employment growth of semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters who work primarily in meatpacking, poultry, and fish processing plants is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2005. Although much of the production of poultry and fabricated poultry products is performed by machines, the growing popularity of labor-intensive ready-to-heat goods promises to spur demand for poultry workers. Semiskilled meat and fish cutters also will be in demand as the task of preparing ready-to-  397  heat meat and fish goods slowly shifts from the retail store to the processing plant, and as fish is increasingly caught or farmed do­ mestically. Although the supply of edible ocean fish is limited, ad­ vances in fish farming, or “aquaculture,” are expected to reduce the gap between supply and demand. Employment of skilled butchers and meatcutters, who work pri­ marily in retail stores, is expected to decline gradually. Although meat is increasingly cut and processed at meatpacking plants, this shift is coming slowly. At present, most red meat arrives at the gro­ cery store partially cut up. The retail meatcutter performs the final processing—cutting wholesale meat cuts into steaks, chops, and roasts and packaging them for sale. Eventually, as ready-to-heat goods become more popular, both fresh meat and prepared foods will be completely processed and packaged at the plant. Consumers and the retail stores are slowly adjusting to this trend, and the demand for retail meat, poultry, and fish cutters should decline. Earnings Butchers and meatcutters had median weekly earnings of $310.00 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $230.00 and $490.00 a week. The highest paid 10 percent earned over $630.00 a week. Meatcutters employed by retail grocery stores are generally among the highest paid workers. Butchers and meat and fish cutters generally received paid vaca­ tion and sick leave, health insurance, and life insurance. Poultry workers, however, rarely receive substantial benefits. Union meatcutters employed by grocery stores also had pension plans. Many butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in handling and preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require similar skills and knowledge include bakers, chefs and cooks, and food prepara­ tion workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For in­ formation on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: W United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Inspectors, Testers, and Graders (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, and graders ensure that products meet quality standards. Virtually all manufactured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, automotive components and completed vehicles, electronic components, computers, and structural steel, are inspected. Inspectors visually check and may also listen to or feel products, or even taste or smell them. They verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of objects and look for imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, misweaves, or crooked seams. Many inspectors use microm­ eters, electronic equipment, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instruments to check and compare the dimensions of parts against the parts’ specifications. Those testing electrical devices may use  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test the insulation, cur­ rent flow, and resistance. Machinery testers generally check that parts fit and move correctly and are properly lubricated, check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids, test the flow of electricity, and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others require a much longer detailed one. Senior inspectors may also set up tests and test equipment. Some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them on to the production line. Others inspect com­ ponents, subassemblies, and assemblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defective items outright, send them for rework, or, in the case of minor problems, fix them themselves. If the product checks out, they may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors also may calibrate precision instruments used in inspection work.  398  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Inspectors, testers, and graders record the results of their inspec­ tions, compute the percentage of defects and other statistical param­ eters, prepare inspection and test reports, notify supervisors of problems, and may help analyze and correct problems in the pro­ duction process. Increasingly in manufacturing, inspection is occurring through­ out the production process, rather than just at the end on the final product. Inspectors still test products to ensure that they will meet with specifications, but they may direct the production line to adjust the machinery before the manufacturing line produces unusable parts. Also, many firms have automated their inspection systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. The inspectors in these firms have generally been trained to operate this equipment. Working Conditions Working conditions vary from industry to industry. Some inspec­ tors examine similar products for an entire shift; others examine a variety of items. Most remain at one work station, but some travel from place to place to do inspections. Some are on their feet all day; others sit. In some industries, inspectors are exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in others, they work in a clean, quiet envi­ ronment. Some may have to lift heavy objects. Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. In these cases, shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Employment Inspectors, testers, and graders held about 625,000 jobs in 1992. Al­ most 8 of every 10 worked in manufacturing industries, including industrial machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and equip­ ment, primary and fabricated metals industries, electronic compo­ nents and accessories, textiles, apparel, and aircraft and parts. Some worked in communications and utilities, wholesale trade, engineer­ ing and management services, and government agencies. Although they are employed throughout the country, most jobs are in large metropolitan areas where many large factories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is helpful and may be required for some jobs. Simple jobs are generally filled by beginners with a few days’ train­ ing. More complex ones are filled by experienced assemblers, ma­ chine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowl­ edge of the products and production processes. In-house training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers, or other instruments; quality control techniques; blueprint reading; and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but most em­ ployers prefer to train inspectors themselves. Inspectors, testers, and graders need mechanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. However, they also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or quality control technician. Job Outlook Individuals wishing to become inspectors, testers, or graders may face competition. Although the occupation is large, giving rise to a large number of openings due to normal turnover, jobs often are only available to those having experience with the production pro­ cess. Also, like many other occupations concentrated in manufac­ turing, employment is projected to decline through the year 2005.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A precision inspector uses a machine that measures a part’s exact dimensions. Even though the volume of manufactured goods will grow, em­ ployment will not grow for several reasons. For one thing, manufac­ turers are taking steps to improve production methods—relying on computers and statistical analysis to control the production process. This should result in fewer defects and reduced requirements for in­ spectors. In some cases, machines will alert workers when items ap­ proach limits so that problems can be corrected before defects oc­ cur. In addition, more firms are holding assemblers, machine operators, and other production workers responsible for quality, and having them correct problems as they occur. Also, better in­ specting machinery will improve inspectors’ speed and accuracy, so fewer of them will be needed, and, in some special cases, completely automated equipment will eliminate the need for inspectors. In many industries, however, automation is not being aggres­ sively pursued as an alternative to manual inspection. When key in­ spection elements are size oriented, such as length, width, or thick­ ness, automation may play some role in the future. But when taste, smell, texture, appearance, or product performance are important, inspection will probably continue to be done by humans.  Earnings Inspectors, testers, and graders had median weekly earnings of about $381 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned from about $282 to $534 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $209 a week; the highest 10 percent earned more than $691.  Related Occupations Other workers who inspect products or services are construction and building inspectors and inspectors and compliance officers, ex­ cept construction, which includes consumer safety, environmental health, agricultural commodity, immigration, customs, postal, mo­ tor vehicle, safety, and other inspectors.  Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: 13= The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd.,  Fort Washington, MD 20744. W The American Society for Quality Control, Membership Department, 310 West Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53203.  Production Occupations  399  Metalworking and Plastics-Working Occupations Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.261 .361, and .381)  Nature of the Work Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics construct, assemble, and repair boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases. Boilers supply steam to drive huge turbines in electric power plants and to provide heat or power in buildings, factories, and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Following blueprints, boilermakers locate and mark reference points on the boiler foundation for installing boilers and other ves­ sels, using straightedges, squares, transits, and tape measures. They attach rigging and signal crane operators to lift heavy frame and plate sections and other parts into place. They align sections, using plumb bobs, levels, wedges, and turnbuckles; use hammers, files, grinders, and cutting torches to remove irregular edges so they fit properly; and bolt or weld them together. Boilermakers align and at­ tach water tubes, stacks, valves, gauges, and other parts and test complete vessels for leaks or other defects. Usually they assemble large vessels temporarily in a fabrication shop to insure a proper fit and again on their permanent site. Because boilers last for a long time—35 years or longer—much of the work boilermakers do is to maintain them and update compo­ nents such as burners and boiler tubes to make them as efficient as possible. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and similar vessels. They clean or direct others to clean boilers and in­ spect tubes, fittings, valves, controls, and auxiliary machinery. They repair or replace defective parts, using hand and power tools, gas torches, and welding equipment, and may operate metalworking machinery to repair or make parts. They also dismantle leaky boil­ ers, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections, or strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermakers often use potentially dangerous equipment such as acetylene torches and power grinders, handle heavy parts, and work on ladders or on top of large vessels. Work may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks that often are damp and poorly ventilated. To reduce the chance of injuries, they may wear hardhats, harnesses, respirators, protective clothing, and safety glasses and shoes. Boilermakers usually work a 40-hour week but occasionally work overtime to meet construction or production deadlines. Employment Boilermakers held about 26,000 jobs in 1992. About 44 percent worked in manufacturing, primarily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. Over one-third worked in the construction industry, as­ sembling and erecting boilers and other vessels. Some also work for boiler repair firms, railroads, and in Navy shipyards and Federal power facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend a formal apprenticeship to learn this trade. Many people become boilermakers by working as helpers to experienced boilermakers, but generally lack the wide  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mmL  -  jail  Boilermakers often retrofit old boilers with up to date equipment. range of skills acquired through apprenticeship. Apprenticeship programs usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supple­ mented by about 48 hours of classroom instruction each year in sub­ jects such as set-up and assembly rigging, welding of all types, blueprint reading, and layout. Experienced boilermakers often at­ tend apprenticeship classes to keep their knowledge current. When hiring helpers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and machine metalworking are useful. Mechanical apti­ tude and the manual dexterity needed to handle tools also are im­ portant. Some boilermakers advance to supervisory positions; because of their broader training, apprentices generally have an advantage in promotion. Job Outlook Persons who wish to become boilermakers may face some competi­ tion, due to the limited number of apprenticeships available and the relatively good wages a journey boilermaker earns. In addition, em­ ployment of boilermakers is expected to decline through the year 2005. However, some openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Growth should be limited by several factors: The trend toward re­ pairing and retrofitting rather than replacing existing boilers; the use of smaller boilers, which require less on-site assembly; automa­ tion of production technologies; and an increase in the use of im­ ported boilers. Most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to eco­ nomic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns, con­ struction boilermakers may be laid off. However, because boilers are maintained and repaired even during economic downturns, boiler­ maker mechanics generally have more stable employment.  400  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Earnings According to the limited data available, boilermakers who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $553 per week in 1992. According to the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, journey boilermakers earned $20.80 per hour in 1992. Apprentices started at 60 percent of journey wages, or about $12.50 hourly, with wages increasing gradually to the journey wage as progress is made in the apprenticeship. Most boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers. Others are mem­ bers of the International Association of Machinists, United Auto­ mobile Workers, and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations assemble, install, or re­ pair metal equipment or machines. These include assemblers, black­ smiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, machinists, millwrights, patternmakers, plumbers, sheet-metal workers, tool and die makers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions pre­ viously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manu­ facturers, or the local office of the State employment service.  Jewelers (D.O.T. 199.281-010; 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, and -046)  Nature of the Work For thousands of years, people have worn and admired jewelry made from precious metals and stones, such as gold and diamonds. Jewelers use such materials to make, repair, and adjust rings, neck­ laces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry using a variety of tools and materials. They use drills, pliers, jeweler’s soldering torches, saws, jeweler’s lathes, and a variety of other handtools to mold and shape metal and to set gemstones. Jewelers also may use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as flux for soldering and tripoli and rouge for finishing. Jewelers may specialize in one or more areas of the jewelry field— buying, design, gem cutting, repair, sales, or appraisal. In small re­ tail or repair shops, jewelers may be involved in all aspects of the work. Regardless of the type of establishment or work setting, how­ ever, jewelers’ work requires a high degree of skill and attention to detail. Those working in retail stores and repair shops generally spend much of their time repairing or adjusting jewelry. Typical work includes enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and re­ placing broken clasps and mountings. Some jewelers also design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those cre­ ated by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or by carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individ­ ual parts are then soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem or may engrave a design into the metal. Other jewelers in retail stores are primarily involved in sales; many of them are certified gemologists, who appraise the quality and value of diamonds, other gemstones, and gem materials. Jewel­ ers who own or manage stores or shops hire and train employees; or­ der, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties. In manufacturing, jewelers usually specialize in a single opera­ tion. Some jewelers may make models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones or  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  engraving. A growing number of jewelers use lasers for cutting and improving the quality of stones. Technology has not yet greatly affected the jewelry industry. However, some manufacturing firms use CAD/CAM (computeraided design and manufacturing) to facilitate product design and automate mold and model making. Use of such systems should in­ crease in the future as they become more affordable for smaller com­ panies. In retail stores, computers are used mainly for inventory control; some jewelers use computers to design and create custom­ ized pieces according to their customers’ wishes. With the aid of computers, customers can choose from basic styles, and mix and match cuts, shanks, sizes, and stones to create their own pieces. Working Conditions Jewelers usually do most of their work seated in comfortable sur­ roundings, and the trade involves few physical hazards. While the work is not physically strenuous, there is a lot of work with detail and intricate designs which may be tiring to some. Caution must be taken because the chemicals, sawing and drilling tools, and torches a jeweler uses can cause serious injury. In addition, doing delicate work while trying to satisfy demands for speed and quality from customers and employers can cause stress, and bending over a work­ bench for long periods can be uncomfortable. In the future, the use of computers may ease some of these conditions since applications like CAD/CAM greatly increase the speed and accuracy of the de­ sign and manufacturing process. Because many of the materials with which they work are very val­ uable, those working in retail stores must observe strict security pro­ cedures. These may include locked doors that are only opened by a buzzer, barred windows, burglar alarms, and the presence of armed guards. This additional responsibility may create stress. In repair shops, jewelers generally work alone with little supervi­ sion. In retail stores, on the other hand, they may talk with custom­ ers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some sales work. In some plants manufacturing precious jewelry, the workweek is 35 hours. During slack periods, however, jewelers may have short­ ened workweeks or be laid off. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week, including evenings and Saturday. During peak sales seasons, such as Christmas, they often work longer hours, but are compensated for overtime. Employment Jewelers held about 30,000 jobs in 1992. About 4 out of 10 jewelers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry.  Jewelers need a steady hand for precision work.  Production Occupations  401  Roughly half of all salaried jewelers worked in retail establish­ ments, while almost one-third were employed in manufacturing plants. Although jewelry stores and repair shops can be found in every city and many small towns, most job opportunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Many jewelers employed in manufactur­ ing work in New York, California, or Rhode Island where produc­ tion is concentrated.  For those interested in starting their own business, a substantial financial investment is needed to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and community colleges.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills usually are learned in technical schools, through cor­ respondence courses, or informally on the job. Some aspiring jewel­ ers begin working as clerks in department stores and transfer to jobs in jewelry shops or manufacturing firms after gaining experience. Colleges and art schools also offer programs which can lead to a bachelor’s or master’s degree of fine arts in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one’s employment and advancement opportunities. Many employers prefer wellrounded jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, technical schools or courses offered by local colleges are the best sources of training. In these programs, which vary in length from 6 months to 3 years, students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry making and repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics like blueprint reading, math, and shop the­ ory. Most employers feel that graduates need an additional 3 or more years of supervised on-the-job training to refine their repair skills and to learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as sample making, wax carving, or gemology. Many employers pay all or part of the cost of this additional training. Technical school programs lasting about 6 months and corre­ spondence courses lasting several years also offer training in ap­ praising and programs leading to a gemologist diploma. These ad­ vanced programs cover a wide range of topics including evaluating diamonds and colored stones, identifying gems, and designing jew­ elry. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally have de­ veloped their skills through informal on-the-job training programs. This training may last 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stonesetting, modelmaking, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools and colleges have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, those in manufacturing prefer graduates of these programs because they are familiar with the production process and the in­ house training can be shortened significantly. To enter most technical school or college programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. Courses in art, math, mechani­ cal drawing, and chemistry are useful. Since computer-aided design is increasingly used in the jewelry field, it is recommended that stu­ dents—especially those interested in design and manufacturing— obtain training in CAD. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and con­ centration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major as­ sets, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat and personable. In addition, employers require someone of good character because jewelers work with very valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited and greatly dependent on an individual’s skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become salaried managers; some open their own businesses.  Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job opportunities for jewelers depend largely on jewelry sales and on demand for jew­ elry repair services. Demand for jewelry is affected by the amount of disposable income people have. Jewelry sales are expected to remain strong, and are currently being fueled by increases in the number of affluent individuals, working women, double-income families, and increasingly fashion-conscious men. Jewelers have a relatively strong attachment to their occupa­ tions—reflecting the large proportion of self- employed workers. Nevertheless, job openings will largely result from the need to re­ place jewelers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities should be good for graduates from jeweler training programs. The job outlook will be best in jewelry stores and repair shops as jewelry sales rise. Demand for repair workers is strong since maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process, even during economic slowdowns. In fact, demand for jewelry repair often increases during recessions as people will repair or restore ex­ isting pieces rather than purchase new ones. Those interested in pursuing a career in jewelry manufacturing will face keen competition. Many jewelry manufacturers have cur­ tailed their operations because of increased jewelry imports. How­ ever, exports are steadily increasing as manufacturers become more competitive in foreign markets. Jewelers may also face competition from nontraditional stores such as department stores and catalog showrooms, because these stores often hire clerks rather than jewel­ ers to service customers.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Depending on the employer, jewelers may receive commissions on what they sell or bonuses for outstanding work. According to the Jewelers' Circular-Keystone annual salary survey, jewelers in retail stores earned a median salary of approximately $28,000 in 1991, while jewelry repair workers earned a median salary of $22,000. For those in manufacturing, earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers averaged $10.00 an hour in 1992, according to the limited information available. Beginners in jewelry factories gener­ ally start at considerably less than experienced workers; as they be­ come more proficient, they receive periodic raises. Most jewelers enjoy a variety of fringe benefits including reim­ bursement from their employers for work- related courses and dis­ counts on jewelry purchases. Related Occupations Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include polishers, dental laboratory technicians, gemcutters, hand engravers, and watch makers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewelers is available from: W Jewelers of America, 1185 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036.  tw Manufacturing Jewelers and Silversmiths of America, 100 India St., Providence, RI02903. t3- Gemological Institute of America, 1660 Stewart St., Santa Monica, CA 90404.  402  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Machinists and Tool Programmers (D.O.T. 007.167-018; 600.260, -022, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -042, .281-010, .380-010; 609.262-010; and 714.281-018)  Nature of the Work Machinists produce precision metal parts, usually using machine tools such as lathes, drill presses, and milling machines. Although machinists can and sometimes do produce large quantities of one part, machinists often produce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They set up and operate a wide variety of machine tools and know the working properties of metals such as steel, cast iron, aluminum, and brass. Using their skill with machine tools and their knowledge of metals, machinists plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Increasingly, the machine tools used to produce metal parts are numerically controlled (NC)—that is, they contain an electronic controller that directs the machine’s operations. Most NC machines today are computer numerically controlled (CNC), which means that the controllers are computers. The controller “reads” a pro­ gram—a coded list of the steps necessary to perform a specific machining job—and runs the machine tool’s mechanisms through the steps. The quality of the products these machines produce de­ pends largely on the programs, which may be produced by machin­ ists or by workers who specialize in programming machine tools known as tool programmers. Although tool programmers and ma­ chinists are often considered separate occupations, because many of their duties are very similar or identical, both are covered in this statement. Machinists first review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the se­ quence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the metal stock to show where these cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, they perform the necessary machining operations. Machinists position the metal stock on the machine tool—drill presses, lathes, milling machines, or others—set the controls, and make the cuts. Today, new machinery allows vari­ ous functions to be performed with one setup, which reduces the need for additional, labor-intensive setups, saving time and money. During the machining process, they must constantly monitor the feed and speed of the machine. Machinists must also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. Traditionally, machinists have had direct control of their ma­ chines. However, the introduction of numerically controlled ma­ chines, and in particular, computer numerically controlled ma­ chines, has greatly changed the nature of the work for machinists. NC machines not only are more productive, they enable parts to be produced with a level of precision beyond that possible with tradi­ tional machining techniques. Furthermore, because precise move­ ments are recorded in the program, they allow this high level of pre­ cision to be consistently repeated. This uniformity is key to fulfilling customers’ needs for quality products. Tool programmers begin as machinists do—by analyzing blueprints, computing the size and position of the cuts, determining the sequence of machine operations, selecting tools, and calculating the machine speed and feed rates. They then write the program in the language of the machine’s controller and store it. Skilled ma­ chinists also do programming. As computer software becomes more user friendly, machinists are expected to perform this function in­ creasingly. Machinists may work alone or with tool programmers to check new programs to ensure that machinery will function properly and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the output will meet specifications. Because a problem with the pro­ gram could damage the costly machinery and cutting tools, com­ puter simulations may be used instead of a trial run to check the pro­ gram. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. Programs can then be used for other jobs with similar specifications by making small adjustments to the existing program. This reduces the time and effort needed to start production of a part. A growing number of firms have computer-aided design (CAD) systems that are used to write programs. When a part is designed us­ ing a CAD system, data about its dimensions are calculated; the CAD system can then use these data to develop the controller’s pro­ gram. As machinery has become more complex, close tolerances or high precision of machined parts has also increased in importance. In some cases, for example, a part may have to meet specifications equal to one-twentieth of a strand of hair. As a result measuring de­ vices have also increased in sophistication. Optical, acoustical, and laser measuring devices commonly ensure that work meets specifi­ cations. Although machinists and tool programmers perform many simi­ lar duties, jobs can vary greatly. Some machinists, often called pro­ duction machinists, may produce large quantities of one part, espe­ cially parts needing unusually complex operations, great precision, or when unusually sophisticated, expensive machinery is used. Usu­ ally, however, large numbers of parts requiring more routine opera­ tions are produced by metalworking machine operators (see the statement on metalworking and plastics-working machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook). Other machinists do maintenance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. For example, to repair a broken part, maintenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part. Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and ventilated. Nevertheless, working around high-speed machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists must wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of  Machinists frequently use lathes to make round or circular parts.  Production Occupations flying metal and earplugs to protect against machinery noise. They must also exercise caution when cleaning and disposing of coolants and lubricants because many of these materials can be hazardous. The job requires stamina because machinists stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces. Some tool programmers work in offices that are near, but sepa­ rate from, the shop floor. These work areas are usually clean, well lighted, and free of machine noise. Most machinists and tool programmers work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as compa­ nies invest in more expensive machinery. Overtime is common dur­ ing peak production periods. Employment Machinists and tool programmers held about 359,000 jobs in 1992. Most machinists worked in small machining shops or in manufac­ turing firms that produce durable goods such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Maintenance ma­ chinists work in most industries that use production machinery. Al­ though machinists and tool programmers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school or vocational school education, including mathemat­ ics, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, is desirable for becoming a machinist or tool programmer. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools also is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter the occupation have previously worked as machine tool operators or setters. Machinist training varies from formal apprenticeship programs to informal on-the-job training. However, most employers consider a formal apprenticeship program the best way to learn the machinist trade. Apprentice programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn filing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and shop practices. In addi­ tion, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-con­ trolled equipment, training in the operation and programming of numerically controlled machine tools has become essential. Com­ munity colleges and technical institutes increasingly offer classroom training in connection with company or association training pro­ grams. Qualifications for tool programmers vary widely depending upon the complexity of the job. Basic requirements parallel those of ma­ chinists. Employers often prefer skilled machinists, tool and die makers, or those with technical school training. For some special­ ized types of programming, such as with complex parts for the aero­ space or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. For those entering tool programming directly, a basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools also is helpful. Classroom training includes an introduction to numerical control and the basics of programming and then ad­ vances to more complex topics such as computer-aided design. Then, trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Although machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize programming languages, currently there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, tool programmers must be able to learn and adapt to new programming languages. Established workers may also take courses to update their skills and to learn the latest technology and equipment. Some employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses. In addition,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  403  when new machinery is introduced, workers receive training in its operation—usually from a representative of the equipment manu­ facturer. Persons interested in becoming a machinist or tool programmer should be mechanically inclined. They also should be able to work independently and do highly accurate work that requires concentra­ tion as well as physical effort. Job Outlook Employment of machinists and tool programmers is expected to de­ cline slightly through the year 2005. Nevertheless, many job open­ ings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced ma­ chinists and programmers who transfer to other occupations or retire. In recent years, employers have reported difficulties in at­ tracting workers to machining and tool programming occupations. Therefore, good employment opportunities should exist for candi­ dates with the necessary mechanical and mathematical aptitudes. The number of openings for machinists is expected to be far greater than the number of openings for tool programmers because there are many more machinists than tool programmers. In addi­ tion, machinists are increasingly taking on the functions of tool pro­ gramming as the programming of machine tools becomes easier due to simplified programming languages and procedures. As the economy expands, so will the demand for goods that use machined metal parts. But, demand for these workers will be con­ strained by improvements in metalworking technology. For exam­ ple, the use of computer-controlled machine tools reduces the time required for machining operations and increases productivity. Fur­ thermore, when demand for machined goods falls, machinists and tool programmers involved in production may be laid off or be forced to work fewer hours. Apprenticeship opportunities may also decline. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance is often more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equip­ ment remain vital concerns even when production levels fall. Earnings Earnings of machinists compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. In 1992, median weekly earnings for machinists were about $492. Most earned between $376 and $623. Ten percent of all machinists had median weekly earnings of less than $275; the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $750 a week. In addition to their hourly wage, most workers receive health and life insurance, a pension plan, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist and tool programmer are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include tool and die maker, tool and die designer, tool planner, and instrument maker. Workers in other occupations that require preci­ sion and skill in working with metal include blacksmiths, gun­ smiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. Tool programmers apply their knowledge of machining opera­ tions, metals, blueprints, and machine programming to write pro­ grams that run machine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed instructions for a machine—in this case a computer. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: t^The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. t3p The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. 13" The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. X3- Precision Metalforming Association, 27027 Chardon Rd„ Richmond Heights, OH 44143.  404  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Metalworking and Plastics-Working Machine Operators (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Consider the parts of a toaster—the metal or plastic housing or the lever that lowers the toast, for example. These parts, and many other metal and plastic products, are produced by metal and plastics-working machine operators. In fact, manual and numerical con­ trol machine tool operators in the metalworking and plastics indus­ tries play a major part in producing most of the consumer products on which we rely daily. These workers can be separated into two groups: Those who set up machines for operation and those who tend the machines during production. Setup workers prepare the machines prior to produc­ tion and may adjust the machinery during operation. Operators and tenders, on the other hand, primarily monitor the machinery during operation, sometimes loading or unloading the machine or making minor adjustments to the controls. Many workers do both—set up and operate the equipment. Because the set-up process requires an understanding of the entire production process, setters usually have more training and are more highly skilled than those who simply op­ erate or tend the machinery. Setters, operators, tenders, and set-up operators are usually iden­ tified by the type of machine with which they work. Some examples of specific titles are screw machine operator, plastics-molding ma­ chine setup operator, and lathe tender. Although some workers spe­ cialize in one or two types of machinery, many are trained to set up or operate a variety of machines. Job duties usually vary based on the size of the firm as well as on the type of machine being operated. Metalworking machine setters and operators set up and tend ma­ chines that cut and form all types of metal parts. Traditionally, setup workers plan and set up the sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, choose the proper coolants and lubricants, and select the instruments or tools for each operation. Using microme­ ters, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they may compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. Although there are many different types of metalworking ma­ chine tools that require specific knowledge and skills, most opera­ tors perform similar tasks. Whether tending grinding machines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products or presses that extrude metal through a die to form wire, operators usually perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned quickly. Typically, these workers place metal stock in a machine on which the operating specifications have already been set. They may watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments accord­ ing to their instructions. Regardless of the type of machine they op­ erate, machine tenders usually depend on skilled setup workers for major adjustments when the machines are not functioning properly. Plastics working machine operators set up and tend machines that transform plastic compounds—chemical based products that can be produced in powder, pellet, or syrup form—into a wide vari­ ety of consumer goods such as toys, tubing, and auto parts. These products are produced by various methods, of which injection mold­ ing is the most common. The injection molding machine heats a plastic compound and forces it into a mold. After the part has cooled and hardened, the mold opens and the part is released. Many common kitchen products are produced using this method. To pro­ duce long parts such as pipes or window frames, on the other hand, an extruding machine is usually employed. These machines force a plastic compound through a die that contains an opening of the de­ sired shape of the final product. Yet another type of plastics working  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  technique is blow molding. Blow-molding machines force hot air into a mold which contains a plastic tube. As the air moves into the mold, the plastic tube is inflated to the shape of the mold and a plastic container is formed. The familiar 2-liter soft drink bottles are produced using this method. Regardless of the process used, plastics-working machine opera­ tors check the materials feed, the temperature and pressure of the machine, and the rate at which the product hardens. Depending on the type of equipment in use, they may also load material into the machine, make minor adjustments to the machinery, or unload and inspect the finished products. Plastics-working machine operators also remove clogged material from molds or dies. Because molds and dies are quite costly, operators must exercise proper care to avoid damaging them. Metal and plastics-working machine operators are increasingly being called upon to work with numerically controlled (NC) equip­ ment. These machine tools have two major components: An elec­ tronic controller and a machine tool. Almost all NC machines today are computer numerically controlled (CNC), which means that the controllers are computers. The controller directs the mechanisms of the machine tool through the positioning and machining described in the program or instructions for the job. A program could contain, for example, commands that cause the controller to move a drill bit to certain spots on a workpiece and drill a hole at each spot. Each type of CNC machine tool, such as a milling machine, a lathe, or a punch press, performs a specific task. A part may be worked on by several machines before it is finished. CNC machines are often used in computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) sys­ tems. In these systems, automated material handling equipment moves workpieces through a series of work stations where machin­ ing processes are computer numerically controlled. In some cases, the workpiece is stationary and the tools change automatically. Al­ though the machining is done automatically, numerically controlled machine tools must be set up and used properly in order to obtain the maximum benefit from their use. These tasks are the responsibil­ ity of numerical-control machine-tool operators or, in some in­ stances, machinists. (See the statement on machinists and tool pro­ grammers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Like the duties of manual metal and plastics machine operators, the duties of numerical-control machine-tool operators vary. In some shops, operators tend just one machine. More likely, however, they might tend a number of machines or do some programming. As a result, the skill requirements of these workers vary from job to job. Although there are many variations in operators’ duties, they gener­ ally involve many of the tasks described below. Working from given instructions, operators load programs that are usually stored on floppy disks into the controller. They also se­ curely position the workpiece, attach the necessary tools, and check the coolants and lubricants. Many numerically controlled machines are equipped with automatic tool changers, so operators may also load several tools in the proper sequence. In addition, heat gener­ ated by machining could damage the cutting tools and the part be­ ing machined, so operators must ensure that the proper coolants and lubricants are being used. This entire process may require a few minutes or several hours, depending on the size of the workpiece and the complexity of the job. A new program must be “debugged,” or adjusted, to obtain the desired results. If the tool moves to the wrong position or makes a cut that is too deep, for example, the program must be changed so that the job is done properly. Sometimes an NC operator will debug programs, but more often a machinist or tool programmer will per­ form this function. (See the statement on machinists and tool pro­ grammers elsewhere in the Handbook.) A new generation of ma­ chine tool technology called direct numerical control allows operators to make changes to the program and enter new specifica­ tions via menu-driven mini computers on the shop floor.  Production Occupations Because numerically controlled machine tools are very expensive, an important duty of operators is to monitor the machinery to pre­ vent situations that could result in costly damage to the cutting tools or other parts. The extent to which the operator performs this func­ tion depends on the type of job as well as the type of equipment be­ ing used. Some numerically controlled machine tools automatically monitor and adjust machining operations. When the job has been properly set up and the program has been checked, the operator may only need to monitor the machine as it operates. These opera­ tors often set up and monitor more than one machine. Other jobs re­ quire frequent loading and unloading, tool changing, or program­ ming. Operators may check the finished part using micrometers, gauges, or other precision inspection equipment to ensure that it meets specifications. Increasingly, however, this function is being performed by numerically controlled machine tools that are able to inspect products as they are being produced. CNC machines are changing the nature of the work that machine setters and operators perform. For example, computer-controlled machines simplify setups by using formerly tested computer pro­ grams for new workpieces. If a workpiece is similar to one previ­ ously produced, small adjustments can be made to the old program instead of developing a new program from scratch. Also, operators of this equipment have less physical interaction with the machinery or materials. They primarily act as “troubleshooters,” monitoring machines on which the loading, forming, and unloading processes are often controlled by computers.  Working Conditions Most metalworking and plastics-working machine operators work in areas that are clean, well lit, and well ventilated. Regardless of setting, all of these workers operate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Most operators wear protective equipment such as safety glasses and ear­ plugs to protect against flying particles of metal or plastic and noise from the machines. Other required equipment varies by work set­ ting and by machine. For example, workers in the plastics industry who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes or dust must wear face masks or self- contained breathing apparatuses. Most metal and plastics working machine operators work a 40hour week, but overtime is common during periods of increased pro­ duction. The industries in which metal and plastics workers are con­ centrated average 3 or 4 hours of overtime per week. Because many metalworking and plastics working shops operate more than one shift daily, some operators work nights and weekends.  V  Automated machinery has increased the productivity of many machine operators.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  405  The work requires stamina because operators are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Approxi­ mately 35-40 percent of these workers are union members; the met­ alworking industries have a higher rate of unionization than the plastics industry. Employment Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators held about 1,378,000 jobs in 1992. Of these, 1,305,000 were manual machine operators, and 73,000 were NC machine operators. Eight out of every 10 of these workers are found in five industries: Fabricated metal products, industrial machinery and equipment, miscellaneous plastic products, transportation equipment, and primary metals. Table 1 shows the distribution of employment of metal and plasticsworking machine operators by detailed occupation. Table 1. Distribution of Metal and plastics-working machine operators by detailed occupation, 1992  Occupation Machine tool cutting and forming machine setters and operators Molding machine setters and operators......................................... Sheetmetal workers and duct installers............................................... Combination machine tool setters and operators.......................... Numerical control machine operators................................................. Plating machine setters and operators................................................. Metal fabricators, structural metal products...................................... Heaters and heat treating machine setters and operators..............  Percent 49 14 8 7 5 4 3  2  SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most metal and plastics-working machine operators learn their skills on the job. Trainees begin by observing and assisting exper­ ienced workers, often in formal training programs. Under supervi­ sion they may supply material, start and stop the machine, or re­ move finished products from the machine. As part of their training they advance to more difficult tasks like adjusting feed speeds, changing cutting tools, or inspecting a finished product for defects. Eventually they become responsible for their own machine or ma­ chines. The complexity of equipment largely determines the time re­ quired to become an operator. Most operators learn the basic ma­ chine operations and functions in a few weeks, but they may need several years to become a skilled operator or to advance to the more highly skilled job of setup operator. Although setup operators perform many of the same tasks as skilled machine operators, they also need to have a thorough knowl­ edge of the machinery and of the products being produced. Setup operators often study blueprints, plan the sequence of work, make the first production run, and determine which adjustments need to be made. Strong analytical abilities are particularly important to perform this job. Some companies have formal training programs for setup operators that combine classroom instruction with on-thejob training. CNC machine tool operators undergo similar training. Working under a supervisor or an experienced operator, trainees learn to set up and run one or more kinds of numerically controlled machine tools. Trainees usually learn the basics of their jobs within a few months. However, the length of the training period varies with the number and complexity of the machine tools the operator will run and with the individual’s ability. If the employer expects operators to write programs, trainees may attend programming courses of­ fered by machine tool manufacturers or technical schools. These courses usually last a couple of weeks. Although no special education is required for most operating jobs, employers prefer to hire applicants with good basic skills.  406  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Many require employees to have a high school education and to read, write, and speak English. This is especially true for numerical control machine operators, who may need to be retrained often in order to learn to operate new equipment. Because machinery is be­ coming more complex and shop floor organization is changing, em­ ployers increasingly look for persons with good communication and interpersonal skills. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and ex­ perience working with machinery are also pluses. Those interested in becoming a metal or plastics-working machine operator can im­ prove their employment opportunities by completing high school courses in shop, mathematics, and blueprint reading and by gaining a working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics. Advancement for operators usually takes the form of higher pay, although there are some limited opportunities for operators to ad­ vance to new positions as well. For example, they can become multi­ ple machine operators, setup operators, or trainees for the more highly skilled positions of machinist or tool and die maker. Manual machine operators can move on to CNC equipment when it is intro­ duced into their establishments. Some setup workers and CNC op­ erators may advance to supervisory positions. CNC operators who have substantial training in numerical control programming may advance to the higher paying job of tool programmer. (See state­ ments on machinists and tool programmers, and tool and die mak­ ers found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Overall employment of metal and plastics-working machine opera­ tors is expected to decline through the year 2005. This decline is likely to affect metalworking machine operators more than those working with plastics machines. In addition, setters and more highly skilled operators are more likely to be retained by firms than are semi-skilled operators and tenders. In spite of the overall em­ ployment decline, however, a large number of jobs will become available each year as current operators and setters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A major factor driving the employment decline is the increasing productivity resulting from computer-controlled equipment. In or­ der to remain competitive, many firms are adopting this technology to improve quality and lower production costs. Computer-con­ trolled equipment allows operators to simultaneously tend a greater number of machines and often makes setup easier, thereby reducing the amount of time setup workers spend on each machine. For these reasons, employment of CNC machine operators is expected to in­ crease in the future despite the decline in machine operators as a whole. Lower-skilled positions like manual machine tool operators and tenders are more likely to be eliminated by increasing automa­ tion than those of setters and set up operators, whose higher skills are more in demand and whose job functions are less easily auto­ mated. The demand for metal and plastics machine operators largely mirrors the demand for the parts they produce. In recent years, plastic products have been substituted for metal goods in many con­ sumer and manufacturing products. Although the rate of substitu­ tion may slow in the future, this process is likely to continue and should result in a relatively stronger demand for machine operators in plastics than in metalworking. Both industries, however, face stiff foreign competition that is limiting the demand for domesticallyproduced parts. One way that larger U.S. producers have responded to this competition is by moving production operations to other countries in order to reduce labor costs. These moves are likely to continue and will further reduce employment opportunities for metal and plastics-working machine tool operators in the United States. Workers with a thorough background in machine operations, ex­ posure to a variety of machines, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to this changing environment. In addition, new shopfloor arrangements will reward workers with good basic mathematics and reading  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  skills, good communication skills, flexibility, and the ability and willingness to learn new tasks. Those interested in working with CNC machine tools will most likely need to have a high school edu­ cation and should be familiar with several types of machines and op­ erating systems. Earnings Median weekly earnings for most metal and plastics- working ma­ chine operators were $413 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $536. The top 10 percent earned over $697 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $236. Plastic molding ma­ chine operators earned somewhat less, about $359 a week. Numeri­ cal-control machine-tool operators earned between $450 and $500 a week in 1992, according to the limited data available. Earnings of production workers vary considerably by industry, however. Average weekly wages for production workers in indus­ tries where employment of metal and plastics-working machine op­ erators is concentrated are shown in the following tabulation. Transportation equipment.................................................................... $633 Primary metals industries...................................................................... $90 Industrial machinery and equipment................................................... 525 Fabricated metal products....................................................................... 475 Rubber and misc. plastics products......................................................... 433  Most machine operators receive standard benefits such as pension plans, vacation and sick leave, and retirement plans. Related Occupations Workers in occupations closely related to metalworking and plas­ tics-working machine occupations include machinists, tool and die makers, extruding and forming machine operators producing syn­ thetic fibers, woodworking machine operators, and metal pat­ ternmakers. Numerical-control machine-tool operators may pro­ gram CNC machines or alter existing programs, which are functions closely related to those performed by NC machine tool programmers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about the metalworking trades, contact: {3= The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. . . IS" The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. 13= The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. j3= The National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141.  Information on educational programs in plastics technology and polymer sciences is available from:  ©•The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 1275 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ©■The Plastics Education Foundation of The Society of Plastics Engineers, Inc., 14 Fairfield Dr., Brookfield, CT 06804-0403.  Tool and Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.260-010, -014, .280 except -038, -054; .281-010, -014, and -026, .380, .381 except -018, -038; and 739.381-018 and -022)  Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are highly skilled workers who produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that are used in ma­ chines that produce a variety of products—from clothing and furni­ ture to heavy equipment and parts for aircraft. Toolmakers craft precision tools which are used to cut, shape, and form metal and other materials. They also produce jigs and fix­ tures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled)  Production Occupations and gauges and other measuring devices. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics, ceramics, and composite materials. In addi­ tion, tool and die makers may repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and design tools and dies. Tool and die makers must have a much broader knowledge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading than most other machining workers. They use many types of machine tools and precision measuring instruments and must be familiar with the machining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of common metals and alloys. Working from blueprints or instructions, tool and die makers plan the sequence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. They measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. They then cut, bore, or drill the part as required. They also check the accuracy of what they have done to ensure that the final product will meet specifications. Then they as­ semble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and smoothing surfaces. Modern technology is helping to change tool and die makers’ jobs. Firms commonly use computer aided design (CAD) to develop products. Specifications from the computer program can then be used to develop designs electronically for the required tools and dies. The designs can then be sent to computer numerically con­ trolled (CNC) machines to produce the die. Programs can also be electronically stored and adapted for future use. This saves time and increases productivity of the workers. In shops that use numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, tool and die makers’ duties may be slightly different. For example, al­ though they still manually check and assemble the tool or die, each of its components may be produced on an NC machine. In addition, they often assist in the planning and writing of NC programs. Tool and die makers work with little direct supervision. Although they must produce extremely precise parts, they also must work quickly and economically. Taking too much time or wasting materi­ als can reduce their employer’s profit.  407  addition, they spend much of the day on their feet and may do mod­ erately heavy lifting. Companies employing tool and die makers traditionally operate one shift per day. However, as the cost of new machinery and tech­ nology has increased, many employers now have more than one shift. Overtime and Saturday work are common, especially during peak production periods. Employment About 138,000 persons were employed as tool and die makers in 1992. Most worked in industries that manufacture metalworking machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, aircraft, and plastics products. Although they are found throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Midwest and Northeast, where many of the metalworking industries are located.  Working Conditions Tool and die makers usually work in toolrooms. These areas are qui­ eter than the production floor because there are fewer machines in use at one time. Machines have guards and shields that minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts. Tool and die makers, how­ ever, must follow safety rules and wear protective equipment. For example, they must wear safety glasses in order to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against noise. They may be exposed to hazardous materials such as lubricants or cleaners. In  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool and die makers learn their trade through formal apprentice­ ship programs or less formal on-the-job training. The best way to learn all aspects of tool and die making, according to most employ­ ers, is a formal apprenticeship program that combines classroom in­ struction and job experience. Most employers prefer persons with a high school or vocational school education and, increasingly, those with an associate’s degree. Courses in math, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, as well as machine shop experience, are helpful. During the 4 or 5 years of a tool and die apprenticeship, appren­ tices learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assem­ bling tools, gauges, and other mechanical and metal forming equip­ ment, and they study metalworking processes such as heat treating and plating. Classroom training usually consists of mathematics, mechanical drawing, tool designing, tool programming, and blueprint reading. Workers who become tool and die makers without completing formal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through infor­ mal on-the-job programs. They often begin as machine operators and gradually take on more difficult assignments. Many machinists become tool and die makers. In fact, tool and die makers are often considered highly specialized machinists. (See the statement on ma­ chinists and tool programmers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because tools and dies must meet strict specifications—precision to one ten-thousandth of an inch is not uncommon—the work of tool and die makers requires a high degree of patience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. There are several ways for skilled workers to advance. Some move into supervisory and administrative positions in their firms; others become tool designers or tool programmers.  Tool and die maker sets up a vertical mill.  Job Outlook Employment of tool and die makers is expected to decline through the year 2005. As the economy grows, the demand for motor vehi­ cles, aircraft, machinery, and other products that use machined metal parts will increase. Rising demand for these goods will in­ crease the need for tools and dies. Employment growth, however, will be limited by increased use of numerically controlled machine tools. The greater use of NC machine tools has reduced the number of operations done by hand, so high-quality precision parts can be made with fewer workers. In addition, because precision metal products are a primary component of manufacturing machinery, in­ creased imports of finished goods, as well as precision metal prod­ ucts, lessen the demand for tool and die makers. Despite the expected decline in employment, many openings each year will be created by tool and die makers who retire. A relatively large proportion of tool and die makers are at least 50 years of age. Currently, enrollments in tool and die maker training programs have not increased enough to satisfy the demand for these workers because employers in many locations are finding it difficult to at­ tract enough qualified candidates. As older workers begin to leave the occupation in larger numbers, employers in certain parts of the country may face more pronounced shortages. Jobseekers with the   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  408  Occupational Outlook Handbook  appropriate skills and background should find excellent opportuni­ ties. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tool and die makers who worked full time were $642 in 1992. Most earned between $499 and $803 a week. Ten percent earned less than $409 a week, and the 10 percent with the highest weekly earnings made more than $911. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the work of tool and die makers are the other machining occupations. These include machin­ ist, mold maker, instrument maker, metalworking machine opera­ tor, and tool programmer. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include blacksmith, gunsmith, locksmith, metal pat­ ternmaker, and welder.  F  ' il HP  Sources of Additional Information For general information about tool and die makers, contact: fg-The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. . . 13= The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. er The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge IL 60068. t X3" Precision Metalforming Association, 27027 Chardon Rd., Richmond Heights, OH 44143.  Welders work on a variety of structures and other objects, including heavy machinery, bridges, and nuclear power plants.  Welders, Cutters, and Welding Machine Operators  and monitor cutting machines similar to those used by welding ma­ chine operators.  (D.O.T. 553.684-010; 613.667-010; 614.684-010; 709.684-086; 727.662, .684-022; 810; 811; 812; 813.684-010; 814; 815; 816 except .482 and .682; 819.281-010, -014, -022, .361, .381, .384, .684, and .685)  Working Conditions Welders and cutters frequently are exposed to potential hazards. They use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. Automated welding ma­ chine operators are not exposed to as many hazards. A face shield or goggles generally provide adequate protection. Because some metals may give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt, Federal regulations require ventilation to meet strict guidelines, minimizing these hazards. Occasionally, some workers are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Some welders are isolated for short intervals while they work in booths constructed to contain sparks and glare. In some settings, however, working conditions are much better and few hazards or discomforts are encountered.  Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. Heat is applied to the pieces to be joined, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, automobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other manufactured products. Welding is used to join beams and steel reinforcing rods when constructing buildings, bridges, and other structures, and also in utilities such as nuclear power plants and refineries. Welders use all types of welding equipment in a variety of posi­ tions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They may per­ form manual welding, in which the work is entirely controlled by the welder, or semi-automatic welding, in which the welder uses ma­ chinery, such as a wire feeder, to perform welding tasks. They gen­ erally plan work from drawings or specifications or by analyzing damaged metal, using their knowledge of welding and metals. They select and set up welding equipment and may also examine welds to insure they meet standards or specifications. Some welders have more limited duties. They perform routine production work that has already been planned and laid out. These jobs do not require knowledge of all welding techniques. In many production processes—where the work is repetitive and the items to be welded are relatively uniform—automated welding is used. In this process, a welding machine operator monitors the ma­ chine, which performs the welding tasks. Welding machine opera­ tors set up and operate welding machines as specified by layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Operators must constantly monitor the machine to ensure that it produces the desired weld. The work of arc, plasma, and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. However, instead of joining metals, cutters use the heat from burning gases or an electric arc to cut and trim metal ob­ jects to specific dimensions. Cutters also dismantle large objects, such as ships, railroad cars, automobiles or aircraft. Some operate  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators held about 403,000 jobs in 1992. About 9 out of 10 welders and cutters were employed in manufacturing, services, construction, or wholesale trade. The majority of those in manufacturing were employed in transportation equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, or fabricated metal products. All welding machine operators were em­ ployed in manufacturing industries, primarily machinery, motor ve­ hicles, and fabricated metal products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for welders can range from a few weeks of school or onthe-job training for low skilled positions to several years of com­ bined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. Formal training is available in high schools, vocational schools, and post­ secondary institutions such as vocational-technical institutes, com­ munity colleges, and private welding schools. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Some employers provide training to help welders improve their skills. Courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and metal­ lurgy are helpful.  Production Occupations  The growth of welders, cutters, and welding machine operators varies greatly by industry. Percent change V»l *%%% >*0*4 %%%• V*V  Welders, cutters, and “““welding machine operators  *%%% v.v • ♦♦I |*T*V %%%• >VA v.v »v«*. V.T.T v.v  All occupations  v.v iWi ►v.% v.v r.%% V.V V.v v.v V.V  r.V. V.v v.v .v.% v*v ►%V. ,v.% v.v v.v ,%v. v.v *%%% v.v v.v ►%%% v.v Vi*  *5* v.v v.v r.V. V.V T.7.%7 .T.V. V.v .... v.v  ...  *%%% t.7.7.7  Iw!  v*v V.V r.V. v.v r.V.  v.v V.v  .7*7.% »7.V« T.7.7.7 .7.7.7. r.V. v.v .7.7.7. r.v. V.V .7.7.7. r.v. *%%% V.V  i  ....  10  ■  v.v V.v V.V r.v. »V*7a V.v v.v v.v V.V ►7.7.7. V.V v.v .7*%% *%%% V.V V.7.7  8.0 ►7.7.7* >%%% T.7.7.7 V.v ►%%% r.v« %*♦*♦* T.%%7 ►7*7.7. ►%%% T.7.7.7 V.V *7.7.7* v.v *%%%  ►%%% ►7.7.7. i V.V  V.V ►7.7.7. V.V ►V.% .V.% %%%7  v.v  *7.%%  ►t.%% V.v *%%% v.v r.V. v.v *%%% r.*V v.v »%%% r.V. V.V v.v .7.7.7. ...4  .... ... ...4  V.V 1i .7.7.7.1 ►%%% kV.Ti V.7.71 >%,%% r.v. V.7.7 r.v. V.7.71 V.%* .7.7.7. .V.V V.V v.v i »%7.% V.7.7 r.v. V.V i .V.%1 r*r< T.7.7.7 *%%% V.7.7 T.7.7.71i *%%% *7.7.7. %7.7** i ►%%% r.v. T.7.7.71 V.%* ►%%% ►7.7*7. V.V T.7.7.71 .%%% *%%%1 T.7.%71 %%%7  v.v v.%* %%v ,v.%  v«v *>>1 V» v.v w. *%v« .%%% v.v T.V■ . r.V. V.v .%%% tv.v *%v »%>%% >%v« .7.7*7. v.v  ... i  V.V  V.V V.V v.v .7.7.7. v.v *%%% V.7.7 .V.7. v.v »7*V. V.7.7 .V.Tt v.v ►7.7.7. V.V r.v. V.7.* V.V ►%%% V.%* .7.7*7* ►V.7.  All  Manufacturing  industries  Services  ►V.% v*v v.v V.v  *%%% %%V i T.7.7.7 *7.7*7. *%%% T.7.7.7  v.v  %%%« *%%% v.v  Industry  Construction  v.v  ....  *7.7.7. r.v. V.v ►%%% ►7*7*7* T.%7.71 V.%7 *7.7.7.  Wholesale trade  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Some welders become certified, a process whereby the employer sends a worker to an institution, such as an independent testing lab or technical school to weld a test specimen to specific codes and standards required by the employer. The testing procedures are usu­ ally based on the standards and codes set by one of several industry associations the employer may be affiliated with. If the welding in­ spector at the examining institution determines that the worker has performed according to the employer’s guidelines, he or she then certifies that the welder being tested is able to work with a particular welding procedure. Welders and cutters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Welders can advance to more skilled jobs with additional training and experience. They may be promoted to welding technicians, su­ pervisors, inspectors, or instructors. Some experienced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of welders, cutters, and welding machine operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2005. Many job openings will result from the   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. In certain industries—construction, wholesale trade, and repair services, for example—employment of welders and cutters will grow more rapidly. The level of construction is expected to expand, as is the number of metal products needing repair, increasing the need for welding and cutting. This work is generally less routine and more difficult to automate than other welding jobs. Greater use of welding automation in manufacturing where simple repetitive welds are done could cause manual welders to be replaced by welding ma­ chine operators. Despite the welding jobs eliminated by automated welding systems, manual welders, especially those with a wide vari­ ety of skills, will still be needed for the maintenance, repair, and other work in manufacturing that cannot be automated. Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators in construction and manufacturing are vulnerable to periodic layoffs due to eco­ nomic downturns.  »V.%  ►7.7.7. ►7.7.7.' .... -3.3 -2-9  -10L  409  Earnings Median earnings for welders and welding machine operators were about $440 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $342 and $562. The top 10 percent earned more than $715, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $278. Almost one-third of welders belong to unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work­ ers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America.  Related Occupations Welders and cutters are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers include blacksmiths, forge shop workers, all-round machinists, ma­ chine-tool operators, tool and die makers, millwrights, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and metal sculptors. Welding machine operators run machines that weld metal parts. Others who run metalworking machines include lathe and turning, milling and planing, punching and stamping press, and rolling ma­ chine operators.  Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welders, cut­ ters, and welding machine operators, contact local employers, the local office of the State employment service, or welding training cen­ ters. Information on careers in welding is available from: 13= American Welding Society, 550 NW. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126­ 5699.  410  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Plant and Systems Operators  Electric Power Generating Plant Operators and Power Distributors and Dispatchers GEOlffl OB »®j (D.O.T. 820.662-010; 952.167-014, .362, .367-014, and .382)  Nature of the Work Although electricity is vital for most of our everyday activities, it only takes a downed powerline for us to realize how much we take it and the people who help generate it for granted. Power plant opera­ tors control the machinery that generates electricity. Power distrib­ utors and dispatchers oversee the flow of electricity through substa­ tions and over a network of transmission and distribution lines to users. Electric power generating plant operators who work in plants fu­ eled by coal, oil, or natural gas regulate and monitor boilers, tur­ bines, generators, auxiliary equipment, such as coal crushers, and switching gear. They operate switches to distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and regulate the flow of electricity into powerlines. When power re­ quirements change, they start or stop generators and connect or dis­ connect them from circuits. Operators monitor instruments to see that electricity is flowing from the plant properly and that voltage is maintained. They also keep records of switching operations and loads on generators, lines, and transformers and prepare reports of unusual incidents or malfunctioning equipment during their shift. Operators who work in newer plants with automated control sys­ tems work mainly in a central control room and usually are called control room operators and control room operator trainees or assist­ ants. In older plants, the controls for the equipment are not central­ ized, and operators work throughout the plant, operating and moni­ toring valves, switches, and gauges. Job titles in older plants may be more varied than in newer plants. Auxiliary equipment operators work throughout the plant, while switchboard operators control the flow of electricity from a central point. Operators of nuclear power plants are licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). NRC-licensed reactor operators are authorized to operate most of the equipment that affects the power of the reactor in a nuclear power plant. In addition, an NRClicensed senior reactor operator acts as the supervisor of the plant for each shift, and can operate all controls in the control room. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatchers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through trans­ mission lines to users. They operate current converters, voltage transformers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers monitor equipment and record readings at a pilot board, which is a map of the transmis­ sion grid system showing the status of transmission circuits and con­ nections with substations and large industrial users. Dispatchers an­ ticipate power needs such as those caused by changes in the weather; they call control room operators to start or stop boilers and genera­ tors to bring production into balance with needs. They handle emer­ gencies such as transformer or transmission line failures and route current around affected areas. They also operate and monitor equip­ ment in substations, which step up or step down voltage, and oper­ ate switchboard levers to control the flow of electricity in and out of substations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  With modern computer equipment, power plant operators can assess the status of all the plant's major power systems. Working Conditions Because electricity is provided around the clock, operators, distribu­ tors, and dispatchers often work nights and weekends, usually on rotating shifts. Shifts are usually 8 hours long, with three shifts per day. Workers usually rotate to a different daily shift schedule peri­ odically so that duty on less desirable shifts is shared by all opera­ tors. Work on rotating shifts can be stressful and fatiguing because of the constant change in living and sleeping patterns. Operators, distributors, and dispatchers who work in control rooms generally sit or stand at a control station. This work is not physically strenu­ ous, but requires constant attention. Operators who work outside the control room may be exposed to danger from electric shock, falls, and burns. Nuclear power plant operators are subject to random drug and al­ cohol tests. Employment Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers held about 43,000 jobs in 1992. Over 90 percent worked for electric utility companies and government agencies that produced electricity. Some worked for manufacturing establish­ ments that produce electricity for their own use. Jobs are located throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally seek high school graduates for entry level oper­ ator, distributor, and dispatcher positions. Those with strong math and science skills are preferred. College level courses or prior experi­ ence in a mechanical or technical job may be helpful. Many employ­ ers start new workers in helper or laborer jobs in power plants or in other areas of the utility such as powerline construction. Workers may be assigned to train for any one of many utility positions in op­ erations, maintenance, or other areas. Assignments depend on the results of aptitude tests, worker preferences, and availability of openings. Workers selected for training as a power distributor or power plant operator at a conventionally fueled power plant undergo ex­ tensive on-the-job and classroom training provided by the employer. Several years of training and experience are required to become a  Production Occupations fully qualified control room operator or power distributor. With further training and experience, workers may advance to shift su­ pervisor. Most advancement opportunities are within a plant or util­ ity; opportunities to advance by moving to another employer are limited. Entrants to nuclear power plant operator trainee jobs must have strong math and science skills. Experience in other power plants or with Navy nuclear propulsion plants also is helpful. Extensive train­ ing and experience are necessary to pass the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s examinations for licensed reactor operator and senior reactor operator, including on-the-job training, classroom instruc­ tion, and individual study. Licensed reactor operators must pass an annual requalifying examination administered by their employer to retain their license. With further training and experience, reactor operators may advance to senior reactor operators, who are quali­ fied to be shift supervisors. In addition to preliminary training as a power plant operator or power distributor or dispatcher, most workers are given periodic re­ fresher training. Nuclear power plant operators are given frequent refresher training on a plant simulator. Job Outlook Opportunities for those interested in working as power plant opera­ tors, distributors, and dispatchers will be affected by the pace of new plant construction and equipment upgrading. The pace of expansion in power generating capacity through the year 2005 is expected to be moderate because capacity was somewhat overbuilt in the past. The increasing use of automatic controls and more efficient equipment should further offset the need for new plant construction. Although few new nuclear power plants are likely to be operational before the year 2005, the number of nuclear power plant operators needed at existing nuclear power plants may increase somewhat due to NRC regulations. Overall, employment of electric power generating plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. People who want to become power plant operators and power dis­ tributors and dispatchers are expected to encounter keen competi­ tion for jobs. With relatively modest qualifications for employment, good wages, and low turnover in this moderately sized occupation, job opportunities are expected to be few compared to the number of eligible candidates. People hired by electric power companies generally have rela­ tively secure jobs. Even during downturns in the economy, these companies seldom lay off employees. Earnings Earnings in the electric utility industry are relatively high. Accord­ ing to the limited information available, median weekly earnings for conventional power plant operators were about $750 in 1992. Ac­ cording to information from union contracts, wages for senior power plant operators ranged from $565 to $910 weekly, and wages for power plant operators ranged from $510 to $802 weekly. Nu­ clear power plant operators earned wages of about $960 in 1992. Se­ nior reactor operators earn 10-15 percent more than licensed reactor operators. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and systems equip­ ment include stationary engineers, water and sewage treatment plant operators, waterworks pumpstation operators, chemical oper­ ators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities, contact local electric utility companies, locals of unions mentioned below, or an office of the State employment service.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  411  For general information about power plant and nuclear reactor operators and power distributors and dispatchers, contact: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. *3= Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Stationary Engineers (D.O.T. 950.362-014, .382 except -014 and -022)  Nature of the Work Large buildings require a considerable amount of equipment to pro­ vide heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation. Industrial plants often have facilities to provide electrical power, steam, or other ser­ vices as well. Stationary engineers operate and maintain this equip­ ment, which can include boilers, air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. These workers are called stationary engineers be­ cause the equipment they operate is similar to equipment operated by locomotive or marine engineers except it is not in a vehicle that moves. Stationary engineers start up, regulate, and shut down equip­ ment. They insure it operates safely and economically and within es­ tablished limits by monitoring attached meters, gauges, and other instruments, and increasingly, computerized controls. They manu­ ally control equipment, and if necessary, make adjustments. They use hand and power tools to perform repairs and maintenance rang­ ing from a complete overhaul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. They also record relevant events and facts concerning operation and maintenance in an equipment log. On steam boilers, for example, they observe, control, and record steam pressure, tem­ perature, water level, power output, and fuel consumption. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check safety devices, identifing and correcting any trouble that develops. Stationary engineers also perform routine maintenance, such as lubricating moving parts, replacing filters, and removing soot and corrosion that can reduce operating efficiency. They also may test boiler water and add chemicals to prevent corrosion and harmful deposits. In a large building or industrial plant, a stationary engineer may be in charge of all mechanical systems in the building or an indus­ trial powerplant or engine room. Engineers may direct the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechanics. In a small building or industrial plant, there may be only one stationary engineer at any time. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Many work one of three daily 8-hour shifts, and weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, powerplants, and boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, how­ ever, some stationary engineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. General main­ tenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, as well as fumes or smoke. Workers spend much of their time on their feet; they also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work around boilers as well as elec­ trical and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving parts.  412  Occupational Outlook Handbook  I  Stationary engineers operate equipment which provide power to buildings. Employment Stationary engineers held about 31,000jobs in 1992. They worked in a wide variety of places, including factories, hospitals, office and apartment buildings, schools, shopping malls, and hotels. Although stationary engineers work throughout the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas, where large indus­ trial and commercial establishments are usually located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most stationary engineers acquire their skills through a formal ap­ prenticeship program or through informal on-the-job training which usually is supplemented by courses at trade or technical schools. In addition, a good background can be obtained in the Navy or the Merchant Marine because marine engineering plants are similar to many stationary power and heating plants. The in­ creasing complexity of the equipment with which they work has made a high school diploma or its equivalent necessary; many sta­ tionary engineers have some college education. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operating Engineers, the principal union to which station­ ary engineers belong. In selecting apprentices, most local labormanagement apprenticeship committees prefer applicants who have received instruction in mathematics, computers, mechanical draw­ ing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical ap­ titude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are im­ portant. An apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices receive classroom instruction in practical chemistry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electric­ ity, instrumentation, electronics, and other technical subjects. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually start as helpers to experienced stationary engineers or as boiler tenders. This practi­ cal experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in computerized controls and instrumentation. However, becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal ap­ prenticeship program usually requires many years of work experi­ ence.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most large and some small employers encourage and pay for skillimprovement training for their employees. Training is almost al­ ways provided when new equipment is introduced, usually by a rep­ resentative of the machinery manufacturer. Most States and cities have licensing requirements for stationary engineers. Applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality, meet experience re­ quirements, and pass a written examination. Because of regional dif­ ferences in licensing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licenses, each specifying the type of equipment or the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate without su­ pervision. A first-class license covers equipment of all types and ca­ pacities. A licensed first-class stationary engineer is qualified to run a large facility and to supervise others. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education, apprenticeship or on-the-job training, and several years of experience. Lower class li­ censes limit the types or capacities of equipment the engineer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Generally, engineers ad­ vance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Some station­ ary engineers advance to boiler inspectors, chief plant engineers, building and plant superintendents, or building managers. A few ob­ tain jobs as examining engineers or technical instructors. Job Outlook Employment of stationary engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although increased commercial and industrial development will in­ crease the amount of equipment to be operated and maintained, au­ tomated and computerized controls will make newly installed equipment more efficient and limit the number of additional station­ ary engineers needed. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will result in a significant number ofjob openings. Due to the increasing complexity of power-generating systems, job opportunities will be best for those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses in computerized controls and instru­ mentation. Earnings In 1992, the median weekly earnings for stationary engineers who worked full time were about $618. The middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $414 and $775 a week; 10 percent earned less than $302 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $920. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate stationary machinery in­ clude nuclear reactor operators, power station operators, water and wastewater treatment plant operators, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical operators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the Interna­ tional Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local li­ censing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation should be addressed to: O’International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20036. O’National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 5-7 Springfield St., Chi­ copee, MA 01013. O” Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Suite 3A, Arnold, MD 21403.  Production Occupations  Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (D.O.T. 954.382-010, -014; 955.362-010, .382, and .585)  Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: Health, recreation, fish and wildlife, and industry. Water treatment plant operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Wastewater treatment plant operators re­ move harmful pollution from domestic and industrial wastewater. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, and streams to water treat­ ment plants where it is treated and distributed to customers. Waste materials are collected from customers, carried by water through sewer pipes to wastewater treatment plants where it is treated and returned to streams, rivers, and oceans. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equipment to remove solid materials, chemical compounds, and micro-organisms from the water or to render them harmless. Operators control pumps, valves, and other processing equipment to move the water or wastewater through the various treatment processes, and dispose of the waste materials re­ moved from the water. Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and processes are working properly and adjust con­ trols as needed. They operate chemical-feeding devices; take sam­ ples of the water or wastewater; perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and test and adjust the amount of chemicals such as chlorine in the water. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. They use gauges, wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators increasingly are relying on computers to help them monitor equipment, make pro­ cess control decisions, and produce reports. They may use special­ ized software to store sampling results. When problems occur, oper­ ators may retrieve data in order to determine the cause of the malfunction. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause large amounts of waste­ water to flow into sewers, exceeding a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. To handle these condi­ tions, operators are trained in emergency management response us­ ing special safety equipment and procedures to protect public health and the facility. During these periods, operators may have to work under extreme pressure to correct the problem as quickly as possi­ ble. These periods may create dangerous working conditions and operators must be extremely cautious. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do repairs and maintenance. Some operators may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plant. In larger plants with many em­ ployees, operators may be more specialized and only monitor one process. The staff may also include chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become increasingly stringent since adoption of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, which implemented a national system of uniform controls on the discharge of pollutants. Under the 1972 law and subsequent reauthorizations in 1977 and 1987, it is illegal to discharge any pol­ lutant without a permit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and ensure that these wastes have been adequately pretreated so that they do not damage municipal treatment facilities. Municipal treat­ ment plants also must meet stringent discharge standards. Opera­ tors must be familiar with the guidelines established by the Federal  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  413  Clean Water Act and how they affect their plant. In addition to Fed­ eral regulations, operators also must be aware of any guidelines im­ posed by the State or locality in which the plant operates. Working Conditions Water and wastewater treatment plant operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and some unpleasant odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and sometimes get their clothes dirty. They must pay close attention to safety procedures for they may be confronted with hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and mal­ functioning equipment. Because plants operate continuously for 24 hours every day, operators work one of three 8-hour shifts and on a rotational basis, weekends and holidays. Whenever emergencies arise, operators may be required to work overtime. Employment Water and wastewater treatment plant operators held about 86,000 jobs in 1992. The vast majority worked for local governments; some worked for private water supply and sanitary services companies, some of which provide operation and management services to local governments on a contract basis. About half worked as water treat­ ment plant operators and half worked as wastewater treatment plant operators. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country. Geographically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Although most work full time, those who work in small towns may only work part time at the water or wastewater treat­ ment plant—the remainder of their time may be spent handling other municipal duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced op­ erator. They learn by observing the processes and equipment in op­ eration and by doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple mainte­ nance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also clean and maintain plant equipment. Larger treatment plants generally combine this on-the-job training with formal classroom or self-paced study programs. Operators need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Because of the introduction of computer-con­ trolled equipment and more sophisticated instrumentation, a high  ’fSssPi  " 'Wt  *r  iSr1®  Suburban water treatment plants are often staffed by a small staff and use manual controls in the treatment process.  414  Occupational Outlook Handbook  school diploma generally is required. In addition, employers prefer those who have had high school courses in chemistry, biology, and mathematics. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are cov­ ered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. Some 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in waste­ water technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowledge of water pollution control as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Be­ cause plants are becoming more complex, completion of such courses increases an applicant’s chances for employment and pro­ motion. Most State water pollution control agencies offer training courses to improve operators’ skills and knowledge. These courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory procedures, maintenance, management skills, collection systems, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological treatment, sludge treatment and disposal, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treat­ ment, and some employers pay part of the tuition for related college courses in science or engineering. As operators are promoted, they become responsible for more complex treatment processes. Some operators are promoted to plant supervisor or superintendent, while others advance by transferring to a larger facility. Some postsecondary training in water and waste­ water treatment coupled with increasingly responsible experience as an operator may be sufficient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superintendent also serves as an operator. However, educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. With each promotion, the opera­ tor must have greater knowledge of Federal, State, and local regula­ tions. Superintendents of large plants generally need an engineering or science degree. A few operators get jobs with State water pollu­ tion control agencies as technicians, who monitor and provide tech­ nical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-technical school or community college training generally is preferred for tech­ nician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial wastewater treatment plants, companies selling waste­ water treatment equipment and chemicals, engineering consulting firms, or vocational-technical schools. In 49 States, operators must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing wastewater treatment plant opera­ tions. A voluntary certification program is in effect in the remaining State. Water plant operators must also be certified in most States. Typically, there are different classes of certification for different size treatment plants, and certification requirements vary by State. There is no nationally mandated certification program for opera­ tors, and relocation may mean having to become certified in a new location. However, many States have begun accepting other States’ certifications.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of water and wastewater treatment plant operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The increasing population and growth of the economy are expected to increase demand for water and wastewater treatment services. As new plants are constructed to meet this de­ mand, employment of water and wastewater treatment plant opera­ tors should increase. In addition, some job openings will occur as ex­ perienced operators transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although local government is the largest employer of water and wastewater treatment plant operators, increased reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and wastewater treatment facilities should shift some employment de­ mand to these companies. Increased pre-treatment activity by man­ ufacturing firms should also create new job opportunities. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators generally have steady employment because the services they provide are essential even during economic downturns. Earnings Annual salaries of water and wastewater treatment plant operators averaged $26,200 in 1992; the lowest paid 10 percent of the occupa­ tion earned about $15,700, the middle 50 percent of the occupation earned between $19,600 and $33,100, and the top 10 percent earned about $39,200. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size and location of the plant, the complexity of the operator’s job, and the operator’s level of certification. In addition to their annual salaries, water and wastewater treat­ ment plant operators generally receive benefits that include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and educational reimburse­ ment for job-related courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler operators, gas-compressor operators, power plant operators, power reactor op­ erators, stationary engineers, turbine operators, chemical plant op­ erators, and petroleum refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification, contact: rs= Association of Boards of Certification, 208 Fifth St., Suite 1A, Ames, IA 50010-6259.  For information on opportunities as a water treatment plant oper­ ator, contact:  American Waterworks Association, 6666 West Quincy, Denver, CO 80235.  Additional information is available from: 13" Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on jobs, contact State or local water pollution control agencies, State water and waste water operator associations, State environmental training centers, or local offices of the State em­ ployment service.  Production Occupations  415  Printing Occupations Prepress Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work The printing process has three stages—prepress, press, and binding or finishing. Prepress workers prepare material for printing presses. They perform a variety of tasks such as typesetting, designing page layout, photographing text and pictures, and making printing plates. In the past few years as personal computers have come into more widespread use, advances in electronics and computer software have be­ gun to greatly change prepress work. Prepress workers increasingly share typesetting and page layout tasks with their customers. Customers are able to use their computers to send printers material that looks more and more like the desired finished product. This change, called “desktop publishing,” poses new challenges for the printing industry. Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, prepress workers increas­ ingly get the material on a computer disk, and instead of relying on prepress workers to suggest a format, customers are increasingly likely to have already settled on a format by experimenting on their personal computers. The printing industry is rapidly moving towards complete digital imaging, by which customers’ material received on computer disks is converted directly into printing plates. Other aspects of prepress work experiencing innovation include digital color page makeup sys­ tems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proofing sys­ tems. As electronic imaging becomes more prevalent, the use of film in printing will decline. Film, however, is still often the most economi­ cal and efficient data storage and retrieval medium currently in use. Today, electronic imaging is limited to more advanced printing shops, but as costs decline and quality improves, the process will be­ come the method of choice in the industry. Typesetting and page layout have been greatly affected by techno­ logical changes. Today, composition work is done with computers and “cold type” technology. The old “hot type” method of text composition—which used molten lead to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Cold type, which is any of a variety of methods that create type without molten lead, most commonly uses “phototypesetting” to ready text and pic­ tures for printing. Although this method has many variations, all use photography to create positive images on paper. The images are assembled into page format and rephotographed to create film nega­ tives from which the actual printing plates are made. However, newer cold type methods are coming into increasing use; these auto­ mate the photography or make printing plates directly from mate­ rial in a computer. In one common form of phototypesetting, text is entered into a computer programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Keyboarding of text may be done by typesetters or data entry clerks at the printing establishment or, increasingly, by the author before the job is sent out for composition. The computer stores the text on magnetic tape, floppy disk, or hard disk. The magnetically coded text is then transferred to a typesetting machine which uses photography, a cathode-ray tube, or a laser to create an image on typesetting paper or film. Once it has been developed, the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate. In another type of phototypesetting, a computer produces text on special paper in the desired format. In newspapers, for example, text  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  is printed in long columns. Workers called paste up artists cut and arrange the columns of text and illustrations onto a special illustra­ tion board called a “mechanical.” The special paper adheres easily to the board, yet is designed to allow easy removal and positioning. Once the text is arranged in final form, the board is sent to the cam­ era department where a photographic negative used to create print­ ing plates is produced. In small shops, job printers may be responsi­ ble for setting type according to copy, reading proof for errors and clarity, and correcting mistakes. The most advanced method of typesetting, called “electronic pag­ ination,” is in growing commercial use. Electronic pagination system operators use a keyboard to enter and select the size and style of type, the column width, and appropriate spacing, and to store it in the computer. The computer then displays and arranges columns of type on a screen that resembles a TV screen. An entire newspaper page—complete with artwork and graphics—can be made up on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators transmit the pages for production into film and then into plates, or directly into plates, eliminating the role of paste up artists. Emerging technologies are also affecting the roles of other com­ position workers. Improvements in desktop publishing software will allow customers to do more typesetting directly. Laser printers read text from computer memory and then “beam” it directly onto film, paper, or plates, bypassing the slower photographic process now be­ ing used. In addition, improvements in desktop publishing software will allow even more typesetting to be done by the customer. After the material has been arranged and typeset, it is passed on to workers who further prepare it for the presses. Camera operators are generally classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photographers. Line camera operators start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and devel­ oping film negatives or positives of the material to be printed. They adjust light and expose film for a specified length of time, and then develop film in a series of chemical baths. They may load unexposed film in machines that automatically develop and fix the image. Normal continuous-tone photographs cannot be reproduced by most printing processes, halftone camera operators separate the photograph into pictures that are made up of tiny dots, which can be reproduced. Color separation photography is more complex. In this process, camera operators produce four-color separation negatives from a continuous-tone color print or transparency which is being reproduced. More of this separation work will be done electronically in the fu­ ture on scanners. Scanner operators use computerized equipment to create film negatives or positives of photographs or art. The com­ puter controls the color separation or the scanning process, cor­ recting for mistakes, or compensating for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Operators review all work to determine if corrections to the original are necessary and adjust the equipment accordingly. They then use a densitometer to measure the density of the colored areas, and adjust the scanner to obtain the best results. An original color photograph or transparency is scanned for each color to be printed. Each scan produces a dotted, or halftone image of the original in one of four primary colors—yellow, magenta, cyan, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that print each of these colors, one at a time. The printing is done with primary process color inks which are transparent, creating “secon­ dary” color combinations of red, green, blue, and black. These sec­ ondary colors can be combined to produce all the colors and hues of the original photograph. The computer controls the color separa­ tion or the scanning process, correcting for mistakes or compensat­ ing for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency.  416  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Lithographic dot etchers retouch film negatives or positives by sharpening or reshaping images. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Dot etchers must know the char­ acteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera operators, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etcher, re­ toucher, or letterer. The skills of dot etchers are rapidly being re­ placed by scanners which can perform color correction during the color separation procedure. Strippers cut the film to required size and arrange and tape the negatives onto “flats,” or layout sheets, used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, flats resemble large film nega­ tives of the text in its final form. In large printing establishments like newspapers, arrangement is done automatically. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The film assembly or flat is placed on top of a thin metal plate treated with a light-sensitive chemical. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the chemical in those parts not protected by the film’s dark areas. The plate is then developed in a special solution that removes the unexposed nonimage area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text. A growing number of printing plants use lasers to directly convert electronic data to plates without any use of film. Entering, storing, and retrieving information from computer-aided equipment require technical skills. In addition to operating and maintaining the equip­ ment, lithographic platemakers must make sure that plates meet quality standards. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal nonimage areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were exposed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rubber roller covered with an oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text is transferred to paper. Technological changes will continue in the prepress area as hand work is automated. Although computers will perform a wider vari­ ety of tasks, printing will still involve text composition, page layout, and plate making, so printing will still require prepress workers. Technical skills, particularly in computers and electronics, will be very beneficial to prepress workers. These workers will, however, need to demonstrate a desire and an ability to benefit from the fre­ quent retraining that rapidly changing technology necessitates.  BbkAJh"  Paste-up artists cut and arrange the columns of text and illustrations onto a special illustration board called a “mechanical. ”  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Prepress workers usually work in clean, air-conditioned areas with little noise. Some workers, such as typesetters and compositors, may get eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, as well as musculoskeletal problems, such as backaches. Lithographic artists and strippers may find working with fine detail tiring to the eyes. Platemakers, who work with toxic chemicals, face the hazard of skin irritations. Stress may be an important factor as workers are often subject to the pressures of shorter and shorter deadlines and tighter and tighter work schedules. Prepress employees generally work an 8-hour day. Some work­ ers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employment Prepress workers held about 167,000 jobs in 1992. Employment was distributed as follows: Prepress precision workers Strippers, printing.......................................................................... Paste-up workers............................................................................ Electronic pagination systems workers ........................................ Job printers..................................................................................... Camera operators............................................................................ Platemakers..................................................................................... Compositors and typesetters......................................................... Photoengravers............................................................................... All other precision printing workers.............................................  30,000 22,000 18,000 15,000 14,000 13,000 11,000 7,000 13,000  Prepress machine operators Typesetting and composing machine operators............................ Photoengraving and lithographic machine operators...................  20,000 5,000  Most jobs were found in firms that handle commercial or business printing and in newspaper plants. Commercial printing firms print newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and advertisements, while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Additional jobs are found in printing trade service firms and “in-plant” operations. Establishments in printing trade services typically perform custom typesetting, platemaking, and related prepress services. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geograph­ ically dispersed in the United States, and prepress jobs are found throughout the country. However, job prospects may be best in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington DC, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The length of training required for prepress jobs varies by occupa­ tion. Some such as typesetting can be learned in only a few months, but are the most likely to be automated. Others such as stripping re­ quire years of experience to master. Nevertheless, even workers in these occupations should expect to receive intensive retraining. Workers often start as helpers who are selected for on-the- job train­ ing programs once they demonstrate their reliability and interest in learning the job. They begin instruction with an experienced craft worker and advance based upon their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level of instruction. All workers should expect to be re­ trained from time to time to handle new, improved equipment. Apprenticeship is another way to become a skilled prepress worker, although few apprenticeships have been offered in recent years. Apprenticeship programs emphasize a specific craft—such as camera operator, stripper, lithographic etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker—but apprentices are introduced to all phases of print­ ing. Generally, most employers prefer to hire high school graduates who possess good communication skills, both oral and written. Prepress workers need to be able to deal courteously with people be­ cause in small shops they may take customer orders. They may also  Production Occupations need to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios to esti­ mate job costs. Mathematical skills are also essential for operating many of the software packages used to run modern, computerized prepress equipment. Persons interested in working for firms that use advanced print­ ing technology need to know the basics of electronics and com­ puters. Prepress workers need manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, in­ cluding visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, is an asset. Artistic ability is often a plus. Employers seek persons who are even-tempered and adapta­ ble, important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Formal graphic arts programs, offered by community and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges, also introduce persons to the in­ dustry. These programs provide job-related training, and enrolling in one demonstrates an interest in the graphic arts, which may im­ press an employer favorably. Bachelor’s degree programs in graphic arts are generally intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, and 2-year associate degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Courses in various aspects of printing are also available at voca­ tional-technical institutes, industry- sponsored update and retrain­ ing programs, and private trade and technical schools. As workers gain experience, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of prepress workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for printed material should grow rapidly spurred by rising levels of personal income, increasing school enrollments, and higher levels of educational attainment. However, increased use of computers in typesetting and page layout should slow the growth of prepress jobs. New technologies are also expected to spur demand for printed materials by expanding markets, allowing advertising dollars cur­ rently allotted to nonprint media, such as television, to be spent on direct mail. Work previously requiring a week or more can now be completed in a few days. Much faster turnaround time will permit printers to compete with nonprint media for time-sensitive business, providing advertisers with specialty advertisements used to target specific market segments, for example. Technological advances will have a varying effect on the rate of employment growth among the prepress occupations. Growth is ex­ pected to be fastest for electronic pagination operators and slowest for precision compositors and typesetters. Employment of elec­ tronic pagination workers is expected to grow faster than average, reflecting the increasing proportion of page layout and design that will be performed electronically. In contrast, employment of precision compositors and typesetters will decline as typesetting work is increasingly performed on com­ puters, dampening the demand for workers who perform this pro­ cess manually. Other occupations that may decline or grow more slowly than average as hand work becomes automated include pas­ teup workers and photoengravers, platemakers, camera operators, job printers, and prepress machine operators. Job prospects also will vary by industry, most notably for com­ positors and typesetters. Changes in technology have shifted many employment opportunities away from the traditional printing plants into advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corpora­ tions. Many companies are turning to in-house typesetting or “desktop publishing” due to the advent of inexpensive personal computers with graphic capabilities. Corporations are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. In addition, press shops them­ selves have responded to desktop publishers’ needs by sending their  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  417  own staff into the field to help customers prepare a disk that will live up to the customer’s expectations. Compositors and typesetters should find competition extremely keen in the newspaper industry, currently their largest employer. Computerized equipment that allows reporters and editors to spec­ ify type and style and to format pages at a desktop computer termi­ nal has already eliminated many typesetting and composition jobs, and more are certain to disappear in the years ahead. Many new jobs for prepress workers are expected to emerge in commercial printing establishments. New equipment should reduce the time needed to complete a printing job, and allow commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turn­ around. Because small establishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for inexperienced workers looking to gain a good background in all facets of printing. Opportunities for prepress workers should also be good in the printing trade services industry. Despite the fact that companies may have their own typesetting and printing capabilities, they usu­ ally turn to professionals in printing trade services if quality and time are of the essence. Most employers prefer to hire experienced workers. However, among persons without experience, opportunities should be best for those who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs be­ cause the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn the printing process and adapt more rapidly to new processes and tech­ niques. Earnings Wage rates for prepress workers vary according to occupation, level of experience and training, location and size of the firm, and whether they are union members. According to limited data availa­ ble, the median earnings of full-time workers were $518 a week in 1992 for lithographers and photoengravers and $402 a week for typesetters and compositors. A relatively small proportion of prepress workers were unionized. According to the Graphic Communications International Union, the principal union for prepress workers, scanner operators earned an hourly wage of $21.86 in 1992, and strippers earned $17.57 per hour. Related Occupations Prepress workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills are also essential for sign painters, jewelers, decorators, engravers, and graphic artists. Other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards like typesetters include clerk-typists, computer terminal system operators, keypunch operators, and telegraphic-typewriter operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops or from local offices of the State employment service. For general information on prepress occupations, write to: ©"The Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213.  Printing Press Operators (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare, operate, and maintain the printing presses in a pressroom. Duties of press operators vary according to the type of press they operate—offset, gravure, flexography, screen  418  Occupational Outlook Handbook  printing, or letterpress. Offset is the dominant printing process and is expected to remain so into the next century. Gravure and flex­ ography should increase in use, but letterpress should continue be­ ing phased out, and only major breakthroughs in plate technology can prevent it from slipping from the ranks of major printing processes within a few years. In addition to the major printing processes, plateless or nonimpact processes are coming into general use. Plateless processes-including electronic, electrostatic, and ink­ jet printing—are used for copying, duplicating, and document and specialty printing, generally by quick and in-house printing shops. To prepare presses for printing, press operators install and adjust the printing plate, mix fountain solution, adjust pressure, ink the presses, load paper, and adjust the press to the paper size. Press op­ erators check that paper and ink meet specifications, and adjust con­ trol margins and the flow of ink to the inking rollers accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders and adjust feed and tension controls. While printing presses are running, press operators monitor their operation and keep the paper feeders well stocked. They make ad­ justments to correct uneven ink distribution, speed, and tempera­ tures in the drying chamber, if the press has one. If paper jams or tears—which can happen with some offset presses—and the press stops, the operators quickly correct the problem to minimize down­ time. Similarly, operators working with other high-speed presses constantly look for problems, making quick corrections to avoid ex­ pensive losses of paper and ink. Throughout the run, operators also occasionally pull sheets to check for any printing imperfections. In many shops, press operators perform preventive maintenance. They oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs to keep presses running smoothly. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Press operators’ jobs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops tend to have relatively small presses which print only one or two col­ ors at a time and are operated by one person. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Large newspaper, magazine, and book printers use giant “in-line web” presses that re­ quire a crew of several press operators and press assistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls, called “webs,” up to 50 inches or more in width. Presses print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the finished sections as they come off the press. Most plants have or soon will have installed printing presses that have computers and sophisticated instruments to control press oper­ ations, making it possible to set up for jobs in much less time. Com­ puters allow press operators to perform the tasks described above electronically. With this equipment, press operators monitor the printing process on a control panel that allows them to adjust the press electronically by pushing buttons.  Printing press machine setters and operators................................ Offset lithographic press operators................................................ Screen printing machine setters and setup operators.................... Letterpress operators.......................................................................  Most jobs were in newspaper plants or in firms that handle com­ mercial or business printing. Commercial printing firms print news­ paper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and the advertisements found in your mailbox, and business form establishments print items such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Additional jobs were in the “in-plant” section of organizations and businesses that do their own printing—among them, banks, insurance companies, and gov­ ernment agencies. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geograph­ ically dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Operators need mechanical aptitude to make press adjustments and repairs and an ability to visualize color to work on color presses. Oral and writing skills also are required. Operators should be able to compute percentages, weights, and measures, and should possess adequate mathematical skills to calculate the amount of ink and pa­ per needed to do a job. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by press operators. New presses require basic computer skills. Printing plants that change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain the entire press crew because the skill requirements for the two types of presses are different. Web-off­ set presses, with their faster operating speeds, require faster deci­ sions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Apprenticeship, once the dominant method of preparing for this occupation, is becoming less prevalent with the growing importance of formal programs of retraining and skill updating for experienced operators. In the future, workers are expected to need to retrain sev­ eral times during their career. Apprenticeships for press operators in commercial shops take 4 years. In addition to on-the-job instruc­ tion, apprenticeships include related classroom or correspondence school courses. Postsecondary courses in printing are increasingly important be­ cause of the theoretical knowledge needed to operate advanced equipment. Because of technical developments in the printing indus­ try, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and physics are helpful.  Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and mentally demanding, and sometimes tedious. Press operators are on their feet most of the time. Often, operators work under pressure to meet deadlines. Most printing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and adjust­ ments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Working with press machinery can be hazardous, but accidents can be avoided when safe work practices are observed. The danger of accidents is much less with newer computerized presses because operators make most adjustments from a control panel. Many press operators work evening, night, and overtime shifts. Employment Press operators held about 241,000 jobs in 1992. Employment was distributed as follows:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  110,000 79,000 25,000 13,000  Press operators are on their feet most of the time.  Production Occupations Beginning press operators may load, unload, and clean presses. With time, they may move up to operating one-color sheet-fed presses and may eventually advance to multicolor presses. Opera­ tors are likely to gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press. For example, a onecolor sheet-fed press operator may, through experience and demon­ strated ability, become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and be responsible for the work of the entire press crew. Job Outlook Employment of press operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as demand for printed materials grows. However, employment growth will vary among various press operator jobs. Employment of offset, gravure, and flexographic operators will increase, while employment of let­ terpress operators will decline. Most job openings will result from the need to replace operators who retire or leave the occupation. Most new jobs will result from expansion of the printing industry as demand for printed material increases in response to demo­ graphic trends, U.S. expansion into foreign markets, and growing use of direct mail by advertisers. Changes in the age structure of the population are expected to spur demand for books and magazines as school enrollments rise, even as substantial growth in the middleaged and older population spurs adult education and leisure read­ ing. Additional growth should stem from increasing foreign demand for domestic trade publications, professional and scientific works, and mass-market books such as paperbacks. Much of the growth in commercial printing will be spurred by in­ creased expenditures for print advertising materials to be mailed di­ rectly to prospective customers. New market research techniques are leading advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to specific audiences and should continue to require the printing of a wide variety of newspaper inserts, catalogs, direct mail enclosures, and other kinds of print advertising. Other printing such as newspapers, books, and periodicals will also provide jobs. Experienced press operators will fill most of these jobs because many employers are under severe pressure to meet deadlines and have limited time to train new employees. New laborsaving technology, which is expected to eliminate many prepress workers’ jobs, is expected to have little adverse im­ pact on press operators. New presses with higher press speeds and reduced setup time should not significantly affect operator employ­ ment. Printing press operators are more likely to require apprenticeship training than other printing occupations. They will face keen com­ petition for jobs from experienced workers and workers who have completed retraining programs. Earnings The basic wage rate for a press operator depends on the type of press being run and the area of the country in which the work is located. Median weekly earnings of press operators who worked full time were about $420 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $570 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned $215 or less a week, while the highest 10 percent earned over $710 a week. A relatively small proportion of press operators belong to unions. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery in­ clude papermaking machine operators, shoemaking machine opera­ tors, bindery machine operators, and precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  419  shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, local affiliates of Printing Industries of America, or local of­ fices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: (^Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20036. ^Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213.  Bindery Workers (D.O.T. 640.682-018, .685-010; 641.682-014; 653.360, .382, .662, .682, .685; 692.685-146; 794.687-026; and 977)  Nature of the Work The process of combining printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, or directories is known as “binding.” Binding involves cutting, folding, gathering, gluing, stitching, trimming, sewing, wrapping, and other finishing opera­ tions. Bindery workers operate and maintain the machines perform­ ing these various tasks. Job duties depend on the kind of material being bound. In firms that do edition binding, for example, workers bind books produced in large numbers or “runs.” Job binding workers bind books pro­ duced in smaller quantities. In firms that specialize in library bind­ ing, workers repair books and provide other specialized binding ser­ vices to libraries. Pamphlet binding workers produce leaflets and folders, and manifold binding workers bind business forms such as ledgers and books of sales receipts. Blankbook binding workers bind blank pages to produce notebooks, checkbooks, address books, dia­ ries, calendars, and note pads. Some binding consists of only one step. Preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example, requires only folding. Binding of books, on the other hand, requires a number of steps. These are summarized below. Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat, printed sheets of pa­ per. Many skilled bookbinders also bind magazines. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Skilled bookbinders oper­ ate machines that first fold printed sheets into units known as “sig­ natures,” which are groups of pages arranged sequentially. Book­ binders then sew, stitch, or glue the assembled signatures together, shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines, and re­ inforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are created separately, and glued, pasted, or stitched onto the book bodies. The books then undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper jackets. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creativ­ ity, knowledge of binding materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding gives individuals the op­ portunity to work at the greatest variety ofjobs. Bindery workers in small shops may perform many binding tasks, while those in large shops are usually assigned only one or a few op­ erations, such as operating complicated papercutters or folding ma­ chines. Others specialize in adjusting and preparing equipment, and may when necessary perform minor repairs. Working Conditions Binderies are often noisy and jobs can be fairly strenuous, requiring considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. They may also require stooping, kneeling, and crouching. Binding often resembles an as­ sembly line, and workers should not mind performing repetitive tasks.  420  Occupational Outlook Handbook —  Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat, printed sheets ofpaper. Employment In 1992, bindery workers held about 76,000 jobs, including over 7,700 working as skilled bookbinders and nearly 68,000 working as lesser skilled bindery machine operators. Although some bindery workers are employed by large libraries and book publishers, the majority ofjobs are in commercial printing plants. Few publishers maintain their own manufacturing facilities, so most contract out the printing and assembly of books to commer­ cial printing plants or bindery trade shops. Bindery trade shops, the second largest employer of bindery workers, specialize in binding for printers without binderies, or whose printing production exceeds their binding capabilities. Bindery workers are employed in all parts of the country, but jobs are concentrated near large metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For bindery jobs, employers prefer high school graduates with basic mathematics and language skills. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are also important. Bindery work requires careful at­ tention to detail, because mistakes at this stage in the printing pro­ cess can cost a lot. Finger dexterity is essential to count, insert, paste, and fold, and mechanical aptitude is needed to operate the newer, more automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are necessary for hand bookbinding. Most bindery workers learn the craft through on-the-job training. Inexperienced workers are usually assigned simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. They learn basic binding skills, including the characteristics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into different sizes with the least amount of waste. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and may learn how to operate one or more pieces of equipment. Generally, it takes 1 to 3 months to learn how to operate the simpler machines well, but it can take up to 1 year to learn how to operate the more complex equipment, such as computerized binding machines. Employers prefer to hire and train workers with some basic knowledge of binding operations. High school students interested in bindery careers can gain some exposure to the craft by taking shop courses or attending a vocational-technical high school. Occupa­ tional skill centers, usually operated by labor unions, also provide an introduction. Formal apprenticeships are not as common as they used to be, but are still offered by some employers. They provide a more structured program that enables workers to acquire the high levels of speciali­ zation and skill needed for some bindery jobs. For example, a 4-year  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  apprenticeship usually is necessary to teach workers how to restore rare books and to produce valuable collectors’ items. Training in graphic arts is also an asset. Postsecondary programs in the graphic arts are offered by vocational-technical institutes, skill updating or retraining programs, and community and junior colleges. Some updating and retraining programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are available through unions for members. Four-year colleges also offer programs, but their emphasis on preparing people for careers as graphic artists or managers in the graphic arts field. To keep pace with ever-changing technology, occasional retraining will become increasingly impor­ tant for bindery workers. Advancement opportunities in bindery work are limited. In large binderies, experienced bookbinders may advance to supervisory po­ sitions. Job Outlook Employment of bindery workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as demand for printed material grows but productivity in bindery operations in­ creases. Growth of the printing industry will continue to spur demand for bindery workers by commercial printers. The volume of printed ma­ terial should grow due to increased marketing of products through catalogs, newspaper inserts, and direct mail advertising. Book pub­ lishing is expected to continue to grow in response to rising school enrollments, and the expanding middle-aged and older population—age groups that do the most leisure reading. Even though major technological changes are not anticipated, binding is becoming increasingly mechanized. New “in-line” equip­ ment performs a number of operations in sequence, beginning with raw stock and ending with a complete finished product. Growth in requirements for bindery workers who assist skilled bookbinders will be slowed as binding machinery continues to become more effi­ cient. Most job openings for bindery workers will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change jobs or leave the la­ bor force. Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited by the small number of establishments that do this highly specialized work. Ex­ perienced bindery workers will have the best opportunities. Earnings Highly skilled bookbinders in 1992 had median weekly earnings of about $350. The middle 50 percent earned between about $240 and $480 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $200 a week, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $650 a week or more. Lesser skilled bindery workers in 1992 also had median weekly earnings of about $350. The middle 50 percent earned about $270 to $470 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $220 a week, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $570 a week or more. Workers covered by union contracts had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery in­ clude papermaking machine operators, press operators, and preci­ sion machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local printing industry associations, local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment ser­ vice. For general information on bindery occupations, write to: XW Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091-4326. ^■Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW, Wash­ ington, DC 20036.  Production Occupations  421  Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations Apparel Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Apparel workers transform cloth, as well as leather and fur, into clothing and other consumer products. Many of these workers also care for these products and do alterations. (Some items that we think of as apparel, such as socks or pantyhose, are produced in knitting mills. Workers who are employed in these factories are clas­ sified as textile rather than as apparel workers. A separate statement on textile machinery operators is presented in this section of the Handbook.) Apparel production begins with a design, created by a designer, that has been made into a sample product. (A separate statement on designers is presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because these goods are to be mass produced, a pattern must be developed. This is usually done with the aid of a computer. Once the pattern has been created, the fabric must be spread and cut. Many layers of material are spread on the cutting table, depend­ ing on the number of products needed, as well as the weight and quality of the material. Workers known as markers must determine the best arrangement or layout of the pattern pieces to minimize waste. In most plants, this step depends on the judgment of the worker. Increasingly, however, computers are used to determine the optimum arrangement of the pattern pieces. Using an electric knife or other cutting tool, other workers cut out the various pieces of material following the outline of the pattern. On especially delicate or valuable items, this may be done by hand. Workers must pay close attention to detail because a mistake in the cutting process can ruin many yards of material. In more automated firms, electronic copies of layouts are sent to computer-controlled cutting machines. Workers then monitor the machine. Once the ma­ terial has been cut, it is ready to be sewn together into a shirt, knap­ sack, dress, or other product. Most sewing is done by sewing machine operators, who are classi­ fied by the type of machine and the type of product on which they work. Because each product requires a variety of sewing opera­ tions—and all of these cannot be done on the same machine—com­ panies producing apparel have many types of specialized sewing ma­ chines. Sewing machine operators’ skills vary by the type of machine on which they work. Sewing machine operators are also categorized by the specific product they produce. The most basic division, however, is between sewing machine operators who produce clothing and those who pro­ duce such items as towels, sheets, and curtains. Both garment and nongarment machine operators usually specialize in a single opera­ tion, such as bindings, collars, or hems. Because of the value and delicate nature of some materials, sew­ ing may be done by hand rather than on a machine. Hand sewers are highly skilled workers who may specialize in a particular operation, such as sewing buttonholes or adding lace or other trimming. They also may work with the designer to make a sample of a new product. When sewing operations have been completed, workers remove loose threads, basting stitching, and lint from the finished product. Final inspection of the product may be done at this time. The shape and appearance of certain finished products depend, to a large extent, on the pressing that is done at different stages of pro­ duction. Pressing may be done by hand or by pressing machines.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Some pressers specialize in a particular garment part; others are re­ sponsible for the final pressing before the product is shipped to the store. Not all apparel goods are mass produced. Some people prefer clothing made especially for them. Custom tailors make garments from start to finish—including taking measurements and helping the customer select the right fabric—and must be knowledgeable in all phases of clothing production. Many work in retail outlets, where they make alterations and adjustments to ready-to-wear clothing. Inspectors are found in all stages of the production process. (For a more detailed discussion of this occupation, see the statement on inspectors, testers, and graders elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may mark defects in uncut fabric so that layout workers can posi­ tion the pattern to avoid them, or they may mark defects in semifin­ ished garments, which they may repair themselves or send back to be mended. Many apparel workers are employed by small firms that lack the capital resources to invest in new, more efficient equipment. Be­ cause of this, the nature of the work for many apparel workers has been less affected by the increased use of technology. Nevertheless, in larger firms that have modernized their facilities, some operations are computerized, and some of the product-moving operations are done by automated material handling systems. In addition, many firms increasingly are using modular manufacturing systems. In these systems, which often reduce production time while increasing product quality, operators work together in a module or group. Al­ though each worker specializes in one operation, most are crosstrained in the various operations performed within the group. Not only do operators have more communication with other workers, they are also given responsibility for running the module, including correcting problems, scheduling, and monitoring standards. Working Conditions Working conditions in apparel production vary by establishment and by the type of job. Older factories tend to be congested and poorly lit and ventilated, but more modern facilities are usually bet­ ter planned, have more work space, and are well lighted and venti­ lated. Some new facilities are even carpeted. Due to the nature of the  KEarrassssssf;  Opportunities for apparel workers should be best for those interested in a job as a custom tailor or pressing machine operator.  422  Occupational Outlook Handbook  work and the machinery being used, sewing and pressing areas are usually noisy, whereas pattemmaking and spreading areas are qui­ eter. Laundries and drycleaning establishments are often hot and noisy; retail stores, on the other hand, generally are relatively quiet and comfortable. Most persons in apparel occupations work a standard 5-day, 35to 40-hour week. Some apparel manufacturers are adding a second shift to justify the expense of new machinery. Also, those employed in retail stores and in laundry and drycleaning establishments may work evening and weekend hours. Apparel production work can be physically demanding. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend long hours on their feet, leaning over tables and operating machinery. However, new machinery and production techniques have decreased the physical demand upon workers. For example, newer pressing machines are now operated by foot pedals or computer controls and don’t require much strength to operate. Although there are no serious dangers or health hazards associated with apparel occupations, operators must be attentive while running equipment such as sewing machines, pressers, and automated cutters. A few workers must use protective devices such as gloves. In some areas of apparel production, the emphasis on individual performance is shifting to an emphasis on teamwork and coopera­ tion. Incentive programs may also be based on a team’s perform­ ance. The team or module often has managerial authority over itself, increasing the overall responsibility of each operator and allowing more interpersonal contact. It also means that groups and individ­ ual sewing machine operators are under pressure to improve their performance while maintaining quality. Employment Apparel workers held 986,000 jobs in 1992. Almost 70 percent were sewing machine operators. Table 1 shows the distribution of apparel worker employment by detailed occupation. Production jobs are concentrated in California, New York, North Carolina, Penn­ sylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia. Most of these jobs are in the ap­ parel and textile industries, except for pressers and custom tailors. Although pressing operations are an integral part of the apparel pro­ duction process, more than one-half of all pressers are employed in the laundry and drycleaning industry. In addition, more than onehalf of all custom tailors work in retail clothing establishments; many others are self-employed. For both of these occupations, jobs are found in every part of the country. Table i. Distribution of apparel workers by detailed occupation, 1992 Total (percent).....................................................................................  100  Garment sewing machine operators...................................................... Nongarment sewing machine operators................................................ Custom tailors and sewers ..................................................................... Pressing machine operators.................................................................... Hand cutters and trimmers.................................................................... Hand sewers............................................................................................ Patternmakers and layout workers........................................................ Hand pressers......................................................................................... Portable machine cutters........................................................................  56 13 11 8  5 2 2 2 1  SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary by industry. In the apparel industry, for example, few employers require a high school diploma or previous work experience. Nevertheless, entrants with secondary or post­ secondary vocational training or previous work experience in ap­ parel production usually have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to a supervisory position.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors and sewers with previous experience in apparel manufacture, design, or alterations. Knowl­ edge of fabrics, design, and construction is very important. Al­ though laundries and drycleaners prefer entrants with previous work experience, employers routinely hire inexperienced workers. Apparel workers need good hand-eye coordination and the ability to perform repetitious tasks for long periods. Knowledge of fabrics and their characteristics is sometimes required. Regardless of setting, workers usually begin by performing simple tasks. As they gain experience, they are assigned more difficult oper­ ations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some production workers may become first-line supervisors, but the majority remain on the production line. Occasionally, a patternmaker may advance to designer, but usually only after additional training at a design school. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring shop. Custom tailoring is a very competitive field, however, and training in small business operation can mean the difference be­ tween success and failure. Machinery operators are usually trained on the job by more ex­ perienced employees or by machinery manufacturers’ representa­ tives. However, as machinery in the industry continues to become more complex, apparel workers will need more training, especially in computers and electronics. For example, some workers use com­ puters to determine the best layout and then electronically send the layout to an automated cutting machine. In addition, the trend to­ ward cross-training of operators will increase the time needed to learn different machines as well as increase an operator’s skills. Job Outlook The job outlook of apparel workers depends largely on conditions in the apparel industry, where most apparel workers are employed. In­ creased imports, use of offshore assembly, and greater productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery should reduce demand for these workers, so employment of apparel workers is ex­ pected to decline through the year 2005. Because of the large size of this occupation, however, many thousands ofjob openings will arise each year from the need to replace persons who transfer to other oc­ cupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic apparel industry has declined in re­ cent years as foreign producers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. To avoid losing more of the market, domestic manu­ facturers are developing the ability to respond more quickly to changes in market demand and to take advantage of their closeness to U.S. markets. One strategy that domestic manufacturers have adopted to re­ duce costs is the use of offshore assembly. A provision in U.S. tariff regulations allows manufacturers to cut the pieces of fabric in the United States and ship them to other countries for assembly. This enables the most labor-intensive step in the production process— sewing—to be done at much lower wage rates. This trend is ex­ pected to continue, and will curtail job opportunities for sewing ma­ chine operators in the United States. However, because the pre-sew­ ing functions are done domestically, they will not be adversely affected. Despite advances in technology, extensive use of automated equipment is difficult due to the soft properties of textile products. In addition, it is time consuming and expensive to adapt existing technology to the wide variety of items produced and the frequent style and seasonal changes. However, some of the larger firms and those that produce standardized items have automated pre-sewing functions and very simple sewing procedures and have automated material handling. Technological developments such as computeraided marking and grading, computer-controlled cutters, semiauto­ matic sewing and pressing machines, and automated material han­ dling systems have increased output while reducing the need for workers. Opportunities should be best for those interested in a job as a cus­ tom tailor or pressing machine operator. Many of these workers are  Production Occupations employed by retail establishments and by laundries and drycleaners. These employers are unaffected by imports and are unable to move operations abroad. Employers in some locations are having diffi­ culty attracting enough of these workers; as a result, those with the appropriate skills and background should find ample opportunities. Earnings Earnings of apparel workers vary by industry and by occupation. Average weekly earnings of production workers in the apparel in­ dustry were $258 in 1992, compared to $469 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. However, earnings vary signifi­ cantly depending on the product being manufactured. Average weekly earnings ranged from a low of $213 in firms producing women’s blouses and shirts to a high of $432 in establishments mak­ ing automotive and apparel trimmings. Sewing machine operators—accounting for 7 of every 10 apparel workers—had median weekly earnings of $217 in 1992. Because many production workers in apparel manufacturing are paid according to the number of acceptable pieces they or their group produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accu­ racy. Benefits also vary. Those offered by large employers usually in­ clude paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance cover­ age, and increasingly, child care. Those employed in retail trade also may receive a discount of 10 to 30 percent on their purchases. In ad­ dition, some of the larger manufacturers operate company stores, where employees can purchase apparel products at significant dis­ counts. Some small firms, however, may offer only limited benefits. In addition to employer-sponsored benefits, the two principal un­ ions, the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union and the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, provide benefits to their members. Related Occupations The work of apparel workers varies from that requiring very little skill and training to that which is highly complex, requiring several years of training. Those operating machinery and equipment, such as pressing or sewing machine operators, perform duties similar to metalworking and plastics-working machine operators, textile oper­ atives, and shoe sewing machine operators. Other workers who per­ form handwork are precision woodworkers, precision assemblers, and shoe and leather workers. Workers who require an in-depth knowledge of the materials with which they work include upholster­ ers, tool and die makers, and precision welders. Sources of Additional Information Information regarding careers in apparel may be obtained from nu­ merous colleges and universities that have specialized textile and ap­ parel programs. A list of these can be found in college guides. In ad­ dition, the local office of the State employment service or an apparel manufacturer can provide information on job opportunities in a spe­ cific area. For general information on the apparel industry, write to: W American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 301, Arlington, VA 22201.  Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers (D.O.T. 365.361; 780.381-030; 781.381-018; 783.361-010, and .381-018 through -026; 788.261-010 and .381)  Nature of the Work Creating stylish and durable leather products is the job of precision shoe and leather workers; keeping them in good condition is the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  423  work of repairers. Among the workers who do leather work and re­ pair are custom orthopedic shoemakers, saddlemakers, and luggage makers. Although these workers produce different goods, their job duties are actually quite similar. Depending on the size of the factory or shop, a leather worker may perform one or more of the steps required to complete a prod­ uct. In smaller factories or shops, workers generally perform several tasks, while those in larger facilities tend to specialize. However, most leather workers eventually learn the different skills involved in producing leather goods as they move from one task to another. Leather workers must first check the leather for texture, color, and strength. They then place a pattern of the item being produced on the leather, trace the pattern onto the leather, cut along the out­ line, and sew the pieces together. Other steps may vary according to the type of good being produced. Orthopedic shoemakers attach the insoles to shoe lasts (a wooden form shaped like a foot), affix the shoe uppers, and apply heels and outsoles. They shape the heels with a knife and then sand them on a buffing wheel for smoothness. Finally, they dye and polish the shoes. Custom shoe workers also may modify existing footwear for people with foot problems and special needs. This can involve pre­ paring inserts, heel pads, and lifts from casts of customers’ feet. Saddlemakers often apply leather dyes and liquid top coats to produce a gloss finish on a saddle. They may also decorate the sad­ dle surface by hand stitching or by stamping the leather with deco­ rative patterns and designs. Luggage makers fasten leather to a frame and attach handles and other hardware. They also cut and se­ cure linings inside the frames and sew or stamp designs onto the lug­ gage exterior. Shoe and leather repairers use their knowledge of leatherworking to give worn leather goods extended wearability. The most common type of shoe repair is replacing soles and heels. Repairers place the shoe on a last and remove the old sole and heel with a knife or pliers or both. They attach new soles and heels to shoes either by stitching them in place or by using cement or nails. Other leather goods, suit­ cases or handbags, for example, may need seams to be re-sewn or handles and linings to be replaced. Leather workers and repairers use handtools and machines. The most commonly used handtools are knives, hammers, awls (used to poke holes in leather to make sewing possible), and skivers (for split­ ting leather). Power-operated equipment includes sewing machines, heel nailing machines, hole punching machines, and sole stitchers. Self-employed shoe repairers and owners of custom-made shoe and leather shops have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They must maintain good relations with their customers, make business decisions, and keep accurate records. Working Conditions Working conditions of leather workers vary according to the type of work performed, the size of the factory or business, and the prac­ tices of each individual shop. Workers employed in custom leather goods manufacturing estab­ lishments generally work a regular 40-hour week. Those in repair shops work nights and weekends and often work irregular hours. For those who own their own repair shop, overtime is common. Al­ though there are few health hazards if precautions are followed, work areas can be noisy and odors from leather dyes and stains are often present. Employment Shoe and leather workers and repairers held about 22,000 jobs in 1992. Self-employed individuals, who typically own and operate small shoe repair shops or specialty leather manufacturing firms, held about 4,000 of these jobs. Of the remaining workers, over half were employed in the manufacture of footwear products, and an ad­ ditional one-fifth were employed in production of leather goods such as luggage, handbags, and apparel. Another fifth worked in shoe repair and shoeshine shops.  424  Occupational Outlook Handbook employment decline of these workers. In the future, most job open­ ings in this occupation will arise from the need to replace exper­ ienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the work force. Prospects for workers employed in the manufacture and modifi­ cation of custom-made molded or orthopedic shoes are better than those for most other leather workers. This is a result of substantial expected growth in the elderly population and an increasing empha­ sis on preventive foot care. The employment effects of these trends may be limited, however, since the demand for orthopedic footwear is increasingly fulfilled by manufactured shoes that are modified to specification instead of totally custom made. Earnings Data on earnings of shoe and leather workers are very limited. Their earnings vary greatly depending upon the place of employment. Be­ ginning workers often start near the minimum wage and can ad­ vance in just a few months. Owners of shoe repair and custom shoe manufacturing shops can earn substantially more. Related Occupations Other workers who make or repair items using handtools and ma­ chinery include dressmakers, designers and patternmakers, and fur­ riers.  mwm Shoe and leather workers need manual dexterity to make repairs.  Sources of Additional Information For information about the custom-made prescription shoe business, and about training opportunities in this field, contact: XW Prescription Footwear Association, 9861 Broken Land Pky., Suite 255,  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision shoe and leather workers and repairers generally learn their craft on the job, either through in-house training programs or working as helpers to experienced workers. Helpers generally begin by performing simple tasks and then progress to more difficult projects like cutting or stitching leather. Trainees generally become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of training varies ac­ cording to the nature of the work and the aptitude and dedication of the individual. A limited number of schools offer vocational training in shoe re­ pair and leather work. These programs may last from 6 months to 1 year and impart basic skills including leather cutting, stitching, and dyeing. Students learn shoe construction, practice shoe repair, and study the fundamentals of running a small business. Graduates are encouraged to gain additional training by working with an exper­ ienced leather worker or repairer. National and regional associa­ tions also offer specialized training seminars and workshops in cus­ tom shoe making, shoe repair, and other leather work. Manual dexterity and the mechanical aptitude to work with handtools and machines are important in the shoe repair and leatherworking occupations. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom goods should have artistic ability as well. These workers must have self-discipline to work alone under little supervision. In addition, leather workers and repairers who own shops will need to have a knowledge of business practices and management as well as a pleasant manner when dealing with customers. Many individuals who begin as workers or repairers advance to salaried supervisory and managerial positions. Some may open their own shop or business. Job Outlook Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Inexpensive imports have made the cost of replacing shoes and leather goods cheaper or more convenient than repairing them, thus reducing the demand for shoe and leather re­ pairers. Some of the more expensive, high-end products will con­ tinue to be repaired, however, and this demand will moderate the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Columbia, MD 21046-1151.  For information about opportunities in shoe repair, contact: W Shoe Service Institute of America, Educational Library, 5024-R Camp­ bell Blvd., Baltimore, MD 21236-5974.  Textile Machinery Operators (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Textile machinery operators tend machines that manufacture textile goods used in all types of consumer and industrial products. Pants, skirts, and socks are familiar examples of textile products, but many are surprised to find that textile products are used in such things as tires and roads. There are many phases in the textile production pro­ cess, and operators’ duties and responsibilities depend on the prod­ uct and the type of machinery in use. The textile production process begins with the preparation of manufactured or natural fibers for spinning. Machinery operaters control equipment that cleans, cards, combs, and draws the fiber; spins the fiber into yarn; and weaves, knits, or tufts the yam into tex­ tile products. They are responsible for numerous machines that they must start, stop, clean, and monitor for proper functioning. Fibers are cleaned and aligned through carding and combing. To prepare the fiber for the spinning process, very short fibers and any foreign matter are removed and the fibers are drawn into a sub­ stance called sliver. During this process, different types of fibers may be combined to give products the desired textures, durability, or other characteristics. This is how “50 percent cotton, 50 percent polyester” blends, for example, are created. Operators constantly monitor their machines during this stage, checking the movement of the fiber, removing and replacing cans of sliver, repairing breaks in the sliver, and making minor repairs to the machinery. The full cans of sliver are then taken to the spinning area. Spin­ ning draws and twists the sliver to produce yarn which is then wound onto conical structures called bobbins. This is an automated version of the old fashion spinning wheel.  Production Occupations Some workers oversee machinery that makes manufactured fi­ bers. These fibers, used in many textile products, are created from materials that, unlike cotton, wool, and flax, are not fibrous in their natural form. To make this fiber, wood pulp or chemical com­ pounds are dissolved or melted in a liquid which is then extruded, or forced, through holes in a metal plate, called a spinneret. The sizes and shapes of the holes in the spinneret determine the shape and the uses of the fiber. Workers adjust the flow of fiber base through the spinneret, repair breaks in the fiber, or make minor adjustments to the machinery. Because this fiber is created by a chemical process, the majority of these workers are employed by chemical companies, not textile mills. When the yam is ready, it is taken to be woven, knitted, or tufted. Each of these processes produces a different type of textile product and requires a different type of machine. For example, woven fabrics are made on looms that interlace the yarn. Knit products, such as socks or women’s hosiery, are produced by intermeshing loops of yarn. Carpeting is made through the tufting process, in which the loops of yam are pushed through a material backing. Al­ though the processes are now highly automated, these concepts have been used for many centuries to produce textile products. Even though operators work with many different kinds of ma­ chines, many of their responsibilities are similar. Each operator oversees numerous machines—repairing breaks in the yarn, moni­ toring the supply of yam, and making minor repairs to the machin­ ery. As increasingly sophisticated machinery is used in textile mills, more processes will be controlled by computers, making it possible for each operator to monitor a larger area or number of machines. Because of the complexity of many machines, operators often spe­ cialize in a particular type of machine. In addition, operators pre­ pare the machinery prior to a production run and help maintain the equipment. For example, they may adjust the timing on a machine, thread the harnesses that create patterns in textile goods, or repair machinery. Once the yarn has been woven, knitted, or tufted, the resulting fabric is ready to be dyed and finished either at the textile mill or at a plant specializing in textile finishing. Because of the variety of con­ sumer preferences, manufacturers must print and dye textiles in thousands of different designs and colors. Depending upon the end use of the yam, it may be dyed before or after it is woven, knitted, or tufted. Some fabric is treated before it is dyed to remove other chem­ ical additives that could affect the quality of the dyed product. In addition to dyeing and printing, products are often finished by treating them to prevent excessive shrinkage, to provide strength, or to give a silky luster. In the production of hosiery and socks, for ex­ ample, the stocking or sock is placed on a form and then exposed to steam and heat to give it shape. Working Conditions Most textile machine operators work in a textile mill or a chemical plant. Working conditions depend upon the age of the facility or equipment and its degree of modernization. Newer facilities offer better ventilation and climate control that reduce potential problems caused by airborne fibers and fumes often encountered in older facilities. Workers in areas with high levels of these airborne materials often use protective glasses and masks that cover their nose and mouth. Although some of the newer machinery has reduced the level of noise, workers in some areas still must wear ear protection. Because many machines operate at high speeds, workers must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, extruding and forming machine operators may wear pro­ tective shoes and clothing when working with some types of chemi­ cal compounds. The average workweek for textile production workers is 40 hours. Because most textile and fiber mills operate 24 hours a day, night and weekend shifts are common. However, many employers use a rotating schedule of shifts so operators don’t consistently work  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  425  fJm..  Although employment of textile workers will decline, many job opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who leave theirjobs. nights or weekends. Operators are on their feet moving between ma­ chines during most of their shift. Although workers have traditionally worked under close supervi­ sion, new management philosophies are placing an increasing em­ phasis on teamwork, which will allow operators greater interper­ sonal contact and more initiative. Employment Textile machinery operators held about 284,000 jobs in 1992. The majority of these workers were employed in weaving, finishing, yarn, and thread mills. Other employers with a substantial number of these workers were knitting mills and manufactured fiber produc­ ers. North Carolina was the leading State in the employment of textile workers, accounting for about 30 percent of the total. Georgia and South Carolina combined accounted for another 30 percent. Most of the remaining workers were employed in other southern States and in the northeast. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Physical stamina and manual dexterity are important skills for these jobs. Education and training, however, are becoming increasingly important for working with complex machinery and advanced man­ ufacturing methods. A high school diploma in addition to extensive technical training is becoming a prerequisite for entry to many jobs. This training may be obtained, in part, at a formal training institution such as a techni­ cal school. Extensive on-the-job training by more experienced work­ ers or representatives of machinery manufacturers is also common. As the textile industry becomes more highly automated, opera­ tors will need to understand the complex machinery and be able to diagnose problems. Because textile machinery is increasingly con­ trolled electronically, many operators will need good computer skills. Self-direction and interpersonal skills will become increasingly important for textile machinery operators. Business attitudes pro­ moting teamwork and fewer levels of management offer operators greater responsibility and the opportunity to take more initiative in running the production facility. Textile machinery operatives can advance in several ways. Some workers become instructors and train new employees. Others ad­ vance by taking positions requiring higher skills and greater respon­ sibility. First-line supervisory positions usually are filled from the ranks of skilled operators.  426  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook The textile industry will continue to undergo change. Greater pro­ ductivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery and changing business practices are expected to help the industry better compete in the global marketplace. However, these changes mean that employment of textile machinery operators is expected to de­ cline through the year 2005. The industry will update existing and introduce new technology that is expected to significantly increase productivity. New machin­ ery, such as faster shuttleless and air jet looms, and computer-inte­ grated manufacturing processes increase productivity by producing goods at a faster rate. They also allow each operator to monitor a larger number of machines. Many factories are also reorganizing production floors to further increase productivity and to give work­ ers more responsibility. Employment declines due to productivity increases, however, will likely be partially offset by increased demand for textile mill prod­ ucts. As apparel production increases in North America, the de­ mand for textile goods produced in the United States may increase. This increased demand will help to keep jobs in the textile industry. Although employment will continue to decline in the years ahead, many job opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who leave their jobs. Because the industry is highly automated, per­ sons with technical skills will have better opportunities than others. Earnings Average weekly earnings for production workers in the textile and manufactured fiber industries were S3 5 3 in 1992, compared to $469 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. Moreover, earnings vary significantly depending upon the type of mill and by shift, job specialty, and seniority. Average weekly earnings for pro­ duction workers in the chemical industry, where most extruding machine operators are found, were $623 in 1992. Benefits usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and sick leave. Some firms provide on-site daycare facilities. Additionally, employees often receive dis­ counts in company-owned outlet stores. Related Occupations Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators perform similar duties and have the same entry and training requirements as extruding and forming machine operators and tenders; textile ma­ chine operators and tenders; and textile bleaching and dyeing ma­ chine operators. Setters and setup operators in other industries, for example, in metal fabrication and plastics manufacturing, perform duties comparable to those of textile machine setters and setup oper­ ators.  restoring a treasured antique, or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine knowledge of fabrics and other materials with artistic flair and manual skill. Some repair and replace automobile upholstery and convertible and vinyl tops. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with the bare wooden frame. Those who recondition old furniture first remove the old cover, padding, and springs, using hammers and tack pullers. They remove the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. They examine the springs and replace broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat, called “webbing,” that is attached to the frame. If webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and webbing. Upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. The first step in upholstering new furniture or reupholstering old pieces is to install webbing of nylon, jute, or cotton in the frame to hold the springs. Upholsterers tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Additional webbing is woven across the first row of webbing and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they compress evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the web­ bing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut, smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover the furniture with filling ma­ terial. They then cover this with a layer of felt and heavy cloth, and tack the cloth to the frame. Upholsterers measure and cut fabric for arms, backs, and other sections with as little waste as possible. They temporarily stitch pieces together for fitting and after assuring tight and smooth fit of the cover—or noting where adjustments are neces­ sary—they remove the cover, sew it together, and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew, tack, or glue on fringes, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use common handtools, including tack hammers, staple guns, tack and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They may also use sewing machines. Upholsterers who work in upholstery shops may pick up and de­ liver furniture or help customers select new furniture coverings. Those who manage shops also order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Working Conditions Most upholsterers work inside a shop or factory. Working condi­ tions in these facilities vary—many are spacious, adequately lighted, well ventilated, and well heated; others are small and dusty.  Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile and manmade fiber production is available from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on careers, technology, or trade regula­ tions in the textile industry, write to: American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc. 1801 K St. NW., Suite 900, Washington, DC 20006. W Institute of Textile Technology, P.O. Box 391, Charlottesville, VA 22901.  Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381 except -030 and -034, .384-014, .684-122)  Nature of the Work Upholsterers are skilled craft workers who make new furniture and recondition old furniture. Whether making a new piece of furniture,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Upholsterers cover furniture with filling material, felt, and heavy cloth, and tack the cloth to the frame to form a smooth round surface.  Production Occupations The work is not dangerous, but upholsterers must be careful to avoid cuts and bruises when they use sharp tools and when they lift and handle furniture or springs. Upholsterers stand most of the workday, and they do a lot of bending and heavy lifting. They also have to work in awkward positions for short periods of time. Employment Furniture upholsterers held about 60,000 jobs in 1992. About 1 out of 3 were self-employed, many of them in their own reupholstery shops. Of the remaining upholsterers, companies that manufacture household and office furniture employed 61 percent and shops that reupholster and repair furniture employed nearly another 17 per­ cent. Over 10 percent worked in shops that specialize in reupholster­ ing the seats of automobiles and other motor vehicles, while small numbers worked in furniture stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most upholsterers are trained on the job as a helper to an exper­ ienced worker. Usually about 3 years of on-the-job training are re­ quired to become a fully skilled upholsterer. On-the-job training in a furniture factory usually is much shorter because the range of skills required is more limited. Others learn upholstery through appren­ ticeship or formal training. When hiring helpers, employers generally prefer people with some knowledge of the trade. Inexperienced persons may get basic training in upholstery in high school, vocational and technical schools, and some community colleges. Programs include sewing machine operation, measuring, cutting, springing, frame repair, tufting, and channeling; as well as business and interior design courses. However, additional training and experience usually are re­ quired before graduates can perform as quickly and efficiently as ex­ perienced upholsterers. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and strength to lift heavy furniture. An eye for detail and flair for color and creative use of fabrics are helpful. The major form of advancement for upholsterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because a small investment in handtools and a sewing machine are all that is needed. The uphol­ stery business is extremely competitive, however, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. Experienced, highly skilled upholster­ ers in large shops and factories may become supervisors.  427  Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most of the growth will be in furniture manufacturing. Employment in reuphol­ stery shops will decline because, increasingly, consumers prefer to replace worn furniture rather than reupholster it. Each upholstery job is unique and therefore upholstery work does not lend itself to automation; consequently, technology is not expected to affect em­ ployment of upholsterers. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Opportunities for experienced upholsterers should be good. The number of upholsterers with experience is limited because few young people want to enter the occupation and because few shops are willing to train people. Earnings Median weekly earnings of upholsterers were $350 in 1992; the mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $260 and $470 per week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $200, and the top 10 percent earned more than $670. Earnings of self-employed upholsterers depend not only on the size and location of the shop but also on the number of hours worked. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and knowledge of mater­ ials such as fabrics and wood are fur cutters, furniture finishers, pat­ tern and model makers, webbing tackers, and casket coverers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops, the local office of the State employ­ ment service, or a local of the Upholstery Division of the United Steel Workers of America. General information about a career as an upholsterer is available from: Upholstery and Allied Industries Division, United Steelworkers of America, Local 18, 5320 W. North Ave., Chicago, IL 60639.  Woodworking Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Wood is one of the oldest, most basic building materials. Even in our age of sophisticated composites and alloys, the demand for wood products continues unabated. Helping to meet this demand are pro­ duction woodworkers and precision woodworkers. Production woodworkers can be found in primary industries, such as sawmills and plywood mills, as well as in secondary industries that manufac­ ture furniture, kitchen cabinets, musical instruments, and other fabricated wood products. Precision woodworkers, on the other hand, usually work in small shops that make architectural wood­ work, furniture, and many other specialty items. Woodworkers are employed at some stage of the process through which logs of wood are transformed into finished products. Some of these workers produce the structural elements of buildings; others mill hardwood and softwood lumber; still others assemble finished wood products. They operate machines that cut, shape, assemble,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and finish raw wood to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, molding, and trim that are components of most homes. Others may fashion home accessories such as beds, sofas, tables, dressers, and chairs. In addition to these household goods, they also make sporting goods items, including baseball bats, racquets, and oars, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool handles, and thousands of other wooden items. Production workers usually set up, operate, and tend woodwork­ ing machines—such as power saws, planers, sanders, lathes, joint­ ers, and routers—to cut and shape components from lumber, ply­ wood, and other wood panel products. Working from blueprints, instructions from supervisors, or shop drawings that they produce, woodworkers determine the method of shaping and sequence of as­ sembling parts. Before cutting, they must often measure and mark the materials to be cut. They verify dimensions to adhere to specifi­ cations and may trim parts to insure a tight fit, using handtools such as planes, chisels, wood files, or sandpaper. Production woodworkers generally operate a specific woodwork­ ing machine; however, some wood machine operators are responsi­ ble for a variety of machines. Lower skilled operators may merely press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor or tend the  428  Occupational Outlook Handbook  automatic operation, while more highly skilled operators set up their equipment, cut and shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, caliper, or rule. In sawmills, machine operators cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In veneer mills, they cut ve­ neer sheets from logs for making plywood. While in furniture plants, they make furniture components such as table legs, drawers, rails, and spindles. Many companies have installed computer-controlled machinery, which lends itself to precision, accuracy, and less waste. With com­ puterized numerical controls, an operator can program a machine to perform a sequence of operations automatically, resulting in greater precision and reliability. The integration of computers with equipment has improved production speeds and capabilities, simpli­ fied setup and maintenance requirements, and increased the de­ mand for workers with strong mathematical skills. Whether computer-controlled or manual equipment was used to machine the parts, the next step in the manufacturing process is the production of subassemblies using fasteners and adhesives. These pieces are then brought together to form a complete unit. The prod­ uct is then finish sanded, stained, sealed, and if necessary, coated with a sealer such as lacquer or varnish. Woodworkers may perform this work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Precision or custom woodworkers, such as cabinetmakers, wood pattern and model makers, wood machinists, and furniture and wood finishers, work on a customized basis, often building one-of-akind items. For this reason, they normally need substantial training and an ability to work from detailed instructions and specifications. They often are required to exercise independent judgment when un­ dertaking an assignment. Precision woodworkers generally perform a complete cycle of cutting, shaping, surface preparation, and as­ sembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a fin­ ished wood product. Working Conditions Working conditions vary from industry to industry, and job to job. In primary industries, such as logging and sawmilling, working con­ ditions are physically demanding due to the handling of heavy, bulky material. Workers in this area may also encounter excessive noise and dust and other air quality pollutants. However, these fac­ tors can be controlled by using earplugs and respirators. Rigid ad­ herence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough woodstock, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. The risk of injury is also lowered by the installation of computer-controlled equipment that reduces the physical labor and the hands-on contact with the machine. In secondary industries, such as furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing, working conditions also depend on the industry and  Woodworking employment is highly sensitive to the condition of the overall economy.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the particular job. Those employees who operate machinery must wear ear and eye protection, and must always follow safety regula­ tions concerning machine operation and the use of safety shields or guards. Those who work in the finishing area must either be pro­ vided with an appropriate dust or vapor mask, a complete protective safety suit, or they must be in a finishing environment that removes all vapors and particle matter from the atmosphere. Prolonged standing, lifting, and fitting heavy objects are also common charac­ teristics of the job. Employment Workers in woodworking occupations held about 341,000 jobs in 1992. One of every 7, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture and wood finishers, was self-employed. Employment was distributed as fol­ lows: Woodworkers, precision................................................................. 220,000 Woodworking machine setters and operators............................... 121,000 Head sawyers............................................................................... 59,000 Woodworking machine operators.................................................. 62,000  Eight of every 10 salaried woodworkers worked in manufacturing industries. One in 4 was employed in establishments fabricating household and office furniture; 1 of every 5 was in establishments making millwork, plywood, and structural wood members, used pri­ marily in construction; and 1 in 8 worked in sawmills and planing mills manufacturing a variety of raw, intermediate, and finished woodstock. Woodworkers also were employed by wholesale and re­ tail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture re­ pair shops, and construction firms. Woodworking jobs are found throughout the country. However, production jobs are concentrated in the South and Northwest, close to the supply of wood, while furniture makers are more prevalent in the East. Custom shops can be found everywhere, but are generally concentrated in or near highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most woodworkers are trained on the job, picking up skills infor­ mally from experienced workers. Some acquire skills through voca­ tional education or by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Others may attend colleges or universities that offer training in many areas including wood technology, furniture manufacturing, wood engineering, and production management. These programs prepare students for positions in production, supervision, engineer­ ing, or management. Beginners usually observe and help experienced machine opera­ tors. They may supply material or remove fabricated products from the machine. Trainees do simple machine operating jobs and are at first closely supervised by experienced workers. As they gain experi­ ence, they perform more complex jobs with less supervision. Some may learn to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the se­ quence of their work. Most woodworkers learn the basic machine operations or job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 years or more. In the past, a high school education was seldom required. How­ ever, persons seeking woodworking jobs can enhance their employ­ ment and advancement prospects by completing high school. Train­ ing in mathematics, science, and computer applications will be beneficial in the future as woodworking technology becomes more sophisticated, and as more companies install computerized equip­ ment. Employers often look for individuals with mechanical ability, manual dexterity, and the ability to pay attention to detail. Advancement opportunities are often limited and depend upon availability, seniority, and a worker’s skills and initiative. Exper­ ienced woodworkers may become inspectors or supervisors respon­ sible for the work of a group of woodworkers. Production workers can advance into these positions by assuming additional responsibil­ ities and by attending workshops, seminars, or college programs. Those who are highly skilled may set up their own woodworking shops.  Production Occupations Job Outlook Employment in the woodworking occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As the Nation’s population, personal income, and business ex­ penditures grow, the demand for wood products will increase. In ad­ dition, the continuing need for repair and renovation of residential and commercial properties is expected to stimulate demand. Oppor­ tunities for woodworkers who specialize in such items as moldings, cabinets, stairs, and windows, should therefore be particularly good. Several factors may limit the growth of woodworking occupa­ tions in coming years. Environmental measures designed to control various pollutants used in or generated by woodworking processes are likely to have a significant impact on employment, especially in secondary industries. Primary industries will be more affected by a shortage of timber as the harvesting of old growth forests on Federal lands becomes more restricted. Technological advances like com­ puterized numerical control machinery and computer-aided design packages will prevent employment from rising as fast as the demand for wood products, particularly in the mills and manufacturing plants where many of the processes can be automated. In addition, some jobs will be lost in the United States as imports continue to grow and as U.S. firms move production to other countries. Finally, materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass will continue to be used as alternatives to wood in many products, primarily because they are cheaper, stronger, or easier to shape. As a result of these trends, employment opportunities in the pri­ mary wood industries may be more limited than those in the secon­ dary industries. Also, as firms automate production, the demand for well educated workers will increase. Employment in all of the wood­ working occupations is highly sensitive to economic cycles, so the growth in these occupations will be primarily affected by the overall state of the economy. Although this growth will be modest, thousands of openings will arise each year because of the need to re­ place experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.  429  Earnings Median weekly earnings for salaried full-time precision woodwork­ ers were about $385 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $294 and $443. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $244, while the highest 10 percent earned over $630. Median weekly earnings for full-time woodworking machine operators were around $306 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $237 and $392. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $185, while the highest 10 per­ cent earned over $495. Earnings vary by industry, geographic re­ gion, skill, educational level, and by the complexity of the machin­ ery operated. Woodworkers usually receive a basic benefit package including medical and dental benefits and a pension plan. Some woodworkers who are engaged in processing primary wood and building materials, such as those in logging or sawmills, are members of the International Woodworkers of America. Others may belong to the United Furniture Workers of America or the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Many woodworkers follow blueprints and drawings and use ma­ chines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar functions working with other materials include precision metalworkers, metalworking and plastics-working ma­ chine operators, metal fabricators, molders and shapers, and leather workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about woodworking occupations, contact local fur­ niture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmaking or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions men­ tioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about furniture woodworking occupa­ tions, contact: tw American Furniture Manufacturers Association, Manufacturing Ser­ vices Division, P.O. Box HP-7, High Point, NC 27261. (3= The Furniture Center, North Carolina State University, Furniture Ex­ tension, Campus Box 7906, Raleigh, NC 27695-7906.  Miscellaneous Production Occupations Dental Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 712.381-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -042, -046, and -050)  Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians are like pharmacists: They fill pre­ scriptions. But their prescriptions come from dentists, and their or­ ders are for crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. Dentists send a specification of the item to be fabricated along with an impression (mold) of the patient’s mouth or teeth to the techni­ cians. Then dental laboratory technicians, also called dental techni­ cians, create a model of the patient’s mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. They place the model on an ap­ paratus which mimics the bite and movement of the patient’s jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. Technicians examine the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth or gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist’s specifications, technicians build and shape a wax tooth or teeth using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. They use this wax model to cast the metal framework for the prosthetic device.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Once the wax tooth has been formed, dental technicians pour the cast and form the metal. Using small hand-held tools, they prepare the surface of the metal to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. They apply porcelain in layers to arrive at the precise shape and color of a tooth. Technicians place the tooth in a porcelain furnace to bake the porcelain onto the metal framework, then adjust the shape and color with subsequent grinding and addition of porcelain to achieve a sealed finish. The final product is an exact replica of the lost tooth or teeth. In some laboratories, technicians perform all stages of the work, while in others, each does only a few. Dental laboratory technicians also may specialize in one of five areas: Orthodontic appliances, crown and bridge, complete dentures, partial dentures, or ceramics. Job titles may reflect specialization in these areas. For example, technicians who make porcelain and acrylic restorations are called dental ceramists. Working Conditions Dental laboratory technicians generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Technicians usually have their own work­ benches, which may be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equipment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers.  430  Occupational Outlook Handbook operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not nec­ essarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by in­ dividual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft generally are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed the formal program. Many employers will train someone without any classroom experience. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the National Board for Certification in five specialty areas: Crown and bridge, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontic appliances. In larger dental laboratories, technicians may become supervisors or managers. Experienced technicians may teach or take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product development, marketing, or sales. Still, for most technicians, opening one’s own laboratory is the way toward advancement and higher earnings. A high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape are neces­ sary. An inclination for detailed and precise work also is important. Useful high school courses are art, metal and wood shop, drafting, and sciences. Courses in management and business may help those wishing to operate their own laboratories.  Many dental lab technicians are trained on the job. The work is extremely delicate and quite time consuming. Sala­ ried technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 48,000 jobs in 1992. Most jobs were in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than five employees. However, some laboratories are larger; a few employ over 50 techni­ cians. Some dental laboratory technicians worked in dentists’ offices. Others worked for hospitals that provide dental services, including Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals. Some technicians work in dental laboratories in their homes, in addition to their regular job. Approximately 1 technician in 7 is self-employed, a higher propor­ tion than in most other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. They begin with simple tasks, such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures, such as making porcelain crowns and bridges. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an average of 3 to 4 years depending upon the individual’s aptitude and ambition, but it may take a few more years to be recognized as an ac­ complished technician. Training in dental laboratory technology is also available through community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and the level of skill they impart. In 1993, 42 programs in dental laboratory technology were ap­ proved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide classroom instruction in dental materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, ethics, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in the school or an associated dental laboratory. Accredited programs generally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree. Graduates of 2-year training programs need additional hands-on experience to become fully qualified. Each dental laboratory owner  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Job opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be favorable despite little growth in the occupation. Employers have difficulty filling trainee positions, probably because of relatively low entry level salaries and lack of familiarity with the occupation. Also, experienced technicians who have built up a favorable reputation with dentists should have good opportunities for establishing labo­ ratories of their own. Although job opportunities are favorable, employment of dental laboratory technicians is not expected to grow through the year 2005, due to changes in dental care. The fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental caries, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early 1960’s have im­ proved the overall dental health of the population. As a result, peo­ ple are keeping their teeth longer. Instead of full or partial dentures, most people will need a bridge or crown. This means less work for the dental laboratory technician, who may need to fabricate only three or four teeth rather than a whole set of false teeth. Office-based, computer-aided equipment, designed to measure a patient’s mouth and fabricate the required prosthetic device, is cur­ rently under development and testing in Europe. While not replac­ ing the technicians completely, such equipment, when and if it comes into widespread use in this country, could reduce the amount of time required to produce dental prosthetics—and, therefore, the demand for dental laboratory technicians. Earnings According to the American Dental Association, the average hourly earnings for dental laboratory technicians in independent dental of­ fices was $13.30 in 1991. According to limited data, trainees in den­ tal laboratories average only a little over minimum wage. However, earnings rise sharply with experience. In general, earnings of selfemployed technicians exceed those of salaried workers. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians fabricate artificial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and instructions provided by dentists. Other workers who make medical devices include arch-support technicians, orthotics technicians (braces and surgical supports), prosthetics technicians (artificial limbs and appliances), opticians, and ophthalmic laboratory techni­ cians. Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools, con­ tact:  Production Occupations  431  XW Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.  General information on grants and scholarships is available from dental technology schools. For information on career opportunities in commercial laborato­ ries, contact: W National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Al­ exandria, VA 22305.  For information on requirements for certification, contact: X3- National Board for Certification in Dental Technology, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305.  Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 711.381-010; 713.381-010, .681-010; 716.280-010, -014, and -018, .381-014, .382-010, -014, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-010 and -018, and .682-018)  Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers—make pre­ scription eyeglass lenses. Some manufacture lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Prescription lenses are curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the ret­ ina of the patient’s eye, improving vision. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifica­ tions provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthal­ mologists, and then assemble the lenses with frames to produce fin­ ished glasses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and op­ tometrists are “eye doctors” who examine eyes, diagnose and treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists also perform eye surgery. Dispensing opticians, who may also do work described here, help patients select frames and lenses, and ad­ just finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physicians, which in­ cludes ophthalmologists, and the statements on optometrists and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription specifica­ tions, then select standard glass or plastic lens blanks and mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription should be ground. They place the lens into the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished” by a process in which a machine rotates the lens against a fine abrasive to grind the lens and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine, with an even finer abrasive, to polish the lens to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, and makes sure the de­ gree and placement of the curve is correct. The technician then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the prescription calls for tinted or coated lenses, polishes the edges, and assembles the lenses and frame parts into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians generally handle every phase of the operation. In large ones, technicians may specialize in one or more steps, assembly-line style. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and well-lighted laboratories and have limited contact with the public. Surroundings are relatively quiet despite the humming of machines. At times, technicians may need to wear goggles to protect their eyes, and may spend a great deal of time standing.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include weekends, evenings, or occasionally, some overtime. Some work part time. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians need to take precautions against the hazards associated with cutting glass, handling chemi­ cals, and working near machinery. Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 19,000 jobs in 1992. About half of these jobs were in retail stores that manufacture and sell prescription glasses—mostly chains of optical goods stores or independent retailers. Most of the rest were in optical laboratories. These laboratories manufacture eyewear for dispensing by retail stores that sell but do not fabricate prescription glasses, and by oph­ thalmologists and optometrists. A few work for optometrists or ophthalmologists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science and mathematics are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work is essential. Technician trainees start on simple tasks such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding, then progress to lens grinding, lens cut­ ting, edging, beveling, and eyeglass assembly. Depending on the in­ dividual’s aptitude, it may take 6 to 18 months to become proficient in all phases of the work. Some ophthalmic technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Others attend the few programs in optical technology of­ fered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These pro­ grams have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, and award certificates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some technicians become dispensing opticians, although further education or training may be required. Job Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to rising demand for corrective lenses. Nonetheless, most job openings will come from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will wear glasses in the years ahead. Not only will the population grow, but the number of middle-aged and older adults will grow  432  Occupational Outlook Handbook  particularly rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and older persons require appre­ ciably more vision care than the rest of the population. The public’s heightened awareness of vision care should also in­ crease demand for corrective lenses. The emergence of eyewear as a fashion item—eyewear now comes in an assortment of attractive shapes and colors—has been enticing many people to purchase two or three pair of glasses rather than just one. Most new jobs for ophthalmic laboratory technicians will be in retail optical chains that manufacture prescription glasses on the premises and provide fast service. Earnings According to the Opticians Association of America, the beginning average salary for ophthalmic laboratory technicians in retail opti­ cal stores was $15,040 in 1992. Those with 3 to 5 years of experience averaged $16,700; 6 to 9 years, $21,700; and 10 years or more, $24,370. Trainees may start at the minimum wage. Related Occupations Workers in other precision production occupations include bi­ omedical equipment technicians, dental laboratory technicians, or­ thodontic technicians, orthotics technicians, prosthetics techni­ cians, and instrument repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as an ophthalmic laboratory technician and for a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic labo­ ratory technology, contact: Ey Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 100, Bowie, MD 20720-4299.  Painting and Coating Machine Operators (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Paints and coatings are an important part of most products. In man­ ufacturing, everything from cars to candy is covered by either paint, plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some special coating solution. Often the paints and coatings are merely intended to enhance the prod­ ucts’ appeal to consumers, as with the chocolate coating on candy. More often, however, the protection provided by the paint or coat­ ing is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating mate­ rial covering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Many paints and coatings have dual purposes, such as the paint fin­ ish on an automobile, which heightens the visual appearance of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Painting and coating machine operators control the machinery and equipment that applies the many types of paints and coatings to a wide range of manufactured products. Workers use several basic methods to apply paints and coatings to manufactured articles. For example, dippers immerse racks or bas­ kets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions us­ ing a power hoist. Tumbling barrel painters deposit articles of po­ rous materials in a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating, which is then rotated to insure thorough coverage. The most common method of applying paints and coatings is by spraying the article with a solution. Spray-machine operators use spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and even food products with paint and other coating solutions. Following a formula, operators fill the equipment’s tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts or proportions. They screw nozzles onto the spray guns and adjust them to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray, and hold or position the guns to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  direct the spray onto the article. The pressure of the spray is regu­ lated by adjusting valves. Operators check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution, and visually inspect the quality of the coating. They may also regulate the temperature and air circulation in dry­ ing ovens. In response to concerns about air pollution and worker safety, manufacturers are increasingly using new types of paints and coat­ ings on their products instead of high-solvent paints. Water-based paints and powder coatings are two of the most common. These compounds do not emit as many volatile organic compounds into the air and can be applied to a wide variety of products. Powder coatings are sprayed much like liquid paints and heated to melt and cure the coating. The switch to new types of paints is often accompanied by a switch to newer, more automated painting equipment that the oper­ ator sets and monitors instead of wielding a spray gun. Operators position the automatic spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the action of the guns with the speed of the conveyor carrying arti­ cles through the machine and drying ovens. The operator may also add solvents or water to the paint vessel that prepares the paint for application. During operation, the operator attends the painting machine, observes gauges on the control panel and randomly checks articles for evidence of any variation of the coating from specifica­ tions. The operator then “touches up” spots where necessary using a spray gun. Painting and coating machine operators use various types of spray machines to coat a wide range of products. Often their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or coating they apply. For example, paper coating machine operators spray “size” on rolls of paper to give it its gloss or finish. Silvering applicators spray sil­ ver, tin, and copper solutions on glass in the manufacture of mirrors. Enrobing machine operators coat, or “enrobe,” confectionery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, or other substances. Although the majority of painting and coating machine operators are employed in manufacturing, the largest, best known group of them work in automotive body repair and paint shops refmishing old and damaged cars, trucks, and buses. Automotive painters are among the most highly skilled manual spray operators because, when painting only the repaired portions of a vehicle, they often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very dif­ ficult, particularly if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, automotive painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and then fill small dents and scratches with body filler. They also remove or mask parts they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray gun to apply several coats of paint. They apply lacquer or enamel primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Aiming the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats of paint until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original undamaged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irregularities and to improve the ad­ hesion of the next coat. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and al­ lowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat. When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface after the final coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and usually is not polished. Working Conditions Painting and coating machine operators work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. How­ ever, many operators wear masks or respirators that cover their nose and mouth, and painting is usually done in special ventilated  Production Occupations r$ ■ ,  v  ,  Respirators protect painters from toxic fumes. booths that protect the operators from these hazards. Provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1990 regulate establishments’ emissions of vol­ atile organic compounds, including those from paints and other chemicals, thus decreasing the amount of hazardous fumes to which these workers are exposed. Operators have to stand for long periods of time and, when using a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomforta­ ble positions to reach all parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week, but self-employed automotive painters sometimes work more than 50 hours a week, depending on the number of vehicles customers bring in to be re­ painted. Employment Painting and coating machine operators held about 151,000 jobs in 1992. Almost 9 of every 10 worked in manufacturing establish­ ments—in the production of fabricated metal products, motor vehi­ cles and related equipment, industrial machines, household and of­ fice furniture, and plastics, wood, and paper products, for example. Others included automotive painters employed by independent au­ tomotive repair shops and body repair and paint shops operated by retail automotive dealers. One of every 13 painting and coating ma­ chine operators was self-employed; most of these were automotive painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating machine operators acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping experienced operators. For most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months. However, becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training. Most automotive painters start as helpers and gain their skills in­ formally by working with experienced painters. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Painters should have keen eyesight and a good color sense. Com­ pletion of high school is generally not required but is advantageous. Additional instruction is offered at many community colleges and vocational or technical schools. Such programs enhance one’s em­ ployment prospects and can speed promotion to the next level. Some employers sponsor training to make their workers more productive by saving time on repainting and learning other efficient  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  433  methods. This training is available from manufacturers of chemi­ cals, paints, or equipment or from other private sources. It may in­ clude safety and quality tips and knowledge of products, equipment, and general business practices. Voluntary certification by ASE (the National Institute for Auto­ motive Service Excellence) is recognized as the standard of achieve­ ment for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or jun­ ior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may sub­ stitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating machine operators with leader­ ship ability may advance to supervisory jobs. Those who acquire practical experience or college or other formal training may become sales or technical representatives to large customers or for chemical or paint companies. Some automotive painters open their own shops. Job Outlook Little change in employment of painting and coating machine oper­ ators is expected through the year 2005 as technological improve­ ments enable these operators to work more productively. Neverthe­ less, several thousand jobs will become available each year as employers replace experienced operators who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Turnover is moderately high, re­ flecting the hazardous working conditions and wages that are below other machine operative jobs. In manufacturing, employment of painting and coating machine operators is expected to decline, reflecting the increasing automa­ tion of paint and coating application. Improvements in the capabili­ ties of industrial robots allow them to move and aim spray guns more like humans. Furthermore, as the cost of these machines con­ tinues to fall, more should come into use, further expanding the va­ riety of manufactured articles that are painted or coated using auto­ matic equipment. The Clean Air Act of 1990, which sets limits on the level of vola­ tile organic compounds that can be released into the air, also is re­ ducing the demand for operators in manufacturing. As firms switch to water-based and powder coatings in order to comply with the law, it is likely that many will upgrade their equipment in order to increase the efficiency of the painting process. In fact, the powder coating process alone is much more efficient for work on assembly lines than liquid sprays because no drying time is required between coats and fewer operators are needed for touch-up painting. Employment of painting and coating machine operators in the auto repair industry will grow more slowly than average. The signif­ icant cost of the new equipment required by the Clean Air Act could force smaller or less profitable repair shops out of business and may force the remaining shops to raise their prices. This could somewhat dampen demand. Moreover, the improved quality of car finishes and the increasing use of nonrusting alloys also may slow the growth in demand for refinishing services. The number ofjob openings for painting and coating machine op­ erators may fluctuate from year to year due to cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manufactured goods slack­ ens, production may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. However, automotive paint­ ers can expect relatively steady work because automobiles damaged in accidents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy. Earnings Painting and coating machine operators who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $373 in 1992. The middle 50 percent had usual weekly earnings between $272 and $503, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $637 weekly. Beginning au­ tomotive painter apprentices usually start at about half the hourly  434  Occupational Outlook Handbook  rate of fully qualified painters. As they progress, their wages gradu­ ally approach those of experienced automotive painters. Helpers start at lower wage rates than beginning apprentices. Many automotive painters employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is com­ pleted. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and apprentices usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a com­ mission basis. Trucking companies, buslines, and other organiza­ tions that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Many painting and coating machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aero­ space Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aero­ space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters; and the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Most union operators work for manu­ facturers and the larger automobile dealers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers apply paints and coatings in­ clude construction and maintenance painters, electrolytic metal platers, and hand painting, coating, and decorating occupations. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local manufac­ turers, automotive-body repair shops, and automotive dealers; lo­ cals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about training programs. For general information about a career as an automotive painter, write to: rar Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. O’ Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76021 0929.  Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from:  solutions, following a formula. They then immerse the exposed film in a developer solution to bring out the latent image, immerse the negative in stop-bath to halt the developer action, immerse it in hyposolution to fix the image, and finally immerse it in water to re­ move chemicals. The worker then dries the prints. In some cases, these steps may be performed by hand. Color printer operators con­ trol equipment which produces color prints from the negatives. They read customer instructions to determine processing require­ ments. They load the rolls into color printing equipment, examine the negatives to determine equipment control settings, set the con­ trols, and produce a specified number of prints. They inspect the fin­ ished prints for defects, and remove any that are found, finally in­ serting the processed negatives and prints into an envelope for return to the customer. Automatic print developers develop strips of exposed photographic paper; takedown sorters sort processed film; and automatic mounters operate equipment that cuts and mounts slide film into individual transparencies. Precision photographic process workers generally use a conven­ tional negative and, using a computer, may vary the contrast of images, remove unwanted background, or even combine features from several different photographs. Precision photographic process workers in portrait studios, on the other hand, deal in very high vol­ ume, and tend to work directly on the photo negative, rather than on a computer. These workers include airbrush artists, who restore damaged and faded photographs; photographic retouchers, who alter photographic negatives and prints to accentuate the subject; color­ ists, who apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create natural, lifelike appearances; and photographic spotters, who spot out imper­ fections on photographic prints. Working Conditions In recent years, more commercial photographic processing has been done on computers than in darkrooms, and this trend is expected to continue. Work generally is performed in clean, appropriately lighted, well-ventilated, and air-conditioned offices, photofinishing laboratories, or 1-hour minilabs. At peak times, portrait studios hire individuals who work at home, developing and retouching nega­ tives. Photographic process machine operators must do repetitious work at a rapid pace without any loss of accuracy. Precision process  tw ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415.  Photographic Process Workers  .J  (D.O.T. 962.361; 970.281-010 and -018, .381-010 and -034; 972.384-014; 976.361, .380-010, .381-010, -014, -018, and -022, .382-010, -014, -018, -022, -030, and -038, .384-010 and -014, .385, .665, .681, .682-010, -014, -018, and -022, .684-014, -030, and -038, .685-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -034, and -038; 979.384) Nature of the Work Most amateur and professional photographers rely on photo processing workers to develop film, make prints and slides, and do related tasks such as enlarging and retouching photographs. Photo­ graphic processing machine operators and tenders operate various machines, such as motion picture film printing machines, photo­ graphic printing machines, film developing machines, and mount­ ing presses. Precision photographic process workers perform more delicate tasks, such as retouching photographic negatives and prints to stress or correct specific features or characteristics of subjects. They may restore damaged and faded photographs, and may color or shade drawings to create photographic likenesses using an air­ brush. They also may color photographs, using oil colors to produce natural, lifelike appearances according to specifications. The following jobs are examples of the work that machine opera­ tors perform. Developers develop exposed photographic film or sen­ sitized paper in a series of chemical and water baths to produce neg­ ative or positive prints. They first mix the developing and fixing  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Photographic process workers must be able to adapt to technological advances.  Production Occupations workers do detailed tasks, such as airbrushing and spotting, which may contribute to eye fatigue. Some photographic process workers are exposed to the chemicals and fumes associated with developing and printing. These workers must wear rubber gloves and aprons and take precautions against chemical hazards. Many photo laboratory employees work a 40-hour week, includ­ ing weekends, and may work overtime during peak seasons. Employment Photographic process workers held about 63,000 jobs in 1992. Photofinishing laboratories and 1-hour minilabs employed about two-thirds. About 3 out of 10 worked for portrait studios and com­ mercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of profes­ sional photographers for advertising and other industries. Employment fluctuates over the course of the year; peak periods include school graduation, summer vacation, and Christmas time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photographic process machine operators receive on-the-job training from equipment manufacturers or experienced workers, and gradually learn to operate the machines that develop and print film. Employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates or those who have some experience or knowledge in the field. As prep­ aration for precision work, proficiency in mathematics, art, and computer science, as well as photography courses that include in­ struction in film processing are valuable. Such courses are available through high schools, vocational-technical institutes, private trade schools, adult education programs, and colleges and universities. On-the-job training in photographic processing occupations can last a few hours for print machine operators to years for precision workers like airbrush artists, spotters, and negative retouchers. Some workers attend periodic training seminars to maintain a high level of skill. Manual dex­ terity, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision, including normal color perception, are important qualifications for precision photo­ graphic process workers. They must be comfortable with computers and able to adapt to technological advances. Photographic process machine workers generally advance from jobs as machine operators to supervisory positions in laboratories. Precision photographic process workers generally earn more as their skill level and the complexity of tasks they can perform in­ creases. Job Outlook Employment of photographic process workers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most openings will result from replacement needs, which   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  435  tend to be higher for machine operators than for precision process workers. The volume of film to be processed should ensure continued job growth for machine operators, despite laborsaving advances in pho­ tographic processing equipment, as long as film remains the main­ stay of photographic processing. Digital cameras, which use elec­ tronic memory rather than a film negative to record the image, are now available. However, these cameras are much more expensive than conventional cameras, and generally are not capable of produc­ ing an equally sharp image. As the technology improves and the price declines, photographic process machine operators may be dis­ placed. Technological change is unlikely to affect demand for precision photographic process workers in the same way because the editing and adjustments they make to pictures need to be performed to digi­ tal images as well as to negatives. No matter what improvements oc­ cur in camera technology, there always will be some images that re­ quire precise manipulation. Because photographic processing services are luxuries for most consumers, the number of job openings may decrease during reces­ sions. Earnings Earnings of photographic process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Median earnings for full-time photographic process workers in 1992 were about $330 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $460 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $210 a week; the high­ est 10 percent, more than $520. Related Occupations Precision photographic process workers need a specialized knowl­ edge of the photodeveloping process. Other workers who apply spe­ cialized technical knowledge include chemical laboratory techni­ cians, crime laboratory analysts, food testers, medical laboratory assistants, metallurgical technicians, quality control technicians, en­ gravers, and some of the printing occupations, such as photolitho­ grapher. Photographic process machine operators perform work similar to that of other machine operators, such as computer and peripheral equipment operators and printing press operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technol­ ogy, write to: XW Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jackson, MI 49201.  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Busdrivers (D.O.T. 913.363, .463-010, and .663-014, and -018)  Nature of the Work Busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers transport people between regions of a State or of the country; local transit busdrivers, within a metropolitan area or county; and school busdrivers, to and from schools and re­ lated events. They follow time schedules and routes over highways and city and suburban streets to provide passengers with an alterna­ tive to the automobile and other forms of transportation. Intercity busdrivers and local transit busdrivers report to their as­ signed terminal or garage, where they receive tickets and transfers and prepare trip report forms. School busdrivers do not always have to report to an assigned terminal or garage. Instead, school busdrivers often have the choice to take their bus home, or to park it in another more convenient area. Before beginning their routes, driv­ ers check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, water, and safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. Drivers pick up and discharge passengers at bus stops or stations, or, in the case of students, at comers or in front of houses. Intercity and local transit busdrivers collect fares; answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points; and sometimes announce stops. School busdrivers do not collect fares. Instead, they prepare weekly reports with the number of students, trips or runs, work hours, and miles and the amount of fuel consumption. Time sched­ ules and routes are set by their supervisors. Busdrivers’ days are run by the clock, as they must adhere to schedules. Drivers must try to keep up when traffic is heavier than normal, yet operate safely. However, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers. Busdrivers must be alert to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves which jar passengers. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. They must know and reinforce the same set of rules used elsewhere in the school sys­ tem. Bus routes vary. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as fre­ quently as every few blocks. School busdrivers also drive the same routes each day, stopping frequently to pick up pupils in the morn­ ing and return them to their homes in the afternoon. School busdrivers may also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one­ way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day, stopping at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up groups, take them to their destination, and generally remain with them until they return. Trips frequently last more than 1 day, and if they are assigned to a tour, they may be away for a week or more. Local transit busdrivers submit daily trip reports with a record of tickets and fares received, trips made, and significant delays in schedule, and report mechanical problems. All busdrivers must be able to fill out accident reports when necessary. Intercity drivers who drive across State or national boundaries must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation requirements. These include 436   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  completing vehicle inspection reports and recording distances trav­ eled and the periods of time they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it can be stressful and fatiguing. On the other hand, many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for the bus and passen­ gers. Intercity busdrivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, where they stay at hotels at company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regular weekly work schedules, but others do not have regular schedules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They re­ port for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tend to be seasonal. From May through August, drivers may work the maximum number of hours per week that regulations allow. During winter, junior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed for periods of time. School busdrivers work only when school is in session. Most work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morning and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips or who also have midday kindergarten routes may work more hours a week. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate com­ muters, many work “split shifts,” for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between.  please P, EXACT FAI  Drivers who operate vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers are required to obtain a commercial driver's license.  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 437 Employment Busdrivers held about 562,000 jobs in 1992. Most worked part time. Nearly 3 out of 4 drivers worked for school systems or companies that provide school bus services under contract, as shown in the ac­ companying chart. Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some also worked for intercity and charter buslines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Busdriver qualifications and standards are established by State and Federal regulations. Federal regulations require drivers who oper­ ate vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers to obtain a commercial driver’s license from the State in which they live. In order to be licensed, applicants for a commercial driver’s li­ cense must take and pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they have the skills necessary to operate a commercial motor vehicle safely. Applicants are also required to pass a behind-the-wheel road test in the type of vehicle that they will be operating. Trainees must be accompanied by another driver who has a commercial driver’s li­ cense until they are issued their own commercial license. In addi­ tion, interstate busdrivers must meet additional qualifications. For example, they must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical ex­ amination. State agencies and municipalities may also have addi­ tional requirements for drivers who operate within their jurisdic­ tions. Drivers should be in good health and have at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and normal use of their arms and legs. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a physical examination and a written test of ability to follow com­ plex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require sev­ eral years of bus or truck driving experience. Public transit and in­ terstate busdrivers are also required to submit to drug screening as a condition of employment. In some States, school busdrivers must  Most busdrivers operate school buses. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1992  Intercity busdrivers  Other busdrivers 4%  Local transit busdrivers,  18% A  School busdrivers 74%  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pass a background investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Because busdrivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability because driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “behind-the-wheel” instruc­ tion. In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. Department of Transpor­ tation and company work rules, safety regulations, State and munic­ ipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courte­ ously with passengers. School busdrivers are also required to obtain a commercial driv­ er’s license from the State in which they live. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive between 1 and 4 weeks of driving instruc­ tion plus classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; disabled student special needs; and emer­ gency evacuation procedures. During training, busdrivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. Then they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without pas­ sengers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Local transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers begin with a “break-in” period. They make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver’s performance. New intercity and local transit drivers usually are placed on an “extra” list to drive charter runs, extra buses on regular runs, and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). They also substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. Senior drivers may bid for runs they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of in­ tercity busdrivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited. However, ex­ perienced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers, who as­ sign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, reroute buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train opera­ tors or station attendants. A few drivers become managers. Promo­ tion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil ser­ vice examination. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as busdrivers over the 1992-2005 period should encounter good opportunities. Opportunities should be best for per­ sons with good driving records who are able to qualify for a com­ mercial driver’s license. Opportunities should also be best in metro­ politan areas that are growing rapidly. Thousands of job openings are expected to occur each year because of the need to replace work­ ers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of busdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of job openings for school busdrivers will be greater because of the growing need for pupil transportation. There will be more competi­ tion for higher paying intercity and public transit busdriver posi­ tions. School busdriving jobs should be easiest to get because most of these positions are part time and often have high turnover. The number of school busdrivers is expected to increase as a result of  438  Occupational Outlook Handbook  growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments. In addi­ tion, as more of the Nation’s population is concentrated in suburban areas—where students generally ride school buses—and less in the central cities—where transportation is not provided for most pupils—more school busdrivers will be needed. Employment of local transit and intercity drivers will grow as bus ridership increases. Local and intercity travel is expected to in­ crease, as the population and labor force grow and incomes rise, but most growth will probably be in more expensive air and automobile transportation rather than in bus travel. There may continue to be competition for local transit and intercity busdriver jobs in some ar­ eas since many of these positions offer relatively high wages and at­ tractive benefits. The most competitive positions will be those that offer regular hours and steady driving routes. Full-time busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. How­ ever, part-time local transit and intercity busdrivers may be if bus ridership decreases, because fewer extra buses would be needed. Sea­ sonal layoffs are common. Many intercity busdrivers with little se­ niority, for example, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off; school busdrivers seldom work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who worked full time were $400 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between about $288 and $580 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $206 a week, while the highest tenth earned more than $721 a week. In 1993, according to the American Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in metropolitan areas with more than 2 mil­ lion inhabitants were paid a median top hourly wage rate of $16.41 by companies with over 1,000 employees, and $14.08 by those with fewer than 1,000 employees. In smaller metropolitan areas, they had a median top hourly wage rate of $12.13 in areas with between 250,000 and one-half million residents, and $10.64 in areas with populations below 50,000. Generally, drivers could reach the top rate in 3 or 4 years. Earnings of intercity busdrivers depend primarily on the number of miles they drive. According to limited information, in 1992 begin­ ning intercity drivers worked about 6 months out of the year and earned about $22,000 while many senior drivers who worked year round earned more than $48,000. According to a survey by the Educational Research Service, the average rate for school busdrivers employed by public school sys­ tems was $10.04 an hour during the 1991-92 school year. Lowest hourly rates averaged $8.74 while highest hourly rate averaged $11.43. The fringe benefits that busdrivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local transit busdrivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, and free bus rides on any of the regular routes of their line or system. Drivers who work full time also get as much as 4 weeks of vacation annually. Most local transit busdrivers are also covered by dental insurance and pension plans. School busdrivers get sick leave, and most are covered by health and life insurance and pension plans, but because they do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leave. In a number of States, local transit and school busdrivers who are employed by local governments are covered by a State-wide public employee pen­ sion system. Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transporta­ tion Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are taxidrivers, truckdrivers, and chauffeurs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information For further information on employment opportunities, contact local transit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local of­ fices of the State employment service. Information on school busdriving is available from: National School Transportation Association, P.O. Box 2639, Springfield, VA 22152.  General information on local transit busdriving is available from: American Public Transit Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005.  Material Moving Equipment Operators (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Material moving equipment operators use machinery to move con­ struction materials and other manufactured goods, earth, logs, pe­ troleum products, grain, coal, and other heavy materials. Generally they move materials over short distances—around a construction site, factory, warehouse, or on or off trucks and ships. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. They may also set up and inspect equip­ ment and make adjustments and minor repairs. Material moving equipment operators usually are classified by the type of machines they operate. Those who operate bulldozers, cranes, loaders, and similar equipment are often called construction equipment operators even though they work in the mining, logging, utilities, and other industries as well as the construction industry. Others operate industrial trucks and tractors and similar equipment in manufacturing plants and warehouses. Some operate many kinds of equipment; others only one. Crane and tower operators lift and move materials, machinery, or other heavy objects using mechanical or hydraulic booms and tower and cable equipment. Although some cranes are used on construc­ tion sites, most are used in manufacturing and other industries. Excavation and loading machine operators run and tend machin­ ery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets to excavate earth at construction sites and to load and move loose materials, mainly in the construction and mining industries. Grader, dozer, and scraper operators remove, distribute, level, and grade earth with vehicles equipped with blades. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road grad­ ers, and similar equipment. Although many work in the construc­ tion industry, grader, dozer, and scraper operators also work for State and local governments, mainly in maintenance and repair work. Hoist and winch operators lift and pull loads by using power-op­ erated equipment. Most work in loading operations in construction, manufacturing, logging, transportation and public utilities, and mining. Operating engineers are qualified to operate more than one type of the construction equipment discussed above. Although the term operating engineer often is applied to many construction machine operators, many work for State and local governments. Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control indus­ trial trucks or tractors. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift or lift truck, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks. In­ dustrial truck operators use these to carry loads on a skid or pallet around a factory or warehouse. Industrial tractor operators pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment within factories and warehouses, or around outdoor storage areas. Other material moving equipment operators tend air compressors or pumps at construction sites. Some operate oil or natural gas pumps and compressors at oil and gas wells and on oil and gas pipe­ lines, and others operate ship loading and unloading equipment,  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations conveyors, hoists, and other kinds of specialized material handling equipment such as mine or railroad tank car unloading equipment. Material moving equipment operators may keep records of materials moved, and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may clean, fuel, and service their equipment. Working Conditions Many material moving equipment operators work outdoors, in hot and cold weather, and sometimes in rain or snow. Industrial truck and tractor operators work mainly indoors, in warehouses or manu­ facturing plants. Some machines, particularly bulldozers and scrap­ ers, are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. To avoid injury while operating an industrial truck, operators must take care to avoid roll­ overs, collisions, and other accidents as well as protect materials and equipment from damage. While operating a bulldozer, care must be taken to keep it from overturning on a steep slope. However, these jobs have become much safer with the adoption of overhead guards on forklift trucks and roll bars on construction machinery. As with most machinery, most accidents can be avoided when proper oper­ ating procedures and safety practices are observed. Employment Material moving equipment operators held nearly 983,000 jobs in 1992. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupa­ tional group. Industrial truck and tractor operators........................................... Operating engineers........................................................................ Grader, dozer, and scraper operators............................................ Excavation and loading machine operators................................... Crane and tower operators............................................................. Hoist and winch operators................................................................. All other material moving equipment operators...........................  413,000 136,000 102,000 72,000 46,000 12,000 201,000  The largest proportion—one-third—of material moving equip­ ment operators worked in manufacturing; most of these were indus­ trial truck and tractor operators. More than one-fifth worked in the construction industry. Significant numbers worked in State and lo­ cal governments and in the trucking and warehousing, wholesale trade, and mining industries. A few material moving equipment op­ erators were self-employed. Material moving equipment operators work in every section of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining opera­ tions.  i  An excavation machine operator at work in a strip mine.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  439  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Operation of material moving equipment is usually learned on the job. Operators need a good sense of balance, the ability to judge dis­ tance, and good eye-hand-foot coordination. Employers of material moving equipment operators prefer to hire high school graduates, although, for some equipment, persons with less education may oc­ casionally be accepted. Mechanical aptitude and high school train­ ing in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may per­ form some maintenance on their machines. Experience operating mobile equipment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment in the Armed Forces, is an asset. Beginning material moving equipment operators handle light equipment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Some construction equipment operators, however, are trained in a 3-year apprenticeship program administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because appren­ tices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than other begin­ ners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years or 6,000 hours of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a pro­ gram may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. How­ ever, persons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area. Job Outlook Opportunities for those who wish to become material moving equip­ ment operators are related to the outlook of the industries in which they are employed. The construction and manufacturing industries, where the majority of these workers are employed, are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so the number of job openings for material moving equipment operators in these industries may fluctuate widely from year to year. Overall employment of material moving equipment operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Equip­ ment improvements, including the growing automation of material handling in factories and warehouses, are expected to restrain growth of these occupations. Despite the projected slower than average growth, material mov­ ing equipment operators is a large occupation with many opportuni­ ties arising from the need to replace experienced workers who trans­ fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. All of the material moving equipment operating occupations are projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations ex­ cept hoist and winch operators and industrial truck and tractor op­ erators. Underlying the average growth is increased spending on the Nation’s infrastructure. About 3 of every 4 work in construction and local government, industries that are associated with the con­ struction, repair, and maintenance of highways, bridges, dams, harbors, airports, subways, water and sewage systems, and electric power plant and transmission lines. For hoist and winch operators and industrial truck and tractor operators, however, slower than average growth is expected. This reflects rising productivity stemming from automation and growth of the industries where these occupations are concentrated. Employ­ ment of industrial truck and tractor operators—by far the largest occupation in this group—will grow slowly as a result of the im­ proved maneuverability and efficiency of industrial trucks and trac­ tors. Although the volume of goods to be moved will increase as the economy grows, fewer operator jobs will result as material handling systems in large factories and warehouses will continue to become more automated. Some systems use computerized dispatching or onboard data communication devices to enable industrial truck and tractor operators to move goods more efficiently. In other systems,  440  Occupational Outlook Handbook  industrial trucks and tractors may be replaced by computer-con­ trolled conveyor systems, overhead handling systems, and auto­ mated vehicles that don’t require operators. Earnings Earnings for material moving equipment operators vary considera­ bly. In 1992, median earnings of all material moving equipment op­ erators were $432 a week; the middle 50 percent earned between $317 and $590. Ten percent earned less than $253 and 10 percent more than $765. Median weekly earnings of crane and tower opera­ tors were $570 in 1992; excavation and loading machine operators, $441; grader, dozer, and scraper operators, $444; industrial truck and tractor operators, $375; operating engineers, $514; and other material moving equipment operators, $379. Pay scales generally are higher in metropolitan areas. Annual earnings of some workers may be lower than weekly rates would indicate because the amount of time they work can be limited by bad weather. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include truck and bus drivers, manufacturing equipment operators, and farmers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportuni­ ties for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the In­ ternational Union of Operating Engineers; a local apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may provide information about apprenticeship and other training pro­ grams. For general information about the work of construction equip­ ment operators, contact: 13= Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington,  DC 20005. X3T Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. rw International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20036.  Information on industrial truck and tractor operators is available from:  O’ Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St. NW., Suite 210, Washington, DC 20006.  Rail Transportation Workers (D.O.T. 198; 850.663-018; 910.362, .363, .364, .367-010, -022, .382, .583, .664, .667-026, .683-010, -014, -022; 913.463-014; 919.663-014, .683-018, -026; 932.664-010)  Nature of the Work Rail transportation workers facilitate the movement of passengers and cargo by our Nation’s trains, subways, and streetcars. Railroad transportation workers. Locomotive engineers and rail yard engineers are among the most highly skilled workers on the railroad. They operate locomotives in yards, stations, and over the track between distant stations and yards. Locomotive engineers op­ erate trains carrying cargo and passengers between stations, while rail yard engineers move cars within yards to assemble or disassem­ ble trains. In addition to those engineers who work for railroads, some engineers called dinkey operators work at industrial plants or mines operating smaller engines that pull cars loaded with coal, rock, or supplies around the site. Engineers operate the throttle to start and accelerate the train and use airbrakes or dynamic brakes to slow and stop it. They monitor gauges and meters that measure speed, fuel, temperature, battery  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  charge, and air pressure in the brake lines. Both on the road and in the yard, they watch for signals that indicate track obstructions, other train movements, and speed limits. They must have a thor­ ough knowledge of the signal systems, yards, and terminals along their routes and be constantly aware of the condition and makeup of their train. This is extremely important because trains react differ­ ently to acceleration, braking, and curves, depending on the number of cars, the ratio of empty to loaded cars, and the amount of slack in the train. Most engineers run diesel locomotives; a few run electric locomo­ tives. Before and after each run, engineers check locomotives for mechanical problems. Minor adjustments are made on the spot, but major problems are reported to the engine shop supervisor. In an ef­ fort to reduce costs, most railroads are phasing out assistant engi­ neers, also known as firers, who monitor locomotive instruments and signals and observe the track for obstructions. Most of these du­ ties are now performed by brake operators. Road conductors and yard conductors are in charge of the train and yard crews. Conductors assigned to freight trains keep records of each car’s contents and destination and make sure that cars are added and removed at the proper points along the route. Conduc­ tors assigned to passenger trains collect tickets and fares and assist passengers. At stops, they signal engineers when to pull out of the station. Before a train leaves the terminal, the road conductor and engi­ neer discuss instructions received from the dispatcher concerning the train’s route, timetable, and cargo. While underway, conductors receive additional information by radio. This may include informa­ tion about track conditions ahead or instructions to pull off at the next available stop to let another train pass. During the run, conduc­ tors use two-way radios to contact engineers. They pass on instruc­ tions received from dispatchers and remind engineers of stops, re­ ported track conditions, and the presence of other trains. While underway, conductors receive information from brake op­ erators regarding any equipment problems, and they may arrange for defective cars to be removed from the train for repairs at the nearest station or stop. They inform dispatchers of any problems us­ ing a radio or wayside telephone. Yard conductors supervise the crews that assemble and disassem­ ble trains. Some cars are sent to special tracks for unloading, while the rest are moved to other tracks to await being made into trains destined for different cities. Conductors tell engineers where to move cars. They tell brake operators which cars to couple and un­ couple and which switches to throw to divert the locomotive or cars to the proper track. In yards that have automatic classification sys­ tems, conductors use electrical remote controls to operate the track switches that route cars to the correct track. Brake operators play a pivotal role in making locomotives and cars into trains. Working under the direction of conductors, they do the physical work involved in adding and removing cars at railroad stations and assembling and disassembling trains in railroad yards. Freight train crews include either one or two brake, signal, and switch operators—one in the locomotive with the engineer and an­ other in the rear car. As new visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for rear brake operators, many freight trains use only one locomotive operator. Before departure, brake operators inspect the train to make sure that all couplers and airhoses are fastened, that handbrakes on all the cars are released, and that the airbrakes are functioning properly. While underway, they regularly look for smoke, sparks, and other signs of sticking brakes, overheated axle bearings, and other potentially faulty equip­ ment. They may make minor repairs to airhoses and couplers. In case of unexpected stops, brake operators set up signals to protect both ends of the train. When freight trains approach an industrial site, the brake opera­ tor in the locomotive gets off the train and runs ahead to switch the train to the proper track. They uncouple the cars and throw track switches to route them to certain tracks if they are to be unloaded,  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations or to an outgoing train if their final destination is further down the line. They also set hand brakes to secure cars. Many smaller railroads operate with only two crew members—an engineer and a conductor. Most passenger trains no longer employ brake operators but employ assistant conductors to help conductors collect tickets and assist passengers. Subway and streetcar operators. Subway operators control subway trains, observing the signal system. They start, slow, or stop the sub­ way train on signal. Subway operators make announcements to rid­ ers, open and close the doors, and ensure that passengers get on and off the subway safely. Operators should have a basic understanding of the operating system and be able to recognize common equipment problems. When breakdowns or emergencies occur, operators con­ tact their dispatcher or supervisor and may have to evacuate subway cars. To meet predetermined schedules, operators must control the amount of time spent at each at each station. Streetcar operators drive electric-powered streetcars that trans­ port passengers. They collect fares from passengers, and issue change and transfers. They also answer questions from passengers concerning fares, schedules, and routes. Working Conditions Because trains operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many rail transportation employees often work nights, weekends, and holi­ days. Some subway operators work multiple shifts some days. Un­ desirable shifts are assigned to persons who have the least seniority. Most freight trains are unscheduled, and few workers on these trains have scheduled assignments. Instead, their names are placed on a list, and when their turn comes they are assigned to the next train, usually on short notice and often at odd hours. Because road service personnel often work on trains that operate between stations that are hundreds of miles apart, they may spend several nights a week away from home. Freight and yard conductors and brake operators spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather. The work of brake oper­ ators on local runs—where trains frequently stop at stations to pick up and deliver cars—is physically demanding. Climbing up and  Brake operators throw track switches to route freight trains to certain tracks.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  441  down and getting off moving cars is strenuous and can be danger­ ous. Employment Rail transportation workers held about 116,000 jobs in 1992—in­ cluding 35,000 brake operators, 29,000 conductors, 19,000 locomo­ tive engineers, and 8,900 rail yard engineers and dinkey operators. Subway and streetcar operators accounted for over 22,000 jobs; other rail vehicle workers, the remaining 1,700 jobs. Railroads em­ ploy about 78 percent of all rail transportation workers. The rest work for state and local governments and mining and manufactur­ ing establishments that operate their own railroad cars to carry freight. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most railroad transportation workers begin as trainees for either en­ gineer or brake operator jobs. Railroads prefer that applicants have a high school education. Applicants must have good hearing, eye­ sight, and color vision, as well as good hand-eye coordination, man­ ual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude. Physical stamina is required for brake operator jobs. Most employers require that applicants for railroad transportation jobs pass a physical examination and tests that screen for drug use. Railroads prefer that applicants for locomotive engineer jobs be at least 21 years old. Engineer jobs are frequently filled by workers with experience in other railroad operating occupations, such as brake operators or conductors. Most beginning engineers undergo a 6-month training program, which includes classroom and hands-on instruction in locomotive operation. At the end of the training pe­ riod, aspiring engineers must pass qualifying tests covering locomo­ tive equipment, airbrake systems, fuel economy, train handling techniques, and operating rules and regulations. On most railroads, brake operators begin by making several trips with conductors and experienced operators to become familiar with the job. On some railroads, however, new brake operators undergo extensive training, including instruction in signaling, coupling and uncoupling cars, throwing switches, and boarding moving trains. As railroads need new engineers and brake operators, newly trained workers who have the most seniority are placed on the “ex­ tra board.” Extra board engineers and brake operators work only when the railroad needs substitutes for regular workers who are ab­ sent because of vacation, illness, or other personal reasons. Extra board engineers and brake operators frequently must wait years un­ til they accumulate enough seniority to get a regular assignment. Se­ niority rules also may allow workers with greater seniority to select their type of assignment. For example, an engineer may move from an initial regular assignment in yard service to road service. Engineers undergo periodic evaluations, including physical ex­ aminations to determine their fitness to operate locomotives, and safety and efficiency tests to judge their overall conduct of opera­ tions. In some cases, engineers who fail to meet these physical and conduct standards are restricted to yard service; in other instances, they may be disciplined, trained to perform other work, or dis­ charged. Conductor jobs generally are filled from the ranks of experienced brake operators who have passed tests covering signals, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. Some companies require that these tests be passed within the first few years of employment. Until permanent positions become available, new conductors are put on the extra board, where they substitute for experienced conductors who are absent. On most railroads, conductors on the extra board may work as brake operators if there are not enough conductor runs available for them that month. Seniority usually is the main factor in determining promotion from brake operator to conductor and from the extra board to a permanent position. Advancement to conductor jobs is limited because there are many more brake operators than conductors.  442  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most railroads maintain separate seniority lists for road service and yard service conductors. Conductors usually remain in one type of service for their entire career. On some railroads, however, con­ ductors start in the yards, then move to freight service, and finally to passenger service. Some conductors advance to managerial or ad­ ministrative positions. For subway operator jobs, subway transit systems prefer appli­ cants to have a high school education. Some systems require subway operators to work as busdrivers for a specified period of time. Appli­ cants must be in good health, articulate, and able to make quick, re­ sponsible judgments. New operators generally are placed in training programs that last from a few weeks to 6 months. At the end of the period of classroom and on-the-job training, operators usually must pass qualifying ex­ aminations covering the operating system, troubleshooting, and evacuation and emergency procedures. Some operators with suffi­ cient seniority can advance to station managers. Job Outlook Overall employment of rail transportation workers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, ending a long-term decline in employment in railroad op­ erating occupations. Besides growth, many additional job openings for rail transportation workers will arise as workers retire or leave jobs for other reasons. Employment of subway operators is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations as more cities build new subway systems and add new lines to existing systems. Because sub­ way operator jobs offer relatively high earnings and do not require education beyond high school, applicants can expect to face consid­ erable competition for available positions. Excluding subway operators, rail transportation worker jobs are expected to grow slower than the average for all occupations. De­ mand for railroad freight service will grow as the economy expands, but opportunities for railroad transportation workers will be limited because of ongoing reductions in the size of operating crews and im­ provements in the efficiency of railroad operations. Railroad freight service is expected to increase as the population and economy grow in size, and as intermodal freight transportation continues to be­ come more efficient. Intermodal systems use trucks to pick-up and deliver the shippers’ sealed trailers or containers, and trains to trans­ port them long distance. Productivity and efficiency improvements cutting the time railroads need to deliver cargos are also increasing shippers’ use of railroads. In order to compete with other modes of transportation such as trucks, ships and barges, and aircraft, rail­ roads should continue to improve delivery times and on-time service while reducing shipping rates. As a result, businesses are expected to increasingly use railroads to carry their goods. However, growth in the number of railroad transportation work­ ers will be affected by innovations such as larger, faster, more fuelefficient trains and computerized classification yards that make it possible to move passengers and freight more economically. Com­ puters are used to keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch trains. Computer-assisted devices alert engineers to train malfunctions, eliminating the need for brake operators in the rear car. Also, new work rules that allow trains to operate with two- or three-person crews instead of the traditional five-person crews are now becoming widespread. Many positions will not be filled as people leave the occupations, or the work will be restructured so that it can be done by other railroad employees. Em­ ployment opportunities for locomotive and yard engineers should be slightly better than other rail occupations because they should be less affected by technological changes and reductions in crew size. On the other hand, employment of brake operators should be the most adversely affected as visual instrumentation and monitoring devices eliminate the need for rear brake operators.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Earnings of railroad transportation workers depend on the size of the train and type of service. According to the Brotherhood of Loco­ motive Engineers, in 1991, through-freight engineers averaged about $59,600 a year, passenger engineers about $57,900, way freight engineers about $54,100, and yard engineers about $43,300 a year. According to the Association of American Railroads, in 1991, an­ nual earnings of conductors averaged $40,400 for through-freight and $35,200 for local and way freight. Brake operators averaged about $33,600 for through-freight and $27,300 for local and way freight. Yard brake operators averaged about $25,600 in 1991, while passenger brake operators averaged $21,700. According to the American Public Transportation Association, in 1992, hourly earnings of operators of commuter rail averaged $18.46; operators for heavy rail averaged $16.25; operators for light rail, $15.74. Most rail transportation employees in yards work 40 hours a week and receive extra pay for overtime. Most railroad workers in road service are paid according to miles traveled or hours worked, whichever leads to higher earnings. Full-time employees have stead­ ier work, more regular hours, and higher earnings than those as­ signed to the extra board. Most railroad transportation workers are members of unions. Many different railroad unions represent various crafts on the rail­ roads, but most railroad engineers are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, while most other railroad transportation workers are members of the United Transportation Union. Many subway operators are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union, while others belong to the Transport Workers Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for railroad transporta­ tion workers may be obtained from the employment offices of the various railroads and rail transit systems, or State employment ser­ vice offices. For general information about career opportunities in passenger transportation, contact: ^American Public Transit Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005.  Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs (D.O.T. 359.673-010 and -014; 913.463-018, .663-010; 919.663-010, and .683-014)  Nature of the Work Taxi drivers and chauffeurs pick up and drive people to their desti­ nation in cars, limousines, or vans. Except for a small number of chauffeurs employed in private service, most charge passengers a fee. Taxi drivers, also known as cab drivers, drive taxicabs, which are custom automobiles modified for transporting passengers. Taxi drivers take passengers to such places as airports, convention cen­ ters and hotels, or places of entertainment. Drivers collect fees from passengers based on the number of miles that are travelled or the amount of time spent reaching the destination. They record on a log, or trip sheet, the length of each trip, the point of pick-up, and the destination. At the start of their driving shift, cab drivers may report to a cab service or garage, where they are assigned a cab. They are given a trip sheet, where they record their name, date of work, and cab iden­ tification number. They check the cab’s fuel and oil levels, and make sure the lights, brakes, and windshield wipers are in good working  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations order. Any equipment or parts not in good working order are re­ ported to the dispatcher or company mechanic. They adjust rear and side mirrors and their seat for comfort. Taxi drivers pick up their passengers in one of three ways. Cus­ tomers requesting transportation may call the cab company and give a place and an approximate time they wish to be picked up, and their destination. The cab company dispatcher then relays the infor­ mation to a driver by two-way radio. In urban areas, drivers may cruise streets and pick up passengers who hail them, or “wave them down.” Drivers also may get passengers by waiting at cab stands or in taxi lines at airports, train stations, hotels, and other places where people frequently seek taxis. Drivers should be familiar with streets in the areas they service so they can use the most efficient route to destinations. They also should know frequently requested destinations, such as airports, bus and railroad terminals, convention centers, hotels, popular restau­ rants, sport facilities, museums, art galleries and other points of in­ terest. Locations of the fire and police departments as well as hospi­ tals should also be known in case of emergency. Upon reaching the destination, drivers determine the fare and an­ nounce it to the rider. Fares often consist of many parts. One part is called a “drop charge,” which is a flat fee just for using the cab. An­ other part of the fare is based on the length of the trip and the amount of time it took. In many taxicabs this is measured by a taxi­ meter, a machine that displays the fare as it accrues, which drivers turn on as soon as passengers enter the cab and turn off when the destination is reached. The fare may also include a surcharge for ad­ ditional passengers or for handling luggage. In addition to paying the fare, most passengers will give the driver a tip. The amount of the gratuity depends on the passengers’ satisfaction with the quality and efficiency of the ride and courtesy of the driver. When passen­ gers request, a driver issues a receipt. Drivers enter onto the trip sheet all information regarding the trip, such as place and time of pick-up and drop-off and total fee. They also must fill out accident reports when necessary. Chauffeurs drive passengers in private automobiles, limousines, or vans owned by limousine companies. Chauffeurs drive many types of passengers. Many transport travellers and other persons be­ tween hotels and airports or bus and train terminals in large vans. Others are hired to drive luxury automobiles such as limousines to popular entertainment and social events. Still others are employed full time by wealthy families and private companies to provide per­ sonal transportation. At the start of the work day, chauffeurs make sure their automo­ bile is ready for use. They inspect it for cleanliness and, when needed, vacuum the interior and wash windows, the exterior car body, and mirrors. They check fuel and oil levels and make sure the lights, tires, brakes, and windshield wipers are in good working or­ der. Chauffeurs may perform routine maintenance and make minor repairs, such as changing tires or adding oil and other fluids when needed. If more serious repairs are needed, the chauffeur takes the vehicle to a professional mechanic. Chauffeurs often strive to pamper their passengers with attentive service. They assist riders into the car, usually holding the door, holding umbrellas when raining, and loading packages and luggage into the trunk of the car. They may perform errands for their em­ ployers, such as delivering packages or picking up items. They also may meet persons arriving at airports. Many chauffeurs offer con­ veniences and luxuries in their limousines to insure a pleasurable ride, such as newspapers, music, drinks, televisions, and telephones. Working Conditions Taxi drivers and chauffeurs may occasionally have to load and un­ load heavy luggage and packages. Driving for long periods of time can be tiring, especially in densely populated urban areas, and driv­ ing in bad weather, heavy traffic, or mountainous and hilly areas can be nerve racking. Sitting for long periods of time can be uncom­ fortable. Drivers must be alert to conditions on the road, especially  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  443  l« PI  ZMm  924-4344  ■  ,-gs -  - -  -  Taxi drivers and chauffeurs must be able to deal courteously with the public. in heavy and congested traffic or in bad weather, to prevent acci­ dents and to avoid sudden stops, turns, and other driving maneuvers that would jar the passenger. Work hours of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly. Some jobs offer full-time or part-time employment; in others hours are very flexible. Hours can change from day to day or be the same every day. Drivers sometimes may have to report to work on short notice. Chauffeurs who work for a single employer may be on call much of the time. For those who work for a limosine service, evening and weekend work is common. The work schedule of chauffeurs is usually dictated by the needs of their client or employer. The work of taxi drivers is much less structured. Working free from supervision, they may break for a meal or a rest whenever their vehicle is unoccupied. However, taxi drivers risk robbery because they work alone and often carry a lot of cash. Full-time taxi drivers usually work one shift a day, which may last from 8 to 12 hours. Part-time drivers may work half a shift each day, or work a full shift once or twice a week. Because most taxi companies offer services 24 hours a day, drivers must be on duty at all times of the day and night. Early morning and late night shifts are not uncommon. Drivers may also have to work long hours dur­ ing holidays, weekends, and other special events. Independent driv­ ers, however, can often set their own hours and schedules. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs meet many different types of people. Patience is required when waiting for passengers or when dealing with rude customers. Many municipalities and taxicab and chauf­ feur companies require dress codes. In many cities, taxicab drivers are required to wear clothes that are clean and neat. Many chauf­ feurs wear more formal attire, such as a coat and tie or a dress, or sometimes a uniform and cap or a tuxedo. Employment Taxi drivers and chauffeurs held about 120,000 jobs in 1992. About 6 out of 10 were wage and salary workers employed by a company or business. Of these, about 27 percent worked for local and subur­ ban transportation companies and about 20 percent worked for taxi­ cab companies. Others worked for automotive rental dealerships, private households, and funeral homes. About 4 out of 10 were selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local governments regulate taxicabs and set standards and tests re­ quired to be licensed as a taxi driver or chauffeur. Although require­ ments vary, most municipalities have minimum qualifications for age and driving experience. Many taxi and limousine companies  444  Occupational Outlook Handbook  have higher standards than the ones required by law: They may ask to see a driving record and check credit and criminal records. In ad­ dition, many companies require a higher minimum age and prefer that drivers be high school graduates. Persons interested in driving a limousine or taxicab must first have a regular automobile drivers license. They also must acquire a chauffeur or taxi driver’s license, commonly called a “hacker’s” li­ cense. Local authorities generally require applicants for a hacker’s license to pass a written exam or complete a training program. To qualify either through an exam or a training program, applicants must know local geography, motor vehicle laws, safe driving prac­ tices, regulations governing taxicabs, and display some aptitude for being able to deal courteously with the public. In many municipali­ ties, applicants sponsored by taxicab or limousine companies may be given a temporary permit that allows them to drive, even though they may not yet have finished the training program or taken the test. Many localities are adding a test on English usage, usually in the form of listening comprehension. Applicants who do not pass the English exam must take an English course sponsored by the mu­ nicipality. Many local authorities require that applicants pass a physical exam and many take applicants’ fingerprints to check for a criminal record. The majority of taxi drivers and chauffeurs are called “lease driv­ ers.” Lease drivers pay a monthly or weekly fee to the company that allows them to lease their vehicle and have access to the company dispatch system. The fee may also include a charge for vehicle main­ tenance and a deposit. Lease drivers may take their cars home with them when they are not on duty. Some taxi and limousine companies give new drivers on the job training. They may show drivers how to operate the taximeter and two-way radio, and how to complete paperwork. Other topics cov­ ered may include driver safety and popular sightseeing and en­ tertainment destinations. Many companies have contracts with so­ cial service agencies and transportation services to transport elderly and disabled citizens, so new drivers may get special training on how to properly handle wheelchair lifts and other mechanical de­ vices. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs should be able to get along with many different types of people. They must be patient when waiting for pas­ sengers or when dealing with rude customers, and driving in heavy and congested traffic requires tolerance and a mild temperment. Drivers should also be dependable because passengers rely on them to be picked up at prearranged times and taken to the correct desti­ nation. Because drivers work with little supervision, they must be responsible and self-motivated if they are to be successful. Opportunities for advancement are limited for taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Experienced drivers may obtain preferred routes or shifts. Some advance to dispatcher or to manager jobs. On the other hand, many drivers like the independent, unsupervised work of driving their own automobile. In many small and medium size communities, drivers are able to purchase their own taxi, limousine, or other type of automobile and go into business for themselves. These independent owner-drivers are usually required to get an additional permit that allows them to operate their vehicle as a company. In some big cities, however, the number of operating permits is limited and may only be obtained by purchasing one from an owner-driver who is leaving the business. Although many independent owner-drivers are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their permit and their automo­ bile. Independent owner-drivers should have good business sense and courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful. Knowledge of mechanics can enable independent owneroperators to cut expenses and perform their own routine mainte­ nance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as taxi drivers and chauffeurs should encounter good opportunities. Thousands of job openings will occur each year  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  as drivers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, driving jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, work hours, and working conditions. Because driving does not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs that offer regu­ lar hours and attractive earnings and working conditions. Opportu­ nities should be best for persons with good driving records who are able to be flexible in their work schedules. Employment of taxi drivers and chauffeurs is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as local and intercity travel increases with population growth. Opportunities should be best in metropolitan areas that are growing rapidly. Job opportunites may fluctuate from season to season and from month to month. Extra drivers may be hired during holiday seasons and peak travel and tourist times. During economic slowdowns, drivers are seldom laid off but they may have to increase their work­ ing hours and their earnings may decline somewhat. Independent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to economic slow­ downs. Earnings Earnings of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly, depending on the number of hours worked, customers’ tips factors, and other fac­ tors. Those who usually worked full time had median weekly earn­ ings of $313.00 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $228.00 and $481.00 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $187.00, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $604.00 a week. Earnings were generally higher in more urban areas. According to limited information available, the majority of inde­ pendent taxi owner-drivers earned from about $20,000 to $30,000, including tips. However, professional drivers with a regular clientele often earn more. Many chauffeurs who worked full time earned from about $30,000 to $50,000 including tips. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are ambulance drivers, busdrivers, and truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing and registration of taxi drivers and chauf­ feurs is available from offices of local governments that regulate taxicabs. For information about work opportunities as a taxi driver or chauffeur, contact local taxi or limousine services or State em­ ployment service offices. For general information about the work of chauffeurs, contact: W Executive Chauffeuring School, 1198 Pacific Coast Hwy., Suite D-232, Seal Beach, CA 90740.  Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 292.353, .363, .463, .483, and .667; 900 through 905.683; 906; 909.663; 919.663-018, -022, -026; and 953.583)  Nature of the Work Nearly all goods are transported by truck during some of their jour­ ney from producers to consumers. Goods may also be shipped be­ tween terminals or warehouses in different cities by train, ship, or plane. But truckdrivers usually make the initial pickup from facto­ ries, consolidate cargo at terminals for intercity shipment, and de­ liver goods from terminals to stores and homes. Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, truckdrivers check their trucks for fuel and oil. They also inspect the trucks they will drive to make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and see that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers adjust mirrors  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations so that both sides of the truck are visible from the driver’s seat, and make sure the cargo has been loaded properly so it will not shift dur­ ing the trip. Drivers report to the dispatcher any equipment that does not work or is missing, or cargo that is not loaded properly. Once underway, drivers must be alert to prevent accidents and to drive their trucks efficiently. Because drivers of large tractor-trailers sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they can see farther down the road. They seek traffic lanes that allow them to move at a steady speed, and, when going downhill, they may increase speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. Long-distance runs vary widely. On short “turnarounds,” truckdrivers deliver a load to a nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and drive it back to their home base the same day. Other runs take an entire day, and drivers remain away from home over­ night. On longer runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city for a week or more before returning home. Some companies use two driv­ ers on very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth be­ hind the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or even weeks, usu­ ally with the truck stopping only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading. Some long-distance drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Because shippers request varying amounts of service to different cities every day, many driv­ ers have unscheduled runs. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. After long-distance truckdrivers reach their destination or com­ plete their operating shift, they are required by the U.S. Department of Transportation to complete reports about the trip and the condi­ tion of the truck and to give a detailed report of any accident. In ad­ dition, on duty drivers are subject to periodic alcohol and drug tests. Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time be­ hind the wheel but may be required to unload their cargo. Drivers hauling specialty cargo often load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only one at the destination familiar with this procedure. Auto-transport drivers, for example, drive and position the cars on the trailers and head ramps and remove them at the final destina­ tion. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-dis­ tance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. When local truckdrivers receive assignments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pickups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Before the drivers arrive for work, material handlers generally have loaded the trucks and arranged the items in order of delivery to min­ imize handling of the merchandise. At the customer’s place of business, local truckdrivers generally load or unload the merchandise. If there are heavy loads or many deliveries to make during the day, drivers may have helpers. Cus­ tomers must sign receipts for goods and drivers may receive money for material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in receipts, money, and records of deliveries made and report any mechanical problems their trucks may have. The work of local truckdrivers varies, depending on the product they transport. Produce truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the early morning and spend the rest of the day delivering produce to many different grocery stores. Lumber truckdrivers, on the other hand, make several trips from the lumber yard to one or more con­ struction sites. Gasoline tank truckdrivers attach the hoses and op­ erate the pumps on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas sta­ tions’ storage tanks. Some local truckdrivers have sales and customer relations respon­ sibilities. These drivers—called “driver-sales workers” or “route drivers”—are primarily responsible for delivering their firm’s prod­ ucts, but they also represent the company. Their reaction to cus­ tomer complaints and requests for special services can make the dif­ ference between a large order and losing a customer. Route drivers also may use their selling ability to increase sales and to gain addi­ tional customers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  445  The duties of driver-sales workers vary according to the industry in which they are employed, the policies of their particular com­ pany, and how strongly their sales responsibilities are emphasized. Most have wholesale routes—that is, they deliver to businesses and stores rather than homes. A few distribute various foods, or pick up and deliver drycleaning to households, but these retail routes are now rare. Wholesale bakery driver-sales workers, for example, deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. Paying close attention to the items that are selling well and those just sitting on the shelves, they estimate the amount and variety of baked goods that will be sold. They may recommend changes in a store’s order or may encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. From time to time, they try to get the business of new stores along their route. Driver-sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, tow­ els, work clothes, and other items visit businesses regularly to re­ place soiled laundry. Vending machine driver-sales workers service machines in facto­ ries, schools, and other buildings. They check items remaining in the machines, replace stock, and remove money deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine each vending machine to see that merchandise and change are dispensed properly, make minor re­ pairs, and clean machines. After completing their route, driver-sales workers order items for the next day which they think customers are likely to buy, based pri­ marily on what products have been selling well, the weather, time of year, and any customer feedback. Working Conditions Truckdriving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and im­ proved cab designs. However, driving for many hours at a stretch, unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring, and driving in bad weather, heavy traffic, or mountains can be nerve racking. Local truckdrivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually can return home in the evening. Some self-employed long distance truckdrivers who own as well as operate their trucks spend over 240 days a year away from home. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Many who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries drive at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have a regular route, some have different routes each day. Many local truckdrivers—particularly driver-sales workers—load and unload their own trucks, which require considerable lifting, car­ rying, and walking.  Trucking companies employed nearly one-third of all truckdrivers.  446  Occupational Outlook Handbook  The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other matters of trucking companies engaged in interstate com­ merce. For example, a long-distance driver cannot be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and cannot drive more than 10 hours following at least 8 consecutive hours off duty. Many driv­ ers, particularly on long runs, work close to the maximum hours permitted. Drivers on long runs may face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Although many drivers work during the day, travel at night and on holidays and weekends is frequently necessary in order to avoid traffic delays and deliver cargo on time. Employment Truckdrivers held 2,720,000 jobs in 1992. Jobs are concentrated in and around large cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all communities, however. Trucking companies employed nearly one-third of all truckdrivers, and another one-third worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber yards, or distributors of food and grocery products. The rest were scattered throughout the economy, including government agencies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 truckdrivers are self-employed; of these, a significant number are owner-operators, who either operate inde­ pendently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications and standards for truckdrivers are established by State and Federal regulations. States must meet Federal standards, and some States have more stringent regulations. All truckdrivers must have a driver’s license issued by the State in which they live, and most employers strongly prefer a good driving record. All driv­ ers of trucks designed to carry at least 26,000 pounds—which in­ cludes most tractor-trailers as well as bigger straight trucks—are re­ quired to obtain a special commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the State in which they live; in many States a regular driver’s license is sufficient for driving light trucks and vans. All truckdrivers who operate trucks that carry hazardous materials also must obtain a CDL. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they can operate a commer­ cial truck safely. A national data bank permanently records all driv­ ing violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses, so drivers whose commercial license is suspended or revoked in one State may not be issued a new one in another State. Trainees must be accompanied by a driver with a CDL until they get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a commercial driver’s license may be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for truckdrivers who are engaged in interstate com­ merce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical ex­ amination, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/ 40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal blood pres­ sure are the main physical requirements. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate truckdrivers, and drivers may not use any controlled substances un­ less prescribed by a licensed physician. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those de­ scribed. Many firms require that drivers be at least 25 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and require annual physi­ cal examinations. Federal regulations require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment, and require periodic random tests while on duty.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, they must get along well with people. For jobs as driver-sales work­ ers, an ability to speak well and a neat appearance are particularly important, as are self-confidence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver jobs, employers also look for responsible, self-motivated indi­ viduals, since drivers work with little supervision. Driver-training courses are a desirable method of preparing for truckdriving jobs and for obtaining a commercial driver’s license. High school driver-training courses are an asset, and courses in au­ tomotive mechanics may help drivers make minor roadside repairs. Many private and public technical-vocational schools offer tractortrailer driver training programs. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to maneuver large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regula­ tions. Some programs provide only a limited amount of actual driv­ ing experience, and completion of a program does not assure a job. Persons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable or should seek a school certified by the Professional Truck Driver Institute of America as providing training that meets Federal Highway Administration guidelines for training tractortrailer drivers. Training given to new drivers by employers usually is informal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an exper­ ienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New drivers also may ride with and observe experienced drivers before being assigned their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck or if they are handling haz­ ardous materials. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom in­ struction which covers general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver-sales workers also receive training on the various types of products they carry so they will be more effective sales workers and better able to handle customer requests. Very few people enter truckdriving directly from school; most truckdrivers previously held jobs in other occupations. Considera­ tion is given to driving experience in the Armed Forces. In some in­ stances, a person also may start as a truckdriver’s helper, driving part of the day and helping to unload and load freight. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. New drivers sometimes start on panel or other small “straight” trucks. As they gain experience and show good driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to tractortrailers. Although most new truckdrivers are assigned immediately to reg­ ular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, who substitute for reg­ ular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assign­ ment when an opening occurs. Advancement of truckdrivers is generally limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks, or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long-dis­ tance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. A few truckdrivers may advance to dispatcher, to manager, or to traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules. Some long-distance truckers purchase a truck and go into busi­ ness for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are successful, others fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their trucks. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truckdriving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and busi­ ness arithmetic are helpful, and knowledge of truck mechanics can enable owner-operators to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Opportunities should be favorable for persons who are interested in truckdriving. This occupation has among the largest number of job  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations openings each year. Although thousands of openings will be created by growth in demand for drivers, the majority will occur as exper­ ienced drivers transfer to other fields of work or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. In addition, truckdriver jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, number of nights that must be spent “on the road,” and in the quality of equipment operated. Because truckdriving does not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs with the most attrac­ tive earnings and working conditions. Employment of truckdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the econ­ omy grows and the amount of freight carried by trucks increases. However, increased integration of truck and railroad long-distance freight transportation should continue to slow somewhat the growth of truckdriver jobs. Trailers are expected increasingly to be carried between distant regions on trains, and delivered and picked up by trucks. Perishable goods should continue to be shipped long distance by truck. Average growth of local and long-distance truckdriver employ­ ment should outweigh the slow growth in driver-sales worker jobs. The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to increase slowly because companies are increasingly splitting their responsibilities among other workers, shifting sales, ordering, and customer service tasks to sales and office staffs, and using regular truckdrivers to make deliveries to customers. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are expanding, but fewer when these decline. During economic slowdowns, some truckdrivers are laid off and others have de­ creased earnings because of reduced hours or miles driven. Inde­ pendent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Truckdrivers employed in industries such as wholesale food distri­ bution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off. Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Long-distance drivers are generally paid primarily by the mile, and their rate per mile can vary greatly from employer to employer; their earnings in­ crease with mileage driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck. Most driver-sales workers receive a commission based on their sales in addition to an hourly wage. In 1992, truckdrivers had average straight-time hourly earnings of $12.92. Depending on the size of the truck, average hourly earn­ ings were as follows: Medium trucks................................................................................... $ 13.50 Tractor-trailers................................................................................... 12.94 Heavy straight trucks........................................................................ 11.91 Light trucks............................................................................................ 8.51  Drivers employed by trucking companies had the highest earn­ ings, averaging about $14.55 an hour in 1992. Truckdrivers in the Northeast and West had the highest earnings; those in the South had the lowest. Most long-distance truckdrivers operate tractor-trailers, and their earnings vary widely, from as little as $20,000 to over $40,000 annually. Most self-employed truckdrivers are primarily engaged in long-distance hauling. After deducting their living expenses and the costs associated with operating their trucks, earnings of $20,000 to $25,000 a year are common. Many truckdrivers are members of the International Brother­ hood of Teamsters. Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions that represent the plant workers of the companies for which they work.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  447  Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance driver, busdriver, chauffeur, and taxi driver. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the State employ­ ment service. Information on career opportunities in truckdriving may be ob­ tained from: XW American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314.  The Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, a nonprofit organization established by the trucking industry, manufacturers, and others, certifies truckdriver training programs that meet indus­ try standards. The Institute has available for $4 A Checklist For Quality Programs in Tractor Trailer Driver Training, a do-it-your­ self guide for evaluating the quality of a truckdriver training pro­ gram. This publication, as well as a free list of certified tractortrailer driver training programs, may be obtained from: IS" Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, 8788 Elk Grove Blvd., Suite 20, Elk Grove, CA 95624.  Water Transportation Occupations (D.O.T 197.130-010, .133 except -010 and -018, .137-010, .161-010, .163-010, -014, -018, .167 except -014; 911.131-010, .133-010, .137-010, -014, .263-010, .363-010, -014, .364-010, .584-010, .664-010, -014, .687-022 and -030)  Nature of the Work Workers in water transportation occupations operate and maintain deep sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, re­ search vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans and the Great Lakes, in harbors, on rivers and canals, and on other water­ ways. (Workers who operate water craft used in commercial fishing are described elsewhere in the Handbook, in the section on fishers, hunters, and trappers.) Captains or masters are in overall command of the operation of a vessel and they supervise the work of the other officers and the crew. They set course and speed, maneuver the vessel to avoid hazards and other ships, and periodically determine its position using navi­ gation aids, celestial observations, and charts. They direct crew members who steer the vessel, operate engines, signal to other ves­ sels, perform maintenance and handle lines, or operate towing or dredging gear. Captains insure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check that machinery and equipment are in good working order, and oversee the loading and unloading of cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records of ships’ movements and cargo carried. On large vessels, captains are assisted by deck officers or mates. Merchant marine vessels—those carrying cargo overseas—have a chief or first mate, a second mate, and a third mate. Mates oversee the operation of the vessel, or “stand watch” for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 off. On smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland vessels) who alternates watches with the captain. Engineers or marine engineers operate, maintain, and repair pro­ pulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. As­ sistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the operation of engines and machinery. Seamen, also called deckhands, particularly on inland waters, op­ erate the vessel and its deck equipment under the direction of the ship’s officers, and keep the nonengineering areas in good condition.  448  Occupational Outlook Handbook  They stand watch, looking out for other vessels, obstructions in the ship’s path, and aids to navigation. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equip­ ment such as life boats, anchors, and cargohandling gear. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform mainte­ nance chores such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks and other areas. Seamen may also load and unload cargo. On vessels handling liquid cargo, they hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. Deckhands on tugboats or tow vessels tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically, and break them apart when the destination is reached. Larger vessels have a boatswain or head seaman. Marine oilers work below decks under the direction of the ship’s engineers. They lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors, read pressure and temperature gauges and record data, and may repair and adjust machinery. A typical deep sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck of­ ficers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more seamen and oilers. Depending on their size, vessels oper­ ating in harbors, rivers, or along the coast may have a crew compris­ ing only of a captain and one deckhand, or as many as a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Large vessels also have a full-time cook and helper, while on small ones, a seaman does the cooking. Merchant mariners also have an electrician, ma­ chinery mechanics, and a radio officer. Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals is of prime importance. Pilots on river and canal vessels usu­ ally are regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are gener­ ally independent contractors, who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port. They may pilot many ships in a single day. Working Conditions Merchant mariners are away from home for extended periods, but earn long leaves. Most are hired for one voyage, with no job security after that. At sea, they usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen over. Workers on rivers and canals and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8- or 12-hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or month and then have an extended period off. When work­ ing, they are usually on duty for 6 or 12 hours and are off for 6 or 12 hours.  Deckhands on tow vessels break apart tow units once the destination is reached.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  People in water transportation occupations work in all weather conditions and although merchant mariners try to avoid severe storms while at sea, working in damp and cold conditions can be un­ pleasant. It is uncommon for vessels to sink, but workers neverthe­ less face the possibility that they may have to abandon their craft on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. They also risk injury or death from falling overboard and hazards associ­ ated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. Some newer vessels are air-conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and have comfortable living quarters. Nevertheless, some workers do not like the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship. Employment Water transportation workers held about 54,000 jobs in 1992. Many merchant marine officers and seamen worked only part of the year, so the total number who worked some time during the year was somewhat greater. The following tabulation shows employment in the occupations that make up this group: Seamen and marine oilers.................................................................. 22,000 Captains and pilots............................................................................ 16,000 Engineers............................................................................................ 8,800 Mates..................................................................................................... 7,200  A few of the captains and pilots were self-employed, operating their own vessel, or were pilots who were independent contractors. About 40 percent of all water transportation workers were em­ ployed on board merchant marine ships or U.S. Navy Military Sealift ships operating on the oceans or Great Lakes. Another 40 percent were employed in transportation services, working on tugs, towboats, ferries, dredges, and other watercraft in harbors, on rivers and canals, and other waterways. Others worked in water transpor­ tation services such as piloting vessels in and out of harbors, operat­ ing lighters and chartered boats, and in marine construction, salvag­ ing, and surveying. The remaining water transportation workers were employed on vessels that carry passengers, such as cruise ships, sightseeing and excursion boats, and ferries. Training and Other Qualifications Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water trans­ portation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard. All officers and operators of watercraft must be li­ censed by the U.S. Coast Guard, which offers nearly 60 different li­ censes, depending on the position and type of craft. Licensing differs somewhat between the merchant marine and others. Deck and engineering officers in the merchant marine must be li­ censed. To qualify for a license, applicants must have graduated from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, or one of the six State academies, and pass a written examination. Persons with at least 3 years of appropriate sea experience also can be licensed if they pass the exam, but it is difficult to pass without substantial formal schooling or independent study. Also, because seamen may work 6 months a year or less, it can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the nec­ essary experience. The academies offer 4-year bachelor’s degree pro­ grams (one offers a 3-year associate program) in nautical science or marine engineering to prepare students to be third mates or third as­ sistant engineers. With experience and passing of additional exams, third officers may qualify for higher rank. Because of keen competi­ tion, however, officers may have to take jobs below the grade they are qualified for. For employment in the merchant marine as an unlicensed sea­ man, a merchant mariner’s document is needed. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, have a medical certificate of excellent health, and a U.S. Public Health Service certificate attesting to vision, color per­ ception, and general physical condition. While no experience or for­ mal schooling is required, training at a union-operated school is  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations helpful. Beginners are classified as ordinary seaman and may be as­ signed to the deck or engineering department. With experience at sea, and perhaps union-sponsored training, an ordinary seaman can pass the able seaman exam. Merchant marine officers and seamen (experienced and begin­ ners) are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Harbor pilot training is usually an apprenticeship with a shipping company or a pilot employees’ association. Entrants may be able seamen or licensed officers. No training or experience is needed to become a seaman or deckhand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or other wa­ terways. Newly hired workers generally learn skills on the job. With experience, they are eligible to take a Coast Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial knowledge gained through experience, courses in seamanship schools, and independent study are needed to pass the exam. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected to continue for jobs in water transpor­ tation occupations. Overall, employment in these jobs is projected to decline through the year 2005, but opportunities will vary by sector. Employment in deep sea shipping is expected to continue its long­ term sharp decline as U.S.-manned ships carry an even smaller pro­ portion of international cargo. (In 1991, only 4 percent of our im­ ports and exports were carried on U.S.-manned ships.) Stringent Federal regulations that require larger crews allow unregulated ves­ sels that fly foreign flags to charge lower shipping rates. A fleet of deep sea U.S.-manned ships is considered to be vital to the Nation’s defense, so they receive Federal support through operating subsidies and provisions in laws that limit certain Federal cargoes to ships that fly the U,S. flag. Newer ships are designed to be operated safely by much smaller crews. Innovations include automated controls and computerized monitoring systems in navigation, engine control, watchkeeping, ship management, and cargo handling. As older vessels are re­ placed, crew sizes will shrink, and employed seamen will need greater skills. Vessels on rivers and canals and on the Great Lakes mostly carry bulk products such as coal, iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals. Shipments of these products are expected to grow through the year 2005, but productivity increases should cause employment to decline. Employment in water transportation ser­ vices is likely to show little or no change. The decline in jobs has created competition for jobs, with many experienced merchant mariners going for long periods without   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  449  work. As a result, unions generally accept few new members. Also, many merchant marine academy graduates have not found licensed shipboard jobs in the U.S. merchant marine, although most do find related jobs. All are commissioned as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Re­ serve, and many go on active duty in the Navy. Some find jobs on tugboats or other watercraft or on foreign-flag vessels, or take jobs as seamen on U.S. flag ships. Some take land-based jobs with ship­ ping companies, marine insurance companies, manufacturers of boilers or related machinery, civilian jobs with the U.S. Navy, or other related jobs. Unless the number of people seeking merchant marine jobs declines sharply, the present keen competition is likely to continue.  Earnings Water transportation workers who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $611 in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $463 and $900 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $350, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $1,050 a week. Captains and mates had median weekly earnings of $871 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $650 and $1,150 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $500, while the highest more than $1,500 a week. Seamen had median weekly earnings of $512 a week in 1992. The middle 50 percent earned between $350 and $600 a week. The low­ est 10 percent earned less than $175 a week, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $833 a week. Related Occupations Workers in occupations having duties and responsibilities similar to these occupations include fishing vessel captains, ferryboat opera­ tors, and hatchtenders. Sources of Additional Information Information on merchant marine careers, training, and licensing re­ quirements is available from: O" Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW., Washington, DC 20590. W U.S. Coast Guard, Licensing and Evaluation Branch, Merchant Vessel and Personnel Division, 2100 2nd St. SW., Washington, DC 20593.  Individuals interested in attending a merchant marine academy should contact: 1ST Admissions  Office, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, NY 11024. ^Admissions Office, California Maritime Academy, P.O. Box 1392, Val­ lejo, CA 94590.  Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 468.)  Nature of the Work Employers in almost all industries hire individuals at the entry level. These workers assist more skilled production, construction, operat­ ing, and maintenance workers, or perform tasks that do not require significant training. They perform a broad array of jobs, ranging from moving boxes and feeding machines to cleaning equipment and work areas. Many do tasks needed to make the work of more skilled employees flow smoothly. These workers often do routine, physical work under close supervision. They generally follow oral or written instructions from supervisors or more experienced workers, with little opportunity to make decisions. Helpers and laborers must be familiar with the duties of workers they help, as well as with the materials, tools, and machinery they use, in order to perform their jobs effectively. Freight, stock, and material hand movers move materials to and from storage and production areas, loading docks, delivery vehicles, ships’ holds, and containers, either manually or with forklifts, dol­ lies, handtrucks, or carts. Their specific duties vary by industry and work setting. In factories, they may move raw materials, compo­ nents, and finished goods between work areas and to and from stor­ age areas and loading docks. They receive and sort materials and supplies and prepare them according to work orders for delivery to work or storage areas. In grocery stores, they stock shelves, bag gro­ ceries, carry packages to customers’ cars, and return shopping carts to designated areas. Helpers assist construction trades workers, mechanics and repair­ ers, and workers in production and extractive occupations. (Infor­ mation on these occupations is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) They aid machine operators and tenders by moving materials, sup­ plies, and tools to and from work areas. Some may tend machines during operation if an operator is not available. Helpers may sort finished products, keep records of machine processes, report mal­ functions to operators, and clean machinery after use. Mechanics’ helpers assist workers who repair motor vehicles, industrial machin­ ery, and electrical, electronic, and other equipment. They may fur­ nish tools, materials, and supplies; hold materials or tools; take apart defective equipment; remove rivets; prepare replacement parts; or clean work areas. Construction craft laborers provide much of the routine physical labor at highway, building, and demolition sites. They supply tools, materials, and equipment to carpenters, electricians, plasterers, ma­ sons, painters, plumbers, roofers, and other construction trades workers. They dig trenches, set braces to support the sides of exca­ vations, and clean up rubble and debris. They operate jackhammers, earth tampers, cement mixers, buggies, front-end loaders, “walk-be­ hind” ditchdiggers, small mechanical hoists, and laser beam equip­ ment to align and grade ditches and tunnels. In addition to working on building and transportation projects, construction craft laborers work on other projects, such as hazardous waste cleanup and asbes­ tos and lead abatement. Some laborers have job titles that indicate the work they do. Tenders for bricklayers and plasterers, for exam­ ple, mix and supply materials, set up and move scaffolding, and pro­ vide other services. Hand packers and packagers manually package or wrap materi­ als. They may inspect items for defects, label cartons and stamp in­ formation on products, keep records of items packed, and stack packages on loading docks. 450  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Machine feeders and offbearers feed materials into or remove materials from machines or equipment that is automatic or tended by other workers. Service station attendants fill fuel tanks; wash windshields; change oil; repair tires; and replace belts, lights, windshield wipers, and other accessories on automobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehi­ cles. Attendants collect payment for services and supplies. Refuse collectors gather trash and garbage cans manually, or they may operate a hydraulic lift truck that picks up and empties dump­ sters. They drive along a regularly scheduled route, and transport refuse to a dump or landfill. Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners clean machinery, vehi­ cles, storage tanks, pipelines, and similar equipment using water and other cleaning agents, vacuums, hoses, brushes, cloths, and other cleaning equipment. Parking lot attendants assist customers in parking their cars in lots or storage areas and collect fees from customers. Working Conditions Most handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers do repeti­ tive, physically demanding work. They may lift and carry heavy ob­ jects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful chemicals, fumes, odors, loud noise, or dangerous machinery, so these employees may need to wear safety clothing, such as gloves, hats, eye, mouth, and hearing protec­ tion, and must constantly observe safety procedures. In many industries, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and la­ borers may have to work evening or “graveyard” shifts. Their shifts are often 8 hours, but sometimes 12. Handlers may stock shelves at night in grocery stores; service station and parking lot attendants may also work at night. Garbage collectors often work early morn­ ing shifts, starting at 5:00 or 6:00 A.M. Employment Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers held about 4.5 million jobs in 1992. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupational group. Freight, stock, and material movers, hand.................................. Hand packers and packagers....................................................... Construction trades helpers......................................................... Machine feeders and offbearers................................................... Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners................................... Service station attendants............................................................ Refuse collectors......................................................................... Parking lot attendants.................................................................. All other helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand ............  845,000 685,000 452,000 255,000 219,000 190,000 121,000 63,000 1,621,000  They are employed throughout the country in virtually all indus­ tries, with the greatest numbers in manufacturing, construction, and wholesale and retail trade. Almost 1 out of 4 handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most of these jobs, employers will hire people without work ex­ perience or specific training. Some require a high school diploma, others do not. Some jobs require union membership and have long waiting lists. For those jobs requiring physical exertion, employers look for physically fit workers and may require that applicants pass a physical exam. Some employers require mandatory drug testing  Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers  Construction craft laborers operate a variety ofpower tools. prior to employment. For all jobs, employers look for people who are reliable and hard working. For those jobs that involve dealing with the public, such as grocery store helpers and garage and park­ ing lot attendants, workers should be pleasant and tactful. Some jobs require literacy and basic mathematics skills to read billing and other records and collect payment for services from customers. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are often younger than workers in other occupations—reflecting the limited training but significant physical requirements of these jobs. Generally, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers learn skills informally from more experienced workers or supervi­ sors. Workers who use dangerous equipment or toxic chemicals often receive training in safety awareness and procedures. In many of these jobs, workers may become trainees or qualify directly for jobs as construction trades workers; machine operators, assemblers, or other production workers; transportation, material moving equipment, or vehicle operators; or mechanics or repairers. Some become supervisors of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. In fact, many employers prefer not to hire workers for mechanic, construction trade, production, or similar occupations. Rather, they hire handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and labor­ ers, and promote qualified workers as openings arise. Job Outlook Job openings should be numerous for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers because the occupation is very large and turno­ ver is relatively high—characteristic of occupations that require lit­ tle formal training. Although employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, em­ ployment change for individual occupations will vary. Among ser­ vice station attendants, for example, a decline in employment has been projected; vehicle washers and equipment cleaners can expect average employment growth; and parking lot attendants are pro­ jected to experience faster than average growth. Demand for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers will depend on growth of the industries that employ these workers, as well as growth of the skilled workers whom they assist. For exam­ ple, the average employment growth projected for construction   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  451  craft laborers reflects the average growth expected for the construc­ tion industry and for construction trades workers. Employment growth among handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers may be spurred by the Nation’s emphasis on hazardous waste cleanup and other environmental projects, and on rebuilding infra­ structure—roads, bridges, tunnels, and communications facilities, for instance. Employment growth also is affected by automation. Some of these jobs are repetitive and, therefore, easily replaced by new ma­ chines and equipment that can improve productivity and quality control. Automated material handling equipment, such as conveyor belts and computer-controlled lift mechanisms and machines that automatically load, unload, and package materials, will be increas­ ingly used, eliminating some helper, handler, and hand packer and packager jobs. As more skilled jobs become automated or partially automated, such as those of assemblers, demand for these employees will decline, as will demand for workers who assist them. Some workers, however, such as construction craft laborers, are not easily replaced by automation because of the varied nature of their jobs. In addition to automation, many employers have adopted cost cutting measures such as job combinations, in which one employee performs the work previously done by two different types of work­ ers. This may cause displacement of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers because their jobs may be assumed by more highly skilled workers who perform the skilled labor as well as the helper’s work. In other cases, a helper may assist more than one type of worker, thereby reducing the number of helpers needed. Earnings Median weekly earnings for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers in 1992 were about $300. The middle 50 percent earned from $220 to $420 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $550 weekly, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $180 weekly. Construction craft laborers have higher weekly earnings than other workers in this group. However, they may be more likely to lose work time because of bad weather and the cyclical nature of con­ struction work. Stock handlers and baggers have the lowest weekly earnings among workers in this group. Nearly 1 out of 4 handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and la­ borers belongs to a union. Related Occupations Other entry level workers who perform mostly physical work are roustabouts in the oil industry, certain timber cutting and logging occupations, and groundskeepers. The jobs of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are often similar to those of the more experienced workers they assist, including machine operators, con­ struction craft workers, assemblers, mechanics, and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs as handlers, equipment cleaners, help­ ers, and laborers, contact local building or construction contractors, manufacturers, and wholesale and retail establishments, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction craft la­ borers, contact: ^Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces Nature of the Work The mission of the Armed Forces has several elements: 1) To deter aggression and defeat attack against the Nation, 2) to strengthen and build alliances, 3) to prevent a hostile power from dominating a region critical to our interests, and 4) to prevent conflicts by reduc­ ing sources of regional turmoil through various means, including humanitarian aid, counterterrorism, or limiting the spread of milita­ rily significant technology. The Army prepares for land-based defense, while the Air Force provides for air and space defense. The Navy organizes and trains forces primarily for sea defense, while the Marine Corps, part of the Department of the Navy, prepares for land invasions in support of naval or amphibious operations. The Coast Guard, under the De­ partment of Transportation (except in wartime, when it serves with the Navy), is the primary Federal agency with maritime authority for the United States. The Coast Guard’s main missions are mari­ time safety, environmental protection, maritime law enforcement and national security. Together, the Armed Forces constitute America’s largest em­ ployer. Because maintaining a strong defense encompasses such di­ verse activities as running a hospital, programming computers, op­ erating a nuclear reactor, and repairing and maintaining a helicopter, military service provides educational opportunities and work experience in literally thousands of occupations. Military per­ sonnel hold managerial and administrative jobs; professional, tech­ nical, and clerical jobs; construction jobs; electrical and electronics jobs; mechanical and repair jobs; and many others. The military provides job training and work experience for people who can serve for a relatively brief period (3 to 6 years of active duty) or embark on a career that lasts 20 years or more. There are more than 2,000 basic and advanced military occupa­ tional specialties for enlisted personnel and 1,600 for officers. Over 75 percent of these occupational specialties have civilian counter­ parts. A brief discussion of the major military occupational groups follows. Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists are the backbone of the Armed Forces. Officers plan and direct military operations, oversee security activities, and serve as combat troop leaders. En­ listed personnel serve as infantrymen, aircraft crew members, weap­ ons specialists, armored vehicle operators, demolition experts, artil­ lery crew, rocket specialists, special operations forces, and combat engineers. Although these functions are unique to the Armed Forces, some involve skills that can be applied to a number of civil­ ian occupations such as police officers, firefighters, and heavy equipment operators. In addition, people in this category learn how to work as team members and can develop leadership, managerial, and supervisory skills. Military personnel assigned to electronic equipment repair occu­ pations are responsible for maintaining and repairing many different types of equipment. Officers manage the regular maintenance and repair of avionics, communications, radar, and air traffic control equipment. Enlisted personnel repair radio, navigation, missile gui­ dance, and flight control equipment as well as telephone, teletype, and data processing equipment. Many of these skills are directly transferable to jobs in the civilian sector. Communications and intelligence specialists in the military have civilian scientific and engineering counterparts. Officers serve as in­ telligence gatherers and interpreters, cryptologists, information analysts, translators, science and engineering researchers, and in re­ lated intelligence occupations. Enlisted personnel work as computer programmers, air traffic controllers, interpreters and translators, and radio, radar, and sonar operators. 452  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Military medical and dental occupations all have civilian counter­ parts. Holding the rank of medical officer are physicians, dentists, optometrists, nurses, therapists, veterinarians, pharmacists, and others in health diagnosing and treating occupations. Enlisted per­ sonnel are trained to work as medical laboratory technologists and technicians, radiologic technologists, emergency medical techni­ cians, dental assistants, optical assistants, pharmaceutical assist­ ants, sanitation specialists, and veterinary assistants. Health profes­ sions training obtained in the military is usually recognized in the civilian sector; service-trained health professionals are eligible to ap­ ply for certification or registration, a hiring prerequisite in many ci­ vilian health settings. Military experience in other technical and allied specialty occupa­ tions is often directly transferable to civilian life. Officers in this field work as meteorologists, mapping directors, television and motion picture directors, and band directors. Enlisted personnel are trained to work as photographers, motion picture camera operators, map­ ping and surveying specialists, illustrators, weather data collectors, explosives disposal specialists, divers, and musicians. Functional support and administrative occupations in military ser­ vice require the same skills as similar jobs in private businesses and government agencies. Officers in this category work as directors, ex­ ecutives, adjutants, administrative officers, personnel managers, training administrators, budget officers, finance officers, public af­ fairs officers, accountants, hospital administrators, inspectors, com­ puter systems managers, and lawyers. Enlisted personnel in this cat­ egory work as accounting clerks, payroll clerks, personnel clerks, computer programmers, computer operators, electric accounting machine operators, chaplain assistants, counseling aides, typists, stenographers, storekeepers, and other clerks. Those in electrical and mechanical equipment repair occupations maintain aircraft, motor vehicles, and ships. Officers manage the maintenance of aircraft, missiles, conventional and nuclear-powered ships, trucks, earth-moving equipment, and other vehicles. Enlisted personnel serve as mechanics, engine specialists, and boiler techni­ cians. They also install and maintain wire communications systems such as telephones. Skills obtained in these jobs are readily transfer­ able to those in the civilian sector.  •‘mm I  «n»  Women are eligible to enter almost 90 percent of all military occupations.  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces  453  Table 1. Military officer personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, 1992  Occupational group Total............................................................................................ ................................................ General officers and executives................................................. ................................................ Tactical operations officers........................................................ ................................................ Intelligence officers................................................................... ................................................ Engineering and maintenance officers...................................... ................................................ Scientists and professionals.......................................................... ................................................ Medical officers............................................................................. ................................................ Administrators............................................................................... ................................................ Supply, procurement, and allied officers................................... ................................................ Nonoccupational........................................................................ ................................................  Total  Army  Navy  273,577  94,807  69,253  1,621 110,270 12,872 35,530 12,346 44,695 19,474 23,568 12,279  368 39,855 6,176 10,950 3,103 17,927 6,205 9,391 82  251 27,295 2,272 7,964 2,494 12,201 3,963 4,540 8,192  Marine Corps  Air Force  19,139 6941  90,378  9,313 644 1,872 499  (2) 1,590 2,300 2,187  308 33,807 3,780 14,744 6,250 14,567 7,716 7,337 1,818  1 The Marine Corps includes colonels as general officers. There were 68 generals in the Marine Corps in 1992. 2 The Marine Corps employs no medical personnel. Their medical services are provided by the Navy. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense  Military personnel assigned to craft occupations are skilled craft workers. Officers serve as civil engineers and architects and manage the work of enlisted personnel who work as carpenters, construction equipment operators, metalworkers, machinists, plumbers, welders, electricians, and heating and air-conditioning specialists. Military personnel in service and supply occupations handle food service, security, and personal services and supply. Officers work as logistics officers, supply managers, transportation and traffic man­ agers, and procurement officers. Enlisted personnel include military police, correction specialists, detectives, firefighters, and food prep­ aration and other service workers. They operate transportation equipment such as trucks, ships, boats, airplanes, and helicopters, and act as quartermasters, supply specialists, and cargo specialists. Many of these skills can be transferred to civilian occupations. Working Conditions Military life is much more regimented than civilian life, and one must be willing to accept the discipline. It is important to remember that by signing an enlistment contract, you sign a legal document that obligates you to serve for a specified period of time. Dress and grooming requirements are more stringent than in most civilian occupations, and rigid formalities govern many as­ pects of everyday life. For instance, officers and enlisted personnel do not socialize together, and superior commissioned officers are sa­ luted and addressed as “sir” or “ma’am.” These and other rules en­ courage respect for superiors whose commands must be obeyed im­ mediately and without question.  The needs of the military always come first. As a result, hours and working conditions can vary substantially. However, most military personnel usually work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week. Some assign­ ments require night and weekend work, or require people to be on call at all hours. All may require substantial travel. Many require long periods at sea, sometimes in cramped quarters, or lengthy over­ seas assignments in countries offering few amenities. Some jobs are in isolated areas subject to extreme cold or heat. Others, such as car­ rier flight deck duty, are hazardous even in noncombat situations. During times of conflict, many are in combat, and may find them­ selves in life or death situations. Countless hours of training produce teamwork that is highly critical to the success or failure of an opera­ tion, and possibly to the lives of individuals in the unit. Also, rapidly advancing military technology has made warfare more precise and lethal, further increasing the need for teamwork. Noncombatants may also face danger if their duties bring them close to the combat zone. They may also participate in dangerous training activities. Those aboard ship, on air crews, and others travel regularly, while others in the military are stationed at bases throughout the country or overseas. Distribution of Military Personnel In 1992, about 1.8 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 606,000 in the Army; 466,000 in the Air Force; 537,000 in the Navy; 184,000 in the Marine Corps; and 38,000 in the Coast Guard. About 11 percent of those on active duty were wo­ men.  Table 2. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, 15*92  Occupational group Total................................................................................................ ........................ Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists................................ ........................ Electronic equipment repairers.......................................................... ........................ Communications and intelligence specialists..................................... ........................ Health care specialists......................................................................... ........................ Other technical and allied specialists................................................. ........................ Functional support and administration.............................................. ........................ Electrical/mechanical equipment repairers...................................... ........................ Craftsworkers...................................................................................... ........................ Service and supply handlers................................................................ ........................ Nonoccupational................................................................................. ........................ 1 The Marine Corps employ no medical personnel. Their medical services are provided by the Navy. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Total 1,519,782 246,702 151,724 145,513 93,938 35,036 234,740 301,523 62,664 128,609 117,810  Army  Navy  511,317 134,721 20,499 59,684 37,594 12,494 82,368 66,774 8,914 52,433 34,344  467,547 45,551 75,353 47,387 30,700 4,029 44,934 124,009 29,499 23,079 42,986  Marine Corps 165,237 42,049 10,928 12,543 (') 3,739 24,851 25,222 4,537 20,188 20,175  Air Force 375,681 24,381 44,944 25,899 25,644 14,774 81,587 85,518 19,714 32,909 20,305  454  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. About 393,000 were sta­ tioned outside the United States in 1992. Over 226,000 of these were stationed in Europe (mainly in Germany); large numbers also were in the Western Pacific area. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of enlisted personnel in 1992. Nearly 1 out of 4 held jobs that involved electrical, elec­ tronic, mechanical, or related equipment, a reflection of the highly technical nature of the fighting forces today. Table 2 shows the oc­ cupational composition of officer personnel in 1992. Officers—who accounted for about 15 percent of all military personnel—are con­ centrated in combat activities, where they serve as ships’ officers, aircraft pilots and crew members, and infantry or artillery officers. Officers also serve in engineering and maintenance, and medical and dental positions. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement General enlistment qualifications. As it has since 1973, the military expects to continue to meet its personnel requirements through vol­ unteers. Enlisted members must enter a legal agreement called an enlistment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty, the balance in the reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon options— job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, the enlistee must serve satisfactorily for the specified period of time. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. Enlistees must be between the ages of 17 and 35, must be a U.S. citizen or immigrant alien holding permanent resident status, must not have a felony record, and must possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Air Force enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday. Applicants must pass both a written examina­ tion, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, and meet certain minimum physical standards such as height, weight, vision, and overall health. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. In 1993, al­ most all enlistees were high school graduates. Single parents are generally not eligible to enlist. People thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. This is especially important if you are thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Determine what the military can offer you—and  ,  vs,  Extensive training is needed to perform well in combat missions.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  what it will expect in return. Then talk to a recruiter, who can deter­ mine if you qualify for enlistment; explain the various enlistment op­ tions; and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings for trainees. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants into the military, so the information he or she gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life. Ask the recruiter to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation or occupations of your choice, or, better still, take the aptitude exam to see how well you score. The military uses the aptitude exam as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual’s chances of being accepted into a particu­ lar training program. Selection for a particular type of training de­ pends on general and technical aptitudes, personal preference, and the needs of the service. Because all prospective recruits are required to take the exam, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular spe­ cialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the Armed Services Voca­ tional Aptitude Battery without any obligation. Many high schools offer the exam as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career. Enlistment contract. If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physical examination and then enter into the en­ listment contract. This involves choosing, qualifying, and agreeing on a number of enlistment options such as length of active duty time, which may vary according to the enlistment option. (Most ac­ tive duty programs have enlistment options ranging from 3 to 6 years, although there are some 2-year programs.) The contract will also list the date of enlistment and other options such as bonuses and types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill its part of the contract (such as providing a certain kind of training) the contract may become null and void. All services offer a “delayed entry program” by which an enlistee can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year. High school stu­ dents can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Other enlistees choose this program because the job training they desire is not currently available but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange personal affairs. Women are eligible to enter almost 90 percent of all military spe­ cialties. Although many women serve in medical and administrative support positions, women also work as mechanics, missile mainte­ nance technicians, heavy equipment operators, airplane pilots, and intelligence officers. Only occupations involving a high probability of direct exposure to combat are excluded—for example, artillery­ man and infantryman. The Coast Guard has no occupational limita­ tions for women. People planning to apply the skills gained through military train­ ing to a civilian career should look into several things before select­ ing their military occupation. First, they should determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Second, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Many occupations re­ quire a license, certification, or a minimum level of education. In such cases, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook for civilian occupations for which military training is helpful. Additional infor­ mation often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associa­ tions, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. Training programs for enlisted personnel. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo recruit training. Better known as “basic” training, recruit training provides a 6- to 11-week introduction to military life with courses in health, first aid, and mil­ itary skills and protocol. Days and nights are carefully structured and include rigorous physical exercises designed to improve strength and endurance.  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces  >  'Ty,  V  A paratrooper takes part in a training exercise. Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military occu­ pational specialty. The formal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear powerplant operator is an example—may take as much as 1 year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. In addition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. These may be correspondence courses or de­ gree programs offered by local colleges or universities. Also availa­ ble are courses designed to help service personnel earn high school equivalency diplomas. Each service branch provides opportunities for full-time study to a limited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other very selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commissioned officers through additional military training. Officer training. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC); Officer Candidate School (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are very selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  455  Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program lead­ ing to a bachelor of science degree. The midshipman or cadet is pro­ vided free room and board, tuition, medical care, and a monthly al­ lowance. Graduates receive regular commissions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or longer if entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, most applicants obtain a nomination from an authorized source (usually a Member of Congress). Candi­ dates do not need to know a Member of Congress personally to re­ quest a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy are made strictly on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 1,000 Army, 65 Navy and Marine Corps, and 600 Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruction a week in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period of time. In the last 2 years of an ROTC program, students receive a monthly allow­ ance while attending school and additional pay for summer training. ROTC scholarships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competi­ tive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allowances for subsistence, textbooks, supplies, and other fees. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of health professions students, financial assistance and internship opportunities are avail­ able from the military in return for specified periods of military ser­ vice. Prospective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Ser­ vices University of Health Sciences, which offers free tuition in a program leading to an M.D. degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct en­ listment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Advancement opportunities. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, the first few promotions for both enlisted and officer personnel come easily. Subsequent promotions are much more competitive. Criteria for promotion may include  Teamwork is essential in the military.  456  Occupational Outlook Handbook  time in service and grade, job performance, a supervisor’s recom­ mendation, and written examinations. Although the Armed Forces is a large organization that will continue to promote many of its peo­ ple, the planned military drawdown will reduce the number of pro­ motion slots and affect the outcome for those who are not promoted. People who are continually passed over for promotion are eventu­ ally encouraged to leave the military. Job Outlook America’s strategic position is stronger than it has been in decades. Due primarily to the reduction in the threat from former Warsaw Pact countries and the former Soviet Union, the Armed Forces en­ acted a personnel reduction plan for all active military forces except the Coast Guard. From 1992 to 1997, planned reductions are as fol­ lows: Army, 90,000; Navy, 70,000; Air Force, 70,000; and Marine Corps, 25,000. After 1997, the number of active duty personnel is expected to remain constant. However, political events could cause these plans to change. This has caused a reduction in recruiting levels and a toughening of advancement standards. In addition, many career personnel have been given the option of a severance payment to leave the service before their planned retirement. In spite of this personnel reduction, job opportunities should be good in all branches of the Armed Forces through the year 2005 be­ cause persons of prime recruiting age will account for a smaller share of the total population than in the past. Also, the personnel re­ duction primarily affects those who wish to remain in the Armed Forces past their first enlistment. Persons entering the Armed Forces in the mid-1990’s will finish their first enlistment in the late1990’s, and by then much of the personnel reduction may be com­ plete. About 210,000 enlisted personnel and 15,000 officers must be recruited each year to replace those who complete their enlistment or retire. Educational requirements will continue to rise as military jobs become more technical and complex; high school graduates and applicants with some college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian counterparts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady employment and earnings. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits Starting salaries. Annual salaries by rank and years of service of mil­ itary personnel are shown in table 3. Most enlisted personnel started  as recruits at Grade E-l in 1993; however, those with special skills or above-average education started as high as Grade E-3. Most war­ rant officers started at Grade W-l or W-2, depending upon their oc­ cupational and academic qualifications and the branch of service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade O-l; highly trained of­ ficers—for example, physicians, engineers, and scientists—started as high as Grade 0-3 or 0-4. Allowances. In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a housing and subsistence allowance), med­ ical and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military super­ market and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year, and travel opportunities. Athletic and other recreational facilities—such as libraries, gym­ nasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling centers, and movies— are available on many military installations. Help with personal or financial problems is available from personal affairs officers, legal assistance officers, counselors, and chaplains, as well as supporting agencies such as the USO. Special pay generally is awarded for unusually demanding or haz­ ardous duties, assignment to duties requiring skills in which there is a shortage, assignment to certain areas outside the continental United States, and outstanding performance evaluations. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. Annual earnings. In 1992, the average compensation of all mili­ tary personnel—including basic pay and housing and subsistence al­ lowances—was $27,970. Enlisted personnel averaged $24,280; war­ rant officers averaged $40,500; and commissioned officers averaged $50,400. Veterans' benefits. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 2 years in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all service-connected disabilities regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans are also eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran’s State of residence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and placement services are available.  Table 3. Military basic pay by grade for active duty personnel with fewer than 2 years service at grade, 1993  Rank and title Army Commissioned officers: 0-6 Colonel 0-5 Lieutenant Colonel 0-4 Major 0-3 Captain 0-2 1st Lieutenant 0-1 2nd Lieutenant Warrant officers: W-2 Chief Warrant Officer W-l Warrant Officer Enlisted personnel: E-5 Sergeant Corporal E-4 E-3 Private 1st Class E-2 Private Recruit E-l E-l1 1 Fewer than 4 months active duty SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Basic monthly pay Navy  Air Force  Marine Corps  Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant, Junior Grade Ensign  Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant  Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant  Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer  Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer  Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer  1,671.60 1,392.60  Petty Officer 2nd Class Petty Officer 3rd Class Seaman Seaman Apprentice Seaman Recruit  Staff Sergeant Airman 1st Class Airman 2nd Class Airman 3rd Class Basic Airman  Sergeant Corporal Lance Corporal Private 1st Class Private  1,079.70 1,007.10 948.90 913.20 814.80 753.60  $3,290.10 2,661.30 2,217.90 2,061.00 1,797.30 1,650.60  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 457 Veterans who participate in the New Montgomery GI Bill Pro­ gram receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct from their pay up to $100 a month to put toward their future education. Depending on the length of enlistment, the Government will contribute up to $9,600, until the combined contributions reach a maximum of $10,800. In addition, each service may provide its own additional contributions to put toward future education. This sum becomes the service mem­ ber’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an education at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include many vocational, correspondence, business, technical, and flight training schools; community and jun­ ior colleges; and colleges and universities. Information on educational and other veterans’ benefits is availa­ ble from VA offices located throughout the country.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information Each of the military services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets that describe entrance requirements, training and ad­ vancement opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are available at all recruiting stations, most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. For additional information, write to: XW Department of the Army, HQUS Army Recruiting Command, Fort Sheridan, IL 60037. O’ USAF Recruiting Service, Directorate of Advertising and Publicity, Randolph Air Force Base, TX 78150. W Commandant of the Marine Corps, Headquarters, Washington, DC 20380-0001. IW Navy Recruiting Command, 4015 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22203­ 1991. O’ Commandant, (G-PRJ), U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC 20590.  Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Employment in the approximately 250 occupations covered in de­ tail in the main body of the Handbook accounts for about 104 mil­ lion or 85 percent of all jobs in the economy. Although occupations covering the full spectrum of work are included, those requiring lengthy education or training are generally given the most attention. This chapter presents summary data on 77 additional occupa­ tions, for which employment projections are prepared, but for which detailed occupational information is not developed. These oc­ cupations account for about 6 percent of all jobs. For each occupa­ tion, a brief description of the nature of work, the number of jobs in 1992, and a phrase describing the projected employment change from 1992 to 2005 are presented. For guidelines to interpreting this descriptive phraseology, refer to the chapter Keys to Understanding What’s in the Handbook. The approximately 9 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupational descriptions in the main body of the Hand­ book or in the summary data presented in this chapter are mainly residual categories, such as “all other management support work­ ers,” for which little meaningful information could be developed.  1992 employment: 36,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Directors, religious activities and education Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students. Plan, organize, and direct religious school programs designed to promote religious education. Provide counseling and guidance on marital, health, financial, and religious problems. 1992 employment: 64,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Farm and home management advisors Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agri­ culture and related processes or home economics activities. Apply research findings and procedures to solve problems and provide in­ struction and training in the development of products, sales, and the use of machinery and equipment. 1992 employment: 16,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Communications, transportation, and utilities operations managers  Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate management activities related to: Communications by telephone, telegraph, radio, or tele­ vision; transporting people or goods by air, highway, railway, water, or pipeline; transportation facilities, such as airports, harbors, or terminals; warehouse and storage facilities; and electricity, gas, water, steam, or sanitation services.  Instructors and coaches, sports and physical training Instruct or coach groups in the fundamentals of sports, and demon­ strate techniques and methods of participation. Observe and inform participants of corrective measures to improve their skills. Includes those who are not required to hold teaching degrees. 1992 employment: 260,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Technicians and Related Support Occupations 1992 employment: 144,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Credit analysts Analyze current data and financial statements of individuals or firms to determine the degree of risk involved in extending credit or lending money. Prepare reports with this credit information for use in making decisions. 1992 employment: 33,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Psychiatric technicians Provide nursing care to mentally ill, emotionally disturbed, or men­ tally retarded patients and participate in rehabilitation and treat­ ment programs. Help with personal hygiene. Administer oral medi­ cations and hypodermic injections, following physician’s prescriptions and hospital procedures. Monitor patients and their emotional well-being and report to medical staff. 1992 employment: 72,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Title examiners and searchers Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents Determine tax liability or collect taxes from individuals or business firms according to prescribed laws and regulations. 1992 employment: 64,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Professional Specialty Occupations  Title examiners: Search public records and examine titles to deter­ mine legal status of property titles. Copy or summarize (abstract) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and contracts, affecting title to property. May prepare and issue policy that guar­ antees legality of title. Abstractors: Summarize pertinent legal or in­ surance details, or sections of statutes or case law from reference books for examination, proof, or ready reference. Search out titles to determine if title deed is correct. Searchers: Compile lists of mort­ gages, deeds, contracts, judgments, and other instruments pertain­ ing to titles by searching public and private records for real estate or title insurance company.  Athletes, coaches, umpires, and referees Participate in competitive professional athletic events as a player, coach, manager, umpire, or judge. 458   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1992 employment: 29,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail  Marketing and Sales Occupations Marketing and sales worker supervisors Directly supervise and coordinate activities of marketing, sales, and related workers. In addition to their supervisory duties, they may perform management functions, such as budgeting, accounting, marketing, and personnel work.  459  Municipal clerks Draft agendas for town or city councils, record minutes of council meetings, answer official correspondence, keep fiscal records and accounts, and prepare reports on civic needs. 1992 employment: 22,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Proofreaders and copy markers 1992 employment: 2,036,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Advertising clerks Receive orders for classified advertising from customers in person or by telephone for newspapers or magazines. Examine and mark classified advertisements of newspapers according to copy sheet specifications to guide composing room in assembling type. Verify conformance of published advertisements to specifications for bill­ ing purposes.  Read transcript or proof of type setup to detect and mark for correc­ tion any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. 1992 employment: 27,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Real estate clerks Perform duties concerned with rental, sale, and management of real estate such as typing copies of listings, computing interest owed or penalty payments, holding collateral in escrow, and checking due notices on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans. 1992 employment: 24,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Statistical clerks 1992 employment: 17,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Correspondence clerks Compose letters to respond to damage claims, delinquent accounts, incorrect billing, complaints of unsatisfactory service, and requests for merchandise or credit and other information. Duties may in­ clude typing correspondence and gathering data to formulate reply. 1992 employment: 31,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Court clerks  Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May also perform actuarial computations us­ ing algebra and trigonometry and compile charts and graphs for use by actuaries. 1992 employment: 74,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Service Occupations Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians  Perform clerical duties in courts of law; prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information for judges; and contact witnesses, at­ torneys, and litigants to obtain information for court.  Drive ambulance or assist ambulance driver in transporting sick, in­ jured, or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients and render­ ing first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid training certificate.  1992 employment: 50,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  1992 employment: 15,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Customer service representatives, utilities  Amusement and recreation attendants  Interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or telephone service. Talk with customers by phone or in person and receive orders for in­ stallation, tum-on, discontinuance, or change in service.  Perform one or more of the following duties at amusement or recre­ ation facilities: schedule use of recreation facilities, allocate equip­ ment to participants in sporting events or recreational pursuits, col­ lect fees, set pins, prepare billiard tables, provide caddying and other services for golfers, or operate carnival rides and amusement con­ cessions.  1992 employment: 127,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators Duplicating machine operators: Operate one or a variety of duplicat­ ing machines to make copies of data and other information. Mail machine operators: Operate machines to emboss names, addresses, and other matter onto metal plates for use in addressing machines; to print names, addresses and other similar information onto items, such as envelopes, accounting forms, and advertising literature; to address, fold, stuff, seal, and stamp mail; and to open envelopes. Transit clerks: Sort, record, proof, and prepare transit items for mailing to or from out-of-city banks to insure correct routing and prompt collection.  1992 employment: 207,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Baggage porters and bellhops Carry baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. Perform additional duties, such as assisting handicapped persons, running errands, delivering ice, and directing people to their desired destinations. 1992 employment: 34,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Crossing guards 1992 employment: 162,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as street and railroad crossings and construction sites.  460  Occupational Outlook Handbook  1992 employment: 57,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  1992 employment: 849,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Detectives, except public  Nursery workers  Protect property, merchandise, and money of a store or similar es­ tablishment by detecting theft, shoplifting, or other unlawful prac­ tices by the public or employees. Perform necessary actions to pre­ serve order and enforce standards of decorum established by management. Conduct private investigations, such as obtaining con­ fidential information, seeking missing persons, or investigating crimes and thefts.  Plant, cultivate, harvest, and transplant trees, shrubs, or plants in nursery facilities.  1992 employment: 59,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, for­ estry, fishing, and related workers. May supervise helpers assigned to these workers.  1992 employment: 72,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Supervisors, farming, forestry, and agricultural related occupations  Occupational therapy assistants and aides Assist occupational therapists in administering a medically oriented occupational program to promote the rehabilitation of patients in hospitals and other institutions.  1992 employment: 71,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  1992 employment: 12,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations  Pest controllers and assistants  Highway maintenance workers  Spray or release chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechani­ cal traps to kill pests and vermin, such as mice, termites, and roaches, that infest buildings and surrounding areas. 1992 employment: 49,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Pharmacy assistants Mix pharmaceutical preparations under direction of pharmacist. Duties include issuing medicine, labeling and storing supplies, and cleaning equipment and work areas. 1992 employment: 54,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides Prepare patients and administer physical therapy treatment, such as massages; heat, light and sound treatments; and traction. Instruct, motivate, and assist patients with learning and improving functional activities. Normally work under the direction of a physical or cor­ rective therapist. 1992 employment: 61,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers Assist patrons at entertainment events, such as sporting events and motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating rest rooms and telephones. Collect ad­ mission tickets and passes from patrons. 1992 employment: 56,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way in safe condition by patching broken or eroded pavement or erecting and repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also clear brush or plant trees along rights-ofway. 1992 employment: 168,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations Rock splitters, quarry: Separate blocks of rough dimension stone from quarry mass using jackhammer, wedges, and feathers. Roof bolters: Operate self-propelled machine to install roof support bolts in underground mines. Mining machine operators: Operate mining machines, such as self-propelled or truck-mounted drilling ma­ chines, continuous mining machines, channeling machines, and cut­ ting machines to extract coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand from underground or surface excavation. Continuous min­ ing machine operators: Operate self-propelled mining machine that rips coal from the face and loads it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. Mine cutting and channeling ma­ chine operators: Cut or channel along the face or seams of coal, quarry stone, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, separat­ ing, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth’s surface. 1992 employment: 21,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators Operate equipment used for applying concrete, asphalt, or other materials to roadbeds, parking lots, or airport runways and taxiways; or equipment used for tamping gravel, dirt, or other materials. 1992 employment: 72,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Agricultural, Forestry, Fishing and Related Occupations Farm workers Plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops; tend livestock and poultry; operate and maintain farm machinery; and maintain structures. May haul livestock and produce to market or terminal shipping point.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters Pipelayers: Lay glazed or unglazed clay, concrete, plastic, or castiron pipe for storm or sanitation sewers, drains, water mains, and oil or gas lines. May grade trenches or culverts, position pipe, or seal joints. Pipelaying fitters: Align pipeline section preparatory to weld­ ing. Signal tractor driver in placing pipeline sections in proper align­ ment and insert steel spacers.  Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 1992 employment: 48,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  461  1992 employment: 80,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Watchmakers  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Bicycle repairers  Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as watches, time clocks, and timing switches using hand tools and mea­ suring instruments.  Repair and service bicycles using hand tools. 1992 employment: 14,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Camera and photographic equipment repairers Repair and adjust cameras and photographic equipment, including motion picture cameras and equipment, using specialized tools and testing devices. 1992 employment: 7,600 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Electric meter installers and repairers Install electric meters on pole or customer’s premises, test meters, make necessary repairs, and turn current on/off by connecting or disconnecting service drop. 1992 employment: 13,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers Test, adjust, and repair electromedical equipment using hand tools and meters.  1992 employment: 9,400 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Production Occupations Bakers, manufacturing Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large quan­ tities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Gener­ ally, high-volume production equipment is used. 1992 employment: 43,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure Operate or tend low-pressure stationary steam boilers and auxiliary steam equipment, such as pumps, compressors, and air-condition­ ing equipment, to supply steam heat for office buildings, apartment houses, or industrial establishments; to maintain steam at specified pressure aboard marine vessels; or to generate and supply com­ pressed air for operation of pneumatic tools, hoists, and air lances.  1992 employment: 9,500 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  1992 employment: 18,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Locksmiths and safe repairers  Cannery workers  Repair and open locks, make keys, change locks and safe combina­ tions, and install and repair safes. 1992 employment: 18,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Perform a variety of routine tasks in canning, freezing, preserving, or packing food products. May sort, grade, wash, peel, trim, or slice agricultural produce. 1992 employment: 73,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Precision instrument repairers Install, test, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording, telemetering, and controlling instruments used to measure and con­ trol variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force, and chemical composition. 1992 employment: 45,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Riggers Set up or repair rigging for ships and shipyards, manufacturing plants, logging yards, construction projects, and for the entertain­ ment industry§for example, motion picture production. Select cables, ropes, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves according to weight and size of load to be moved. Coordinate and direct other workers and the movement of equipment to accomplish the task. 1992 employment: 12,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Tire repairers and changers Repair and replace tires, tubes, treads, and related products on auto­ mobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Mount tires on wheels, balance tires and wheels, and test and repair damaged tires and in­ ner tubes.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join together items, such as veneer sheets to plywood; paper to glass-wool, card­ board, or paper; rubber and rubberized fabric parts; plastic; and simulated leather or other materials, to form completed product or to form product for further processing. 1992 employment: 35,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders Controllers and operators: Control or operate equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing of industrial or con­ sumer products. Common types of equipment are reaction kettles, catalytic converters, continuous or batch treating equipment, satu­ rator tanks, electrolytic cells, reactor vessels, recovery units, and fermentation chambers. Tenders: Tend equipment in which a chem­ ical change or reaction takes place to process chemical substances into industrial or consumer products. Common types of equipment are devulcanizers, batch stills, fermenting tanks, steam-jacketed ket­ tles, and reactor vessels. 1992 employment: 77,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  462  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Chemical plant and system operators Control and operate an entire chemical process or system of ma­ chines, such as reduction pots and heated air towers, using panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. 1992 employment: 39,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes occupations such as electronic wirers, armature connec­ tors, electric motor winders, skein winders, carbon brush assem­ blers, battery parts assemblers, electric sign assemblers, and elec­ tronic assemblers. 1992 employment: 150,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Coil winders, tapers, and finishers Using coil winding machines, wind wire coils used in the manufac­ turing of electrical components, such as resistors and transformers, and electrical equipment, such as field cores, bobbins, and armature cores; and using coil making machines, form coils for electrical mo­ tors, generators, and control equipment. 1992 employment: 20,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Cooking and roasting machine operators and tenders Cooking machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to prepare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain. Roasting, baking, and drying ma­ chine operators and tenders: Operate or tend roasting, baking, or drying equipment, such as hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment, to reduce mois­ ture content of food or tobacco products such as tobacco, cocoa and coffee beans, macaroni, and grain; to roast grain, nuts, or coffee beans; to bake bread or other bakery products; or to process food preparatory to canning. 1992 employment: 28,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Electronic semiconductor processors Process materials used in the manufacture of electronic semicon­ ductors; load semiconductor material into furnace; saw formed in­ gots into segments; load individual segment into crystal-growing chamber and monitor controls; locate crystal axis in ingot using x ray equipment and saw ingots into wafers; clean, polish, and load wafers into series of special-purpose furnaces, chemical baths, and equipment used to form circuitry and change conductive properties. May scribe or separate wafer into dice. 1992 employment: 32,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders Operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to shape and form manufactured products such as glass bulbs, molded food and candy, rubber goods, clay products, wax products, tobacco plugs, cosmet­ ics, or paper products, by means of extruding, compressing, or com­ pacting. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate machines such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber ma­ chines, to manufacture products such as soap bars, formed rubber, glassware, soft candy, brick, and tile, by means of extruding, com­ pressing, or compacting.  Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders  1992 employment: 99,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to crush or grind materials such as coal, glass, plastic, dried fruit, grain, stone, chemicals, food, or rubber; or operate or tend machines to buff and polish materials such as stone, glass, slate, plastic or metal trim, bowling balls, or eyeglasses. Mix­ ing and blending machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to mix or blend materials such as spices, dough batter, to­ bacco, fruit juices, chemicals, livestock feed, food products, color pigments, or explosive ingredients.  Prepare molds, such as cleaning and assembling foundry molds, for pouring. Assemble cores in fixture of automatic core-sorting ma­ chine, and bond cope and drags together to form completed shell mold.  1992 employment: 133,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, or kettle operators and tenders  Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders Operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to cut or slice materials such as tobacco, food, paper, roofing slate, glass, stone rubber, cork, and insulating material. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate machines to cut or slice materials such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, crepe, wallboard, and fibrous insulating board, to specified dimensions for further processing.  Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers  1992 employment: 8,900 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal or plastic processing equipment. Furnace operators and tenders: May anneal glass, roast sulfur, convert chemicals, or process petroleum. Kiln op­ erators and tenders: May heat minerals, dry lumber, fire greenware, anneal glassware, or bake clay products. Oven operators and tenders: May bake fiberglass or painted products, fuse glass or enamel to metal products, carbonize coal, or cure rubber or other products. Drier operators and tenders: May remove moisture from paper, chemicals, ore, clay products, or slurry. Kettle operators and ten­ ders: May melt antimony or asphalt materials, or boil soap.  1992 employment: 94,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  1992 employment: 27,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Dairy processing equipment operators, including setters  Furnace operators and tenders  Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment to process milk, cream, or other dairy products following specified methods and formulas. 1992 employment: 15,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Operate or tend furnaces, such as gas, oil, coal, electric-arc or elec­ tric induction, open-hearth, or oxygen furnaces, to melt and refine metal prior to casting or to produce specified types of steel. 1992 employment: 20,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail  463  Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations  Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand  Gaugers: Gauge and test oil in storage tanks and regulate flow of oil into pipelines at wells, tank farms, refineries, and marine and rail terminals following prescribed standards and regulations. Petro­ leum refinery and control panel operators: Analyze specifications or follow process schedules to operate and control panelboards and continuous petroleum refining and processing units. Gas plant oper­ ators: Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others. Distribute the gas for an entire plant or process, often using panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. Petro­ leum pump systems operators: Operate and control manifold and pumping systems to circulate liquids through petroleum refinery.  Paint, coat, and decorate using handtools or hand-held power tools a wide variety of manufactured items, such as furniture, glass and plateware, lamps, jewelry, books, or leather products.  1992 employment: 31,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Grinders and polishers, hand Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Grind and polish a wide variety of metal, stone, clay, plastic, and glass objects or parts, using hand tools or hand-held power tools. 1992 employment: 71,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressing Operate and tend washing or drycleaning machines to clean or dryclean commercial, industrial, or household articles, such as suede, leather, and cloth garments, furs, blankets, draperies, fine linens, rugs, and carpets. 1992 employment: 162,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Much faster than average  Machine assemblers  1992 employment: 29,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Faster than average  Paper goods machine setters and setup operators Set up and operate paper goods machines to convert, saw, corru­ gate, band, wrap, box, stitch, form, or seal paper or paperboard sheets into products such as toilet tissue, towels, napkins, bags, en­ velopes, tubing, cartons, wax rolls, and containers. 1992 employment: 50,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: About as fast as average  Separating and still machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines, such as filter presses, shaker screens, cen­ trifuges, condenser tubes, precipitator tanks, fermenting tanks, evaporating tanks, scrubbing towers, and batch stills, to extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solid materials from other materi­ als in order to recover a refined product or material. 1992 employment: 21,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  ShipAtters Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates, bulk­ heads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for fabrication of nonstandard parts. 1992 employment: 13,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders  Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes occupations such as air-conditioning coil assemblers, ball bearing ring assemblers, fuel injection assemblers, and subassem­ blers.  Operate or tend single, double, or multiple-needle stitching ma­ chines to join or decorate shoe parts, reinforce shoe parts, or attach buckles.  1992 employment: 49,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  1992 employment: 16,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Metal pourers and casters, basic shapes  Join together metal parts or components of metal products, and fill holes, indentations, and seams of fabricated metal products using hand soldering and brazing equipment as specified by job orders, work layouts, or blueprints.  Pour and regulate the flow of molten metal into molds to produce castings or ingots of specific quality and size by operating hand con­ trolled mechanisms adjunctive to specialized machinery and equip­ ment. 1992 employment: 9,700 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Solderers and brazers  1992 employment: 21,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Little change expected  Soldering and brazing machine operators and setters Motion picture projectionists Set up and operate motion picture projection and sound-reproduc­ ing equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen. 1992 employment: 9,500 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  Operators and tenders: Operate or tend soldering and brazing ma­ chines to braze, solder, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by job orders, work layouts, or blueprints. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate soldering and brazing machines to bronze, solder, heat-treat, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by job orders, work layouts or blueprints.  Packaging and Ailing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines such as filling machines, casing running machines, ham rolling machines, preservative filling machines, bal­ ing machines, wrapping machines, and stuffing machines to prepare industrial or consumer products, such as gas cylinders, meat and other food products, tobacco, insulation, ammunition, stuffed toys and athletic equipment, and upholstered pads, as end products or for storage and shipment.  1992 employment: 9,300 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  1992 employment: 319,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline  1992 employment: 14,000 Projected 1992-2005 employment change: Expected to decline   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Tire building machine operators Operate machines, such as collapsible drum devices, to build pneu­ matic tires from rubber components, such as beads, ply stock, tread, and sidewalls.  Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Handbook use one of five adjectives to describe projected change in employment. (See figure on page 2.) The adjectives are based on numerical projections developed using the Bureau’s employment projections model system. The employ­ ment projections are the final output of the system, which also projects the size and composition of the labor force, the level of gross domestic product (GDP)—sales to all final consuming sectors in the economy—the total output of goods and services by industry, and employment by industry. A full description, including numeri­ cal projections of employment, appears in the November 1993 Monthly Labor Review, and in The American Work Force: 1992­ 2005, BLS Bulletin 2451. The Fall 1993 Occupational Outlook Quarterly presents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of staff in the Bureau’s Office of Employment Projections, who prepared them, and of knowledgeable people from other offices in the Bureau, other government agencies, colleges and universities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associations, who furnished data and information, prepared reports, or reviewed the projections. The Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for them. Assumptions. Because the future course of the economy is uncer­ tain, the Bureau prepared three scenarios of future economic growth, with varying assumptions about growth of the labor force, output, productivity, inflation, and unemployment. The informa­ tion in the Handbook is based on the moderate-growth scenario, which is characterized by slightly higher productivity growth than in the past, slowing labor force growth, a roughly constant unem­ ployment rate, and a decreasing trade deficit. Other assumptions in­ clude real cuts in defense spending, and relatively slow growth in consumer spending on cars and trucks. Spending on food and bev­ erages will grow more slowly than the average for all consumer ex­ penditures, while spending on health care and other services, such as entertainment, recreation, and financial services, will grow faster. Investment in production equipment, including that for fac­ tory automation, communication, and computer items, will grow rapidly. Construction is expected to increase more slowly than dur­ ing the 1980’s. While the Bureau considers these assumptions reasonable, the economy may well follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Growth also could be different from that projected here because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various models. Unforeseen changes in consumer, business, or government spending patterns and in the way goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual occupations.  representation of the U.S. economy. It projects GDP and the distri­ bution of GDP by its major demand components—consumer ex­ penditures, investment, government purchases, and net exports. These are broken down by detailed component, such as health or housing. The resulting estimates of demand for goods and services are used, in conjunction with detailed input-output tables, to project industry output of final products as well as of products required in the production process—total output by industry. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to indus­ try employment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate future output per worker hour, and regression analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with output projections, are used to develop the final industry em­ ployment projections. An industry-occupation matrix is used to project employment for wage and salary workers. The matrix shows occupational staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of the work force in every industry. It includes 512 detailed industries and 240 detailed occu­ pations. Data for current staffing patterns in the matrix come pri­ marily from the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics surveys, which collect data from employers on a 3-year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were pro­ jected based on anticipated changes in the way goods and services are produced, then applied to projected industry employment, and the resulting employment summed across industries to get total wage and salary employment by occupation. Using this method, employment is projected to grow faster than average in those occu­ pations concentrated in fast-growing industries and more slowly in slow-growing industries. For example, health care workers are ex­ pected to grow rapidly, as the health care industries grow rapidly. Employment in an occupation also may grow or decline as a re­ sult of many other factors. For example, rapid growth is expected among preschool workers as parents increasingly choose formal child-care arrangements, and among computer systems analysts as organizations attempt to maximize the efficiency of their computer systems—thus increasing their proportion of the work force. On the other hand, slower than average growth is projected for stock clerks due to warehouse and stockroom automation, and for general man­ agers and top executives due to corporate restructuring and down­ sizing in an effort to increase efficiency and cut costs—thus lower­ ing their proportion of the work force. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Population Survey. Self-employed workers were projected separately.  Methods. This section summarizes the steps by which the Bureau arrives at projections of employment by occupation. BLS uses Bu­ reau of the Census projections of the population by age, gender, and race, combined with projections of labor force participation rates, to arrive at estimates of the civilian labor force. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal policy, foreign economic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macroeconomic model. This model provides a balanced and internally consistent  Replacement needs. In most occupations, replacement needs pro­ vide more job openings than growth. Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some individuals transfer to other oc­ cupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Some stop working temporarily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family. Other workers, retirees for example, leave the labor force permanently. A discussion of replacements, including separation rates for selected occupations, is presented in Occupational Projec­ tions and Training Data, 1994 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2451.  464  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information State and local job market and career information is available from State employment security agencies and State Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committees (SOICC’s). State employment se­ curity agencies develop occupational employment projections and other job market information. SOICC’s provide or help locate labor market and career information. The following list provides the title, address, and telephone number of State employment security agency directors of research and SOICC directors. Alabama Chief, Labor Market Information, Alabama Department of Industrial Rela­ tions, 649 Monroe St., Room 422, Montgomery, AL 36131. Phone: (205) 242-8855. Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Al­ abama Center for Commerce, Room 364,401 Adams Ave., P.O. Box 5690, Montgomery, AL 36103-5690. Phone: (205) 242-2990. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Alaska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907) 465-4500. Executive Director, Alaska Department of Labor, Research and Analysis Section, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907) 465-4518. American Samoa Statistical Analyst, Research and Statistics, Office of Manpower Resources, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, AS 96799. Phone: (684) 633­ 5172. Director, American Samoa State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Office of Manpower Resources, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, AS 96799. Phone: (684) 633-4485. Arizona Research Administrator, Arizona Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 733A, Phoenix, AZ 85005-6123. Phone: (602) 542­ 3871. Executive Director, Arizona State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 897J, 1789 West Jefferson St., First Floor North, Phoenix, AZ 85005-6123. Phone: (602) 542-6466. Arkansas Manager, Labor Market Information, Arkansas Employment Security Divi­ sion, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203-2981. Phone: (501) 682-3198. Executive Director, Arkansas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Arkansas Employment Security Division, Employment and Training Services, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203. Phone: (501) 682­ 3159. California Chief, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Development De­ partment, P.O. Box 942880, MIC 57, Sacramento, CA 94280-0001. Phone: (916)427-4675. Executive Director, California Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1116 9th St., Lower Level, P.O. Box 94244-2220, Sacramento, CA 95814. Phone: (916) 323-6544. Colorado Director, Labor Market Information, Colorado Department of Labor and Employment, 393 S. Harlan St., 2nd Floor, Lakewood, CO 80226-3509. Phone: (303) 9374947. Director, Colorado Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State Board Community College, 1391 Speer Blvd., Suite 600, Denver, CO 80204-2554. Phone: (303) 866-4488. Connecticut Director, Research and Information, Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, CT 06109. Phone: (203) 566-2120.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Executive Director, Connecticut Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Connecticut Department of Education, 25 Industrial Park Rd., Middletown, CT 06457. Phone: (203) 638-4042. Delaware Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware De­ partment of Labor, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19702-9029. Phone: (302) 368-6962. Executive Director, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, University Office Plaza, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302) 368-6963. District of Columbia Chief, Division of Labor Market Information, District of Columbia Depart­ ment of Employment Services, 500 C St. NW., Room 201, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 724-7213. Executive Director, District of Columbia Occupational Information Coordi­ nating Committee, Department of Employment Security Services, 500 C St. NW., Room 215, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 639-1090. Florida Chief, Bureau of Labor Market Information, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, 2012 Capitol Circle SE., Room 200, Tallahassee, FL 32399-2151. Phone: (904)488-1048. Manager, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, Bureau of Labor Market Information, 2012 Capitol Circle SE., Hartman Bldg., Suite 200, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0673. Phone: (904) 488-1048. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Georgia Department of Labor, 148 International Blvd. NE., Atlanta, GA 30303. Phone: (404) 656-3177. Executive Director, Georgia Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, Department of Labor, 148 International Blvd., Sussex Place, At­ lanta, GA 30303. Phone: (404) 656-9639. Guam Administrator, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Govern­ ment of Guam, P.O. Box 9970, Tamuning, GU 96911-9970. Executive Director, Guam State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Human Resource Development Agency, Jay Ease Bldg., Third Floor, P.O. Box 2817, Agana, GU 96910. Phone: (671) 646-9341. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 3680, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808) 548-7639. Executive Director, Hawaii State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 315, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808) 586-8750. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Department of Employment, 317 Main St., Boise, ID 83735-0670. Phone: (208) 334-6169. Director, Idaho Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room 301, 650 West State St., Boise, ID 83720. Phone: (208) 334-3705. Illinois Director, Economic Information and Analysis, Illinois Department of Em­ ployment Security, 401 South State St., Room 215 , Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: (312) 793-2316. Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, 217 East Monroe, Suite 203, Springfield, IL 62706. Phone: (217) 785­ 0789. Indiana Program Manager, Labor Marker Information, Indiana Workforce Devel­ opment, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317) 232­ 7460.  465  466  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Executive Director, Indiana Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, 309 West Washington St., Room 309, Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317)232-8528.  Mississippi Chief, Labor Market Information Division, Mississippi Employment Secur­ ity Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, MS 39215-1699. Phone: (601) 961­ 7424.  Iowa Supervisor, Audit and Analysis Department, Iowa Department of Employ­ ment Services, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50319-0209. Phone: (515) 281-8181.  Director, Mississippi Occupational Information Coordinating Committee Office, 301 West Pearl St., Jackson, MS 39203-3089. Phone: (601) 949-2240.  Acting Executive Director, Iowa Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Iowa Department of Economic Development, 200 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50309. Phone: (515) 242-4890. Kansas Chief, Labor Market Information Services, Kansas Department of Human Resources, 401 SW. Topeka Blvd., Topeka, KS 66603-3182. Phone: (913) 296-5058. Director, Kansas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 401 Topeka Ave., Topeka, KS 66603. Phone: (913) 296-2387. Kentucky Branch Manager, Research and Statistics, Department for Employment Ser­ vices, 275 East Main St., Frankfort, KY 40621. Phone: (502) 564-7976. Information Liaison/Manager, Kentucky Occupational Information Coor­ dinating Committee, Workforce Development Cabinet, 500 Mero St., Capi­ tal Plaza Tower, Room 305, Frankfort, KY 40601. Phone: (502) 564-4258. Louisiana Director, Research and Statistics Section, Louisiana State Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-4094. Phone: (504) 342­ 3141. Acting Director, Louisiana Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504) 342­ 5149. Maine Director, Division of Economic Analysis and Research, Maine Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security, 20 Union St., Augusta, ME 04330. Phone: (207) 289-2271. Acting Executive Director, Maine Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta, ME 04333. Phone: (207) 624­ 6200. Maryland Director, Office of Labor Market Analysis and Information, Economic and Employment Development, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 601, Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone: (410) 333-5000. Director, Maryland State Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, State Department of Employment and Training, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 205, Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone: (410) 333-5478. Massachusetts Director of Research, Massachusetts Department of Employment and Training, 19 Stamford St., 2nd Floor, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617) 727­ 6868. Director, Massachusetts Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, Massachusetts Division of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., 2nd Floor, Government Center, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617) 727-6718. Michigan Deputy Director, Financial and Management Services, Michigan Employ­ ment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, MI 48202. Phone: (313) 876-5904. Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Victor Office Center, Third Floor, 201 North Washington Square, Box 30015, Lansing, MI 48909. Phone: (517) 373-0363.  Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Missouri Division of Employment Security, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, MO 65104-0059. Phone: (314) 751-3591. Director, Missouri Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 400 Dix Rd., Jefferson City, MO 65109. Phone: (314) 751-3800. Montana Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624-1728. Phone: (406) 444-2430. Program Manager, Montana Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, P.O. Box 1728, 1327 Lockey St., Second Floor, Helena, MT 59624. Phone:(406)444-2741. Nebraska Director, Labor Market Information, Nebraska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 471-9964. Administrator, Nebraska Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 471-4845. Nevada Chief, Employment Security Research, Nevada Employment Security De­ partment, 500 East Third St., Carson City, NV 89713. Phone: (702) 687­ 4550. Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1923 North Carson St., Suite 211, Carson City, NV 89710. Phone: (702) 687-4577. New Hampshire Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, New Hampshire Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301-4587. Phone: (603) 228-4123. Director, New Hampshire State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 64B Old Suncook Rd., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 228­ 3349. New Jersey Assistant Commissioner, Policy and Planning, New Jersey Department of Labor, Labor and Industry Bldg., P.O. Box CN056, Trenton, NJ 08625­ 0056. Phone: (609) 292-2643. Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, 609 Labor and Industry Bldg., CN056, Trenton, NJ 08625-0056. Phone: (609) 292-2682. New Mexico Chief, Economic Research and Analysis Bureau, Employment Security De­ partment, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8645. Director, New Mexico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 401 Broadway NE., Tiwa Bldg., P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8455. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York State Department of Labor, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240-0020. Phone: (518) 457-6181. Executive Director, New York Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Labor, Research and Statistics Division, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240. Phone: (518) 457-6182.  Minnesota Director, Research and Statistics Office, Minnesota Department of Jobs and Training, 390 North Robert St., St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone: (612) 296-6546.  North Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Security Com­ mission of North Carolina, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611-5903. Phone: (919)733-2936.  Director, Minnesota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Jobs and Training, 390 North Robert Street, St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone:(612)296-2072.  Executive Director, North Carolina Occupational Information Coordinat­ ing Committee, 1311 Saint Mary’s St., Suite 250, P.O. Box 27625, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919) 733-6700.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information  467  North Dakota Director, Research and Statistics, Job Service of North Dakota, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502-1537. Phone: (701) 224-2868.  Executive Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., 11th Floor Volunteer Plaza, Nash­ ville, TN 37219. Phone: (615) 741-6451.  Coordinator, North Dakota State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1720 Burnt Boat Dr., P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502­ 1537. Phone: (701) 224-2733.  Texas Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Texas Employment Commission, 1117 Trinity St., Room 208-T, Austin, TX 78778. Phone: (512) 463-2616.  Northern Mariana Islands Executive Director, Northern Mariana Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 149, Room N-l, Building N, Northern Mariana College, Saipan, CM 96950. Phone: (670) 234-1457.  Director, Texas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Texas Employment Commission Building, 3520 Executive Center Dr., Suite 205, Austin, TX 78731. Phone: (512) 502-3750.  Ohio Director, Labor Market Information Division, Ohio Bureau of Employment Services, P.O. Box 1618, Columbus, OH 43215. Phone: (614) 752-9494. Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Divi­ sion of Labor Market Information, Ohio Bureau of Employment Services, 1160 Dublin Rd., Bldg. A, Columbus, OH 43215. Phone: (614) 752-6863. Oklahoma Director, Research and Planning Division, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, 2401 North Lincoln, Room 310, Oklahoma City, OK 73105. Phone: (405) 557-7116. Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Voc/Tech Education, 1500 W. 7th Ave., Stillwa­ ter, OK 74074. Phone: (405) 743-5198. Oregon Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Employment Division, Oregon Department of Human Resources, 875 Union St. NE., Room 207, Salem, OR 97311-9986. Phone: (503) 378-3220. Acting Director, Oregon Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503) 378-5490. Pennsylvania Director, Research and Statistics Division, Department of Labor and Indus­ try, 1213 Labor and Industry Building, Harrisburg, PA 17121. Phone: (717) 787-6466. Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 1224 Labor and In­ dustry Bldg., Harrisburg, PA 17120. Phone: (717) 787-8646. Puerto Rico Director of Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor and Human Resources, Research and Analysis Division, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., 17th Floor, Hato Rey, PR 00918. Phone: (809) 754-5332. Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 202 Del Cristo St., P.O. Box 366212, San Juan, PR 00936-6212. Phone: (809) 723-7110. Rhode Island Supervisor, Labor Market Information and Management Services, Rhode Island Department of Employment, 107 Friendship St., Providence, RI 02903. Phone: (401) 277-3704. Director, Rhode Island Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, 22 Hayes St., Room 133, Providence, RI 02908. Phone: (401) 272-0830.  Utah Director, Labor Market Information, Utah Department of Employment Se­ curity, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, UT 84147-1249. Phone: (801) 536­ 7425. Executive Director, Utah Occupational Information Coordinating Committee-c/o Utah Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, 140 East 300 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84147. Phone: (801) 536-7806. Vermont Chief, Policy and Public Information, Vermont Department of Employment and Training, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311. Director, Vermont Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 5 Green Mountain Dr., P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05601-0488. Phone: (802)229-0311. Virginia Director, Economic Information Service, Virginia Employment Commis­ sion, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804) 786-7496. Executive Director, Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, Virginia Employment Commission, 703 East Main St., P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804) 786-7496. Virgin Islands Director, Virgin Islands Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor/Research and Analysis Division, P.O. Box 3359, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00801-3359. Phone: (809) 776-3700. Coordinator, Virgin Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Com­ mittee, P.O. Box 3359, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00801. Phone: (809) 776-3700. Washington Director, Labor Market and Economic Analysis, Washington Employment Security Department, 605 Woodview Dr., SE, Lacey, WA 98503. Phone: (206)438-4800. Acting Executive Director, Washington Occupational Information Coordi­ nating Committee, c/o Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 9046, Olympia, WA 98507-9046. Phone: (206) 438-4803. West Virginia Director, Labor and Economic Research Section, West Virginia Bureau of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25305-0112. Phone: (304) 348-2660.  South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, South Carolina Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202-0995. Phone: (803) 737-2660.  Executive Director, West Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, One Dunbar Plaza, Suite E, Dunbar, WV 25064. Phone: (304) 293-5314.  Director, South Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, 1550 Gadsden St., P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803) 737­ 2733.  Wisconsin Director, Bureau of Workforce Policy and Information, Department of In­ dustry, Labor, and Human Relations, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, WI 53707­ 7944. Phone: (608) 266-5843.  South Dakota Director, Labor Market Information Division, South Dakota Department of Labor, P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Phone: (605) 622-2314. Director, South Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Commit­ tee, South Dakota Department of Labor, 420 South Roosevelt St., P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Phone: (605) 622-2314. Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Tennessee Department of Em­ ployment Security, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., 11th Floor, Nashville, TN 37245-1000. Phone: (615) 741-2284.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Administrative Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Coordinat­ ing Council, Division of Employment and Training Policy, 201 East Wash­ ington Ave., P.O. Box 7972, Madison, WI 53707. Phone: (608) 266-8012. Wyoming Manager, Research and Planning, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, WY 82602-2760. Phone: (307) 265-6715. Executive Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Post Office Box 2760, 100 West Midwest, Casper, WY 82602. Phone: (307) 265-7017.  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O. T.) was designed to pro­ vide detailed standardized occupational information to facilitate public employment service activities involving classification and placement of jobseekers. Its coding structure also is used to help bridge or relate to other occupational classification systems used in the collection of employment data. Columns 1 and 3 below list the numbers and titles, respectively, from the D.O.T., Fourth Edition, Revised 1991. Column 4 gives the page of the Handbook on which the relevant occupational statement begins. Nearly all occupational statements in the Handbook list the D.O.T. codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bu­ reau’s Occupational Employment Statistics Survey—the major source of occupational staffing patterns used in the Occupational Outlook Program. However, the D.O.T. numbers associated with the following occupations are too numerous to list: Apparel workers Blue-collar worker supervisors Clerical supervisors and managers General managers and top executives Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers Industrial machinery repairers Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction Inspectors, testers, and graders Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives Material moving equipment operators Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing oc­ cupations (except for dispatchers, stock clerks, and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks) Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators Painting and coating machine operators Police, detectives, and special agents Precision assemblers Prepress workers Printing press operators Retail sales workers Science technicians Textile machinery operators Woodworking occupations These, nevertheless, are available on request from the Chief, Divi­ sion of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. De­ partment of Labor, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Numbers in column 2 refer to the coding structure of the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.). The S.O.C. is the basis for the occupational arrangement used in the National Industry-Occupation Employment Matrix—the Handbook’s source of data on current and projected employment. D.O.T. Number 001061010 001061018 001167010 001261010 001261014 002061010 002061014 002061018 002061022 002061026 002061030 002167010 002167014 002167018  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  1610 Architect........................................................................ 84 1610 Landscape architect....................................................... 85 1610 School-plant consultant................................................. 84 3720 Drafter, architectural.................................................. 226 3720 Drafter, landscape.......................................................226 1622 Aerodynamicist............................................................. 77 1622 Aeronautical engineer...................................................77 1622 Aeronautical test engineer.............................................77 1622 Aeronautical-design engineer........................................ 77 1622 Aeronautical-research engineer ....................................77 1622 Stress analyst.................................................................. 77 1622 Value engineer............................................................... 77 1622 Field-service engineer.....................................................77 1622 Aeronautical project engineer....................................... 34  468  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 002261010 002261014 002262010 003061010 003061014 003061018 003061022 003061026 003061030 003061034 003061038 003061042 003061046 003061050 003131010 003161010 003161014 003161018 003167010 003167014 003167018 003167022 003167026 003167030 003167034 003167038 003167042 003167046 003167050 003167054 003167058 003167066 003167070 003187010 003187014 003187018 003261010 003261014 003261018 003261022 003281010 003281014 003362010 005061010 005061014 005061018 005061022 005061026 005061030 005061034 005061038 005061042 005167010 005167014 005167018 005167022 005167026 005261014 005281010 005281014 006061010 006061014 006061018 006061022 006261010 007061010 007061014 007061018 007061022 007061026 007061030 007061034 007061038 007061042 007161010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code 3720 3719 3719 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 3720 3711 3711 3711 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1260 1633 1633 1633 3711 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3719 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1134 1634 3710 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 3719 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 3720  Page  Drafter, aeronautical .................................................226 Research mechanic....................................................228 Flight-test data acquisition technician.......................228 Electrical engineer........................................................79 Electrical test engineer................................................. 79 Electrical-design engineer ........................................... 79 Electrical-prospecting engineer....................................79 Electrical-research engineer........................................ 79 Electronics engineer.................................................... 79 Electronics-design engineer..........................................79 Electronics-research engineer..................................... 79 Electronics-test engineer.............................................. 79 Illuminating engineer................................................... 79 Planning engineer, central office facilities...................79 Supervisor, drafting and printed circuit design......... 226 Electrical technician.................................................. 228 Electronics technician................................................ 228 Technician, semiconductor development................... 228 Cable engineer, outside plant.......................................79 Distribution-field engineer........................................... 79 Electrical engineer, power system............................... 79 Electrolysis-and-corrosion-control engineer...............79 Engineer of system development .................................79 Engineer-in-charge, studio operations..........................79 Engineer-in-charge, transmitter...................................34 Induction-coordination power engineer...................... 79 Outside-plant engineer..................................................79 Power-distribution engineer.........................................79 Power-transmission engineer.......................................79 Protection engineer.......................................................79 Supervisor, microwave..................................................79 Transmission-and-protection engineer........................79 Engineering manager, electronics................................ 34 Central-ofFice equipment engineer................................79 Commercial engineer.................................................... 79 Customer-equipment engineer...................................... 79 Instrumentation technician......................................... 228 Controls designer........................................................ 226 Integrated circuit layout designer .............................. 226 Printed circuit designer...............................................226 Drafter, electrical........................................................ 226 Drafter, electronic.......................................................226 Design technician, computer-aided.............................228 Airport engineer............................................................79 Civil engineer................................................................ 79 Hydraulic engineer ....................................................... 79 Irrigation engineer.........................................................79 Railroad engineer.......................................................... 79 Sanitary engineer .......................................................... 79 Structural engineer.........................................................79 Transportation engineer................................................79 Waste-management engineer, radioactive materials ... 79 Chief engineer, waterworks........................................... 34 Drainage-design coordinator........................................ 79 Forest engineer............................................................... 79 Highway-administrative engineer................................ 34 Production engineer, track ........................................... 80 Civil engineering technician........................................228 Drafter, civil................................................................ 226 Drafter, structural....................................................... 226 Ceramic design engineer................................................81 Ceramic engineer...........................................................81 Ceramic research engineer.............................................81 Ceramics test engineer................................................... 81 Scientific glass blower.................................................. 228 Automotive engineer...................................................... 80 Mechanical engineer...................................................... 80 Mechanical-design engineer, facilities...........................80 Mechanical-design engineer, products ......................... 80 Tool designer.................................................................. 80 Tool-designer apprentice...............................................80 Utilization engineer........................................................80 Applications engineer, manufacturing ......................... 80 Stress analyst...................................................................80 Diedesigner.................................................................. 226  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number 007161014 007161018 007161022 007161026 007161030 007161034 007161038 007167010 007167014 007167018 007181010 007261010 007261014 007261018 007261022 007267010 007267014 007281010 008061010 008061014 008061018 008061022 008061026 008167010 008261010 010061010 010061010 010061014 010061018 010061022 010061022 010061026 010061030 010061030 010161010 010161014 010167010 010167014 010167018 010261010 010261026 010281010 010281014 010281018 011061010 011061014 011061018 011061022 011061026 011161010 011261010 011261014 011261018 011261022 011281014 011361010 012061018 012067010 012167010 012167014 012167018 012167030 012167038 012167042 012167046 012167050 012167054 012167058 012167062 012167070 012167074 012167078 012167082 012187014 012261014 012267010 013161010 014281010 015021010 015061010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  3720 Die-designer apprentice............................................... 226 3720 Engineering assistant, mechanical equipment............226 3713 Mechanical research engineer...................................... 80 3713 Mechanical-engineering technician.............................228 3713 Optomechanical technician.........................................228 1635 Test engineer, mechanical equipment.......................... 80 1635 Solar-energy-systems designer....................................... 80 3713 Die-drawing checker.....................................................228 1635 Plant engineer................................................................. 34 3974 Toolprogrammer, numerical control.......................... 402 3713 Heat-transfer technician.............................................. 228 3720 Chief drafter.................................................................226 3720 Drafter, castings.......................................................... 226 3720 Drafter, patent............................................................. 226 3720 Drafter, tool design......................................................226 1635 Drawings checker, engineering..................................... 80 3713 Tool design checker......................................................228 3720 Drafter, mechanical......................................................226 1626 Absorption-and-adsorption engineer............................ 78 1626 Chemical design engineer, processes ............................78 1626 Chemical engineer......................................................... 78 1626 Chemical research engineer........................................... 78 1626 Chemical-test engineer...................................................78 1626 Technical director, chemical plant............................... 78 3719 Chemical-engineering technician................................ 228 1624 Design engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment....... 82 1624 Design engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment....... 83 1624 Mining engineer..............................................................82 1625 Petroleum engineer....................................................... 83 1624 Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment ... 82 1624 Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment ...83 1624 Safety engineer, mines................................................... 82 1624 Test engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment.............82 1624 Test engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment............ 83 1625 Chief engineer, research ................................................34 1625 Chief petroleum engineer.............................................. 34 1625 Chief engineer................................................................ 83 1625 District supervisor, mud-analysis well logging............ 83 1260 Superintendent, oil-well services................................... 34 3719 Field engineer, specialist............................................. 228 3719 Test-engine evaluator.................................................. 228 3720 Drafter, directional survey.......................................... 226 3720 Drafter, geological........................................................226 3720 Drafter, geophysical.....................................................226 1623 Foundry metallurgist..................................................... 81 1623 Metallographer.............................................................. 81 1623 Metallurgist, extractive.................................................. 81 1623 Metallurgist, physical.....................................................81 1623 Welding engineer...........................................................81 1260 Supervisor, metallurgical-and-quality-controltesting......................................................................... 34 3719 Metallurgical technician............................................. 228 3719 Welding technician......................................................228 3719 Nondestructive tester...................................................228 3719 Laboratory assistant, metallurgical............................. 228 3719 Spectroscqpist...............................................................228 3719 Tester........................................................................... 228 1634 Standards engineer......................................................... 80 1634 Metrologist..................................................................... 80 1634 Configuration management analyst..............................80 1634 Manager, quality control .............................................. 80 1634 Factory lay-out engineer................................................80 1634 Industrial engineer......................................................... 80 1634 Liaison engineer ............................................................ 80 1634 Manufacturing engineer................................................ 80 1634 Production engineer...................................................... 80 1634 Production planner....................................................... 80 1634 Quality control engineer................................................80 1634 Safety manager............................................................... 34 7100 Supervisor, vendor quality.............................................34 1634 Time-study engineer......................................................80 1634 Tool planner.................................................................. 80 1634 Documentation engineer................................................80 1634 Material scheduler.........................................................80 1634 Shoe-lay-out planner......................................................80 3712 Quality control technician.......................................... 228 3712 Industrial engineering technician................................228 3719 Agricultural-engineering technician...........................228 3720 Drafter, marine........................................................... 226 1843 Health physicist........................................................... Ill 1627 Design engineer, nuclear equipment.............................82   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 015061014 015061018 015061022 015061026 015061030 015067010 015137010 015167010 015167014 017161010 017261010 017261014 017261018 017261022 017261026 017261030 017261034 017261038 017261042 017281010 017281014 017281018 017281026 017281030 017281034 018131010 018161010 018167010 018167014 018167018 018167022 018167026 018167030 018167034 018167038 018167042 018167046 018261010 018261018 018261022 018261026 018262010 018281010 019061014 019161010 019161014 019167014 019167018 019261014 019261018 019261022 019261026 019261034 019267010 019281010 020067014 020067018 020067022 020167010 020167026 020167030 021067010 022061010 022061014 022081010 022137010 022161010 023061010 023061014 023067010 024061010 024061014 024061018 024061022 024061026 024061030 024061034 024061038 024061042 024061046 024061050  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  469  Page  1627 Nuclear engineer............................................................. 82 1627 Research engineer, nuclear equipment..........................82 1627 Test engineer, nuclear equipment...................................82 1627 Nuclear-fuels reclamation engineer.............................. 82 1627 Nuclear-fuels research engineer.................................... 82 1627 Nuclear-criticality safety engineer................................. 82 1627 Radiation-protection engineer....................................... 82 1627 Nuclear-plant technical advisor.................................... 82 1627 Nuclear-test-reactor program coordinator................... 82 3720 Drafter, chief, design.....................................................226 3713 Auto-design checker.................................................... 228 3720 Design drafter, electromechanisms..............................226 3720 Detailer.........................................................................226 3720 Detailer, furniture ........................................................226 3720 Drafter, commercial................................................... 226 3720 Drafter, detail.............................................................. 226 3720 Drafter, heating and ventilating................................. 226 3720 Drafter, plumbing........................................................ 226 3720 Drafter, automotive design.........................................226 3720 Auto-design detailer.................................................... 226 3720 Drafter apprentice....................................................... 226 3720 Drafter, assistant...........................................................226 3720 Drafter, automotive design layout...............................226 3720 Drafter, oil and gas ......................................................226 3720 Technical illustrator.................................................... 226 3734 Supervisor, cartography................................................ 87 1649 Surveyor, mine............................................................... 87 3733 Chief of party .................................................................87 3739 Geodetic computator.................................................... 87 1643 Land surveyor ................................................................87 1260 Manager, land surveying .............................................. 34 1649 Photogrammetric engineer........................................... 87 3734 Supervisor, mapping...................................................... 87 3733 Surveyor assistant, instruments..................................... 87 1649 Surveyor, geodetic......................................................... 87 1649 Surveyor, geophysical prospecting............................... 87 1649 Surveyor, marine............................................................ 87 3734 Drafter, cartographic.................................................... 87 3734 Editor, map.................................................................... 87 3734 Mosaicist........................................................................ 87 3739 Photogrammetrist ......................................................... 87 1644 Field-map editor............................................................ 87 3734 Stereo-plotter operator...................................................87 1623 Materials engineer.........................................................81 3720 Supervisor, estimator and drafter................................226 3719 Test technician.............................................................228 1639 Project engineer..............................................................34 1628 Resource-recovery engineer......................................... 79 3720 Estimator and drafter.................................................. 226 3890 Facilities planner..........................................................228 3890 Test technician.............................................................228 3710 Fire-protection engineering technician...................... 228 3890 Laser technician ......................................................... 228 3719 Specification writer......................................................228 3711 Calibration laboratory technician...............................228 1739 Mathematician............................................................. 94 1721 Operations-research analyst..........................................96 1733 Statistician, mathematical.............................................98 1732 Actuary.......................................................................... 90 1733 Statistician, applied........................................................98 1739 Weight analyst............................................................... 94 1842 Astronomer.................................................................. m 1845 Chemist.........................................................................107 1845 Chemist, food............................................................... 107 3820 Toxicologist.................................................................. 102 1845 Laboratory supervisor................................................. 107 1845 Chemical laboratory chief.............................................34 1843 Electro-optical engineer.............................................. m 1843 Physicist .......................................................................m 1843 Physicist, theoretical.................................................... Ill 1847 Crystallographer.......................................................... 108 1649 Geodesist........................... 87 1847 Geologist......................................................!"""!"!io8 1847 Geologist, petroleum.................................................... 108 1847 Geophysical prospector................................................108 1847 Geophysicist.................................................................108 1847 Hydrologist.................................................................. 108 1847 Mineralogist .................................................................108 1847 Paleontologist...............................................................108 1847 Petrologist ................................................................... 108 1847 Seismologist..................................................................108  470  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  024061054 024161010 024167010 025062010 029067010 029067014 029167014 030062010 030162010 030162014 030162018 030162022 030167010 030167014 033167010 033262010 040061010 040061014 040061018 040061030 040061038 040061042 040061046 040061050 040061054 040061058 040061062 040167010 041061010 041061014 041061018 041061022 041061026 041061030 041061034 041061038 041061042 041061046 041061050 041061054 041061058 041061062 041061066 041061070 041061074 041061078 041061082 041061086 041061090 041061094 041067010 041081010 041261010 045061010 045061014 045061018 045067010 045067014 045067018 045107010 045107014 045107018 045107022 045107026 045107030 045107034 045107038 045107042 045107046 045107050 045107054 045107058 045117010 049127010 050067010 050067014 051067010 052067010 052067018 052067022 052067026  1847 Stratigrapher................................................................ 108 1847 Engineer, soils...............................................................108 1847 Geophysical-laboratory chief........................................ 34 1846 Meteorologist...............................................................110 1849 Geographer..................................................................119 1849 Geographer, physical...................................................119 1260 Project manager, environmental research.....................34 1636 Software engineer.......................................................... 92 3971 Computer programmer............................................... 224 1712 Programmer-analyst......................................................92 3972 Programmer, engineering and scientific..................... 224 1712 Systems programmer.................................................. 224 3971 Chief, computer programmer...................................... 224 1712 Systems analyst............................................................. 92 1636 Computer systems hardware analyst............................92 1719 Quality assurance analyst.............................................. 92 1853 Agronomist..................................................................100 1853 Animal scientist............................................................100 1853 Dairy scientist...............................................................100 1852 Forest ecologist............................................................104 1853 Horticulturist...............................................................100 1853 Poultry scientist............................................................100 1852 Range manager............................................................104 1852 Silviculturist................................................................ 104 1852 Soil conservationist......................................................104 1853 Soil scientist..................................................................100 1852 Wood technologist....................................................... 104 1852 Forester........................................................................ 104 1855 Anatomist..................................................................... 102 1853 Animal breeder............................................................100 1853 Apiculturist.................................................................. 100 1854 Aquatic biologist...........................................................102 1854 Biochemist....................................................................102 1854 Biologist........................................................................ 102 1854 Biophysicist.................................................................. 102 1854 Botanist........................................................................ 102 1854 Cytologist..................................................................... 102 1853 Entomologist................................................................ 100 1854 Geneticist..................................................................... 102 1855 Histopathologist...........................................................102 1854 Microbiologist..............................................................102 1854 Mycologist....................................................................102 1854 Nematologist.................................................................102 1855 Parasitologist...............................................................102 1855 Pharmacologist............................................................ 102 1854 Physiologist.................................................................. 102 1853 Plant breeder.................................................................100 1854 Plant pathologist...........................................................102 1854 Zoologist.......................................................................102 1854 Staff toxicologist...........................................................102 1855 Medical coordinator, pesticide use..............................102 1853 Food technologist......................................................... 100 1855 Public-health microbiologist........................................ 102 1915 Psychologist, developmental.........................................124 1915 Psychologist, engineering............................................. 124 1915 Psychologist, experimental.......................................... 124 1915 Psychologist, educational............................................. 124 1915 Psychologist, social...................................................... 124 1915 Psychometrist............................................................... 124 2400 Counselor......................... 149 2400 Counselor, nurses association ..................................... 149 2400 Director of counseling..................................................149 1915 Clinical psychologist.....................................................124 1915 Psychologist, counseling...............................................124 1915 Psychologist, industrial-organizational ...................... 124 1915 Psychologist, school .....................................................124 2400 Residence counselor.....................................................149 2400 Vocational rehabilitation counselor............................ 149 1915 Psychologist, chief........................................................124 3039 Clinical therapist...........................................................149 2400 Counselor, marriage and family...................................149 2032 Substance abuse counselor............................................136 2400 Director of guidance in public schools..........................149 1852 Park naturalist..............................................................104 1912 Economist..................................................................... 121 1912 Market-research analyst I ............................................121 1914 Political scientist...........................................................119 1913 Biographer....................................................................119 1913 Genealogist .................................................................. 119 1913 Historian....................................................................... 119 1913 Historian, dramatic arts...............................................119   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page  D.O.T. Number 052167010 054067010 054067014 054107010 055067010 055067014 055067018 055067022 055381010 059067010 059067014 059167010 059267010 059267014 070061010 070101010 070101014 070101018 070101022 070101026 070101034 070101042 070101046 070101050 070101054 070101058 070101062 070101066 070101070 070101078 070101082 070101086 070101090 070101094 070101098 070101102 070107014 071101010 072061010 072101010 072101014 072101018 072101022 072101026 072101030 072101034 072101038 072117010 073061010 073061014 073061018 073061022 073061026 073061030 073061034 073061038 073101010 073101014 073101018 073161010 073261010 073264010 074161010 074161014 074167010 075117010 075117014 075117018 075117022 075117026 075117030 075124010 075124014 075127010 075127014 075127026 075127030 075127034 075137010 075137014 075167010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  1913 Director, research....................................................... 119 1916 Research worker, social welfare................................ 126 1916 Sociologist .................................................................. 126 1916 Clinical sociologist......................................................126 1919 Anthropologist............................................................119 1919 Anthropologist, physical ........................................... 119 1919 Archeologist............................................................... 119 1919 Ethnologist.................................................................. 119 1919 Conservator, artifacts................................................. 119 1919 Philologist....................................................................119 1919 Scientific linguist.........................................................119 1919 Intelligence research specialist....................................119 1919 Intelligence specialist................................................. 119 1919 Intelligence specialist................................................. 119 2610 Pathologist.................................................................. 161 2610 Anesthesiologist .........................................................161 2610 Cardiologist.................................................................161 2610 Dermatologist............................................................. 161 2610 General practitioner...................................................161 2610 Family practitioner.................................................... 161 2610 Gynecologist............................................................... 161 2610 Internist.......................................................................161 2610 Public health physician.............................................. 161 2610 Neurologist .................................................................161 2610 Obstetrician.................................................................161 2610 Ophthalmologist.........................................................161 2610 Otolaryngologist.........................................................161 2610 Pediatrician.................................................................161 2610 Physiatrist....................................................................161 2610 Physician, occupational.............................................. 161 2610 Police surgeon ............................................................161 2610 Proctologist.................................................................161 2610 Radiologist.................................................................. 161 2610 Surgeon .......................................................................161 2610 Urologist..................................................................... 161 2610 Allergist-immunologist.............................................. 161 2610 Psychiatrist.................................................................161 2610 Osteopathic physician................................................161 2620 Oral pathologist...........................................................158 2620 Dentist........................................................................ 158 2620 Endodontist.................................................................158 2620 Oral and maxillofacial surgeon.................................. 158 2620 Orthodontist............................................................... 158 2620 Pediatric dentist.......................................................... 158 2620 Periodontist.................................................................158 2620 Prosthodontist............................................................ 158 2620 Public-health dentist...................................................158 2620 Director, dental services.............................................. 44 2700 Veterinarian, laboratory animal care.........................165 2700 Veterinary anatomist .................................................. 165 2700 Veterinary microbiologist............................................ 165 2700 Veterinary epidemiologist...........................................165 2700 Veterinary parasitologist..............................................165 2700 Veterinary pathologist.................................................165 2700 Veterinary pharmacologist ......................................... 165 2700 Veterinary physiologist............................................... 165 2700 Veterinarian.................................................................165 2700 Veterinarian, poultry ................................................. 165 2700 Zoo veterinarian......................................................... 153 2700 Veterinary livestock inspector.....................................165 2700 Veterinary virus-serum inspector................................ 165 2700 Veterinary meat-inspector...........................................165 3010 Pharmacist.................................................................. 169 3010 Radiopharmacist......................................................... 169 1310 Director, pharmacy services........................................ 44 1283 Consultant, educational, state board of nursing.......... 30 1310 Director, community-health nursing...........................44 1283 Director, educational, community-health nursing.....30 1310 Director, nursing service...............................................44 1310 Director, occupational health nursing......................... 44 1310 Director, school of nursing..........................................44 2900 Nurse, school ..............................................................175 2900 Nurse, staff, community health.................................. 175 2390 Instructor, psychiatric aide.........................................143 2900 Nurse, consultant........................................................175 2900 Nurse, supervisor, community-health nursing.......... 175 2900 Nurse, supervisor, evening-or-night...........................175 2900 Nurse, infection control ............................................. 175 2900 Nurse, supervisor, occupational health nursing.........175 2900 Nurse, head................................................................. 175 2900 Nurse, supervisor........................................................175  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number 075167014 075264010 075264014 075364010 075371010 075374014 075374018 075374022 076101010 076104010 076107010 076117010 076121010 076121014 076124014 076127010 076127014 076127018 076167010 076361014 077061010 077117010 077127010 077127014 077127018 077127022 078121010 078131010 078161010 078161014 078162010 078221010 078261010 078261014 078261026 078261030 078261034 078261038 078264010 078281010 078361010 078361018 078361034 078361038 078362018 078362022 078362026 078362030 078362046 078362050 078362054 078362058 078362062 078364010 078364014 078367010 078381014 078687010 079021014 079101010 079101018 079101022 079117010 079127010 079131010 079151010 079167014 079267010 079361018 079362010 079362014 079362018 079364010 079364014 079364018 079364026 079374010 079374014 079374018  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  2900 Quality assurance coordinator....................................175 2900 Nurse practitioner...................................................... 175 2900 Nurse-midwife............................................................ 175 2900 Nurse, general duty.................................................... 175 2900 Nurse anesthetist......................................................... 175 2900 Nurse, office ............................................................... 175 2900 Nurse, private duty.................................................... 175 2900 Nurse, staff, occupational health nursing................. 175 3034 Audiologist.................................................................. 179 3034 Voice pathologist ....................................................... 179 3034 Speech pathologist......................................................179 3039 Coordinator of rehabilitation services...........................44 3032 Occupational therapist..................................................168 3033 Physical therapist......................................................... 171 3039 Recreational therapist..................................................174 3039 Art therapist.................................................................174 3039 Music therapist............................................................ 174 3039 Dance therapist............................................................ 174 3032 Industrial therapist...................................................... 168 3031 Respiratory therapist................................................... 178 3020 Dietitian, research.......................................................167 3020 Dietitian, chief.............................................................. 44 3020 Community dietitian.................................................... 167 3020 Dietitian, clinical..........................................................167 3020 Dietitian, consultant................................................... 167 3020 Dietitian, teaching...................................................... 167 3620 Medical technologist, teaching supervisor.................. 203 3650 Chief technologist, nuclear medicine............................44 3620 Medical technologist, chief...........................................44 3690 Cardiopulmonary technologist, chief............................44 3650 Radiologic technologist, chief...................................... 44 3690 Immunohematologist.................................................. 203 3620 Biochemistry technologist.......................................... 203 3620 Microbiology technologist.......................................... 203 3620 Cytogenetic technologist..............................................203 3620 Histotechnologist........................................................ 203 3650 Medical radiation dosimetrist .................................... 214 3620 Medical technologist................................................... 203 3690 Holter scanning technician.........................................202 3620 Cytotechnologist..........................................................203 3630 Dental hygienist ..........................................................205 3650 Nuclear medicine technologist...................................213 3650 Radiation-therapy technologist...................................214 3690 Ophthalmic technician................................................ 310 3690 Electrocardiograph technician .................................. 202 3690 Electroencephalographic technologist........................208 3650 Radiologic technologist...............................................214 3690 Cardiopulmonary technologist.................................. 202 3650 Special procedures technologist, angiogram...............214 3650 Special procedures technologist, cardiac catheteri­ zation ........................................................................ 202 3650 Special procedures technologist, CT SCAN............... 214 3650 Special procedures technologist, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)........................................214 3690 Stress test technician................................................... 202 3690 Ultrasound technologist..............................................214 3690 Echocardiograph technician........................................202 3690 Cardiac monitor technician......................................... 202 3690 Medical-laboratory technician.................................... 203 5233 Laboratory assistant, blood and plasma..................... 203 1843 Medical physicist......................................................... Ill 2890 Chiropractor.................................................................157 2810 Optometrist.................................................................. 160 2830 Podiatrist.......................................................................163 1310 Emergency medical services coordinator......................44 1430 Inservice coordinator, auxiliary personnel................... 59 1310 Director, speech-and-hearing........................................44 3690 Transplant coordinator................................................. 44 1310 Medical-record administrator...................................... 44 1310 Utilization-review coordinator.....................................44 5232 Dental assistant........................................................... 309 5233 Medical assistant..........................................................310 3640 Medical record technician.......................................... 212 3640 Tumor registrar........................................................... 212 5233 Chiropractor assistant.................................................310 3690 Optometric assistant................................................... 310 3040 Physician assistant.......................................................173 3690 Paramedic.................................................................... 209 3690 Emergency medical technician...................................209 3660 Nurse, licensed practical............................................. 211 5233 Podiatric assistant ...................................................... 310   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  471  Page  079374022 3690 Surgical technician........................................................216 090107010 2400 Foreign-student adviser................................................ 149 090117010 1281 Academic dean................................................................ 30 090117014 1281 Alumni secretary .......................................................... 30 090117018 1281 Dean of students.............................................................30 090117022 1281 Director, athletic.............................................................30 090117026 1281 Director, extension work ..............................................30 090117030 1281 Financial-aids officer ....................................................30 090167014 1281 Director of admissions....................................................30 090167018 1281 Director of institutional research.................................. 30 090167022 1281 Director of student affairs............................................. 30 090167026 1281 Director, summer sessions............................................. 30 090167030 1281 Registrar, college or university......................................30 090167034 1281 Director, field services................................................... 30 090222010 2233 Instructor, business education..................................... 143 090227010 2200 Faculty member, college or university......................... 147 090227018 2390 Instructor, extension work............................................143 091107010 1282 Assistant principal......................................................... 30 091221010 2330 Teacher, industrial arts............................................... 153 091227010 2330 Teacher, secondary school.......................................... 153 092167010 1283Director, day care center.................................................30 092227010 2320 Teacher, elementary school.........................................153 092227014 2310 Teacher, kindergarten................................................ 153 092227018 2310 Teacher, preschool...................................................... 317 094107010 2350 Work-study coordinator, special education................149 094117010 1283 Director, commission for the blind............................... 30 094167014 1283 Director, special education............................................ 30 094224010 2350 Teacher, hearing impaired........................................... 153 094224014 2350 Teacher, physically impaired...................................... 153 094224018 2350 Teacher, visually impaired........................................... 153 094227010 2350 Teacher, emotionally impaired................................... 153 094227022 2350 Teacher, mentally impaired ........................................153 094227026 2350 Teacher, vocational training........................................ 153 094227030 2350 Teacher, learning disabled...........................................153 094267010 2350 Evaluator..................................................................... 153 096161010 1283 Home-service director................................................... 56 096167010 1283 District extension service agent.....................................30 096167014 1283 Specialist-in-charge, extension service.......................... 30 097167010 1283 Director, vocational training........................................30 097221010 2390 Instructor, vocational training.....................................143 097227010 2390 Instructor, flying II......................................................143 099117010 1283 Director, educational program.....................................30 099117014 1283 Education supervisor, correctional institution............ 30 099117018 1282 Principal........................................................................ 30 099117030 1283 Director, education....................................................... 30 099167010 1430 Certification and selection specialist............................. 59 099167030 1283 Educational resource coordinator.............................. 144 099167034 1283Director of pupil personnel program.............................. 30 099223010 2390 Instructor, driving.......................................................143 099224010 2390 Instructor, physical education.................................... 153 099224014 2390 Teacher, adventure education......................................143 099227014 2390 Instructor, correspondence school ............................ 143 099227018 2390 Instructor, ground services.........................................143 099227022 2249 Instructor, military science.........................................153 099227026 2390 Instructor, modeling....................................................143 099227030 2390 Teacher, adult education ..............................................143 099227038 2216 Teacher..........................................................................143 099227042 2300 Teacher, resource.......................................................... 153 099327010 3990 Teacher aide 1................................................................289 100117010 1283 Library director............................................................... 30 100117014 2510 Library consultant.......................................................... 54 100127010 2510 Chief librarian, branch or department..........................151 100127014 2510 Librarian........................................................................ 151 100167010 2510 Audiovisual librarian.................................................... 151 100167014 2510 Bookmobile librarian....................................................151 100167018 2510 Children s librarian....................................................... 151 100167022 2510 Institution librarian....................................................... 151 100167026 2510 Librarian, special library............................................... 151 100167030 2510 Media specialist, school library.................................... 151 100167034 2510 Young-adult librarian................................................... 151 100167038 2510 News librarian.............................................................. 151 100267010 2510 Acquisitions librarian................................................... 151 100267014 2510 Librarian, special collections....................................... 151 100367010 2510 Bibliographer.......................................................... 151 100367014 2510 Classifier....................................................................... 151 100367018 2510 Library technical assistant........................................... 230 100367022 2510 Music librarian.............................................................. 151 100367026 2510 Music librarian, international broadcast.................... 151 100387010 2510 Catalog librarian........................................................... 151 101167010 2520 Archivist............................................................... 144 102017010 2520 Curator...........................................................................144  472  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  102117010 2520 Supervisor, historic sites..............................................144 102117014 2520 Director, museum-or-zoo.............................................144 102167010 2520 Art conservator............................................................144 102167014 2520 Historic-site administrator ......................................... 144 102167018 2520 Registrar, museum....................................................... 144 102261010 2520 Conservation technician.............................................. 144 102261014 3250 Paintings restorer.........................................................194 102361010 2520 Restorer, lace and textiles.............................................144 102361014 2520 Restorer, ceramic........................................................144 102381010 2520 Museum technician.....................................................144 109067010 1719 Information scientist..................................................... 92 109067014 2520 Research associate......................................................144 109267010 2520 Research assistant 1.................................................... 144 109267014 2510 Research worker, encyclopedia..................................151 109281010 2520 Armorer technician....................................................144 109361010 2520 Restorer, paper-and-prints........................................144 109364010 2520 Craft demonstrator.....................................................144 110107010 2110 Lawyer.........................................................................114 110107014 2110 Lawyer, criminal..........................................................114 110117010 2110 District attorney..........................................................114 110117014 2110 Insurance attorney...................................................... 114 110117018 2110 Lawyer, admiralty...................................................... 114 110117022 2110 Lawyer, corporation................................................... 114 110117026 2110 Lawyer, patent.............................................................114 110117030 2110 Lawyer, probate........................................................... 114 110117034 2110 Lawyer, real estate...................................................... 114 110117038 2110 Tax attorney................................................................114 110117042 2110 Title attorney ............................................................. 114 110167010 2110 Bar examiner................................................................114 111107010 2120 Judge............................................................................114 111107014 2120 Magistrate.................................................................... 114 119107010 2120 Hearing officer.............................................................114 119117010 2120 Appeals reviewer, veteran...........................................114 119167010 2120 Adjudicator................................................................. 114 119267014 2120 Appeals referee.............................................................114 119267026 3960 Paralegal......................................................................231 120107010 2042 Clergy member.............................................................138 120107010 2042 Clergy member.............................................................139 120107010 2042 Clergy member............................................................. 140 131067010 3313 Columnist commentator..............................................184 131067010 3313 Columnist commentator..............................................187 131067014 3313 Copywriter................................................................. 187 131067018 3313 Critic............................................................................ 187 131067022 3313 Editorial writer............................................................187 131067026 3210 Humorist...................................................................... 187 131067030 3210 Librettist...................................................................... 187 131067034 3210 Lyricist......................................................................... 187 131067038 3210 Playwright................................................................... 187 131067042 3210 Poet..............................................................................187 131067046 3210 Writer, prose, fiction and nonfiction.......................... 187 131067050 3210 Screenwriter................................................................ 187 131087010 3210 Continuity writer.........................................................187 131087014 3210 Reader......................................................................... 187 131262010 3313 Newscaster................................................................... 184 131262014 3313 Newswriter................................................................... 187 131262018 3313 Reporter...................................................................... 185 131267022 3312 Scriptreader................................................................ 187 131267026 3980 Writer, technical publications..................................... 187 132017010 3312 Editor, managing, newspaper............................. 187 132017014 3312 Editor, newspaper ....................................................... 187 132017018 3312 Editor, technical and scientific publications................187 132037010 3312 Continuity director......................................................187 132037014 3312 Editor,city................................................................... 187 132037018 3312 Editor, department ....................................................187 132037022 3312 Editor, publications....................................................187 132037026 3312 Storyeditor ..................................................................187 132067010 3312 Bureau chief................................................................ 187 132067014 3312 Editor, book................................................................ 187 132067018 3312 Editor, dictionary....................................................... 187 132067022 3312 Editor, greeting card.................................................. 187 132067026 3312 Editor, news................................................................ 187 132067030 3240 Program proposals coordinator .................................. 187 132132010 3312 Assignment editor........................................................187 132267010 3312 Editor, telegraph...........................................................187 132267014 3312 Editorial assistant......................................................... 187 132367010 3312 Editor, index.................................................................187 139167010 3280 Program coordinator................................................... 197 141031010 3250 Artdirector.................................................................. 194 141051010 3220 Color expert.................................................................. 189 141061010 3250 Cartoonist..................................................................... 194 141061014 3250 Fashion artist............................................................... 194  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  141061018 141061022 141061026 141061030 141061034 141061038 141067010 141081010 141137010 142031014 142051010 142051014 142061010 142061014 142061018 142061022 142061026 142061030 142061034 142061038 142061042 142061046 142061050 142061054 142061058 142061062 142081010 142081014 142081018 142281010 143062010 143062014 143062018 143062022 143062026 143062030 143062034 143260010 143362010 143362014 143382010 143382014 143457010 144061010 144061014 144061018 149021010 149041010 149261010 150027010 150027014 150047010 150067010 150147010 151027010 151027014 151047010 152021010 152041010 152047010 152047014 152047018 152047022 152067010 152067014 152067018 152067022 152267010 152367010 153137010 153227014 159041010 159041014 159044010 159047010 159047014 159047018 159047022 159067010 159067014 159117010  3220 Graphic designer...........................................................194 3250 Illustrator..................................................................... 194 3250 Illustrator, medical and scientific.................................194 3250 Illustrator, set............................................................... 194 3250 Policeartist .................................................................. 194 3220 Commercial designer...................................................189 3220 Creative director...........................................................189 3250 Cartoonist, motion pictures..........................................194 1250 Production manager, advertising.................................. 56 3220 Manager, display...........................................................189 3220 Display designer...........................................................189 3220 Interior designer...........................................................189 3220 Bank-note designer...................................................... 189 3220 Cloth designer ..............................................................189 3220 Fashion designer...........................................................189 3220 Furniture designer........................................................189 3220 Industrial designer........................................................189 3250 Memorial designer........................................................194 3220 Ornamental-metalwork designer.................................189 3220 Safety-clothing-and-equipment developer................... 189 3220 Set decorator................................................................. 189 3220 Set designer...................................................................189 3220 Set designer...................................................................189 3220 Stained glass artist........................................................189 3220 Exhibit designer............................................................ 189 3220 Artdirector...................................................................189 3220 Floral designer.............................................................. 189 3220 Fur designer...................................................................189 3220 Package designer........................................................... 189 3220 Copyist.......................................................................... 189 3260 Director of photography...............................................191 3260 Photographer, aerial....................................................191 3260 Photographer, apprentice............................................ 191 3260 Camera operator.......................................................... 191 3260 Photographer, scientific..............................................191 3260 Photographer, still.......................................................191 3260 Photojoumalist............................................................191 3260 Optical-effects-camera operator................................. 191 3260 Biological photographer..............................................191 3260 Ophthalmic photographer...........................................191 3260 Camera operator, animation........................................191 3260 Photographer, finish.................................................... 191 3260 Photographer...............................................................191 3250 Painter..........................................................................194 3250 Printmaker....................................................................194 3250 Sculptor........................................................................ 194 2390 Teacher, art..................................................................143 3250 Quick sketch artist....................................................... 194 3250 Exhibit artist................................................................ 194 3240 Dramatic coach............................................................197 2390 Teacher, drama............................................................143 3240 Actor.............................................................................197 3240 Director, stage............................................................. 197 3240 Narrator .......................................................................197 3270 Choreographer............................................................. 198 2390 Instructor, dancing......................................................143 3270 Dancer..........................................................................198 2390 Teacher, music............................................................. 143 3230 Musician, instrumental............................................... 200 3230 Choral director............................................................. 200 3230 Conductor, orchestra.................................................. 200 3230 Director, music............................................................200 3230 Singer........................................................................... 200 3230 Arranger...................................................................... 200 3230 Composer.....................................................................200 3230 Cue selector.............................. 200 3230 Orchestrator................................................................ 200 3230 Copyist..........................................................................200 3230 Prompter...................................................................... 200 1352 Manager, pool............................................................... 133 2390 Instructor, physical...................................................... 143 3280 Magician.......................................................................197 3280 Puppeteer..................................................................... 197 3280 Ventriloquist.................................................................197 3280 Clown............................................................................197 3280 Comedian..................................................................... 197 3280 Impersonator ............................................................... 197 3280 Mime............................................................................. 197 3240 Director, motion picture.............................................. 197 3240 Director, television ...................................................... 197 3240 Producer....................................................................... 19'/  Page  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  159124010 2033 Counselor, camp.......................................................... 133 159147010 3330 Announcer................................................................... 184 159147014 3330 Disc jockey................................................................... 184 159147018 3330 Show host hostess........................................................ 184 159167010 3280 Artist and repertoire manager.................................... 197 159167014 3240 Director, radio.............................................................197 159167018 3240 Manager, stage.............................................................197 159167022 1250 Executive producer, promos......................................... 56 159227010 2390 Instructor, bridge........................................................ 143 159247010 3280 Acrobat........................................................................197 159247014 3280 Aerialist........................................................................197 159267010 3240 Director, casting..........................................................197 159341010 3280 Juggler......................................................................... 197 159341014 3280 Stunt performer........................................................... 197 159344010 3280 Equestrian .................................................................. 197 159344014 3280 Rodeo performer..........................................................197 159347014 3280 Aquatic performer.......................................................197 159347018 3280 Thrill performer .........................................................197 159347022 3280 Wire walker................................................................. 197 159367010 3280 Ring conductor..............•............................................ 197 159647010 3280 Amusement park entertainer......................................197 159647014 3240 Extra............................................................................ 197 159647022 3280 Showgirl...................................................................... 197 160162010 1412 Accountant, tax............................................................. 17 160162018 1412 Accountant ................................................................... 17 160162022 1412 Accountant, budget.......................................................17 160162026 1412 Accountant, cost............................................................17 160162030 1412 Auditor, data processing............................................... 17 160167022 1412 Accountant, property....................................................17 160167026 1412 Accountant, systems..................................................... 17 160167030 1412 Auditor, county or city.................................................17 160167034 1412 Auditor, internal............................................................17 160167038 1412 Auditor, tax................................................................... 17 160167042 1412 Bursar............................................................................ 17 160167054 1412 Auditor...........................................................................17 160167058 1220 Controller......................................................................36 160267014 1412 Director, utility accounts............................................. 17 161117010 1419 Budget officer................................................................22 161117014 1420 Director, records management.................................... 54 161117018 1220 Treasurer....................................................................... 36 161167010 1420 Management analyst..................................................... 54 161167014 1420 Manager, forms analysis...............................................54 161167018 1420 Manager, records analysis............................................54 161167022 1420 Manager, reports analysis ............................................54 161267010 1420 Clerical-methods analyst............................................. 54 161267018 1420 Forms analyst................................................................54 161267022 1420 Records-management analyst..................................... 54 161267026 1420 Reports analyst.............................................................54 161267030 1419 Budget analyst.............................................................. 22 162117014 1370 Contract administrator................................................ 20 162117018 1449 Contract specialist........................................................65 162117030 1139 Research-contracts supervisor..................................... 34 162157018 1442 Buyer............................................................................. 65 162157022 1442 Buyer, assistant............................................................ 65 162157030 1449 Outside property agent................................................ 65 162157034 1449 Procurement engineer..................................................65 162157038 1449 Purchasing agent...........................................................65 162167022 1240 Manager, procurement services.................................. 65 162167030 1449 Purchase-price analyst................................................. 65 162167034 4124 Floorbroker............................................................... 246 162167038 4124 Securities trader........................................................... 246 163117010 1449 Manager, contracts....................................................... 65 163117014 1250 Manager, export............................................................56 163117018 1250 Manager, promotion......................................................56 163117022 1250 Director, media marketing...........................................56 163117026 1250 Director, underwriter solicitation................................ 56 163167010 1250 Manager, advertising.................................................... 56 163167018 1250 Manager, sales...............................................................70 163167022 1250 Manager, utility sales and service................................. 56 163167026 1370 Property-disposal officer.............................................. 20 163267010 1250 Field representative...................................................... 56 164117010 1250 Manager, advertising....................................................56 164117014 1250 Manager, advertising agency........................................56 164117018 1250 Media director..............................................................56 164167010 1250 Account executive....................................................... 56 165017010 3320 Lobbyist.......................................................................182 165157010 4152 Songplugger...............................................................248 165167010 3320 Sales-service promoter............................................... 182 165167014 3320 Public-relations representative..................................182 166067010 1430 Occupational analyst...................................................59 166117010 1230 Director, industrial relations...................................... 59  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 166117014 166117018 166167010 166167014 166167018 166167022 166167026 166167030 166167034 166167038 166167042 166167050 166167054 166221010 166227010 166257010 166267010 166267014 166267018 166267022 166267026 166267030 166267034 166267038 166267042 166267046 168167030 168167034 168167038 168167046 168167050 168267010 168267014 168267038 168267102 169107010 169167022 169167030 169167034 169167054 169167062 169167074 169167082 169167086 169207010 169267010 169267022 169267026 169267038 169267046 180167018 180167026 180167030 180167034 180167038 180167046 180167054 180167058 180167066 181117010 182167010 182167014 182167018 182167022 182167026 182167030 182167034 182267010 183117010 183117014 183161014 183167010 183167014 183167018 183167022 183167026 183167034 183167038 184117010 184117078 184162010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  473  Page  1430 Manager, employee welfare.............................................. 59 1230 Manager, personnel.......................................................... 59 1430 Contestant coordinator.................................................... 59 1430 Director of placement....................................................... 59 1230 Manager, benefits............................................................. 59 1430 Manager, compensation...................................................59 1230 Manager, education and training.....................................59 1230 Manager, employment..................................................... 59 1430 Manager, labor relations.................................................. 59 1430 Port purser........................................................................59 1430 Senior enlisted advisor......................................................59 1230 Program specialist, employee-health maintenance........59 1430 Technical training coordinator....................................... 59 2390 Instructor, technical training......................................... 143 2390 Training representative..................................................143 3320 Employer relations representative................................... 59 1430 Employment interviewer.................................................32 1430 Hospital-insurance representative...................................59 1430 Job analyst....................................................................... 59 1430 Prisoner-classification interviewer................................... 59 1430 Recruiter..........................................................................59 1430 Retirement officer ........................................................ 59 1430 Job development specialist.............................................. 59 1430 Personnel recruiter........................................................... 59 1430 Employee relations specialist.......................................... 59 1430 Human resource advisor................................................59 1472 Inspector, building........................................................... 24 1472 Inspector, electrical..........................................................24 1472 Inspector, elevators..........................................................24 1472 Inspector, heating and refrigeration................................24 1472 Inspector, plumbing........................................................ 24 1472 Building inspector.......................................................... 24 1473 Claim examiner.............................................................253 4784 Eligibility-and-occupancy interviewer......................... 253 1472 Plan checker................................................................... 24 1430 Arbitrator........................................................................59 1852 Fire assistant................................................................. 297 1260 Manager, data processing............................................... 34 1370 Manager, office...............................................................20 1449 Tooling coordinator, production engineering............... 65 1390 Coordinator, skill-training program...............................59 1420 Preventive maintenance coordinator............................. 54 1260 Manager, computer operations...................................... 34 1220 Manager, credit and collection...................................... 36 1430 Conciliator...................................................................... 59 2120 Claims adjudicator........................................................ 114 1283 Secretary, board-of-education........................................30 2400 Supervisor, special services.......................................... 149 1490 Estimator ....................................................................... 28 1414 Underwriter.................................................................... 73 5522 General manager, farm................................................ 327 5524 Manager, dairy farm.....................................................327 5524 Manager, fish hatchery................................................ 327 5524 Manager, game breeding farm..................................... 327 5524 Manager, game preserve...............................................327 5524 Manager, poultry hatchery.......................................... 327 1320 Superintendent................................................................48 5523 Superintendent, production ........................................ 327 5523 Manager, orchard......................................................... 327 1320 Manager, bulk plant.......................................................48 1330 Contractor...................................................................... 26 1330 Landscape contractor................................................... 321 1330 Railroad-construction director......................................26 1320 Superintendent, concrete-mixing plant......................... 48 1330 Superintendent, construction.........................................26 1330 Superintendent, maintenance of way............................ 26 1330 Supervisor, bridges and buildings.................................. 26 1472 Construction inspector ..................................................24 1320 Manager, branch............................................................ 48 1320 Production superintendent............................................48 1320 Winemaker.................................................................... 48 1320 Brewing director.............................................................. 48 1320 General superintendent, milling......................................48 1320 General supervisor........................................................... 48 1320 General supervisor........................................................... 48 1320 Manager, food processing plant ................................. 48 1320 Superintendent, car construction.................................. 48 1320 Superintendent, logging ................................................ 48 3240 Director, public service................................................ 197 1240 Superintendent, commissary..........................................65 3240 Manager, production................................................... 197  474  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  184167014 184167022 184167026 184167030 184167034 184167114 184167278 184387010 185117010 185117014 185137010 185157010 185157014 185167014 185167030 185167034 18516703 8 185167046 186117042 186117046 186117058 186117062 186117066 186117070 186117086 186167018 186167030 186167038 186167042 186167046 186167054 186167062 186167066 186167078 186167086 186167090 186267018 186267022 186267026 187117010 187117038 187117058 187117062 187137018 187161010 187167026 187167030 187167046 187167078 187167082 187167090 187167106 187167106 187167122 187167126 187167158 187167162 187167174 187167178 187167182 187167190 187167206 187167210 187167238 188117010 188117082 188117086 188117114 188117122 188167094 188167106 188167110 188217010 189117014 189117018 189117022 189117038 189117042 189117046 189157010  3240 Director, news.............................................................197 3240 Director, operations, broadcast................................... 197 1649 Director, photogrammetry flight operations................87 3240 Director, program .......................................................197 3240 Director, sports........................................................... 197 1342 Manager, warehouse..................................................... 70 8113 Yardmanager..............................................................440 4716 Wharfinger...................................................................279 1210 Manager, department store........................................... 70 1390 Area supervisor, retail chain store.................................70 1351 Manager, fast food services........................................... 70 1250 Fashion coordinator......................................................70 1250 Supervisor of sales .........................................................56 4030 Manager, automobile service station............................70 4020 Manager, meat sales and storage..................................70 1240 Manager, merchandise...................................................70 4030 Manager, parts...............................................................70 4030 Manager, retail store......................................................70 1353 Manager, land development..........................................62 1353 Manager, leasing............................................................62 1353 Real-estate agent............................................................62 1353 Rental manager, public events facilities........................62 1419 Risk and insurance manager..........................................36 1220 Treasurer, financial institution..................................... 36 1419 Manager, exchange floor .............................................. 36 1353 Manager, apartment house........................................... 62 1353 Manager, housing project.............................................. 62 1353 Manager, land leases-and-rentals.................................. 62 1353 Manager, market............................................................62 1353 Manager, property.........................................................62 1220 Reserve officer...............................................................36 1353 Condominium manager................................................. 62 4123 Manager, real-estate firm.............................................. 62 1415 Commercial loan collection officer............................... 53 1220 Manager, financial institution.......................................36 1370 Manager, title search......................................................62 1415 Loan officer....................................................................53 1419 Loan review analyst....................................................... 53 1415 Underwriter, mortgage loan..........................................53 1210 Administrator, health care facility ...............................44 1351 Manager, hotel or motel................................................46 1310 Director, outpatient services..........................................44 1310 Radiology administrator................................................44 1351 Manager, front office................................................... 46 1351 Executive chef.............................................................. 68 1351 Director, food services.................................................. 68 1359 Director, funeral........................................................... 38 1351 Executive housekeeper..................................................46 1351 Manager, convention................................................... 46 1390 Manager, customer services......................................... 70 1359 Manager, dental laboratory.......................................... 44 1351 Manager, food service ..................................................46 1351 Manager, food service .................................................. 68 1351 Manager, hotel recreational facilities........................... 46 1351 Manager, liquor establishment.....................................68 1359 Manager, travel agency.................................................70 1250 Manager, vehicle leasing and rental............................. 56 3240 Producer.......................................................................197 3240 Producer.......................................................................197 3240 Producer, assistant....................................................... 197 1353 Superintendent, building................................................ 62 1351 Dietary manager............................................................ 68 1351 Director, food and beverage.......................................... 68 1352 Recreation supervisor...................................................133 1132 Apprenticeship consultant............................................. 59 1134 Director, medical facilities section.................................44 1370 Director, merit system................................................... 59 1120 Manager,city.................................................................42 1370 Property-utilization officer........................................... 20 1131 Superintendent, industries, correctional facility............30 1370 Unclaimed property officer............................................20 1920 Planner, program services............................................129 1139 Commissioner of conciliation.........................................59 1260 Director, research and development.............................. 34 1250 Manager, customer technical services........................... 56 1210 Manager, industrial organization...................................70 1419 User representative, international accounting...............36 1320 Director, quality assurance........................................... 48 1210 Manager, bakery............................................................ 70 1353 Business-opportunity-and-property-investment broker .........................................................................62   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  189167014 1390 Director, service........................................................... 70 189167018 1390 Management trainee..................................................... 70 189167042 1320 Superintendent, labor utilization................................. 48 189167046 1320 Superintendent, maintenance....................................... 48 189267010 2032 Field representative..................................................... 136 191117030 1353 Lease buyer................................................................... 62 191117042 1353 Permit agent, geophysical prospecting........................ 62 191117046 1353 Right-of-way agent.......................................................62 191117050 1353 Right-of-way supervisor............................................... 62 191167022 4783 Service representative..................................................253 191267010 4123 Appraiser, real estate..................................................241 193162010 3920 Air-traffic coordinator................................................ 220 193162014 3920 Air-traffic-control specialist, station ......................... 220 193162018 3920 Air-traffic-control specialist, tower............................ 220 193167010 3920 Chief controller........................................................... 220 193167014 3930 Field supervisor, broadcast........................................ 222 193262018 3930 Field engineer..............................................................222 193262038 3930 Transmitter operator..................................................222 194062010 3990 Television technician ................................................. 222 194122010 3930 Access coordinator, cable television...........................222 194262010 3930 Audio operator............................................................ 222 194262014 3719 Sound controller......................................................... 222 194262018 3719 Sound mixer................................................................. 222 194262022 3930 Master control operator ............................................. 222 194282010 3930 Video operator............................................................ 222 194362010 3719 Recording engineer.....................................................222 194362014 3719 Rerecording mixer...................................................... 222 194362018 3930 Telecine operator........................................................222 194362022 3930 Technician, news gathering........................................ 222 194381010 3711 Technical testing engineer.......................................... 228 194382010 3719 Section-plotter operator ............................................. 228 194382014 3719 Tape transferrer...........................................................222 194382018 3930 Videotape operator .....................................................222 195107010 2032 Caseworker................................................................. 136 195107014 2032 Caseworker, child welfare.......................................... 136 195107018 2032 Caseworker, family..................................................... 136 195107022 2032 Social group worker ....................................................136 195107026 2032 Social worker, delinquency prevention.......................136 195107030 2032 Social worker, medical.................................................136 195107034 2032 Social worker, psychiatric...........................................136 195107038 2032 Social worker, school.................................................. 136 195107042 2032 Correctional-treatment specialist................................136 195107046 2032 Probation-and-parole officer ...................................... 136 195137010 2032 Casework supervisor....................................................136 195164010 2032 Group worker.............................................................. 136 195167010 2032 Community organization worker................................136 195167014 2032 Community-relations-and-servicesadvisor, public ..136 195227010 2033 Program aide, group work...........................................133 195227014 2033 Recreation leader........................................................ 133 195227018 2350 Teacher, home therapy............................................... 153 195227018 2350 Teacher, home therapy............................................... 168 195267010 4784 Eligibility worker........................................................ 253 195267018 2032 Patient-resources-and-reimbursement agent..............136 195267022 2032 Child support officer....................................................136 195367010 2032 Case aide...................................................................... 132 195367014 2032 Management aide............... ,.......................................132 195367018 2032 Community worker..................................................... 132 195367022 2032 Food-management aide............................................... 132 195367026 5133 Preparole-counseling aide...........................................136 195367034 2032 Social-services aide.......................................................132 196167010 8250 Chief pilot.................................................................... 218 196167014 8250 Navigator.................................................................... 218 196223010 8250 Instructor, flying I.......................................................218 196223014 8250 Instructor, pilot........................................................... 218 196263010 8250 Airplane pilot.............................................................. 218 196263014 8250 Airplane pilot, commercial.........................................218 196263018 8250 Airplane pilot, photogrammetry ................................218 196263022 8250 Check pilot...................................................................218 196263026 8250 Controller, remotely-piloted vehicle........................... 218 196263030 8250 Executive pilot.............................................................218 196263034 8250 Facilities-flight-check pilot.........................................218 196263038 8250 Helicopter pilot........................................................... 218 196263042 8250 Test pilot......................................................................218 197130010 8244 Engineer ......................................................................447 197133010 8241 Captain, fishing vessel.................................................329 197133014 8241 Master, yacht.............................................................. 447 197133018 8241 Mate, fishing vessel..................................................... 329 197133018 8241 Mate, fishing vessel..................................................... 447 197133022 8241 Mate, ship.................................................................... 447 197133026 8241 Pilot, ship..................................................................... 447 197133030 8242 Tugboat captain........................................................... 447  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  197133034 8242 Tugboat mate.............................................................. 447 197137010 8242 Dredge mate............................................................... 447 197161010 8242 Dredge captain............................................................ 447 197163010 8241 Ferryboat captain.........................................................447 197163014 8242 Master, passenger barge.............................................. 447 197163018 8241 Master, riverboat ........................................................ 447 197167010 8241 Master, ship.................................................................. 447 198167010 8113 Conductor, passenger car.............................................440 198167014 8113 Conductor, pullman.................................................... 440 198167018 8113 Conductor, road freight................................................440 199167014 1920 Urban planner..............................................................129 199261014 3990 Parking analyst............................................................ 228 199267014 1739 Cryptanalyst...................................................................94 199281010 3990 Gemologist....................................................................400 201162010 4622 Social secretary............................................................ 286 201362010 4622 Legal secretary..............................................................286 201362014 4622 Medical secretary......................................................... 286 201362018 4622 Membership secretary................................................. 286 201362022 4622 School secretary............................................................ 286 201362026 4622 Script supervisor.......................................................... 286 201362030 4622 Secretary.......................................................................286 202362010 4623 Shorthand reporter......................................................287 202362014 4623 Stenographer.................................................................287 202362018 4623 Stenographer, print shop ............................................ 287 202362022 4623 Stenotype operator....................................................... 287 202382010 4623 Stenocaptioner............................................................. 287 203362010 4624 Clerk-typist.................................................................. 292 203362014 4649 Credit reporting clerk...................................................267 203362026 3290 Caption writer..............................................................187 203382014 4699 Cancellation clerk......................................................... 253 203382018 4793 Magnetic-tape-composer operator...............................292 203382026 4793 Varitype operator......................................................... 292 203382030 4624 Word processing machine operator ........................... 292 203562010 4733 Wire-transfer clerk....................................................... 290 203582010 4793 Braille operator............................................................ 292 203582014 4793 Braille typist.................................................................292 203582038 4793 Perforator typist.......................................................... 292 203582042 4793 Photocomposing-perforator-machine operator..........292 203582046 4793 Photocomposition-keyboard operator.........................292 203582050 4733 Telegraphic-typewriter operator..................................290 203582054 4793 Data entry clerk............................................................ 292 203582058 4623 Transcribing-machine operator..................................287 203582062 4793 Typesetter-perforator operator....................................292 203582066 4624 Typist........................................................................... 292 203582078 4624 Notereader....................................................................292 205362010 4692 Civil-service clerk......................................................... 285 205362014 4692 Employment clerk....................................................... 285 205362018 4642 Hospital-admitting clerk.............................................. 266 205362022 4692 Identification clerk........................................................285 205362026 4642 Customer service representative.................................. 266 205362030 4642 Outpatient-admitting clerk..........................................266 205367014 4642 Charge-account clerk...................................................266 205367018 4782 Claims clerk II..............................................................253 205367022 4642 Credit clerk.................................................................. 262 205367026 4642 Creel clerk ....................................................................266 205367034 4787 License clerk.................................................................253 205367038 4645 Registrar.......................................................................267 205367042 4642 Registration clerk......................................................... 266 205367046 4784 Rehabilitation clerk...................................................... 253 205367054 4642 Survey worker ..............................................................266 205367058 4642 Traffic checker..............................................................266 205367062 4692 Referral clerk, temporary help agency ....................... 285 205567010 4692 Benefits clerk II............................................................ 285 206367014 4696 File clerk II .................................................................. 281 206367018 4696 Tape librarian............................................................... 281 206387010 4696 Classification clerk....................................................... 281 206387014 4696 Fingerprint clerk II......................................................281 206387022 4696 Record clerk.................................................................281 206387034 4696 File clerk I ....................................................................281 208382010 4793 Terminal-makeup operator.........................................292 209362018 4783 Credit reference clerk...................................................262 209362026 4692 Personnel clerk..............................................................285 209362030 4630 Congressional-district aide ..........................................263 209367042 4753 Reconsignment clerk ...................................................274 209367042 4753 Reconsignment clerk ...................................................275 209382010 4624 Continuity clerk ...........................................................292 209382014 4799 Special-certificate dictator........................................... 253 209387018 4664 Contact clerk.................................................................283 209387026 4694 Library clerk, talking books........................................282 209562010 4630 Clerk, general............................................................... 263 209567014 4364 Order clerk, food and beverage....................................235  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  475  Page  209587018 4744 Direct-mail clerk........................................................... 269 209687010 4792 Checker II...................................................................... 280 209687014 4742 Mail handler................................................................. 275 209687018 4699 Reviewer........................................................................253 209687026 4744 Mail clerk...................................................................... 269 210362010 4712 Distribution-accounting clerk......................................280 210367010 4712 Account-information clerk.......................................... 280 210367014 4712 Foreign-exchange-position clerk................................. 280 210382010 4712 Audit clerk.................................................................... 280 210382014 4712 Bookkeeper...................................................................280 210382030 4712 Classification-control clerk.......................................... 280 210382038 4712 Credit-card clerk........................................................... 280 210382042 4712 Fixed-capital clerk........................................................ 280 210382046 4712 General-ledger bookkeeper.......................................... 280 210382050 4712 Mortgage-loan-computation clerk............................... 280 210382054 4712 Night auditor................................................................280 210382062 4712 Securities clerk.............................................................. 280 211362010 4364 Cashier I..................................................................... 235 211362014 4791 Foreign banknote teller-trader................................... 257 211362018 4791 Teller........................................................................... 257 211367010 4364 Paymaster of purses...................................................... 235 211382010 4791 Teller, vault.................................................................257 211462010 4364 Cashier II....................................................................235 211462014 4364 Cashier-checker...........................................................235 211462018 4364 Cashier-wrapper......................................................... 235 211462022 4364 Cashier, gambling........................................................235 211462026 4364 Check cashier..............................................................235 211462030 4364 Drivers’-cash clerk...................................................... 235 211462034 4364 Teller..............................................................................235 211462038 4364 Toll collector................................................................. 235 211467010 4364 Cashier, courtesy booth................................................ 235 211467014 4364 Money counter.............................................................. 235 211467018 4364 Parimutuel-ticket cashier............................................. 235 211467022 4364 Parimutuel-ticket seller................................................ 235 211467026 4364 Sheet writer................................................................... 235 211467030 4364 Ticket seller...................................................................235 211467034 4364 Change person.............................................................. 235 211482010 4364 Cashier, tube room...................................................... 235 211482014 4718 Food checker................................................................279 211482018 4364 Food-and-beverage checker....................................... 279 213362010 4612 Computer operator.....................................................260 213382010 4613 Computer peripheral equipment operator................. 260 213582010 4613 Digitizer operator........................................................ 260 214267010 4716 Rate analyst, freight................................................... 279 214362010 4715 Demurrage clerk..........................................................279 214362014 4715 Documentation-billing clerk....................................... 279 214362022 4715 Insurance clerk.............................................................279 214362026 4715 Invoice-control clerk....................................................279 214362038 4716 Traffic-rate clerk........................................................... 279 214362042 4715 Billing clerk...................................................................279 214362046 4699 Statement clerk.............................................................280 214382014 4715 Billing typist............................................................. 279 214382018 4715 C.o.d. clerk................................................................... 279 214382022 4716 Interline clerk...............................................................279 214382026 4716 Revising clerk...............................................................279 214382030 4716 Settlement clerk............................................................279 214387010 4715 Billing-control clerk....................................................279 214387014 4716 Rate reviewer...............................................................279 214387018 4716 Services clerk................................................................ 279 214462010 4718 Accounts-adjustable clerk...........................................279 214467010 4716 Foreign clerk................................................................ 279 214467014 4716 Pricer, message and delivery service........................... 279 214482010 4718 Billing-machine operator............................................ 279 214482014 4715 Deposit-refund clerk.................................................... 279 214482018 4716 Medical-voucher clerk........................................... 279 214482022 4716 Rater.............................................................................279 214587010 4716 Telegraph-service rater........................................ 279 214587014 4753 Traffic clerk...................................................... 274 214587014 4753 Traffic clerk.................................................................. 275 215167010 4752 Car clerk, pullman....................................................... 272 215362018 4713 Flight-crew-time clerk................................................. 284 215362022 4713 Timekeeper .................................................................. 284 215367018 4751 Taxicab coordinator.................................................... 272 215382014 4713 Payroll clerk.................................................................284 215563010 4745 Caller.............................................................................269 216362014 4712 Collection clerk............................................................ 280 216362022 4718 Food-and-beverage controller.....................................280 216362026 4712 Mortgage-accounting clerk..........................................280 216362034 4712 Reserves clerk............................................................... 280 216362038 4712 Electronic funds transfer coordinator........................ 280 216362042 4712 Margin clerk 1............................................................... 280  476  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  216362046 216382022 216382026 216382034 216382046 216382050 216382054 216382058 216482010 216482018 216482022 216482026 216482030 216482034 216587010 217382010 219362010 219362018 219362022 219362026 219362038 219362042 219362050 219362054 219362066 219362074 219367014 219367018 219367022 219367022 219367030 219367030 219367042 219367046 219367050 219387026 219387030 219462010 219467010 219482010 219482014 219487010 219587010 221362014 221362018 221367014 221367022 221367070 221367082 221587018 221587022 222167010 222367014 222367022 222367026 222367038 222367042 222367050 222367062 222367066 222387014 222387018 222387022 222387026 222387030 222387034 222387038 222387042 222387050 222387050 222387054 222387058 222387062 222485010 222487010 222487014 222567010 222567014 222567018 222587014 222587018  4699 Transfer clerk.............................................................. 280 4712 Budget clerk ............................................................... 280 4712 Clearing-house clerk................................................... 280 4716 Cost clerk.................................................................... 279 4699 Margin clerk II.............................................................280 4718 Policy-value calculator...............................................279 4716 Receipt-and-report clerk..............................................279 4712 Retumed-item clerk....................................................280 4712 Accounting clerk..........................................................280 4718 Audit-machine operator............................................. 279 4718 Calculating-machine operator.................................... 279 4712 Dividend-deposit-voucher clerk................................. 280 4363 Laundry pricing clerk.................................................. 236 4712 Dividend clerk.............................................................280 4712 Booking clerk.............................................................. 280 4718 Proof-machine operator..............................................279 4630 Administrative clerk....................................................263 4699 Brokerage clerk II .......................................................280 4630 Clerk, telegraph service............................................... 263 4630 Contract clerk, automobile.........................................263 4799 Mortgage-closing clerk............................................... 262 4699 Policy-change clerk..................................................... 253 4699 Revival clerk................................................................253 4699 Securities clerk............................................................. 280 4712 Voucher clerk...............................................................280 4622 Trust operations assistant............................................ 286 4699 Insurance clerk............................................................. 253 4754 Merchandise distributor..............................................273 4753 Paper-control clerk..................................................... 274 4753 Paper-control clerk..................................................... 275 4753 Shipping-order clerk...................................................274 4753 Shipping-order clerk................................................... 275 4712 Canceling and cutting control clerk...........................280 4649 Disbursement clerk.....................................................262 4712 Letter-of-credit clerk................................................... 280 4754 Space-and-storage clerk.............................................. 273 4754 Stock control clerk...................................................... 273 4791 Coupon clerk............................................................... 257 4795 Grading clerk..............................................................289 4699 Brokerage clerk I ........................................................280 4699 Insurance checker........................................................253 4712 Tax clerk..................................................................... 280 4712 Parimutuel-ticket checker.......................................... 280 4751 Dispatcher, relay......................................................... 272 4752 Estimator, paperboard boxes........................................28 4752 Estimator, printing .......................................................28 4753 Industrial-order clerk..................................................274 4751 Service clerk................................................................. 272 4751 Work-order-sorting clerk............................................272 4754 Odd-piece checker...................................................... 273 4754 Outsole scheduler........................................................273 4754 Metal-control coordinator.......................................... 273 4754 Cut-file clerk................................................................273 4744 Express clerk................................................................269 4754 Film-or-tape librarian..................................................273 4754 Magazine keeper..........................................................273 4754 Parts clerk.................................................................... 273 4754 Prescription clerk, lens-and-frames.............................273 4754 Tool-crib attendant.....................................................273 4754 Truckload checker...................................................... 274 4753 Car checker................................................................. 274 4754 Fuel-oil clerk................................................................273 4753 Gun-repair clerk..........................................................274 4754 Inventory clerk.............................................................273 4754 Linen-room attendant .................................................273 4754 Material clerk.............................................................. 273 4744 Parcel post clerk..........................................................269 4754 Property custodian.......................................................273 4753 Shipping and receiving clerk........................................274 4753 Shipping and receiving clerk........................................275 4753 Sorter-pricer................................................................274 4754 Stock clerk................................................................... 273 4754 Storekeeper ................................................................. 273 4753 Milk-receiver, tank truck............................................ 274 4754 Checker, bakery products ...........................................273 4754 Order filler................................................................... 273 4753 Grain elevator clerk..................................................... 274 4753 Ship runner................................................................. 274 4744 Slot-tag inserter........................................................... 269 4694 Braille-and-talking books clerk................................... 282 4753 Distributing clerk........................................................ 274   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  222587018 222587022 222587030 222587032 222587034 222587034 222587054 222587058 222684010 222687022 222687022 222687030 222687030 222687038 222687046 229367010 229367014 229587014 230363010 230367010 230647010 230663010 235222010 235222010 235462010 235562014 235662014 235662018 235662022 235662026 236252010 236562010 236562014 237267010 237367010 237367014 237367018 237367022 237367026 237367034 237367038 237367042 237367046 237367050 238167010 238167014 238362014 238367010 238367014 238367018 238367022 238367026 238367030 238367034 238367038 239137010 239167014 239227010 239267010 239367014 239367018 239367022 239367026 239367030 239382010 239567010 239677010 239687010 239687014 241217010 241267010 241267014 241267018 241267026 241267030 241267030 241267034 241357010 241362010 241367010 241367014  4753 Distributing clerk........................................................275 4754 Kitchen clerk .............................................................. 273 4744 Mailer.......................................................................... 269 4744 Mailer apprentice........................................................ 269 4753 Route-delivery clerk....................................................274 4753 Route-delivery clerk....................................................275 4754 Transformer-stock clerk............................................. 273 4753 Vault worker................................................................274 4754 Meat clerk.................................................................... 273 4753 Routing clerk.............................................................. 274 4753 Routing clerk ..............................................................275 4756 Shipping checker..........................................................274 4756 Shipping checker..........................................................275 4754 Tooth clerk................................................................... 273 4754 Protective-clothing issuer............................................273 4754 Field recorder.............................................................. 273 4754 Parts lister.................................................................... 273 4754 Quality-control clerk .................................................. 273 4743 Rural mail carrier........................................................ 275 4743 Mail carrier................................................................. 275 4745 Singing messenger.......................................................269 4745 Deliverer, outside........................................................ 269 2390 Private-branch-exchange service adviser.................... 143 2390 Private-branch-exchange service adviser....................290 4732 Central-office operator.................................................290 4732 Switchboard operator, police district..........................290 4732 Communication-center operator................................290 4732 Directory-assistance operator.................................... 290 4732 Telephone operator..................................................... 290 4739 Telephone-answering-service operator.......................290 4152 Representative, personal service................................. 248 4733 Telegrapher................................................................. 290 4733 Telegrapher agent.........................................................290 4649 Information clerk, automobile club ........................... 267 4645 Appointment clerk.......................................................267 4783 Call-out operator.......................................................... 262 4649 Information clerk.........................................................267 4645 Information clerk.........................................................267 4649 Land-leasing examiner.................................................267 4649 Pay-station attendant.................................................. 290 4645 Receptionist..................................................................267 4649 Referral-and-information aide.....................................267 4649 Telephone quotation clerk...........................................267 4649 Tourist-information assistant...................................... 267 4644 Travel clerk..................................................................268 4644 Travel counselor, automobile club.............................. 268 4644 Reservation clerk.........................................................268 4644 Gate agent ................................................................... 268 4644 Reservation clerk.........................................................268 4644 Reservations agent....................................................... 268 4649 Space scheduler............................................................267 4644 Ticket agent..................................................................268 4644 Travel clerk..................................................................268 4649 Scheduler...................................................................... 267 4643 Hotel clerk................................................................... 266 1283 Commercial-instructor supervisor.................................30 4751 Dispatcher................................................................... 272 2390 Customer-service-representative instructor................143 4122 Placer........................................................................... 237 4751 Dispatcher, maintenance service................................ 272 4742 Mail-distribution-scheme examiner............................275 4751 Receiver-dispatcher......................................................272 4739 Service observer............................................................290 4751 Dispatcher, street department.....................................272 4733 Wire-photo operator, news......................................... 290 4745 Office helper................................................................ 269 4745 Messenger, copy.......................................................... 269 4745 Route aide..................................................................... 269 4745 Tube operator............................................................... 269 4782 Claim adjuster ............................................................. 253 4692 Agent-contract clerk.................................................... 285 4782 Appraiser, automobile damage....................................253 4782 Claim examiner............................................................ 253 4716 Deposit clerk.................................................................279 4783 Investigator.................................................................. 253 4783 Investigator................................................................262 4783 Investigator, utility-bill complaints............................. 253 4786 Collection clerk............................................................253 4782 Claims clerk I............................................................... 253 4786 Collector.......................................................................253 4783 Customer-complaint clerk........................................... 253  Page  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  241367018 1415 Loan interviewer, mortgage....................................... 262 241367022 4786 Repossessor..................................................................253 241367026 4783 Skip tracer ................................................................... 279 241367030 4783 Throw-out clerk ..........................................................279 241367034 4783 Tire adjuster................................................................ 253 241387010 4783 Claims clerk..................................................................253 243362014 4630 Police aide.....................................................................263 243367010 4744 Mail censor................................................................... 269 243367014 4742 Post-office clerk............................................................275 245362014 4630 Unit clerk.....................................................................263 245367010 4630 Animal-hospital clerk.................................................. 263 245367014 4630 Blood-donor-unit assistant .........................................263 245367018 4630 Calendar-control clerk, blood bank ........................... 263 245367026 4664 Order-control clerk, blood bank................................. 283 248362010 4753 Incoming-freight clerk.................................................274 248367014 4753 Booking clerk...............................................................274 248367022 4753 Container coordinator.................................................274 248367026 4751 Dispatcher, ship pilot.................................................. 272 248367030 4745 Waterway traffic checker............................................ 269 248382010 4644 Ticketing clerk.............................................................268 249167014 4751 Dispatcher, motor vehicle.......................................... 272 249262010 4649 Policyholder-information clerk...................................267 249362010 4363 Counter clerk ...............................................................236 249362014 4799 Mortgage clerk............................................................. 262 249362018 4799 Mortgage loan closer....................................................262 249362022 4799 Mortgage loan processor............................................. 262 249362026 4664 Order clerk................................................................... 283 249363010 4694 Bookmobile driver.......................................................282 249365010 4694 Registration clerk........................................................ 282 249366010 4363 Counter clerk...............................................................236 249367010 4630 Animal-shelter clerk....................................................263 249367014 4630 Career-guidance technician......................................... 263 249367022 4799 Credit authorizer........................................................ 262 249367030 4787 Dog licenser................................................................. 253 249367034 4716 Evaluator .....................................................................279 249367042 4664 Gas-distribution-and-emergency clerk.......................283 249367046 4694 Library assistant..........................................................282 249367058 4754 Parts-order-and-stock clerk ....................................... 273 249367070 4751 Routing clerk ...............................................................272 249367074 4795 Teacher aide II.............................................................289 249367082 4645 Park aide...................................................................... 267 249367086 4795 Satellite-instruction facilitator.................................... 289 249367090 4692 Assignment clerk........................................................ 285 249467010 4364 Information clerk-cashier............................................ 235 249687010 4744 Office copy selector..................................................... 269 249687014 4694 Page..............................................................................282 250157010 4123 Superintendent, sales.................................................. 241 250257010 4122 Sales agent, insurance.................................................. 237 250257014 4100 Financial planner........................................................ 246 250257018 4124 Registered representative............................................ 246 250257022 4124 Sales representative, financial services........................ 246 250357010 4123 Building consultant..................................................... 241 250357014 4123 Leasing agent, residence..............................................241 250357018 4123 Sales agent, real estate.................................................241 250357022 4152 Sales representative..................................................... 248 250357026 4124 Sales agent, financial-report service........................... 246 251157014 4152 Sales representative, data processing services............248 251257014 4152 Sales agent,psychological tests and industrial relations....................................................................248 251357010 4152 Sales agent, business services......................................248 251357018 4152 Sales agent, pest control service ................................. 248 251357022 4152 Sales representative, franchise.................................... 248 251357026 4152 Sales representative, herbicide service........................248 252152010 4369 Travel agent................................................................. 250 252257010 4152 Traffic agent ................................................................248 252357010 4152 Crating-and-moving estimator...................................248 252357014 4152 Sales representative, shipping services........................248 253157010 4152 Communications consultant....................................... 248 253257010 4152 Sales representative, telephone services ..................... 248 253357010 4152 Sales representative, public utilities.............................248 254251010 4153 Sales representative, graphic art................................. 248 254257010 4153 Sales representative, signs and displays...................... 248 254357010 4153 Leasing agent, outdoor advertising.............................248 254357014 4153 Sales representative, advertising................................. 248 254357018 4152 Sales representative, printing......................................248 254357022 4153 Sales representative, signs .......................................... 248 259157010 4369 Sales representative, audiovisual program produc­ tions ..........................................................................248 259157014 4152 Sales representative, hotel services ............................ 248 259257010 4369 Sales representative, education courses...................... 248  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  259257018  4152Service representative, elevators, escalators, and dumbwaiters...............................................................248 4152 Sales representative, security systems........................ 248 4369 Group-sales representative..........................................248 4369 Sales representative, dancing instructions.................. 248 4153 Sales representative, radio and television time ...........248 4369 Sales representative, television cable service............... 248 4348Sales representative, upholstery and furniture repair......................................................................... 248 4152 Sales representative, weather-forecasting service....... 248 4369 Ticket broker.................................................................248 4152 Tobacco-warehouse agent........................................... 248 4153 Sales-promotion representative................................... 248 4369 Sales representative, automotive-leasing.................... 248 4369 Salesperson, burial needs.............................................248 8218 Driver, sales route....................................................... 444 8218 Newspaper-delivery driver ..........................................444 8218 Lunch-truck driver...................................................... 444 8218 Coin collector............................................................... 444 8218 Driver helper, sales route.............................................444 4369 Fund raiser I.................................................................248 4369 Blood-donor recruiter................................................. 248 4369 Fund raiser II............................................................... 248 4450 Membership solicitor...................................................248 4364 Auction clerk ............................................................... 235 4363 Apparel-rental clerk.................................................... 236 4363 Tool-and-equipment-rental clerk................................ 236 4363 Furniture-rental consultant..........................................236 4363 Airplane-charter clerk................................................. 236 4363 Baby-stroller and wheelchair rental clerk.................. 236 4664 Film-rental clerk...........................................................283 4363 Storage-facility rental clerk..........................................236 4363 Bicycle-rental clerk......................................................236 4363 Boat-rental clerk...........................................................236 4363 Hospital-television-rental clerk................................... 236 4363 Trailer-rental clerk....................................................... 236 4363 Automobile rental clerk.............................................. 236 4030 Manager, department.....................................................70 4030 Supervisor, marina sales and service............................. 70 4490 Optician, dispensing.................................................... 206 4490 Optician apprentice, dispensing..................................206 4362 Stock clerk....................................................................273 4363 Watch-and-clock-repair clerk.....................................236 4362 Sales attendant, building materials.............................273 5050 Housekeeper, home......................................................325 5070 House worker, general................................................. 325 5060 Child monitor............................................................... 325 5070 Caretaker ..................................................................... 325 5020 Day worker.................................................................. 325 5030 Laundry worker, domestic........................................... 325 5030 Ironer........................................................................... 325 5040 Cook.............................................................................325 5050 Butler........................................................................... 325 5263 Homemaker.................................................................. 322 5050 Butler, second............................................................... 325 5090 Personal attendant....................................................... 325 5211 Host hostess, restaurant.............................................. 306 1420 Analyst, food and beverage............................................54 5213 Wine steward stewardess.............................................306 5216 Fast-foods worker......................................................... 306 5216 Carhop ........................................................................ 306 5216 Counter attendant, lunchroom or coffee shop............306 5213 Waiter waitress, bar......................................................306 5213 Waiter waitress, dining car......................................... 306 5213 Waiter waitress, formal................................................306 5213 Waiter waitress, informal.............................................306 5216 Waiter waitress, room service .....................................306 5216 Waiter waitress, take out.............................................306 5216 Canteen operator .........................................................306 5217 Raw shellfish preparer................................................. 304 5213 Waiter waitress, buffet................................................. 306 5218 Cafeteria attendant ......................................................306 5216 Counter attendant, cafeteria........................................306 5218 Dining room attendant................................................306 5212 Bartender..................................................................... 306 5212 Bar attendant............................................................... 306 5212 Taproom attendant......................................................306 5218 Bartender helper.......................................................... 306 5214 Chefdefroid.................................................................304 5214 Baker, second...............................................................304 5214 Cook.............................................................................304  259257022 259357010 259357014 259357018 259357022 259357026 259357030 259357034 259357038 269357018 273357014 279357042 292353010 292363010 292463010 292483010 292667010 293157010 293357010 293357014 293357022 294567010 295357010 295357014 295357018 295367010 295367014 295367018 295367026 295467010 295467014 295467018 295467022 295467026 299137010 299137026 299361010 299361014 299367014 299367018 299677014 301137010 301474010 301677010 301687010 301687014 302685010 302687010 305281010 309137010 309354010 309674010 309674014 310137010 310267010 310357010 311472010 311477010 311477014 311477018 311477022 311477026 311477030 311477034 311477038 311674010 311674014 311674018 311677010 11677014 311677018 312474010 312477010 312677010 312687010 313281010 313361010 313361014  D.O.T. Title  477  Page  478  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  313361018 313361026 313361030 313361034 313361038 313374010 313374014 313381010 313381014 313381018 313381022 313381026 313381030 313381034 313684010 313687010 315361010 315361022 315371010 315381010 315381014 315381018 315381022 315381026 316661010 316681010 316684010 316684014 316684018 316684022 317384010 317664010 317684010 317684014 317687010 318687010 318687014 318687018 319137014 319137018 319137030 319464014 319474010 319484010 319677014 319687010 320137010 320137014 321137010 321137014 323137010 323687010 323687014 323687018 330371010 330371014 331674010 331674014 332271010 332271014 332271018 332361010 333071010 333271010 339361010 339371010 339371014 339687010 350137026 350677010 350677026 350677030 352167010 352367010 352677018 354374010 354377010 354377014 354677010 355377014 355377018  5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5215 5215 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5219 5219 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5217 6871 5217 5217 6871 6871 5217 5217 5217 5217 5219 5219 5219 5219 5211 5211 5211 5219 5216 5219 5216 5218 1351 1351 5241 5241 5241 5242 5242 5242 5252 5252 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 4754 5241 5213 5213 5213 5269 5257 5213 3660 5236 5236 5236 5236 5233  Page  Cook apprentice ...........................................................304 Cook, specialty............................................................. 304 Cook, specialty, foreign food ....................................... 304 Garde manger............................................................... 304 Pie maker..................................................................... 304 Cook, fast food............................................................. 304 Cook, short order.........................................................304 Baker.............................................................................304 Baker, pizza.................................................................. 304 Cook apprentice, pastry .............................................. 304 Cook, barbecue ............................................................ 304 Cook, pastry .................................................................304 Cook, school cafeteria................................................. 304 Ice-cream chef............................................................. 304 Bakerhelper ................................................................ 304 Cook helper, pastry......................................................304 Cook.............................................................................304 Cook, station................................................................ 304 Cook, mess................................................................... 304 Cook.............................................................................304 Cook, larder.................................................................. 304 Cook, railroad............................................................... 304 Cook, third....................................................................304 Second cook and baker ................................................304 Carver........................................................................... 304 Butcher, meat...............................................................396 Butcher, chicken and fish.............................................396 Deli cutter-slicer.......................................................... 304 Meat cutter....................................................................396 Meat-cutter apprentice................................................396 Salad maker..................................................................304 Sandwich maker.......................................................... 304 Coffee maker................................................................ 304 Pantry goods maker......................................................304 Cook helper..................................................................304 Kitchen helper............................................................. 304 Scullion ........................................................................ 304 Silver wrapper............................................................. 304 Manager, flight kitchen................................................. 68 Manager, industrial cafeteria........................................68 Kitchen supervisor........................................................ 68 Vending-machine attendant........................................ 366 Fountain server............................................................306 Food assembler, kitchen.............................................. 304 Food-service worker, hospital..................................... 306 Counter-supply worker................................................306 Manager, boarding house..............................................46 Manager, lodging facilities............................................ 46 Housekeeper................................................................ 324 Inspector.......................................................................324 Supervisor, housecleaner.............................................324 Cleaner, hospital.......................................................... 324 Cleaner, housekeeping................................................. 324 Housecleaner................................................................ 324 Barber........................................................................... 315 Barber apprentice.........................................................315 Manicurist....................................................................315 Fingernail former.........................................................315 Cosmetologist............................................................... 315 Cosmetologist apprentice.............................................315 Hairstylist....................................................................315 Wigdresser....................................................................315 Make-up artist............................................................. 315 Body-make-up artist.................................................... 315 Mortuary beautician.................................................... 315 Electrologist ................................................................ 315 Scalp-treatment operator.............................................315 Supply clerk.................................................................. 273 Steward stewardess, third.............................................324 Mess attendant............................................................. 306 Steward stewardess, wine.............................................306 Waiter waitress ........................................................... 306 Director, social..............................................................133 Airplane-flight attendant.............................................319 Waiter waitress, club.................................................... 306 Nurse, practical............................................................ 311 Birth attendant..............................................................311 Home attendant............................................................322 First-aid attendant....................................................... 311 Psychiatric aide............................................................ 311 Mental-retardation aide ..............................................311   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 355667010 355674010 355674014 355674018 355677014 358687010 359673010 359673014 359677010 359677018 359677026 365361010 365361014 369367010 369367014 369467010 369477014 369677010 372167010 372367014 372563010 372567010 372567014 372667010 372667014 372667018 372667030 372667034 372667038 372677010 373134010 373167010 373167014 373167018 373267010 373267014 373267018 373363010 373364010 373367010 373663010 375227010 375362010 375367010 376667010 379162010 379362010 379362014 379362018 379667010 379687010 381137010 381687010 381687014 381687018 381687022 381687026 381687030 381687034 382664010 389664010 389667010 389683010 389687014 401161010 402161010 403161010 403161014 404161010 405161010 405161014 405161018 405361010 406381010 406683010 406684010 406684014 406684018 406687010 407161010 408161010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  5233 Morgue attendant......................................................... 310 5264 Child-care attendant, school........................................ 317 5236 Nurse assistant..............................................................311 5236 Orderly..........................................................................311 5269 Transporter, patients ..................................................311 5244 Change-house attendant.............................................. 324 8216 Chauffeur..................................................................... 442 8216 Chauffeur, funeral car................................................. 442 5264 Attendant, children s institution..................................317 5264 Nursery school attendant.............................................317 5264 Playroom attendant......................................................317 6854 Luggage repairer.......................................................... 423 6854 Shoe repairer................................................................ 423 4363 Fur-storage clerk.......................................................... 236 4363 Rug measurer...............................................................236 4363 Manager, branch store.................................................236 4363 Service-establishment attendant..................................236 4363 Self-service-laundry-and-dry-cleaning attendant.......236 4751 Dispatcher, security guard...........................................272 5133 Jailer............................................................................ 295 5144 Armored-car guard and driver................................... 299 5144 Armored-car guard..................................................... 299 5133 Guard, immigration.................................................... 295 5144 Airline security representative.................................... 299 5144 Bodyguard................................................................... 299 5133 Correction officer.........................................................295 5144 Gate guard................................................................... 299 5144 Guard, security............................................................299 5144 Merchant patroller....................................................... 299 5133 Patrol conductor.......................................................... 295 5111 Firecaptain..................................................................297 5111 Battalion chief............................................................. 297 5111 Captain, fire-prevention bureau................................. 297 5111 Firemarshal ................................................................ 297 5122 Fire inspector...............................................................297 5122 Firemarshal ................................................................ 297 5122 Fire-investigation lieutenant....................................... 297 5123 Fire chiefs aide............................................................. 297 5123 Firefighter................................................................... 297 5122 Fire inspector...............................................................297 5123 Fire fighter, crash, fire, and rescue.............................297 2249 Police-academy instructor........................................... 143 4630 Policeclerk................................................................... 263 5133 Police officer II ............................................................295 5144 Bouncer........................................................................299 4751 Alarm operator........................................................... 272 4751 Dispatcher, radio........................................................ 272 4739 Protective-signal operator.......................................... 290 4751 Telecommunicator...................................................... 272 5144 Golf-course ranger.......................................................299 5122 Fire-extinguisher-sprinklerinspector..........................297 5241 Supervisor, janitorial services......................................324 4754 Central-supply worker................................................ 273 5244 Cleaner, commercial or institutional..........................324 5244 Cleaner, industrial.......................................................324 5244 Cleaner, laboratory equipment...................................324 5244 Cleaner, wall................................................................324 5244 Patch worker................................................................324 5244 Waxer, floor................................................................. 324 5244 Janitor...........................................................................324 5244 Cleaner, home restoration service.............................. 324 5244 Sexton...........................................................................324 5244 Sweeper-cleaner, industrial.........................................324 5244 Cleaner, window..........................................................324 5513 Farmer, cash grain.......................................................327 5513 Farmer, vegetable........................................................ 327 5513 Farmer, tree-fruit-and-nut crops................................327 5513 Farmer, fruit crops, bush and vine.............................. 327 5513 Farmer, field crop........................................................ 327 5515 Bonsai culturist............................................................ 327 5515 Horticultural-specialty grower, field...........................327 5515 Horticultural-specialty grower, inside......................... 327 5515 Plant propagator...........................................................327 5622 Gardener, special effects and instruction models...... 321 5622 Greenskeeper II........................................................... 321 5622 Cemetery worker ........................................................321 5622 Groundskeeper, industrial-commercial.....................321 5622 Garden worker.............................................................321 5622 Landscape specialist................................................... 321 5512 Farmer, diversified crops............................................327 5622 Landscape gardener ................................................... 321  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number 408662010 408664010 408667010 408684010 408684014 408684018 408687014 410161014 410161018 410161022 410674010 410674022 411161014 411161018 412161010 412674010 412674014 413161010 413161014 418381010 418674010 418677010 421161010 441132010 446161010 446161014 441683010 441684010 441684014 441684018 441684022 442684010 443664010 443684010 446663010 446684010 446684014 446684018 446687010 446687014 447684010 447687010 447687014 447687018 447687022 447687026 449664010 449667010 449674010 449687010 451687010 451687014 451687018 451687022 452134010 452167010 452364010 452364014 452367010 452367014 452687010 452687014 452687018 453687010 453687014 454384010 454683010 454684010 454684014 454684018 454684022 454684026 454687010 454687014 454687018 455367010 455487010 455664010 455684010 455687010 459387010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  5616 Hydro-sprayer operator ............................................. 321 5730 Tree trimmer................................................................332 5730 Tree-trimmer helper................................................... 332 5622 Lawn-service worker................................................... 321 5614 Sprayer, hand.............................................................. 321 5614 Treepruner ................................................................. 321 5622 Laborer, landscape...................................................... 321 5514 Fur fanner...................................................................321 5514 Livestock rancher........................................................ 327 5514 Hog-confmement-system manager............................ 327 5624 Animal caretaker........................................................314 5624 Stable attendant........................................................... 314 5514 Poultry breeder........................................................... 327 5514 Poultry farmer.............................................................327 5514 Game-bird farmer........................................................ 327 5624 Animal keeper.............................................................314 5624 Animal-nursery worker...............................................314 5514 Beekeeper.................................................................... 327 5514 Reptile farmer.............................................................. 327 5624 Horseshoer...................................................................314 5624 Dog groomer................................................................314 5624 Dog bather...................................................................314 5512 Farmer, general...........................................................327 5830 Boatswain, otter trawler............................................. 329 5514 Fish farmer...................................................................329 5514 Shellfish grower...........................................................329 5830 Skiff operator.............................................................. 329 5830 Fisher, net.................................................................... 329 5830 Fisher, pot.................................................................... 329 5830 Fisher, terrapin...........................................................329 5830 Fisher, weir................................................................. 329 5830 Fisher, line.................................................................. 329 5830 Fisher, diving.............................................................. 329 5830 Fisher, spear................................................................329 5830 Shellfish dredge operator............................................329 5618 Fish hatchery worker..................................................329 5618 Shellfish-bed worker................................................... 329 5618 Soft crab shedder......................................................... 329 5625 Clam sorter .................................................................329 5618 Laborer, aquatic life ................................................... 329 5830 Sponge hooker............................................................ 329 5830 Dulser..........................................................................329 5830 Irish-moss bleacher.....................................................329 5830 Irish-moss gatherer.....................................................329 5830 Kelp cutter.................................................................. 329 5830 Sponge clipper............................................................ 329 5830 Net repairer.................................................................329 5830 Deckhand, fishing vessel............................................. 329 5624 Aquarist.......................................................................314 5830 Oyster floater..............................................................329 5720 Christmas-tree farm worker.......................................332 5720 Christmas-tree grader................................................. 332 5720 Seedling puller............................................................ 332 5720 Seedling sorter............................................................ 332 5111 Smoke jumper supervisor........................................... 297 5122 Firewarden.................................................................297 5720 Forester aide............................................................... 332 5123 Smokejumper..............................................................297 5122 Fire lookout.................................................................297 5122 Fire ranger.................................................................. 297 5720 Forest worker..............................................................332 5123 Forest-firefighter....................................................... 297 5720 Tree planter.................................................................332 5720 Forest-products gatherer........................................... 332 5720 Laborer, tree tapping ................................................. 332 5730 Fallerl........................................................................ 332 5730 Tree-shear operator.................................................... 332 5730 Bucker ........................................................................ 332 5730 Faller II.......................................................................332 5730 Logger, all-round........................................................332 5730 River........................................................................... 332 5730 Tree cutter..................................................................332 5730 Chain saw operator.................................................... 332 5730 Laborer, tanbark.........................................................332 5790 Log marker .................................................................332 7850 Log grader.................................................................. 332 5790 Log scaler....................................................................332 5790 Rafter..........................................................................332 5790 Log sorter....................................................................332 5790 Log marker.................................................................332 5790 Cruiser........................................................................ 332   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  459687010 461134010 461661010 461664010 461684010 461684014 461684018 522264010 525361010 525381010 525381014 525664010 525684010 525684014 525684018 525684022 525684030 525684038 525684046 525684050 525684054 525684058 525687074 553684010 559361010 579137030 600260022 600280022 600280026 600280030 600280034 600280042 600281010 600380010 601260010 601260014 601280010 601280014 601280018 601280022 601280030 601280034 601280042 601280058 601281010 601281014 601281026 601380010 601381010 601381014 601381022 601381026 601381030 601381034 601381042 609262010 613667010 614684010 620261010 620261012 620261022 620261030 620261034 620281010 620281026 620281034 620281038 620281042 620281046 620281050 620281054 620281058 620281062 620281066 620281070 620364010 620381010 620381014 620381022 620684018 620684022  5730 5840 5840 5840 5840 5840 5840 2390 6871 6871 6871 6871 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7753 7714 3690 7100 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6130 7329 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6829 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 3974 7714 7532 6111 6111 6117 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6117 6111 6112 6114 6112 6111 6111 6111 6115 6111 6117 6111 6111 6111  479  Page  Laborer, brush clearing................................................ 332 Expedition supervisor................................................... 329 Predatory-animal hunter............................................. 329 Underwater hunter-trapper.......................................... 329 Sealer..............................................................................329 Trapper, animal............................................................ 329 Trapper, bird................................................................. 329 Training technician...................................................... 143 Slaughterer, religious ritual..........................................396 Butcher apprentice........................................................396 Butcher, all-round........................................................396 Meat dresser................................................................. 396 Boner, meat...................................................................396 Butcher, fish................................................................. 396 Carcass splitter..............................................................396 Crab butcher................................................................. 396 Fish cleaner...................................................................396 Offal separator..............................................................396 Skinner.......................................................................... 396 Sticker, animal..............................................................396 Trimmer, meat..............................................................396 Turkey-roll maker........................................................396 Poultry eviscerator........................................................396 Heat welder, plastics.................................................... 408 Laboratory technician, pharmaceutical......................203 Dispatcher, concrete products..................................... 272 Machinist, experimental.............................................. 402 Machinist......................................................................402 Machinist apprentice...................................................402 Machinist apprentice, automotive...............................402 Machinist, automotive................................................. 402 Maintenance machinist................................................402 Fluid-power mechanic................................................. 402 Fixture maker............................................................... 402 Tool-and-die maker......................................................406 Tool-and-die-maker apprentice................................... 406 Die maker, stamping.................................................... 406 Die maker, trim............................................................ 406 Die maker, wire drawing.............................................406 Die sinker..................................................................... 406 Mold maker, die-casting and plastic molding............ 406 Tap-and-die-maker technician.....................................406 Toolmaker....................................................................406 Tool-maker apprentice................................................. 406 Die maker, bench, stamping........................................ 406 Die-try-out worker, stamping..................................... 406 Tool maker, bench....................................................... 406 Carbide operator.......................................................... 406 Diefinisher....................................................................406 Die maker..................................................................... 406 Die-maker apprentice...................................................406 Plastic tool maker.........................................................406 Plastic-fixture builder...................................................406 Saw maker ....................................................................406 Die maker, electronic...................................................406 Tool programmer, numerical control........................ 402 Liner assembler............................................................408 Billet assembler............................................................408 Automobile mechanic................................................. 338 Automobile-mechanic apprentice...............................338 Construction-equipment mechanic............................. 360 Automobile-service-station mechanic.........................338 Automotive-cooling-system diagnostic technician__338 Air-conditioning mechanic......................................... 338 Brake repairer............................................................... 338 Carburetor mechanic...................................................338 Front-end mechanic.................................................... 338 Logging-equipment mechanic.....................................360 Maintenance mechanic................................................341 Mechanic, industrial truck...........................................341 Motorcycle repairer......................................................362 Tractor mechanic.........................................................341 Transmission mechanic............................................... 338 Tune-up mechanic....................................................... 338 Vehicle-fuel-systems converter................................... 338 Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer..................................337 Automobile-radiator mechanic................................... 338 Mechanic, endless track vehicle..................................360 Repairer, heavy............................................................338 Brake adjuster...............................................................338 Clutch rebuilder .......................................................... 341  480  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number 620684026 620684034 621221010 621261018 621261022 621281014 621281018 621684014 623261010 623261014 623281038 623281042 624281010 624281014 624361014 624381010 624381014 624381018 624684010 625281010 625281014 625281018 625281022 625281026 625281030 625281034 625361010 625381010 629281018 633261010 633261014 633281010 633281014 633281018 633281022 633281030 637261010 637261014 637261018 637261026 637261030 637261034 637381010 637381014 638261010 638261014 638261018 638261026 638281018 638281022 639281014 653360010 653360018 653382010 653382014 653662010 653682010 653682014 653682018 653682022 653685010 653685014 653685022 653685026 653685030 659462010 669485010 683222010 689324010 692685146 693261022 700281010 700281014 700281022 700381030 700381042 700381046 706381010 706381030 706381046 709684086  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  6114 Motorcycle subassembly repairer................................ 362 6115 Used-car renovator..................................................... 337 2390 Field-service representative..........................................143 8250 Flight engineer.............................................................218 6116 Experimental aircraft mechanic................................. 335 6116 Airframe-and-power-plant mechanic........................ 335 6116 Airframe-and-power-plant-mechanic apprentice..... 335 6179 Reclamation worker....................................................335 6114 Experimental mechanic, outboard motors.................362 6114 Outboard-motor tester.................................................362 6114 Motorboat mechanic....................................................362 6114 Outboard-motor mechanic......................................... 362 6118 Farm-equipment mechanic I ......................................349 6118 Farm-equipment-mechanicapprentice.......................349 6118 Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment mechanic.................. 349 6118 Assembly repairer ...................................................... 349 6118 Farm-equipment mechanic II .................................... 349 6812 Farm-machinery set-up mechanic.............................. 349 6118 Greaser......................................................................... 349 6112 Diesel mechanic........................................................... 341 6112 Diesel-mechanic apprentice....................................... 341 6114 Engine repairer, service............................................... 362 6111 Fuel-injection servicer................................................ 338 6114 Gas-engine repairer..................................................... 362 6114 Power-saw mechanic .................................................. 362 6114 Small-engine mechanic...............................................362 6112 Diesel-engine erector.................................................. 341 6114 Engine repairer, production....................................... 362 6118 Dairy-equipment repairer .......................................... 349 6154 Assembly technician................................................... 346 6174 Mail-processing-equipment mechanic........................ 346 6174 Cash-register servicer.................................................. 346 6174 Dictating-transcribing-machine servicer................... 346 6174 Office-machine servicer...............................................346 6174 Office-machine-servicer apprentice.............................346 6174 Statistical-machine servicer.........................................346 6156 Air-conditioning installer-servicer, window unit...... 354 6160 Heating-and-air-conditioning installer-servicer........ 352 6179 Gas-appliance servicer................................................ 354 6160 Refrigeration mechanic...............................................352 6160 Solar-energy-system installer..................................... 352 6160 Air and hydronic balancing technician...................... 352 6160 Evaporative-cooler installer....................................... 352 6160 Refrigeration unit repairer.......................................... 352 6178 Automated equipment engineer-technician...............359 6178 Machinery erector...................................................... 359 6178 Manufacturer s service representative........................359 6178 Field service technician...............................................359 6178 Millwright .................................................................. 359 6178 Millwright apprentice..................................................359 6179 Coin-machine-service repairer....................................366 7449 Casing-in-line setter.................................................... 419 7449 Bindery-machine setter.............................................. 419 7649 Folding-machine operator..........................................419 7649 Collating-machine operator.......................................419 7449 Stitching-machine operator........................................ 419 7449 Book-sewing-machine operator II..............................419 7649 Covering-machine operator .......................................419 7449 Head-bander-and-liner operator.................................419 7449 Tinning-machine set-up operator...............................419 7649 Bindery worker.......................................................... 419 7649 Book-sewing-machine operator I...............................419 7649 Magazine repairer ......................................................419 7649 Rounding-and-backing-machine operator................419 7649 Spiral binder...............................................................419 4664 Electrotype servicer.................................................... 283 7639 Power-barker operator................................................332 2390 Instructor, weaving.....................................................143 2390 Instructor.................................................................... 143 7679 Saddle-and-side wire stitcher..................................... 419 6813 Rocket-motor mechanic.............................................335 6822 Jeweler........................................................................400 6822 Jeweler apprentice..................................................... 400 6822 Silversmith II............................................................. 400 6822 Locket maker............................................................. 400 6822 Ring maker ................................................................ 400 6822 Sample maker I.......................................................... 400 6174 Aligner, typewriter......................................................346 6174 Repairer, typewriter............................................... 346 6111 Wheelwright...............................................................338 7714 Torch-straightener-and heater................................... 408   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  711381010 712381014 712381018 712381022 712381026 712381030 712381042 712381046 712381050 713381010 713681010 714281018 715221010 716280010 716280014 716280018 716381014 716382010 716382014 716382018 716382022 716462010 716681010 716681014 716681018 716682014 716682018 720281010 720281014 720281018 721281022 722281010 723381010 723381014 723584010 726261010 726261014 726361022 726364014 726381014 726684090 727662010 727684022 729281010 729281022 730281014 730281018 730281026 730281038 730281050 730281054 730361010 730361014 730381010 730381026 730381034 730381038 730381042 730381058 730681010 730684022 730684026 730684094 739381018 739381022 739687198 740221010 761281014 779684058 780381010 780381014 780381018 780381022 780381026 780381030 780381038 780384014 780684122 781381018 783361010 783381018  6864 Optical-instrument assembler...................................431 6865 Contour wire specialist, denture................................429 6865 Dental-laboratory technician.................................... 429 6865 Dental-laboratory-technician apprentice.................. 429 6865 Orthodontic band maker.......................................... 429 6865 Orthodontic technician............................................. 429 6865 Dental ceramist..........................................................429 6865 Denture waxer............................................................429 6865 Finisher, denture........................................................ 429 6864 Lens-mold setter........................................................ 431 6864 Lens mounter II..........................................................431 6813 Machinist, motion-picture equipment.......................402 2390 Instructor, watch assembly........................................143 6864 Optician apprentice....................................................431 6864 Optician...................................................................... 431 6864 Optician...................................................................... 431 6864 Lay-out technician..................................................... 431 6864 Lathe operator, contact lens...................................... 431 6864 Optical-element coater............................................... 431 6864 Precision-lens grinder.................................................431 6864 Precision-lens-grinder apprentice............................. 431 6864 Precision-lens centerer and edger.............................. 431 6864 Blocker and cutter, contact lens................................431 6864 Glass cutter, hand.......................................................431 6864 Lens polisher, hand....................................................431 6864 Precision-lens generator............................................ 431 6864 Precision-lens polisher............................................... 431 6155 Radio repairer............................................................347 6155 Tape-recorder repairer............................................... 347 6155 Television-and-radio repairer.................................... 347 6114 Magneto repairer .......................................................362 6151 Instrument repairer.................................................... 345 6156 Electrical-appliance repairer...................................... 354 6156 Vacuum cleaner repairer............................................ 354 6156 Appliance repairer..................................................... 354 3711 Electronics assembler, developmental.......................228 3711 Electrician, research.................................................. 228 6867 Repairer, probe test card, semiconductor wafers........345 3720 Test fixture designer.................................................. 226 6151 Electronic equipment repairer................................... 345 7720 Reworker, printed circuit board................................ 345 7332 Lead burner, machine.................................................408 7714 Lead burner................................................................408 6155 Audio-video repairer.................................................. 347 6867 Electric-tool repairer.................................................. 354 6172 Accordion repairer..................................................... 364 6155 Electric-organ inspector and repairer.......................347 6172 Fretted-instrument repairer...................................... 364 6172 Piano technician........................................................ 364 6172 Violin repairer........................................................... 364 6172 Wind-instrument repairer......................................... 364 6172 Piano tuner..................................................................364 6172 Pipe-organ tuner and repairer...................................364 6172 Accordion tuner........................................................ 364 6172 Harp regulator........................................................... 364 6172 Metal-reed tuner........................................................ 364 6172 Organ-pipe voicer.......................................................364 6172 Percussion-instrument repairer................................. 364 6172 Tuner, percussion.......................................................364 6172 Piano regulator-inspector...........................................364 6172 Bowrehairer...............................................................364 6172 Chip tuner................................................................... 364 6172 Tone regulator........................................................... 364 6811 Diemaker................................................................... 406 6811 Die-maker apprentice.................................................406 5244 Venetian-blind cleaner and repairer..........................324 2390 Instructor, decorating ................................................143 3220 Experimental-box tester............................................ 228 6413 Stone repairer............................................................. 368 6853 Automobile upholsterer............................................ 426 6853 Automobile-upholsterer apprentice..........................426 6853 Furniture upholsterer.................................................426 6853 Furniture-upholsterer apprentice.............................. 426 6853 Upholsterer, limousine and hearse ............................426 6854 Pad hand.....................................................................423 6853 Upholsterer, inside..................................................... 426 7654 Upholsterer................................................................426 6853 Upholstery repairer....................................................426 6854 Leather stamper .........................................................423 6854 Custom-leather-products maker................................ 423 6854 Harness maker........................................................... 423  Page  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  783381022 783381026 788222010 788261010 788381010 788381014 789222010 801361014 801361018 801361022 801381010 801684026 804281010 804281014 805261010 805261014 805361010 805361014 805381010 806281058 806361026 806381062 806384038 806684038 807261010 807267010 807281010 807361010 807381010 807381014 807381018 807381022 807381030 807484010 807664010 807684010 807684018 807684022 809381022 809381026 810382010 810384010 810384014 810664010 810684010 811482010 811684010 811684014 812360010 812682010 813684010 814382010 814682010 814684010 815380010 815382010 815382014 815682010 815682014 816364010 816464010 816684010 819281010 819281014 819281022 819361010 819361014 819381010 819384010 819384014 819684010 819685010 820662010 821261010 821261014 821261022 821261026 821281010 821361010 821361018 821361022  6854 6854 2390 6854 6854 6854 2390 6473 6473 6473 6473 6473 6824 6824 6814 6814 6814 6814 6814 6422 6111 6432 6116 6111 6116 6115 6115 6115 6115 6116 6115 6115 6115 6115 6111 6115 6116 6111 6479 6479 7332 7714 7714 7714 7714 7332 7714 7714 7332 7332 7714 7532 7532 7532 7332 7332 7532 7532 7532 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7532 6932 6151 6433 6159 6433 6151 6433 6433 6433  Page  Luggage maker............................................................ 423 Saddle maker............................................................... 423 Instructor.................................................................... 143 Orthopedic-boot-and-shoe designer and maker........ 423 Cobbler........................................................................ 423 Shoemaker, custom.....................................................423 Instructor, apparel manufacture................................. 143 Structural-steelworker...............................................389 Structural-steel-worker apprentice............................ 389 Tank setter.................................................................. 389 Assembler, metal building..........................................389 Reinforcing-metalworker.......................................... 389 Sheet-metalworker.....................................................388 Sheet-metal-worker apprentice.................................. 388 Boilermaker apprentice...............................................399 Boilermaker I.............................................................. 399 Boilerhouse mechanic ................................................ 399 Boilermaker fitter........................................................399 Boilermaker II............................................................ 399 Carpenter, prototype................................................... 369 New-car get-ready mechanic..................................... 338 Installer, electrical, plumbing, mechanical................375 Pressure sealer-and-tester........................................... 335 Automobile-accessories installer............................... 338 Aircraft body repairer................................................ 335 Shop estimator............................................................ 337 Truck-bodybuilder.....................................................337 Automobile-body customizer..................................... 337 Automobile-body repairer.......................................... 337 Bonded structures repairer ........................................ 335 Frame repairer............................................................ 337 Service mechanic......................................................... 337 Auto-body repairer, fiberglass....................................337 Frame straightener...................................................... 337 Muffler installer...........................................................338 Automobile-bumper straightener............................... 337 Aircraft skin burnisher...............................................335 Floor service worker, spring.......................................338 Ornamental-ironworker............................................. 389 Omamental-iron-workerapprentice ......................... 389 Welding-machine operator, arc.................................. 408 Welder apprentice, arc................................................408 Welder, arc.................................................................. 408 Welder, gun.................................................................408 Welder, tack ............................................................... 408 Welding-machine operator, gas.................................. 408 Welder apprentice, gas................................................408 Welder, gas.................................................................. 408 Welder setter, resistance machine..............................408 Welding-machine operator, resistance......................408 Brazer, assembler........................................................408 Welding-machine operator, friction.......................... 408 Welding-machine operator, ultrasonic......................408 Welder, explosion........................................................408 Welder setter, electron-beam machine ......................408 Welding-machine operator, electron beam................408 Welding-machine operator, electroslag .................... 408 Laser-beam-machine operator....................................408 Welding-machine operator, thermit.......................... 408 Arccutter....................................................................408 Thermal cutter, hand 1................................................408 Thermal cutter, hand II.............................................. 408 Lead burner.................................................................408 Lead-burner apprentice.............................................. 408 Welder, experimental................................................. 408 Welder-fitter............................................................... 408 Welder-fitter apprentice.............................................408 Welder-assembler........................................................408 Welder, combination...................................................408 Welder apprentice, combination................................ 408 Welder, production line.............................................. 408 Welding-machine tender.............................................408 Motor-room controller.............................................. 410 Cable television line technician.................................. 357 Line maintainer...........................................................357 Service restorer, emergency........................................ 357 Trouble shooter II......................................................357 Cable television installer.............................................357 Cable installer-repairer.............................................. 357 Lineerector.................................................................357 Line installer, street railway.......................................357   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 821361026 821361030 821361038 821684022 821687010 822261010 822261022 822281010 822281014 822281018 822281022 822281026 822281030 822281034 822361014 822361018 822361022 822381010 822381014 822381018 822381022 822684010 823261010 823261014 823261018 823261022 823261030 823281014 823281022 823361010 824261010 824261014 824281010 824281018 824381010 824681010 825261010 825261014 825281030 825281034 825361010 825381014 825381030 825381034 827261010 827261014 827361014 827661010 828251010 828261010 828261014 828261018 828261022 828261026 828281022 829261018 829281022 829361010 829361014 840381010 840381014 840381018 840681010 840684010 841381010 842361010 842361014 842361018 842361022 842361026 842361030 842381014 842664010 842684014 844364010 844364014 844461010 844684010 845681010 850387010 850467010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  481  Page  6433 Line repairer.................................................................357 6433 Line-erector apprentice................................................ 357 6433 Tower erector............................................................... 357 6433 Trolley-wire installer ...................................................357 6433 Steel-post installer........................................................357 6151 Electrician, office......................................................... 345 6158 Station installer-and-repairer.......................................347 6151 Automatic-equipment technician.................................345 6151 Central-office repairer..................................................345 6158 Maintenance mechanic, telephone............................... 347 6151 Private-branch-exchange repairer............................... 345 6151 Signal maintainer......................................................... 345 6151 Technician, plant and maintenance ............................345 6151 Technician, submarine cable equipment......................345 6151 Central-office installer................................................. 345 6432 Protective-signal installer.............................................375 6432 Protective-signal repairer............................................. 375 6151 Equipment installer...................................................... 345 6157 Line installer-repairer................................................... 357 6151 Private-branch-exchange installer............................... 345 6151 Telegraph-plant maintainer ........................................ 345 6151 Frame wirer.................................................................. 345 6151 Public-address servicer................................................ 345 6153 Radio interference investigator....................................357 6151 Radio mechanic............................................................ 345 6151 Antenna installer, satellite communications .............. 345 6151 Data communications technician.................................345 6151 Electrician, radio...........................................................345 6151 Rigger............................................................................345 6155 Television installer........................................................347 6432 Electrician ....................................................................375 6432 Electrician apprentice................................................... 375 6432 Airport electrician........................................................375 6432 Neon-sign servicer....................................................... 375 6432 Street-light servicer...................................................... 375 6432 Electrician ....................................................................375 6151 Electric-track-switch maintainer.................................345 6176 Elevator examiner-and-adjuster.................................. 348 6176 Elevator repairer...........................................................348 6176 Elevator-repairer apprentice........................................ 348 6176 Elevator constructor.................................................... 348 6159 Automatic-window-seat-and-top-lift repairer............ 338 6432 Electrician....................................................................375 6432 Electrician apprentice................................................... 375 6156 Electrical-appliance servicer........................................ 354 6156 Electrical-appliance-servicer apprentice......................354 6160 Refrigeration mechanic................................................ 352 6156 Household-appliance installer..................................... 354 6153 Electronic-sales-and-service technician......................345 6155 Electronic-organ technician........................................ 347 6153 Field service engineer................................................... 345 3711 Senior technician, controls........................................... 228 6153 Electronics mechanic................................................... 345 6153 Electronics-mechanic apprentice.................................345 6153 Radioactivity-instrument maintenance technician__345 6153 Electrician, maintenance.............................................375 6151 Sound technician...........................................................345 6157 Cable splicer.................................................................357 6157 Cable-splicer apprentice.............................................. 357 6442 Painter.......................................................................... 380 6442 Painter apprentice, shipyard........................................ 380 6442 Painter, shipyard...........................................................380 6442 Painter, stage settings...................................................380 6442 Glass tinter....................................................................380 6443 Paperhanger.................................................................380 6424 Lather............................................................................374 6424 Lather apprentice......................................................... 374 6444 Plasterer........................................................................ 382 6444 Plasterer apprentice......................................................382 6444 Plasterer, molding....................................................... 382 6424 Dry-wall applicator......................................................374 6444 Stucco mason............................................................... 382 6424 Taper.............................................................................374 6424 Dry-wall applicator...................................................... 374 6463 Cement mason..............................................................372 6463 Cement-mason apprentice........................................... 372 6463 Concrete-stone finisher................................................372 6463 Concrete rubber............................................................ 372 6442 Railroad-car letterer.................................................... 380 1472 Inspector of dredging.....................................................24 1472 Grade checker............................................................... 24  482  Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number 850663018 860281010 860281014 860361010 860361014 860381010 860381022 860381026 860381030 860381034 860381038 860381042 860381046 860381050 860381054 860381058 860381062 860381066 860381070 860664010 860681010 860684010 860684014 861361010 861361014 861381010 861381014 861381018 861381022 861381026 861381030 861381038 861381042 861381046 861381050 861381054 861381058 861381062 861684010 861684014 861684018 862261010 862281010 862281014 862281018 862281022 862281026 862361010 862361014 862361018 862361022 862381014 862381022 862381030 862381034 862681010 862682010 862684034 863364010 863364014 863381010 863381014 863664010 863684010 863685010 864381010 865361010 865381010 865381014 865684010 866381010 866381014 866684010 869261026 869281010 869361018 869381010 869381034 869684018 869684034 869684042  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  8239 Lock tender II.............................................................. 440 6422 Carpenter, maintenance..............................................369 6422 Carpenter, ship.............................................................369 6422 Boatbuilder, wood.......................................................369 6422 Boatbuilder apprentice, wood .....................................369 6422 Acoustical carpenter....................................................369 6422 Carpenter.................................................................... 369 6422 Carpenter apprentice.................................................. 369 6422 Carpenter, bridge........................................................ 369 6422 Carpenter, mold ..........................................................369 6422 Carpenter, railcar........................................................ 369 6422 Carpenter, rough..........................................................369 6422 Form builder................................................................369 6422 Joiner............................................................................ 369 6422 Joiner apprentice..........................................................369 6422 Shipwright...................................................................369 6422 Shipwright apprentice.................................................369 6422 Tank builder and erector ............................................ 369 6422 Tank erector................................................................369 6422 Carpenter 1...................................................................369 6422 Carpenter II................................................................. 369 6422 Builder, beam.............................................................. 369 6422 Sider............................................................................. 369 6413 Composition-stone applicator.....................................368 6413 Monument setter..........................................................368 6412 Acid-tank liner.............................................................368 6412 Bricklayer.................................................................... 368 6412 Bricklayer.................................................................... 368 6412 Bricklayer apprentice.................................................. 368 6412 Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory tile..................... 368 6413 Marble setter................................................................368 6413 Stonemason................................................................. 368 6413 Stonemason apprentice............................................... 368 6463 Terrazzo worker..........................................................372 6463 Terrazzo-worker apprentice........................................372 6414 Tile setter.................................................................... 391 6414 Tile setter apprentice....................................................391 6414 Tile-conduit layer........................................................ 391 6412 Cupola patcher............................................................. 368 6412 Patcher......................................................................... 368 6414 Tilesetter.................. 391 6450 Pipefitter...................................................................... 383 6450 Coppersmith................................................................383 6450 Coppersmith apprentice..............................................383 6160 Oil-bumer-servicer-and-installer................................ 352 6450 Pipefitter...................................................................... 383 6450 Pipe-fitter apprentice.................................................. 383 6160 Furnace installer..........................................................352 6450 Gas-main fitter.............................................................383 6450 Pipe fitter, diesel engine I............................................ 383 6450 Steam service inspector............................................... 383 6450 Industrial-gas fitter..................................................... 383 6450 Pipe fitter, diesel engine II...........................................383 6450 Plumber....................................................................... 383 6450 Plumber apprentice..................................................... 383 6450 Plumber....................................................................... 383 6450 Pipe cutter................................................................... 383 6450 Water-softener servicer-and-installer..........................383 6465 Insulation-worker apprentice...................................... 379 6465 Insulation worker........................................................ 379 6465 Cork insulator, refrigeration plant.............................. 379 6465 Pipe coverer and insulator...........................................379 6465 Blower insulator..........................................................379 6422 Composition-weatherboard applier ........................... 369 6465 Insulation-power-unit tender...................................... 379 6462 Carpet layer................................................................. 371 6464 Mirror installer........................................................... 377 6464 Glazier.........................................................................377 6464 Glazier apprentice.......................................................377 6115 Glass installer.............................................................. 337 6468 Roofer...........................................................................385 6468 Roofer apprentice........................................................ 385 6468 Roofer applicator........................................................ 385 3719 Wind tunnel mechanic................................................ 228 6160 Furnace installer-and-repairer, hot air.......................352 6422 Sign erector-and-repairer............................................ 369 6422 House repairer.............................................................369 6422 Timber framer.............................................................369 6422 Assembler, subassembly..............................................369 6422 Lay-outworker........................................................... 369 6422 Roof assembler I..........................................................369   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  869684046 869684050 869684058 869684082 891687010 891687018 899261014 899364010 899381010 900683010 902683010 903683010 903683014 903683018 904383010 904683010 905483010 905663010 905663014 905663018 905683010 906683010 906683014 906683018 906683022 909663010 910167014 910362010 910363010 910363014 910363018 910364010 910367010 910367018 910367022 910382010 910583010 910664010 910667026 910683010 910683014 910683022 911131010 911133010 911137010 911137014 911167010 911263010 911363010 911363014 911364010 911584010 911664010 911664014 911687022 911687030 912167010 913167010 913363010 913367010 913463010 913463014 913463018 913663010 913663014 913663018 914167014 919162010 919223010 919663010 919663014 919663018 919663022 919663026 919683014 919683018 919683022 919683026 919683030 919687010 921364010  6560 6424 6479 6479 5244 5244 6100 6412 6179 8213 8213 8213 8213 8213 8212 8212 8213 8213 8213 8212 8213 8214 8214 8214 8214 8219 4751 8239 8232 8232 8232 8233 8233 4751 8233 8239 8239 8233 8233 8232 8232 8239 7100 8241 8242 8242 4751 8242 8242 8243 8243 8243 8242 8243 8243 8243 3920 4751 8215 4751 8215 8232 8216 8216 8215 8215 4751 4751 2390 8216 8232 8213 8214 8213 8216 8239 8219 8239 8219 4753 5790  Page  Roustabout.................................................................... 386 Sheetrock applicator.....................................................374 Stopping builder...........................................................369 Asbestos removal worker............................................. 379 Chimneysweep............................................................ 324 Project-crew worker.....................................................324 Maintenance repairer, industrial .................................351 Chimney repairer......................................................... 368 Maintenance repairer, building....................................351 Concrete-mixing-truck driver..................................... 444 Dump-truck driver ...................................................... 444 Explosives-truck driver................................................444 Powder-truck driver.................................................... 444 Tank-truck driver.........................................................444 Tractor-trailer-truck driver..........................................444 Log-truck driver...........................................................444 Milk driver....................................................................444 Garbage collector driver.............................................. 444 Truck driver, heavy......................................................444 Van driver..................................................................... 444 Water-truck driver II...................................................444 Food-service driver......................................................444 Liquid-fertilizer servicer.............................................. 444 Telephone-directory-distributor driver....................... 444 Truck driver, light....................................................... 444 Hostler..........................................................................444 Train dispatcher, assistant chief.................................. 272 Tower operator............................................................440 Firer, locomotive.......................................................... 440 Locomotive engineer.................................................... 440 Yard engineer...............................................................440 Braker, passenger train................................................440 Brake coupler, road freight..........................................440 Engine dispatcher......................................................... 272 Locomotive operator helper........................................ 440 Car-retarder operator.................................................. 440 Laborer, car barn.........................................................440 Yard coupler................................................................ 440 Switch tender...............................................................440 Hostler..........................................................................440 Motor operator ............................................................440 Transfer-table operator............................................... 440 Boatswain..................................................................... 447 Cadet, deck....................................................................447 Barge captain...............................................................447 Derrick-boat captain.................................................... 447 Dispatcher, tugboat......................................................272 Deep submergence vehicle operator............................447 Ferryboat operator....................................................... 447 Quartermaster............................................................. 447 Able seaman ................................................................ 447 Marine oiler..................................................................447 Ferryboat operator, cable............................................ 447 Sailor, pleasure craft.................................................... 447 Deckhand..................................................................... 447 Ordinary seaman.......................................................... 447 Dispatcher....................................................................220 Bus dispatcher, interstate............................................ 272 Bus driver, day-haul or farm charter.......................... 436 Taxicab starter............................................................. 272 Busdriver..................................................................... 436 Streetcar operator.........................................................440 Taxi driver................................................................... 442 Chauffeur..................................................................... 442 Mobile-lounge driver .................................................. 436 Driver........................................................................... 436 Dispatcher, oil............................................................. 272 Dispatcher, traffic or system........................................272 Instructor, bus, trolley, and taxi.................................. 143 Deliverer, car rental .................................................... 442 Dinkey operator .......................................................... 440 Driver-utility worker .................................................. 444 Escort-vehicle driver.................................................... 444 Tow-truck operator......................................................444 Driver........................................................................... 442 Rail-tractor operator.................................................... 440 Street-sweeper operator............................................... 444 Trackmobile operator.................................................. 440 Driver, starting gate .................................................... 444 Checker........................................................................ 274 Rigging slinger............................................................. 332  Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage  D.O.T. Number 921667014 921687014 921687030 922687082 929663010 932167010 932664010 939362010 939687018 950362014 950382010 950382018 950382022 950382026 950382030 951685018 952167010 952167014 952362010 952362014 952362018 952362022 952362026 952362030 952362034 952362038 952362042 952364010 952367014 952381010 952382010 952382014 952382018 952687010 953167010 953583010 954367010 954382010 954382014 955167010 955222010 955362010 955382010 955382014 955585010 959167010 959367010 959367014 961364010 961667014  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  Page  5790 Chaser...........................................................................332 5790 Choke setter................................................................. 332 5790 Rigger, third................................................................332 5790 Pulppiler......................................................................332 8318 Logging-tractor operator............................................332 4751 Dispatcher...................................................................272 8233 Brake holder................................................................440 4751 Dispatcher, oil well services....................................... 272 8769 Laborer......................................................................... 386 6931 Refrigerating engineer................................................ 411 6931 Boiler operator.............................................................411 6931 Gas-engine operator................................................... 411 6932 Rotary-rig engine operator.........................................411 6931 Stationary engineer.....................................................411 6931 Stationary-engineer apprentice.................................. 411 7668 Firer, marine................................................................447 4751 Dispatcher, service or work.........................................272 6932 Load dispatcher........................................................... 410 6932 Auxiliary-equipment operator....................................410 6932 Feeder-switchboard operator..................................... 410 6932 Hydroelectric-station operator.................................. 410 6932 Power-reactor operator...............................................410 6932 Substation operator.....................................................410 6932 Substation operator apprentice.................................. 410 6932 Switchboard operator..................................................410 6932 Switchboard operator..................................................410 6932 Turbine operator......................................................... 410 6432 Trouble shooter I ........................................................ 375 6932 Switchboard operator assistant.................................. 410 6432 Switch inspector..........................................................375 6932 Diesel-plant operator..................................................410 6932 Power operator ........................................................... 410 6932 Power-plant operator..................................................410 5244 Hydroelectric-plant maintainer .................................324 4751 Gas dispatcher.............................................................272 8213 Drip pumper............................................................... 444 4751 Water-service dispatcher............................................272 6910 Pump-station operator, waterworks...........................413 6910 Water-treatment-plant operator.................................413 4751 Dispatcher, radioactive-waste-disposal......................272 6910 Instructor, wastewater-treatment plant..................... 143 6910 Wastewater-treatment-plantoperator........................413 6910 Clarifying-plant operator........................................... 413 6910 Waste-treatment operator.......................................... 413 6910 Wastewater-treatment-plant attendant......................413 4751 Dispatcher, service...................................................... 272 6433 Electric power line examiner ......................................357 6151 Facility examiner........................................................ 347 3240 Double......................................................................... 197 3280 Stand-in........................................................................197   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number 962167010 962167014 962281010 962361010 962382010 969367010 970131014 970281010 970281018 970361018 970381010 970381034 972384014 976361010 976380010 976381010 976381018 976381022 976382010 976382014 976382018 976382022 976382030 976382038 976384010 976384014 976385010 976665010 976681010 976682010 976682014 976682018 976682022 976684014 976684030 976685014 976685018 976685022 976685026 976685030 976685034 976685038 976687018 977381010 977381014 977684026 979361010 979384010  SOC D.O.T. Title Code  483  Page  3719 Manager, sound effects................................................ 222 3240 Program assistant..........................................................197 6422 Prop maker ...................................................................369 6868 Optical-effects layout person.......................................434 3990 Recordist....................................................................... 222 4754 Custodian, athletic equipment..................................... 273 3250 Supervisor, artist, suspect............................................. 194 6863 Airbrush artist..............................................................434 6868 Photograph retoucher..................................................434 3250 Artist, suspect................................................................194 6868 Colorist, photography..................................................434 6868 Spotter, photographic................................................... 434 7671 Platemaker, semiconductor packages......................... 434 6868 Reproduction technician ............................................. 434 7671 Computer-controlled-color-photograph-printer operator.................................................................... 434 6868 Film laboratory technician 1........................................ 434 6868 Projection printer......................................................... 434 6868 Template reproduction technician............................... 434 7671 Camera operator, title..................................................434 7671 Color-printer operator..................................................434 7671 Film developer..............................................................434 6868 Photostat operator........................................................434 7671 Photographic aligner, semiconductor wafers.............. 434 7671 Photo mask pattern generator..................................... 434 7671 Photo technician...........................................................434 7671 Photo mask processor...................................................434 7671 Microfilm processor.................................................... 434 7671 Take-down sorter......................................................... 434 6868 Developer..................................................................... 434 7671 Film printer.................................................................. 434 7671 Printer operator, black-and-white............................... 434 7671 Rectification printer.....................................................434 7671 Microfilm-camera operator..........................................434 7671 Film laboratory technician..........................................434 7671 Contact printer, printed circuit boards....................... 434 7671 Developer, automatic................................................... 434 7671 Film laboratory technician II.......................................434 7671 Mounter, automatic...................................................... 434 7671 Print developer, automatic ..........................................434 7671 Utility worker, film processing....................................434 7671 Developer, printed circuit board panels......................434 7671 Photographic processor, semiconductor wafers......... 434 4753 Photofinishing laboratory worker............................... 274 6844 Bookbinder....................................................................419 6844 Bookbinder apprentice................................................. 419 7759 Bench worker, binding................................................. 419 2520 Document restorer........................................................144 6868 Screen maker, photographic process...........................434  Reprints All the occupational statements in the 1994-95 Occupational Out­ look Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. The bulletin numbers, prices, and titles of all 20 reprints are listed below. A complete set costs only $24.00. An index to the reprints and an order form appear below.  C  Bulletin Price Title No. 2450-1 2450-2 2450-3 2450-4 2450-5 2450-6  $1.25 $2.75 $1.75 $2.00 $1.50 $2.00  2450-7 2450-8  $1.50 $1.50  2450-9 2450-10  $1.50 $1.50  2450-11 2450-12 2450-13  $1.25 $1.50 $1.50  2450-14  $2.00  2450-15  $1.00  2450-16 2450-17 2450-18  $1.50 $1.25 $2.00  2450-19 2450-20  $1.50 $2.00  Tomorrow’s Jobs Business and Managerial Occupations Engineering, Scientific, and Related Occupations Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations Social Scientists and Legal Occupations Education and Social Service Occupations and Clergy Health Diagnosing Occupations and Assistants Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Sales Occupations Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations Protective Service Occupations and Compliance Inspectors Service Occupations: Cleaning, Food, Health, and Personal Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Metalworking, Plastic-working, and Woodworking Occupations Production Occupations Transportation and Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations  Ifyou want information about...  order Bulletin No. 2450A  Accountants and auditors .................................................................... 2 or 4 Actors, directors, and producers ................................................................. 10 Actuaries ....................................................................................................... 4 Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .......................................................13 Administrative services managers................................................................. 2 Adult education teachers ............................................................................... 6 Aerospace engineers .......................................................................................3 Agricultural scientists ....................................................................................3 Air traffic controllers....................................................................................11 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists....................................................16 Aircraft pilots................................................................................................11 Animal caretakers, except farm ...................................................................15 Apparel workers ........................................................................................... 19 Architects...................................................................................................... 10 Archivists and curators.................................................................................. 6 Automotive body repairers ...........................................................................16 Automotive mechanics .................................................................................16  B Bank tellers ........................................................................................13 Barbers and cosmetologists.................................................................. 15 Billing clerks...................................................................................... 13 Bindery workers .................................................................................19 484   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Biological scientists.........................................................................................3 Blue-collar worker supervisors .....................................................................19 Boilermakers ................................................................................................ 18 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks ............................................ 13 Bricklayers and stonemasons........................................................................17 Broadcast technicians .................................................................................. 11 Brokerage clerks and statement clerks ........................................................ 13 Budget analysts ...............................................................................................2 Busdrivers .................................................................................................... 20 Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters............................................... 19  Cardiovascular technologists and technicians ..............................................9 Carpenters ............ •.............................................................................17 or 18 Carpet installers ........................................................................................... 17 Cashiers......................................................................................................... 12 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers..................................................... 15 Chemical engineers .........................................................................................3 Chemists ......................................................................................................... 3 Chiropractors.................................................................................................. 7 Civil engineers ................................................................................................ 3 Clerical supervisors and managers .............................................................. 13 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians......................................... 9 College and university faculty........................................................................ 6 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................ 16 Communications equipment mechanics ..................................................... 16 Computer and office machine repairers .......................................................16 Computer and peripheral equipment operators ...........................................13 Computer programmers...................................................................... 4 or 11 Computer scientists and systems analysts..................................................... 4 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers .......................................................17 Construction and building inspectors ..........................................................14 Construction contractors and managers .......................................................2 Correction officers................................................................. 14 Cost estimators ...............................................................................................2 Counselors ...................................................................................................... 6 Counter and rental clerks..............................................................................12 Credit clerks and authorizers........................................................................13  D Dancers and choreographers ........................................................................10 Dental assistants...................................................................................7 or 15 Dental hygienists .................................................................................. 7 or 9 Dental laboratory technicians ........................................................................9 Dentists ........................................................................................................... 7 Designers ...................................................................................................... 10 Diesel mechanics ..........................................................................................16 Dietitians and nutritionists ............................................................................ 8 Dispatchers ................................................................................................... 13 Dispensing opticians....................................................................................... 9 Drafters ................................................................................................ 3 or 11 Drywall workers and lathers ........................................................................17  E Economists and marketing research analysts ...................................... 4 or 5 Education administrators .............................................................................. 6 EEG technologists.......................................................................................... 9 Electric power plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers................................................................................................ 19 Electrical and electronics engineers ...............................................................3 Electricians ................................................................................................... 17 Electronic equipment repairers.....................................................................16 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ................................. 16 Elevator installers and repairers........................................................ 16 or 17 Emergency medical technicians .....................................................................9 Employment interviewers ..............................................................................2 Engineering, science, and data processing managers..................... 2 or 3 or 4 Engineering technicians ...................................................................... 3 or 11 Engineers ........................................................................................................3  Reprints F Farm equipment mechanics ......................................................................... 16 Farm operators and managers........................................................................2 File clerks...................................................................................................... 13 Financial managers........................................................................................ 2 Firefighting occupations ..............................................................................14 Fishers, hunters, and trappers ......................................................................20 Flight attendants .......................................................................................... 15 Food and beverage service occupations .......................................................15 Foresters and conservation scientists............................................................. 3 Funeral directors ............................................................................................2  G Gardeners and groundskeepers ...................................................................20 General maintenance mechanics ..................................................................16 General managers and top executives ............................................................2 General office clerks..................................................................................... 13  Geologists............................................................................................ 3 Glaziers ..............................................................................................17 Government chief executives and legislators........................................... 2 Guards ...............................................................................................14 H Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ..............................19 Health services managers...................................................................... 2 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians ...............16 or 17 Home appliance and power tool repairers.............................................. 16 Homemaker-home health aides ............................................................15 Hotel desk clerks ................................................................................13 Hotel managers and assistants .............................................................. 2 Human services workers ............................................................. 6 or 15 I Industrial engineers ............................................................................. 3 Industrial machinery repairers .............................................................16 Industrial production managers............................................................. 2 Information clerks.............................................................................. 13 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ........................ 14 Inspectors, testers, and graders....................................................14 or 19 Insulation workers...............................................................................17 Insurance agents and brokers .............................................................. 12 Interviewing and new accounts clerks................................................... 13 J Janitors and cleaners .......................................................................... 15 Jewelers ..............................................................................................18 L Landscape architects ...........................................................................10 Lawyers and judges...............................................................................5 Librarians............................................................................................ 6 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers .............................................13 Library technicians ..................................................................... 6 or 11 Licensed practical nurses.......................................................................8 Line installers and cable splicers .......................................................... 16 Loan officers and counselors ................................................................. 2 M Machinists and tool programmers ....................................................... 18 Mail clerks and messengers.................................................................. 13 Management analysts and consultants ................................................... 2 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives ............................... 12 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers ............................ 2 Material moving equipment operators ..................................................20 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations ....................................................................................13 Mathematicians ...................................................................................4 Mechanical engineers............................................................................3 Medical assistants .......................................................................7 or 15 Medical record technicians ....................................................................9 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers ......................................3 Metalworking and plastics-working machine occupations ..................... 18 Meteorologists ..................................................................................... 3 Millwrights ..................... 16 Mining engineers ................................................................................. 3 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics .....................................................16  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  485  Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics ...........................................16 Musical instrument repairers and tuners......................................................16 Musicians .......................................................................................................10  N Nuclear engineers ...........................................................................................3 Nuclear medicine technologists ..................................................................... 9 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides .....................................................8 or 15  O Occupational therapists ..................................................................................8 Operations research analysts ..........................................................................4 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians ............................................................... 9 Optometrists....................................................................................................7 Order clerks .................................................................................................. 13  P Painters and paperhangers ........................................................................... 17 Painting and coating machine operators ......................................................19 Paralegals ..............................................................................................5 or 11 Payroll and timekeeping clerks..................................................................... 13 Personnel clerks ............................................................................................ 13 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................................................... 2 Petroleum engineers ........................................................................................3 Pharmacists......................................................................................................8 Photographers and camera operators .......................................................... 10 Photographic process workers ..................................................................... 19 Physical therapists........................................................................................... 8 Physician assistants......................................................................................... 7 Physicians ....................................................................................................... 7 Physicists and astronomers............................................................................. 3 Plasterers ...................................................................................................... 17 Plumbers and pipefitters................................................................................17 Podiatrists ....................................................................................................... 7 Police, detectives, and special agents............................................................ 14 Postal clerks and mail carriers ..................................................................... 13 Precision assemblers...................................................................................... 19 Prepress workers ...........................................................................................19 Preschool workers ......................................................................................... 15 Printing press operators ................................................................................19 Private household workers ............................................................................15 Property and real estate managers .................................................................2 Protestant ministers ........................................................................................ 6 Psychologists ...................................................................................................5 Public relations specialists.......................... ........................................ 2 or 10 Purchasers and buyers.....................................................................................2  R Rabbis ............................................................................................................. 6 Radio and television announcers and newscasters ...................................... 10 Radiologic technologists ................................................................................ 9 Rail transportation occupations.....................................................................20 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers...................................................12 Receptionists ................................................................................................. 13 Record clerks ................................................................................................. 13 Recreation workers......................................................................................... 6 Recreational therapists ................................................................................... 8 Registered nurses ............................................................................................ 8 Reporters and correspondents....................................................................... 10 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks .................. 13 Respiratory therapists ..................................................................................... 8 Restaurant and food service managers ...........................................................2 Retail managers .............................................................................................. 2 Retail sales workers ...................................................................................... 12 Roman Catholic priests .................................................................................. 6 Roofers .......................................................................................................... 17 Roustabouts ...................................................................................................17  S School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary....................... 6 Science technicians ............................. ................................................ 3 or 11 Secretaries ......................................................................................................13 Securities and financial services sales representatives..................................12 Services sales representatives ........................................................................ 12 Sheetmetal workers............................................................................. 17 or 18  486  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Shoe and leather workers and repairers .................................................19 Social scientists and urban planners........................................................5 Social workers ..................................................................................... 6 Sociologists ......................................................................................... 5 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists ........................................8 Stationary engineers ............................................................................19 Statisticians ......................................................................................... 4 Stenographers and court reporters ........................................................13 Stock clerks ........................................................................................13 Structural and reinforcing ironworkers ....................................... 17 or 18 Surgical technologists .......................................................................... 9 Surveyors ............................................................................................ 3 T Taxi drivers and chauffeurs .................................................................20 Teacher aides ...................................................................................... 6 Telephone installers and repairers.........................................................16 Telephone operators............................................................................13 Textile machinery operators................................................................. 19 Tilesetters...........................................................................................17 Timber cutting and logging occupations ............................................... 20 Tool and die makers ............................................................................18   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks .........................................................13 Travel agents ................................................................................................ 12 Truckdrivers ..................................................................................................20 Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers ......................................... 13  U Underwriters .................................................................................................. 2 Upholsterers ..................................................................................................19 Urban and regional planners ..........................................................................5  V Vending machine servicers and repairers .................................................... 16 Veterinarians ..................................................................................................7 Visual artists ..................................................................................................10  W Water and wastewater treatment plant operators........................................19 Water transportations occupations.............................................................. 20 Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators ...................................... 18 Woodworking occupations................................................................ 18 or 19 Writers and editors ....................................................................................... 10  Index A Able seamen, see: Water transportation occupations .............................. 447 Account executives, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives ....................................................................................... 246 Accountants and auditors ........................................................................... 17 Accounting clerks ......................................................................................280 Actors, directors, and producers ...............................................................197 Actuaries ..................................................................................................... 90 Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .................................................... 253 Adjustment clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.............. 253 Administrative secretaries, see: Secretaries ..............................................286 Administrative services managers................................................................20 Administrators, health services, see: Health services managers ............... 44 Administrators, school, see: Education administrators ............................. 30 Admissions officers, see: Education administrators.................................... 30 Admitting clerks, hospital or outpatient, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks........................................................................................266 Adult education teachers............................................................................ 143 Advertising clerks ......................................................................................459 Advertising managers ................................................................................. 56 Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers .....................................77 Aerospace engineers .................................................................................... 77 Affirmative action coordinators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................................................... 59 Agents and brokers, insurance ..................................................................237 Agents and brokers, real estate.................................................................. 239 Agents, purchasing ......................................................................................65 Agents, reservation and transportation ticket........................................... 268 Agricultural commodity inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Agricultural equipment mechanics, see: Farm equipment mechanics................................................................................................189 Agricultural quarantine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Agricultural scientists ................................................................................100 Agricultural technicians, see: Science technicians ....................................233 Agriculturists, see: Agricultural scientists ................................................100 Agronomists, see: Agricultural scientists ................................................. 100 Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians .........................352 Air-conditioning mechanics, automotive ..................................................338 Air safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................................. 49 Air traffic controllers..................................................................................220 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists..................................................335 Aircraft pilots..............................................................................................218 Aircraft technicians, see: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists........335 Airline reservation and ticket agents ......................................................... 268 Alcohol abuse counselors, see: Human services workers...........................132 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents ......................................................................................... 301 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................................ 49 Ambulance drivers and attendants ............................................................ 459 Amusement and recreation attendants...................................................... 459 Animal attendants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm .........................314 Animal breeders, see: Agricultural scientists............................................. 100 Animal caretakers, except farm .................................................................314 Animal health technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm .............314 Animal scientists, see: Agricultural scientists ............................................100 Animators, see: Visual artists...................................................................... 194 Announcers................................................................................................. 184 Anthropologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners........................119 Apartment managers, see: Property and real estate managers................... 62 Apiculturists, see: Agricultural scientists ..................................................100 Apparel workers......................................................................................... 421 Appliance repairers, home .........................................................................354 Applications programmers, see: Computer programmers ....................... 224 Appraisers, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers .................... 239 Arbitrators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ........................................................................................... 59  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Archeologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners ........................... 119 Architects.......................................................................................................84 Architects, landscape.................................................................................... 85 Archivists and curators....................................... 144 Archives technicicans, see: Archivists and curators ................................. 144 Armed Forces occupations.........................................................................452 Art directors, see: Designers........................................................................189 Artists, see: Visual artists............................................................................ 194 Assemblers, electrical and electronic......................................................... 462 Assemblers, machine .................................................................................. 463 Assemblers, precision .................................................................................393 Astronomers................................................................................................ Ill Astrophysicists, see: Physicists and astronomers ......................................Ill Athletes, coaches, umpires, and referees ................................................... 458 Attorneys, see: Lawyers ..............................................................................114 Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians................................. 222 Audiologists ................................................................................................ 179 Auditing clerks ........................................................................................... 280 Auditors ........................................................................................................ 17 Automotive body repairers......................................................................... 337 Automotive mechanics ............................................................................... 338 Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating machine operators ........ 432 Automotive service technicians, see: Automotive mechanics................... 338 Aviation safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................................. 49 Avionics technicians, see: Communications equipment mechanics..........345  B Babysitters, see: Private household workers ............................................. 325 Baggage porters and bellhops .................................................................... 459 Baggers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ..........450 Bakers, bread and pastry, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers ................................................................................................... 304 Bakers, manufacturing ...............................................................................461 Bank branch managers, see: Financial managers ........................................36 Bank examiners, chief, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ...................................................................................49 Bank tellers ..................................................................................................257 Barbers and cosmetologists......................................................................... 315 Bartenders and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage service workers ................................................................................................... 306 Beauticians, see: Barbers and cosmetologists............................................. 319 Beauty operators, see: Barbers and cosmetologists.................................... 319 Bellhops........................................................................................................ 459 Bibliographers, see: Librarians ................................................................... 151 Bicycle repairers ..........................................................................................461 Bill and account collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors..................................................................................................253 Billing clerks................................................................................................ 279 Bindery workers ..........................................................................................419 Biochemists, see: Biological and medical scientists ...................................102 Biological and medical scientists ................................................................ 102 Biological technicians, see: Science technicians .........................................233 Biologists, see: Biological and medical scientists ....................................... 102 Biomedical equipment repairers................................................................. 461 Bleaching and dyeing machine operators, textile ..................................... 424 Blood bank technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ...............................................................................................203 Blue-collar worker supervisors ...................................................................394 Boat engine mechanics ............................................................................... 362 Boatswains, see: Water transportation occupations.................................. 447 Body repairers, automotive......................................................................... 337 Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure................................................ 461 Boilermakers ............................................................................................... 399 Bookbinders ................................................................................................ 419 Bookbinding workers.................................................................................. 419 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................................... 280 Bookmobile drivers..................................................................................... 282 Bordereau clerks, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers ...................................................................................................... 292  487  488  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Botanists, see: Biological and medical scientists ....................................... 102 Bricklayers and stonemasons..................................................................... 368 Broadcast news analysts, see; Radio and television announcers and newscasters .............................................................................................184 Broadcast technicians ................................................................................ 222 Brokerage clerks and statement clerks ...................................................... 280 Brokers, insurance, see; Insurance agents and brokers..............................237 Brokers, real estate, see; Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers .... 239 Brokers, securities and financial services, see; Securities and financial services sales representatives ..................................................246 Budget analysts .............................................................................................22 Building custodians, see; Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors ..............................................................................................324 Building inspectors .......................................................................................24 Bulldozer operators, see; Material moving equipment operators ............. 438 Bus mechanics, see; Diesel mechanics........................................................341 Busdrivers .................................................................................................. 436 Business machine repairers, see: Office machine and cash register servicers.................................................................................................. 346 Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters............................................. 396 Butlers, see: Private household workers.....................................................325 Buyers, wholesale and retail trade................................................................65  C Cabinetmakers, see: Woodworking occupations .......................................427 Cable equipment technicians, submarine, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................. 345 Cable splicers ..............................................................................................357 Cable TV line installers and repairers, see; Line installers and cable splicers .................................................................................................... 357 Camera and photographic equipment repairers........................................ 461 Camera operators, printing, see: Prepress workers....................................415 Camera operators, television, video, and motion pictures, see: Photographers and camera operators ................................................... 191 Camp counselors, see: Recreation workers................................................ 133 Cannery workers ....................................................................................... 461 Captains and pilots, ship, see: Water transportation occupations ........... 447 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians .......................................... 202 Career planning counselors, see; Counselors............................................. 149 Caretakers, see: Private household workers ...............................................325 Carpenters .................................................................................................. 369 Carpet installers ......................................................................................... 371 Cartographers, see: Surveyors ......................................................................87 Cartoonists, see: Visual artists.................................................................... 194 Case management aides, see: Human services workers .............................132 Caseworkers, see: Social workers............................................................... 136 Cash register servicers ................................................................................ 346 Cashiers.......................................................................................................235 Catalogers, see: Librarians .........................................................................151 Catholic priests, see: Roman Catholic priests ............................................ 140 Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders..............................461 Cement masons, see: Concrete masons and terrazzo workers ..................372 Cemetery workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers ...........................321 Central office equipment installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.............................................................................345 Central office operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators.................................................................................................290 Central office repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics............................................................................................... 345 Ceramic engineers ........................................................................................ 79 Charge account clerks, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks ..........266 Chauffeurs .................................................................................................. 442 Checkers, see: Cashiers .................................................................................................. 235 Drafters .................................................................................................. 226 Checkout clerks, see: Cashiers....................................................................235 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers ................................................... 304 Chemical engineers .......................................................................................78 Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders ......................... 461 Chemical plant and system operators ....................................................... 462 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians.......................................... 233 Chemists ......................................................................................................107 Chief executive officers, see: General managers and top executives .......... 40 Chief executives, government ......................................................................42 Child abuse workers, see: Human services workers ...................................132 Child health associates see: Physician assistants ....................................... 173  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Child welfare workers, see: Social workers................................................136 Childcare workers, see: Preschool workers................................................317 Childcare workers, private, see: Private household workers .................... 325 Chiropractors...............................................................................................157 Choral directors, see: Musicians.................................................................200 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers ...................................198 City managers, see: Government executives and legislators ..................... 42 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners ....................................... 129 Civil engineering technicians ..................................................................... 228 Civil engineers ...............................................................................................79 Claims adjusters, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .................253 Claims clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors ......................253 Claims examiners, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors............... 253 Claims investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors ...........253 Classifiers, see: Librarians ...........................................................................151 Cleaners, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors ..................324 Cleaners, vehicles and equipment, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................... 450 Cleaning supervisors............................................................................... 324 Clerical supervisors and managers ............................................................ 259 Clerk-typists, see: Typists .......................................................................... 292 Clerks, see: Billing clerks ........................................................................................... 279 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks ..................................... 280 File clerks ................................................................................................281 General office clerks ...............................................................................263 Hotel and motel desk clerks .................................................................. 266 Information clerks ..................................................................................264 Interviewing and new accounts clerks ................................................... 266 Mail clerks and messengers .................................................................... 269 Order clerks .......... 283 Payroll and timekeeping clerks ..............................................................284 Personnel clerks...................................................................................... 285 Postal clerks and mail carriers ............................................................... 275 Receptionists ........................................................................................... 267 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ........... 268 Stock clerks ............................................................................................ 273 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ................................................... 274 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists.............................................................110 Clinical chemistry technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................203 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..................................... 203 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers ............................................................ 462 Coin machine servicers and repairers, see: Vending machine servicers and repairers ............................................................................366 Collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors............................ 253 College and university faculty .................................................................... 147 College career planning and placement counselors, see: Counselors .............................................................................................. 149 College presidents, see: General managers and top executives................... 40 College student development specialists, see: Counselors..........................149 Colorists, see: Photographic process workers ........................................... 434 Columnists, see: Writers and editors ..........................................................184 Commentators, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters .............................................................................................184 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers...................... 345 Commercial artists, see: Visual artists........................................................ 194 Commercial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers ..............................................................345 Commercial loan collection officers, see: Loan officers and counselors..................................................................................................53 Communications-center operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................................................................... 290 Communications equipment mechanics ................................................... 345 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists ................... 182 Communications, transportation, and utilities operations managers __ 458 Community health nurses, see: Registered nurses .................................... 175 Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners........................... 129 Community outreach workers, see: Human services workers ..................132 Companions, see: Private household workers ........................................... 325 Compensation managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................................................... 59 Compliance officers ..................................................................................... 49 Composers, see: Musicians ........................................................................ 200 Compositors and typesetters, see: Prepress workers .................................415 Computer and office machine repairers .....................................................346  Index Computer and peripheral equipment operators ........................................ 260 Computer engineers, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts .......92 Computer programmers............................................................................. 224 Computer scientists and systems analysts....................................................92 Computer systems analysts...........................................................................92 Conciliators, labor relations, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................................................... 59 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers .....................................................372 Conductors, orchestra, see: Musicians ...................................................... 200 Conservation scientists ............................................................................... 104 Conservation workers ................................................................................ 332 Conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists .....................104 Conservators, see: Archivists and curators................................................ 144 Construction and building inspectors ..........................................................82 Construction equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................................................................................360 Construction laborers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.............................................................................................450 Construction machinery operators, see: Material moving equipment operators................................................................................................. 438 Construction contractors and managers ..................................................... 24 Construction trades helpers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers...............................................................................450 Consultants, management, see: Management analysts and consultants................................................................................................ 54 Consumer safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Contract managers, see: Administrative services managers ...................... 20 Contract specialists, see: Purchasers and buyers .........................................65 Controllers, air traffic ................................................................................ 220 Controllers, financial, see: Financial managers .......................................... 36 Convention services managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants ..........46 Cooking, roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders .................................................................................................... 462 Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers ...............................................304 Private household workers......................................................................325 Copy editors, see: Writers and editors........................................................ 187 Copy writers, see: Writers and editors........................................................ 187 Correction officers...................................................................................... 295 Correspondence clerks ...............................................................................459 Correspondents........................................................................................... 185 Cosmetologists.............................................................................................315 Cost estimators .............................................................................................28 Counselors ...................................................................................................149 Counter and rental clerks............................................................................236 Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers ...................306 Court clerks................................................................................................. 459 Court reporters ...........................................................................................287 Crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators ...................438 Credit analysts............................................................................................ 458 Credit clerks and authorizes......................................................................262 Credit manages, see: Financial managers .................................................. 36 Criminologists, see: Sociologists................................................................. 126 Critics, see: Reportes and correspondents................................................ 185 Crossing guards...........................................................................................459 Crushing and mixing machine operators and tendes............................... 462 Curators ...................................................................................................... 144 Custodians, see: Janitors and cleanes and cleaning supervisos.............. 324 Custom tailos and sewes, see: Apparel workes ..................................... 421 Customer service representatives, utilities ................................................ 459 Customes’ enginees, see: Computer and office machine repaires ........ 346 Customs agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents ...................... 301 Customs inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .............................................................................................49 Cutting and slicing machine operators, tenders, and setters .................... 462 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Apparel workers............................... 421 Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ..............................................................................................203  D Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders.................................. 462 Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural scientists...............................................100 Dancers and choreographers .......................................... 198 Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process workers......................434 Data entry keyers........................................................................................292  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  489  Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer and office machine repairers.................................................................................... 346 Deck hands, see: Water transportation occupations ................................. 447 Deans, see: Education administrators .......................................................... 30 Demographers, see: Sociologists..................................................................126 Dental assistants.......................................................................................... 309 Dental ceramists, see: Dentallaboratory technicians .................................429 Dental hygienists .........................................................................................205 Dental laboratory technicians .....................................................................429 Dentists ........................................................................................................ 158 Designers ..................................................................................................... 189 Detailers, see: Drafters ............................................................................... 226 Detectives..................................................................................................... 301 Detectives and investigators, except public ...............................................460 Developers, film, see: Photographic process workers ................................434 Dictating-machine transcribers and typists, see: Stenographers ...............287 Diemakers ................................................................................................... 406 Diesel mechanics .........................................................................................341 Dietitians and nutritionists ..........................................................................167 Dining room attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers ............306 Directors, see: Actors, directors, and producers ........................................197 Directors, religious activities and education ............................................. 458 Directors of admissions, see: Education administrators ............................. 30 Directors of student services, see: Education administrators ..................... 30 Disk jockeys, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters ___184 Dispatchers, material.................................................................................. 272 Dispensing opticians.................................................................................... 206 See also: Optometrists.............................................................................. 160 Doctors, chiropractic..................................... 157 Doctors, medical ......................................................................................... 161 Doctors, optometry...................................................................................... 160 Doctors, osteopathic.................................................................................... 161 Doctors, podiatric medicine ........................................................................ 163 Doctors, veterinary medicine.......................................................................165 Drafters........................................................................................................ 226 Driver-sales workers, see: Truckdrivers..................................................... 444 Drug abuse counselors, see: Human services workers .............................. 132 Druggists, see: Pharmacists ........................................................................ 169 Drywall workers and lathers ...................................................................... 374 Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators ............................ 459 Dyers, see: Textile machinery operators ................................................... 424  E Echocardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians...............................................................................................202 Ecologists, see: Biological and medical scientists ...................................... 102 Economists and marketing research analysts ............................................ 121 Editorial artists, see: Visual artists ............................................................. 194 Editorial assistants, see: Writers and editors ..............................................187 Editorial writers, see: Reporters and correspondents ................................185 Editors .......................................................................................................... 187 Education administrators .............................................................................30 Education and training managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................................59 Educational assistants, see: Teacher aides.................................................. 289 EEG technologists....................................................................................... 208 EKG technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians ..................................................................................................................202 Electric meter installers and repairers........................................................ 461 Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers ....................................................................................... 410 Electrical and electronics assemblers..........................................................462 Electrical and electronics engineers ............................................................. 79 Electrical and electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians........228 Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.................24 Electrical powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers............................................................................................ 357 Electricians .................................................................................................. 375 Electrocardiograph technicians ................................................................. 202 Electroencephalographic technologists ..................................................... 208 Electrologists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists .........................................315 Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers ............................... 461 Electroneurodiagnostic technologists, see: EEG technologists ................ 208 Electronic equipment repairers................................................................... 343 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ................................347 Electronic semiconductor processors ........................................................ 462  490  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Electronics engineers ................................................................................... 79 Electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment ................... 345 Electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians............................... 228 Elementary school teachers ....................................................................... 153 Elevator constructors................................................................................. 348 Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.................. 24 Elevator installers and repairers................................................................. 348 Elevator mechanics.................................................................................... 348 Emergency medical technicians .................................................................209 Employee-benefits and welfare managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ...........................................59 Employee relations specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................................................59 Employment counselors, see: Counselors .................................................. 149 Employment interviewers ............................................................................ 32 Engineering, science, and data processing managers................................... 34 Engineering technicians ............................................................................. 228 Engineers ......................................................................................................75  See also: Aerospace engineers............................................................................. 77 Chemical engineers............................................................................... 78 Civil engineers ...................................................................................... 79 Electrical and electronics engineers..................................................... 79 Industrial engineers ..............................................................................80 Mechanical engineers .......................................................................... 80 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers................................. 81 Mining engineers .................................................................................. 82 Nuclear engineers .................................................................................82 Petroleum engineers..............................................................................83 Engineers, ship, see: Water transportation occupations ...........................447 Engineers, stationary ................................................................................. 411 Entomologists, see: Agricultural scientists .................................................100 Environmental health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Equal employment opportunity counselors and representatives, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .......................49 Equipment cleaners.................................................................................... 450 Equipment rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks ...........................236 Estheticians, see: Barbers and cosmetologists ............................................315 Estimaters, cost............................................................................................ 28 Excavating and loading machine operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................................. 438 Executives, see: General managers and top executives................................40 Extruding and forming machine operators, tenders, and setters.............. 462 Extruding machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators................................................................................................ 424  F Facilities managers, see: Administrative services managers .......................20 Fallers and buckers, see: Timber cutting and logging occupations ..........332 Family daycare providers, see: Childcare workers .................................... 317 Farm and home management advisors...................................................... 458 Farm equipment mechanics ....................................................................... 349 Farm operators and managers....................................................................327 Farm workers............................................................................................. 460 Fashion artists, see: Visual artists .............................................................. 194 Fashion designers, see: Designers .............................................................. 189 Fast-food cooks.......................................................................................... 304 Fast-food workers, see: Food and beverage service workers .....................306 FBI special agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents..................... 16 Field engineers and technicians, see: Broadcast technicians............................................................................. 222 Electronic equipment repairers ..............................................................343 File clerks................................................................................................... 281 Film developers, see: Photographic process workers.................................434 Film mounters, automatic,, see: Photographic process workers .............. 434 Financial aid officers, see: Education administrators ..................................30 Financial managers ...................................................................................... 36 Financial services sales representatives .....................................................246 Fine artists, see: Visual artists .................................................................... 194 Firefighting occupations ........................................................................... 297 First-line supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors........................394 Fishers, hunters, and trappers....................................................................329 Flight attendants ....................................................................................... 319 Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots...........................................................218 Floor covering installers, see: Carpet installers .........................................371  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Food and beverage managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants............ 46 Food and beverage service occupations .....................................................306 Food and drug inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................................. 49 Food service managers .................................................................................68 Food technologists, see: Agricultural scientists .........................................100 Foremen and forewomen, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors ............... 394 Forest and conservation workers, see: Forestry and logging occupations .............................................................................................332 Foresters and conservation scientists..........................................................104 Forklift operators, see: Material moving equipment operators ................438 Forming machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators .................................................................................................424 Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers........................................ 462 Frame wirers, see: Communications equipment mechanics .....................345 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.............................................450 Front office managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants ....................... 46 Funeral directors ..........................................................................................38 Furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians .............................................................................................. 352 Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, or kettle operators and tenders........................462 Furnace operators and tenders .................................................................. 462 Furniture and wood finishers, see: Woodworking occupations ................427 Furniture upholsterers .............................................................................. 426  G Gardeners and groundskeepers .................................................................321 Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations .................................. 463 General managers and top executives ..........................................................40 General office clerks................................................................................... 263 Geodesists, see: Surveyors ............................................................................ 87 Geographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners ............................ 119 Geologists.................................................................................................... 108 Geophysicists.............................................................................................. 108 Geriatric aides, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides .........................311 Gerontologists, see: Sociologists................................................................. 126 Gerontology aides, see: Human services workers ......................................132 Glaziers ....................................................................................................... 377 Governesses, see: Private household workers ............................................325 Government chief executives and legislators...............................................42 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................................. 438 Graders, see: Apparel workers .................................................................................... 421 Inspectors, testers, and graders ..............................................................397 Graphic artists, see: Visual artists .............................................................. 194 Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers ..................................................................... 235 Grinders and polishers, hand..................................................................... 463 Groundskeepers ......................................................................................... 321 Guards.........................................................................................................299 Guards, crossing......................................................................................... 459 Guidance counselors, see: Counselors........................................................ 149  H Hairstylists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists............................................. 315 Hand packers and packagers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.............................................................................. 450 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ............................... 450 Hamessmakers, see; Shoe and leather workers and repairers...................423 Hazardous waste management specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ................................................ 49 Health and regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Health services managers............................................................................. 44 Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators ......................404 Heaters and heating equipment setters and setup operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators ......................404 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians ......................... 352 Heavy equipment operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.................................................................................................438 Heavy mobile equipment mechanics ......................................................... 360 Helicopter pilots, see: Aircraft pilots ......................................................... 218 Helpers ....................................................................................................... 450 Highway maintenance workers .................................................................460  Index Highway patrol officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents......... 301 Histology technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..............................................................................................203 Historians, see: Social scientists and urban planners ................................ 119 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.................................................................................................438 Home appliance and power tool repairers..................................................354 Home entertainment electronic equipment repairers ...............................347 Home management advisors ..................................................................... 458 Homemaker-home health aides .................................................................322 Horticulturists, see: Agricultural scientists ...............................................100 Hospital administrators, see: Health service managers ..............................44 Hospital attendants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides ................. 310 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage service workers.................. 306 Hotel and motel desk clerks .......................................................................266 Hotel managers and assistants .................................................................... 46 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers..........................................325 Housekeepers, executive, see: Hotel managers and assistants.....................46 Human services workers ............................................................................132 Hunters ....................................................................................................... 329 Hydrologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists.........................................108 Hygienists, dental........................................................................................205  I Illustrators, see: Visual artists .................................................................... 194 Immigration inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................................. 49 Immunology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ...................................................................................... 203 Industrial buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers............................................. 65 Industrial designers, see: Designers ........................................................... 189 Industrial electronic equipment repairers ..................................................345 Industrial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers ..............................................................345 Industrial engineering technicians ............................................................ 228 Industrial engineers ..................................................................................... 80 Industrial machinery repairers .................................................................. 356 Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses ................................................... 175 Industrial production managers...................................................................48 Industrial safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................................ 49 Industrial sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives ........................................................................................239 Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................................. 438 Information clerks...................................................................................... 264 Information officers, see: Public relations specialists ............................... 182 Information scientists, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts ...............................................92 Librarians ................................................................................................151 Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists ......................................178 Inside sales representatives, see: Services sales representatives ................248 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ...........................49 Inspectors, construction and building..........................................................24 Inspectors, health and regulatory, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................... 49 Inspectors, testers, and graders.................................................................. 397 Institutional cleaning supervisors ..............................................................324 Instructors, see: Adult education teachers ....................................................................... 143 College and university faculty ................................................................147 School teachers Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary ..................153 Instructors and coaches, sports and physical training ............................. 458 Instrument repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics..........345 Insulation workers...................................................................................... 379 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .................................................................. 253 Insurance claims and policy processing occupations, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .................................................................. 253 Insurance agents and brokers ....................................................................237 Interior designers, see: Designers................................................................189 Interviewing and new accounts clerks........................................................266 Investigators, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors ..................................................................................................................253 Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing ironworkers ........................389  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  491  J Jailers, see: Correction officers ......................................................... Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors ............................... Jewelers.............................................................................................. Job analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ................................................................................ Job development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................................ Journalists, see: Reporters and correspondents ............................... Judges.................................................................................................  .295 .324 .400 .59 .59 .185 114  K Keypunch operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers .............................................................................................. Kindergarten teachers........................................................................  292 153  L Labor relations specialists and managers .......................................... Laboratory animal technologists and technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm .................................................................. Laboratory technicians, dental .......................................................... Laboratory technicians, film, see: Photographic process workers ... Laboratory workers, medical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ............................................................................... Laborers .............................................................................................. Land surveyors ................................................................................... Landscape architects .......................................................................... Landscape gardeners, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers .............. Lathers................................................................................................. Laundromat attendants, see: Counter and retail clerks .................... Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers ............................... .......................... ............................... Lawn and garden equipment mechanics, see: Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics ................................................................. Lawn service workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers ............ Lawyers and judges............................................................................. Layout workers, apparel..................................................................... Leather workers and repairers ........................................................... Legal assistants, see: Paralegals ......................................................... Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries ....................................................... Legislators ........................................................................................... Librarians............................................................................................. Library assistants and bookmobile drivers ........................................ Library technicians ............................................................................. Licensed practical nurses.................................................................... Licensed vocational nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses .............. Life insurance agents, see: Insurance sales workers .......................... Life underwriters, see: Insurance sales workers ................................. Line installers and cable splicers ........................................................ Lithographic and photoengraving workers, see: Prepress workers .. Loan and credit clerks ........................................................................ Loan officers and counselors .............................................................. Locksmiths and safe repairers ............................................................ Locomotive engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations ........... Log handling equipment operators.................................................... Logging equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics........................................................................................ Logging occupations .......................................................................... Logging tractor operators .................................................................. Luggage makers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers.........  ..59 .314 .429 .434 .203 .406 ..87 ..85 .321 .374 .236 .463 .362 .321 .114 .421 .423 .231 .286 ..40 .151 .282 .230 .211 .211 .237 .237 .357 .415 .262 ..53 .461 .440 .332 .360 .332 ,332 .423  M Machine assemblers ........................................................................... Machine feeders and oflbearers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers....................................................................... Machine-tool operators, numerical control, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators.............................................. Machine-tool setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators .............. Machinery mechanics, industrial....................................................... Machinists and tool programmers .................................................... Mail carriers ........... ............................................................................ Mail clerks and messengers................................................................. Mailhandlers, see: Postal clerks and mail carriers ............................ Maintenance mechanics, general....................................................... Make-up artists, see: Barters and cosmetologists ...............................  .463 .450 .404 .404 356 402 275 269 275 351 315  492  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Management analysts and consultants ........................................................ 54 Management science analysts, see: Operations research analysts............... 96 Managers, see: Administrative services managers ...........................................................20 Construction contractors and managers..................................................26 Engineering, science, and data processing managers .............................. 34 Financial managers ..................................................................................36 Funeral directors...................................................................................... 38 General managers and top executives .....................................................40 Government chief executives and legislators .......................................... 40 Health services managers .........................................................................44 Hotel managers and assistants ................................................................. 46 Industrial production managers .............................................................. 48 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers ..........................56 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......... 59 Property and real estate managers........................................................... 62 Purchasers and buyers ............................................................................. 65 Restaurant and food service managers ................................................... 68 Retail managers........................................................................................70 Manicurists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists ........................................... 315 Manpower development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.................................................. 59 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives .................................239 Manufacturers’ representatives, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives .............................................................................. 239 Manufacturing opticians ........................................................................... 431 Map editors, see: Surveyors.......................................................................... 87 Mapping scientists, see: Surveyors .............................................................. 87 Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons......................................368 Marine engineers, see: Water transportation occupations ........................447 Marine geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists................................. 108 Marine oilers, see: Water transportation occupations............................... 447 Markers, apparel ....................................................................................... 421 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.............................. 56 Marketing and sales worker supervisors ................................................... 459 Marketing research analysts....................................................................... 121 Masters, see: Water transportation occupations .......................................447 Material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................................450 Material moving equipment operators ...................................................... 438 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations ............................................................................................270 Materials engineers ...................................................................................... 81 Mates—ship, boat, and barge, see: Water transportation occupations ............................................................................................447 Mathematicians ...........................................................................................94 Meatcutters .................................................................................................396 Mechanical engineering technicians ......................................................... 228 Mechanical engineers....................................................................................80 Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors ............24 Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists ............................................. 335 Automotive body repairers ....................................................................337 Automotive mechanics ..........................................................................338 Boilermakers .......................................................................................... 399 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers ..................345 Communications equipment mechanics ................................................ 345 Computer and office machine repairers ................................................ 346 Diesel mechanics ....................................................................................... 341 Electronic equipment repairers ..............................................................343 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers............................ 347 Elevator installers and repairers ............................................................ 348 Farm equipment mechanics .................................................................. 349 General maintenance mechanics ...........................................................351 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians...................... 352 Home appliance and power tool repairers ............................................. 354 Industrial machinery repairers ..............................................................356 Jewelers .................................................................................................. 400 Line installers and cable splicers............................................................ 357 Millwrights............................................................................................. 359 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics ...................................................... 360 Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics......................................362 Musical instrument repairers and tuners ...............................................364 Shoe and leather workers and repairers ................................................423 Telephone installers and repairers ......................................................... 347 Upholsterers .......................................................................................... 426  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Vending machine servicers and repairers.............................................. 366 Media specialists, see: Librarians................................................................151 Mediators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ............................................................................................59 Medical and scientific illustrators, see: Visual artists ................................194 Medical assistants ...................................................................................... 310 Medical laboratory technologists and technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...............................................203 Medical record technicians.........................................................................212 Medical scientists ........................................................................................ 102 Medical secretaries, see: Secretaries ...........................................................286 Medical social workers, see: Social workers...............................................136 Membership secretaries, see: Secretaries ................................................... 286 Mental health assistants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides ......... 311 Mental health counselors, see: Counselors .................................................149 Mental health technicians, see: Human services workers ..........................132 Merchandise managers, see: Purchasers and buyers ...................................65 Messengers ................................................................................................. 269 Metal pourers and casters, basic shapes .....................................................463 Metallurgical engineers.................................................................................81 Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators ...........................404 Meteorologists .............................................................................................110 Meter readers, utilities, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations............................................. 270 Microbiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.............................. 102 Microbiology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ...................................................................................... 203 Military occupations ..................................................................................452 Millwrights ................................................................................................. 359 Mine safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Mineralogists, see: Geologists and geophysicists....................................... 108 Mining engineers ..........................................................................................82 Mining equipment repairers, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................................................................................360 Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations ........................................ 460 Ministers, Protestant .................................................................................. 138 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics ......................................................... 360 Morticians, see: Funeral directors................................................................38 Motion picture camera operators ............................................................. 191 Motion picture projectionists..................................................................... 463 Motor vehicle body repairers, see: Automotive body repairers ................337 Motor vehicle inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................................. 49 Motor vehicle repairers, see: Automotive mechanics ............................... 338 Motorboat mechanics ................................................................................ 362 Motorcycle mechanics................................................................................ 362 Municipal clerks......................................................................................... 459 Museum directors, see: Archivists and curators ....................................... 144 Museum technicians, see: Archivists and curators .................................... 144 Musical instrument repairers and tuners............... 364 Musicians .................................................................................................... 200  N Nannies, see: Private household workers................................................... 325 Neurophysiologic technologists, see: EEG technologists ......................... 208 New accounts clerks................................................................................... 266 News anchors or co-anchors, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.......................................................................................184 Newscasters................................................................................................. 184 Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents ........................185 Newswriters, see: Writers and editors ........................................................ 187 Nuclear engineers ........................................................................................ 82 Nuclear medicine technologists .................................................................213 Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians ............................................233 Numerical-control machine-tool operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators...................................................... 404 Numerical-control tool programmers, see: Machinists and tool programmers ......................................................................................... 402 Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses ............................................... 175 Nursery workers......................................................................................... 460 Nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses .......................................................................211 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides ...................................................... 311 Registered nurses ....................................................................................175 Nursing home administrators, see: Health services managers ................... 44  Index Nutritionists ................................................................................................167  O Occupational analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...........................................................................59 Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses .................................. 175 Occupational safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ................................................ 49 Occupational therapists ............................................................................. 168 Occupational therapy assistants and aides ................................................460 Oceanographers, see: Geologists and geophysicists ..................................108 Office clerks, general ................................................................................. 263 Office electricians, see: Communications equipment mechanics.............. 345 Office machine repairers............................................................................. 346 Office managers, see: Clerical supervisors and managers ......................... 259 Office nurses, see: Registered nurses ......................................................... 175 Operating engineers, see: Material moving equipment operators .............438 Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technologists...........................216 Operations research analysts ....................................................................... 96 Ophthalmic dispensers, see: Dispensing opticians ................................... 206 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians .......................................................... 431 Optical goods workers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............. 431 Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians .................... 431 Opticians, dispensing ................................................................................. 206 Optometrists ................................................................................................160 Orchestra conductors, see: Musicians ....................................................... 200 Order clerks ............................................................................................... 283 Orthodontic technicians, see: Dental laboratory technicians ...................429 Osteopathic physicians, see: Physicians .....................................................161 Outside sales representatives, see: Services sales representatives.............. 248  P Package designers, see: Designers ..............................................................189 Packaging and filling machine operators...................................................463 Painters and paperhangers ........................................................................ 380 Painters, visual artists ................................................................................ 194 Painting and coating machine operators ...................................................432 Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand ..................................... 463 Paleontologists, see: Geologists and geoghysicists .................................... 108 Paper goods machine setting and setup operators ....................................463 Paperhangers ..............................................................................................380 Paralegals....................................................................................................231 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians..................................... 211 Park rangers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .............................................................................................49 Parking lot attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................................ 450 Parole officers, see: Social workers .............................................................136 Passenger agents and booking and rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks .......................................268 Pathologists, speech-language....................................................................179 Patternmakers, apparel, see: Apparel workers ..........................................421 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators...............................460 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................................................. 284 PBX installers and repairers.......................................................................345 PBX operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators ..........290 Peripheral equipment operators, electronic data processing, see: Computer and peripheral equipment operators ....................................260 Personal attendants, see: Private household workers ............................... 325 Personnel clerks ......................................................................................... 285 Personnel consultants, see: Employment interviewers.........................................................................32 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......... 59 Personnel recruiters, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................................................... 59 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ............. 59 Pest controllers and assistants....................................................................460 Petroleum engineers ..................................................................................... 83 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians........................................ 233 Pharmacists................................................................................................. 169 Pharmacy assistants ...................................................................................460 Phlebotomists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..............................................................................................203 Photoengraving workers ........................................................................... 415 Photofinishing laboratory workers, see: Prepress workers....................... 434 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors.............................................................. 87  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  493  Photographers and camera operators ........................................................ 191 Photographic equipment repairers .............................................................461 Photographic process workers ................................................................... 434 Photographic retouchers and spotters, see: Photographic process workers ................................................................................................... 434 Photojoumalists, see: Photographers and camera operators..................... 191 Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides.................................460 Physical therapists....................................................................................... 171 Physician assistants......................................................................................173 Physicians ................................................................................................... 161 Physicists and astronomers......................................................................... Ill Physiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists ................................. 102 Piano technicians and tuners, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners ...................................................................................................... 364 Pilots, aircraft .............................................................................................218 Pipefitters.....................................................................................................383 Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters ................................................................460 Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners................................................................................................ 364 Placement directors, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................................................................... 59 Plant breeders, see: Agricultural scientists .................................................100 Plasterers .....................................................................................................382 Plastics-working machine operators ..........................................................404 Plating and coating machine operators, metal and plastic ........................404 Plumbers and pipefitters..............................................................................383 Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors ...............24 Podiatrists ....................................................................................................163 Police, detectives, and special agents ..........................................................301 Policy processing clerks, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors ..........................................................................................253 Political scientists, see: Social scientists and urban planners..................... 129 Postal clerks and mail carriers ...................................................................275 Postal inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ..............................................................................................49 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural scientists ............................................ 100 Power distributors and dispatchers .......................................................„.410 Power generating plant operators .............................................................. 410 Power reactor operators ..............................................................................410 Power tool repairers, home appliances .......................................................354 Powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers ..................................................................................................... 357 Practical nurses, licensed ............................................................................ 211 Precision assemblers....................................................................................393 Precision instrument repairers ...................................................................461 Prepress workers ........................................................................................ 415 Preschool workers .......................................................................................317 Presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives ................................................................... 40 Press operators, printing ............................................................................ 417 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists....................................... 182 Pressers and pressing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers ................................................................................................... 421 Priests, Roman Catholic.............................................................................. 140 Principals, school, see: Education administrators........................................30 Print developers, photographic, see: Photographic process workers __ 434 Printmakers, visual artists........................................................................... 194 Print shop stenographers, see: Stenographers ............................................287 Printing press operators ............................................................................. 417 Prison guards, see: Correction officers .......................................................295 Private duty nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................................175 Private household workers ......................................................................... 325 Probation officers, see: Social workers ....................................................... 136 Procurement clerks, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations............................................. 270 Producers, see: Actors, directors, and producers ......................................197 Product managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers........................................................................ 56 Production, planning, and expediting clerks, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations __ 270 Professors, see: College and university faculty ...........................................140 Programmer-analysts, see: Computer programmers................................. 224 Programmers, computer ............................................................................ 224 Programmers, tool.......................................................................................402 Proofreaders and copy markers ................................................................. 459 Property and real estate managers ...............................................................62  494  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Property managers, see: Administrative services managers....................... 20 Protestant ministers ................................................................................... 138 Psychiatric aides......................................................................................... 311 Psychiatric social workers, see: Social workers .........................................136 Psychiatric technicians.............................................................................. 458 Psychologists ..............................................................................................124 Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists ......................... 182 Public health nurses, see: Registered nurses...............................................175 Public relations managers ............................................................................ 56 Public relations specialists.......................................................................... 182 Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......... 24 Purchasers and buyers..................................................................................65 Purchasing agents and managers, see: Purchasers and buyers ................... 65  Q Quality control inspectors and coordinators, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................................ 49  R Rabbis ........................................................................................................ 139 Radiation protection specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Radiation therapy technologists, see: Radiologic technologists .............. 214 Radio and television announcers and newscasters .................................... 184 Radio and television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers........................................................347 Radiopharmacists, see: Pharmacists ......................................................... 169 Radio repairers and mechanics, see: Communications equipment mechanics............................................................................................... 345 Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists........................................... 214 Radiologic technologists ........................................................................... 214 Rail transportation occupations.................................................................440 Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers, see: Rail transportation occupations ....................................................................440 Railroad brake, signal, and switch operaters, see: Rail transportation occupations ....................................................................440 Railroad conductors and yardmasters, see: Rail transportation occupations ............. 440 Railroad inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ............................................................................................ 49 Range conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists .......... 104 Range ecologists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists .....................104 Range managers, see: Foresters and conservation scientists .....................104 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers................................................ 239 Real estate clerks ....................................................................................... 459 Real estate managers ................................................................................... 62 Realtors, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers......................... 239 Receptionists ............................................................................................. 267 Record clerks ............................................................................................. 277 Recording engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.......................................222 Recreation attendants .................................................. 459 Recreation workers.................................................................................... 133 Recreational therapists ...............................................................................173 Recruiters, personnel, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................................................... 59 Refrigeration technicians........................................................................... 352 Refuse collectors, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers .................................................................................................. 450 Regional planners ......................................................................................129 Registered nurses ....................................................................................... 175 Registered representatives, securities, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives .................................................................246 Registrars, see: Education administrators................................................... 30 Regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................................. 49 Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors................................................ 149 Reinforcing ironworkers ........................................................................... 389 Religious education and activities directors.............................................. 458 Rental clerks.................................... 236 Reporters and correspondents.................................................................... 185 Rerecording mixers, see: Broadcast technicians .......................................222 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................268 Residence counselors, see: Counselors ...................................................... 149 Resident managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants .............................46 Residential counselors, see: Human services workers................................132 Respiratory care practitioners, see: Respiratory therapists ...................... 178  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Respiratory therapists .................................................................................178 Restaurant and food service managers ........................................................ 68 Retail buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers....................................................65 Retail managers ........................................................................................... 70 Retail sales workers ................................................................................... 244 Revenue officers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .............................................................................................49 Riggers.........................................................................................................461  See also: Communications equipment mechanics ........................................... 345 Material moving equipment operators .............................................. 438 Timber cutting and logging occupations........................................... 332 Roman Catholic priests ............................................................................. 140 Roofers ....................................................................................................... 385 Roustabouts ............................................................................................... 386 Route drivers, see: Truckdrivers ............................................................... 444  S Saddlemakers, see: Shoe and leather worker and repairers ...................... 423 Safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .............................................................................................49 Sales engineers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives........................................................................................239 Sales managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers...................................................................................................56 Sales workers, see: Cashiers .................................................................................................. 235 Counter and rental clerks .......................................................................236 Insurance agents and brokers .................................................................237 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives..............................239 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers ........................................... 239 Retail sales workers ................................................................................ 244 Securities and financial services sales representatives ...........................246 Services sales representatives .................................................................248 Travel agents ...........................................................................................250 Sanitarians, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .............................................................................................49 Sanitation inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction .................................................................................. 49 School counselors, see: Counselors .............................................................149 School librarians, see: Librarians................................................................151 School nurses, see: Registered nurses..........................................................175 School principals and assistant principals, see: Education administrators ..........................................................................................30 School secretaries, see: Secretaries ............................................................ 286 School social workers, see: Social workers ................................................ 136 School superintendents, see: General managers and top executives .......... 40 School teachers§Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary .....................153 Science technicians .....................................................................................233 Screen printing setters and setup operators .............................................. 415 Sculptors, see: Visual artists ....................................................................... 194 Seamen, see: Water transportation occupations........................................ 447 Secondary school teachers.......................................................................... 153 Secret service agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents ...............301 Secretaries .................................................................................................. 286 Securities and financial services sales representatives............................... 246 Securities compliance examiners, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................................................... 49 Securities traders, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives ........................................................................................246 Security guards, see: Guards ..................................................................... 299 Seismologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists ....................................... 108 Semiconductor processors..........................................................................462 Separating and still machine operators and tenders.................................. 463 Service station attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.............................................................................. 450 Service technicians, see: Electronic equipment repairers ..............................................................343 Home appliance and power tool repairers ............................................. 354 Services sales representatives ..................................................................... 248 Setters and setup operators, metalworking and plastics-working machine .................................................................................................. 404 Setters and setup operators, textile machine .............................................424 Sewage treatment plant operators ..............................................................413 Sewers and sewing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers .................................................................................................. 421  Index Sheetmetal workers.....................................................................................388 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs, see: Police, detectives, and special agents ......................................................................................................301 Ship captains and pilots, see: Water transportation occupations .............447 Ship engineers, see: Water transportation occupations ............................447 Shipfitters....................................................................................................463 Shipping and receiving clerks ....................................................................274 Shoe and leather workers and repairers .................................................... 423 Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders ............................................ 463 Short order cooks........................................................................................304 Shorthand reporters, see: Stenographers ...................................................287 Signal or track switch maintained, see: Communications equipment mechanics................................................................................................345 Silversmiths, see: Jewelers ..........................................................................400 Singers, see: Musicians .............................................................................. 200 Social scientists ........................................................................................... 119 Social secretaries, see: Secretaries ..............................................................286 Social service technicians, see: Human services workers...........................132 Social work assistants, see: Human services workers ............................... 132 Social workers .............................................................................................136 Sociologists ................................................................................................. 126 Soil conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists .............. 104 Soil scientists, see: Agricultural scientists .................................................100 Solderers and brazers ................................................................................. 463 Soldering and brazing machine operators and tenders............................. 463 Sonographers, see: Radiologic technologists .............................................214 Special education teachers, see: School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary ................................................................... 153 Sound mixers, see: Broadcast technicians .................................................222 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists ........................................ 179 Sportscasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters .................................................................................................................. 184 Spray painters ............................................................................................ 432 Spreaders, apparel, see: Apparel workers ................................................. 421 Sprinklerfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters........................................... 383 State police officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents ................301 Statement clerks ......................................................................................... 280 Station installers, see: Telephone installers and repairers .........................347 Stationary engineers .................................................................................. 411 Statistical clerks .........................................................................................459 Statisticians ................................................................................................... 98 Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters ................................................383 Stenographers and court reporters ............................................................ 287 Stenotype operators, see: Stenographers ...................................................287 Stevedores, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ................................................................................................................. 450 Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants ....................... 319 Stock clerks .................................................................................................273 Stock handlers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ..................................................................................................450 Stockbrokers, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives......................................................................................246 Stockroom clerks, see: Stock clerks .......................................................... 273 Stonemasons ............................................................................................... 368 Stratigraphers, see: Geologists and geophysicists ..................................... 108 Structural and reinforcing ironworkers .................................................... 389 Stucco masons, see: Plasterers ....................................................................382 Student development specialists, see: Counselors ..................................... 149 Subway and streetcar operators, see: Rail transportation occupations ............................................................................................ 440 Supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors ..............................................................394 Clerical supervisors and managers........................................................259 Cleaning supervisors .............................................................................. 324 Supervisors, agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related occupations ....................................................................................... 460 Surgeons ......................................................................................................161 Surgeons’ assistants....................................................................................173 Surgical technologists ................................................................................ 216 Survey technicians, see: Surveyors .............................................................. 87 Survey workers, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks .................... 266 Surveyors ......................................................................................................87 Switchboard operators, see: Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers ......................................................................................410 Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators....................................... 290  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  495  Systems analysts, computer ..........................................................................92 Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers ................................224  T Tailors, see: Apparel workers......................................................................421 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.......................................... 458 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs ....................................................................... 442 Teacher aides .............................................................................................. 289 Teachers, see: Adult education teachers ........................................................................ 143 College and university faculty ................................................................ 147 School teachers§Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary..................153 Technical secretaries, see: Secretaries ........................................................ 286 Technical writers, see: Writers and editors.................................................187 Technicians, see: Air traffic controllers ..............................................................................220 Broadcast technicians..............................................................................222 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians....................................... 202 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ................................. 203 Computer programmers ......................................................................... 224 Dental hygienists..................................................................................... 205 Dispensing opticians ............................................................................... 206 Drafters ................................................................................................... 226 EEG technologists .................................................................................. 208 Emergency medical technicians .............................................................211 Engineering technicians ......................................................................... 228 Library technicians .................................................................................230 Licensed practical nurses ........................................................................211 Medical record technicians .....................................................................212 Nuclear medicine technologists.............................................................. 213 Paralegals ................................................................................................ 231 Radiologic technologists......................................................................... 214 Science technicians.................................................................................. 233 Surgical technologists..............................................................................216 Telegraph plant maintainers, see: Communications equipment mechanics................................................................................................ 346 Telemarketing representatives, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks ....................................................266 Services sales representatives ................................................................. 248 Telephone-answering-service operators, see: Telephone operators ..........290 Telephone installers .................................................................................... 347 Telephone line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers ..................................................................................................... 357 Telephone repairers .................................................................................... 347 Telephone operators....................................................................................290 Teletype installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics ............. 345 Television announcers and newscasters ......................................................184 Television camera operators, see: Photographers and camera operators.................................................................................................. 191 Television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ............................................................................... 347 Tellers, bank ................................................................................................ 257 Terrazzo workers ........................................................................................ 372 Testers ..........................................................................................................397 Textile designers, see: Designers..................................................................189 Textile machinery operators........................................................................424 Therapeutic recreation specialists, see: Recreational therapists ...............174 Therapists, see: Occupational therapists........................................................................... 168 Physical therapists ...................................................................................171 Recreational therapists ........................................................................... 174 Respiratory therapists ............................................................ 178 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists...................................... 179 Ticket agents and clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..........................................................................268 Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers ................................................................................................... 235 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ........... 268 Tilesetters..................................................................................................... 391 Timber cutting and logging workers .......................................................... 332 Timekeeping clerks ..................................................................................... 284 Tire building machine operators ................................................................463 Tire repairers and changers ........................................................................461 Title examiners and searchers .................................................................... 458 Tool and die makers .................................................................................... 406 Tool programmers, numerical control .......................................................402  496  Occupational Outlook Handbook  Tower-crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators ........ 438 Traffic controllers, air ................................................................................220 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ......................................................274 Training specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................................................... 59 Transcribing machine operators, see: Stenographers ............................... 287 Transmitter engineers and operators, see: Broadcast technicians.............222 Transportation managers........................................................................... 458 Transportation ticket agents ..................................................................... 268 Trappers ..................................................................................................... 329 Travel agents ..............................................................................................250 Travel clerks ............................................................................................... 268 Treasurers, see: Financial managers.............................................................36 Treatment plant operators, water and wastewater....................................413 Trouble locators, see: Communications equipment mechanics ................ 345 Truck mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics ................................................... 341 Truckdrivers............................................................................................... 444 Trust officers, see: Financial managers........................................................ 36 Tuners, musical instruments ..................................................................... 364 Tutors, see: Private household workers .................................................... 325 Typesetters, see: Prepress workers ............................................................ 415 Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers .......................................292  U Ultrasound technologists, see: Radiologic technologists...........................214 Underwriters ................................................................................................73 Underwriters, mortgage loan, see: Loan officers and counselors ............... 53 University faculty........................................................................................147 Upholsterers ...............................................................................................426 Urban and regional planners ..................................................................... 129 Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket agents .............................................. 460 Utilities operations managers ....................................................................458  V Vascular technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians ............................................................................................. 202 Vehicle washers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers .................................................................................................. 450 Vending machine servicers and repairers ................................................. 366 Veterinarians .............................................................................................. 165 Veterinary technicians and assistants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm ............................................................................................ 314 Vice presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives ...................................................................40 Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians .................................222 Visual artists ............................................................................................... 194 Vocational counselors, see: Counselors .....................................................149   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Vocational education and training teachers, see: Adult education teachers ......................................................................................... Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical nurses ............ Vocational rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors ....................  .143 .211 .149  W Wage-hour compliance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage service workers ... Ward attendants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides ............ Warehouse clerks, see: Stock clerks ................................................. Washers, vehicles, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ......................................................................................... Watchmakers .................................................................................... Water and wastewater treatment plant operators............................ Water transportation occupations.................................................... Weathercasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters ................................................................................... Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations ................................................................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators .......................... Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors ......................................................... Wholesale buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers ................................ Wholesale trade sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives ..................................................................... Wood machine operators.................................................................. Wood machinists .............................................................................. Wood pattern and model makers...................................................... Woodworkers, precision.................................................................... Woodworking occupations ............................................................... Word processing machine operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers .................................................................... Word processors................................................................................ Writers and editors ........................................................................... Writers, technical, see: Writers and editors .....................................  .49 .306 311 ,273 .450 .461 .413 .447 .184 .270 .408 .253 ..65 .239 ,427 .427 .427 .427 .427 .292 .292 .187 .187  X X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists.............................  .214  Y Yard clerks, see: Stock clerks......................................................,...  .273  Z Zookeepers, see: Animal caretakers, except farm ............................ Zoologists, see: Biological and medical scientists ............................  314  102  Related Publications 1994 Edition  Occupational Projections and Training Data A Statistical and Research Supplement to the 1994-95 Occupational Outlook Handbook  The American Work Force: 1992-2005  Bulletin 2452 April 1994  U.S. Department ot Labor Bureau ot Labor Statistics May 1994  |'C.k urr*" repeat w,  1 to 10  e'vj repea' set r.;l.g"t of ttrcBtn tu true repeat w;Lh  x-  1 to *,L-  if hil;cH bf btr« K - true Lhcn ■■t t visible of fid X to true  BLS Bulletin 2451  BLS Bulletin 2452  Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1994 Edition  The American Work Force: 1992-2005  This supplement to the Occupational Outlook Handbook pro­ vides the statistical and technical data supporting the informa­ tion presented in the Handbook. Education and training plan­ ners, career counselors, and jobseekers can find valuable information that ranks occupations by employment growth, earnings, susceptibility to unemployment, separation rates, and part-time work.  Every 2 years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics produces detailed projections of the U.S. economy and labor force. This bulletin presents the Bureau’s latest analyses of economic and indus­ trial growth, the labor force, and trends in occupational employ­ ment into the 21st century. An overview article focuses on im­ portant issues raised by these projections.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Note: At press time, prices for these publications were not available. For prices and ordering information, contact any of the Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices listed on the inside of the front cover, or the Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC 20212-0001.  CAREER INFORMATION FROM AN INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE  INDUSTRIES career guide to  0 S Dupaumti K y Lai** SteHistcs*  1 The 1992 Career Guide to Industries is a unique, new source of job information. It contains authoritative up-to-date reviews of 40 industries—from agriculture of aerospace. You can find out which industries are growing, where the jobs are, and which pay well. Other information includes: Q Description of the industry and its workplaces O Principal occupations and their growth rates O Working conditions and hazards O Opportunities for training and advancement O Jobs that do not require training beyond high school O Jobs that require additional specialized education or training If you need career information, you need industry information: That's why Career Guide to Industries can be a useful addition to your library.  Price $12.00. Stock # 029-001-03127-1  Available from New Orders, Superintendent of Documents, PO Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954. Payment or GPO deposit account number must accompany the order. Make checks or money orders payable to The Superintendent of Documents. If using Visa or Master Card, include card number and expiration date. ☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1994-363-539  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ISBN 0-16-043045-3  7801 60 430459  1  Catch the pregame show for the next Handbook.  y  \±r ...by ordering a 2-year subscription to the Occupational Outlook Quarterly. Subscribe now to get 8 issues, including the Fall 1995 chartbook -a set of 40 or more graphs that will highlight the projections behind the 1996-97 Handbook. Other special issues include Spring 1996, presenting the job outlook in brief, and Summer 1996, which will give fhe Bureau of Labor Statistics' latest look at the future job market for college graduates. These and other issues will help you keep up with the latest trends, new and emerging jobs, occupational outlook, and more -all for only $16 (1 -year subscription, $8).  Subscribe today. You'll find out why the OOQ is one of the Federal Government's best-selling magazines. Send your request to New Subscriptions, Superintendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954. Make checks payable to Superintendent of Documents. Visa and MasterCard accepted; include account number and expiration date of card.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  '  «r  .  __  ZjC  M«t  ~4tf  MC  JgU. ^  'T......  4(fc  >f  .  J*k   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  LfisaJS  VMM  mm  ■  ssiiiSl