Full text of Occupational Outlook Handbook : Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1988-89 Edition : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2300

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Occupational Outlook Handbook U.S. Department of Labor Ann McLaughlin, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics , Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner April 1988 Bulletin 2300   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1988-89 Edition   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Foreword hoosing a career is one of the most important decisions that we face—whether as students, workers seeking a career change, or when entering the labor force after a lengthy absence. A wise choice can lead to rewarding occupational experiences and a job that offers pride in achievement, opportunity for personal growth, and the security of an'adequate income. The impact of technological advances, changes in business practices, foreign competition, and shifts in the demand for goods and services will alter to­ morrow’s job market—making the need for comprehensive, up-to-date, and reliable career information more important than ever before. For nearly 40 years, the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Handbook has been a valuable source of career information. Revised every two years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects for se­ lected occupations covering a wide spectrum of the Nation’s economy. I am certain that the updated 1988-89 edition of the Handbook will provide valuable assistance to individuals making career decisions about their future work lives.  JANET L. NORWOOD Commissioner Bureau of Labor Statistics  mi   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Acknowledgments The Handbook was produced in the Bureau of Labor Statistics under the general guidance and direction of Neal H. Rosenthal, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, and Ronald E. Kutscher, Associate Commissioner for Economic Growth and Employment Projections. Michael Pilot, Manager, Occupational Outlook Program, was responsible for planning and day-to-day direction. Project leaders supervising the research and preparation of material were Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, Chester C. Levine, and Darrel P. Wash. Occupational analysts who contributed material were William M. Austin, Mary-Jane Curran, Verada P. Bluford, Douglas J. Braddock, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., Sandy Gamliel, Arthur J. Gartaganis, Ludmilla K. Murphy, H. James Neary, Jon Q. Sargent, Stephen G. Tise, and Martha C. White. The D.O.T. index was compiled by Audrey J. Watson. Rosalind Springsteen of the Office of Publications coordinated the gathering and editing of photographs. Under the direction of Beverly A. Williams, word processing support was handled by Marilyn Queen and Idena B. Sanders.  Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial or­ ganizations, and government agencies provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Sta­ tistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations or the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organi­ zation, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recom­ mendation by the Bureau either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC 20212.  IV  Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources—listed below—that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to photographers working under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor.  Barbara Abels Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Arena Stage, Joan Marcus American Academy of Physician Assistants American Chiropractic Association American Psychological Association American Textile Manufacturers Institute Baltimore Gas and Electric Company Stan Barouh Photography Robert Bennett Blakeslee-Lane, Inc. The Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., Arthur Lavine Michael Dersin   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Focus Photo, Marilu Halamandars Geisinger Medical Center General Electric Georgetown University School of Nursing Gulf Oil Corporation, Lois M. Weissflog Homecare Kitt Peak National Observatory Tom Kochel-Photography Odette Lupis Martin Marietta (Baltimore) Mine Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor Morgan State University National Hospital for Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation  v  National Park Service, U.S. Department of Interior, Richard Frear Photo Agora-Robert Maust Photography, Howard Zehr Registered Medical Assistants Joseph T. Ryerson & Sons, Inc. Jerry Soalt for ILGWU Justice U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Department of Health and Human Services U.S. Department of Labor U.S. Postal Service VISTA A1 Whitley WJLA-TV (Washington, DC) WMAR-TV (Baltimore) Working Images Photographs— Martha Tabor  Contents page Special Features  1 How To Get the Most From the Handbook 4 Where To Go for More  Information 8 Tomorrow’s Jobs 406 Summary Data for Occupations  Not Covered in the Handbook 420 Assumptions and Methods Used  in Preparing Employment Projections 422 Sources of State and Local Job  Outlook Information 425 Dictionary of Occupational Titles  Index 447 Index to Occupations  page Occupational Coverage 14 Managerial and Management-  Related OccupatioAs 14 Accountants and auditors 16-Construction and building inspectors 18 Cost estimators 20 Education administrators 21 Employment interviewers 24-Financial managers 25 “General managers and top executives 27 Health services managers 30 Hotel managers and assistants 32 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction 34 Management analysts and consultants 36 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers 38 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers 40 Property and real estate managers 43 Purchasing agents and managers 45 Restaurant and food service managers 47 Underwriters 48 Wholesale and retail buyers  page Occupational Coverage 73 73 74 76  Life scientists Agricultural scientists Biological scientists Foresters and conservation scientists  78 78 79 81 82  Physical scientists Chemists Geologists and geophysicists Meteorologists Physicists and astronomers  84 Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social  Workers, and Religious Workers 84 Lawyers 88 90 92 94 96  Social scientists and urban planners Economists Psychologists Sociologists Urban and regional planners  457 Reprints From the Occupational  Outlook Handbook   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  51 Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects 51 53 54 55 55 56 56 57  Engineers Aerospace engineers Chemical engineers Civil engineers Electrical and electronics engineers Industrial engineers Mechanical engineers Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers 57 Mining engineers 58 Nuclear engineers 59 Petroleum engineers 60 60 61 62  Architects and surveyors Architects Landscape architects Surveyors  99 99 101 104  Social and recreation workers Human services workers Social workers Recreation workers  107 107 108 109  Religious workers Protestant ministers Rabbis Roman Catholic priests  111 Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors 111 Adult and vocational education teachers 112 Archivists and curators 113 College and university faculty 115 Counselors ■117 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers 119 Librarians 121 Secondary school teachers  65 Natural, Computer, and  Mathematical Scientists  124 Health Diagnosing and Treating  Practitioners 65 Computer, mathematical, and operations research occupations 65 Actuaries 66 Computer systems analysts 68 Mathematicians 69 Operations research analysts 71 Statisticians VI  124 125 127 129 132 133  Chiropractors Dentists Optometrists Physicians Podiatrists Veterinarians  page Occupational Coverage  136 Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants 136 137 140 143 145 147 150 153 155  Dietitians and nutritionists Occupational therapists Pharmacists Physical therapists Physician assistants Recreational therapists Registered nurses Respiratory therapists Speech-language pathologists and audiologists  158 Health Technologists and  page Occupational Coverage  213 Marketing and Sales  Occupations 213 Cashiers ^ 214 Counter and rental clerks 215 Insurance sales workers 217 Manufacturers’ sales workers 218 Real estate agents and brokers 220 Retail sales workers 222 Securities and financial services sales ------'representatives 224 Services sales representatives 226 Travel agents 227 Wholesale trade sales workers 229 Administrative Support  Occupations, Including Clerical  Technicians 158 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians 160 Dental hygienists 162 Dispensing opticians 164 EEG technologists and technicians 165 EKG technicians 167 Emergency medical technicians 169 Licensed practical nurses 171 Medical record technicians 173 Nuclear medicine technologists 175 Radiologic technologists 178 Surgical technicians  180 Writers, Artists, and Entertainers 180 Communications occupations 180 Public relations specialists 181 Radio and television announcers and newscasters 183 Reporters and correspondents 186 Writers and editors 188 188 189 192  Visual arts occupations Designers Photographers and camera operators Visual artists  195 195 197 198  Performing arts occupations Actors, directors, and producers Dancers and choreographers Musicians  229 230 231 233 -■<234 235 236 237 239 242 243 245 247 248 249 250 251 253 254  Bank tellers Bookkeepers and accounting clerks Clerical supervisors and managers Computer and peripheral equipment operators Data entry keyers File clerks General office clerks Insurance claims and policy processing occupations Postal clerks and mail carriers Receptionists and information clerks Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks Secretaries Statistical clerks Stenographers Stock clerks Teacher aides Telephone operators Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks Typists and word processors  257 Service Occupations 257 257 258 260 262  Protective service occupations Correction officers Firefighting occupations Guards Police, detectives, and special agents  265 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations > 265 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers V--.1267 Food and beverage service occupations  200 Technologists and Technicians,  Except Health 200 201 203 205 206 207 209 210 211  Air traffic controllers Broadcast technicians Computer programmers Drafters Engineering technicians Legal assistants Library technicians Science technicians Tool programmers, numerical control   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  270 270 271 273  Health service occupations Dental assistants Medical assistants Nursing aides and psychiatric aides  275 Personal service and cleaning occupations Barbers Childcare workers ^Cosmetologists and related workers light attendants VII  page Occupational Coverage  280 Homemaker-home health aides 282 Janitors and cleaners 283 Private household workers 285 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing,  and Related Occupations 285 Farm operators and managers 287 Timber cutting and logging occupations 290 Mechanics, Installers, and  Repairers 290 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists 292 Automotive body repairers 293 Automotive mechanics 295 Commercial and industrial electronic . «r, equipment repairers 297 Communications equipment mechanics 299 Computer service technicians 301 Diesel mechanics 303 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers 304 Elevator installers and repairers 305 Farm equipment mechanics 307 General maintenance mechanics 308 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics 310 Home appliance and power tool repairers 312 Industrial machinery repairers 314 Line installers and cable splicers 316 Millwrights 317 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics 319 Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics 320 Musical instrument repairers and tuners 322 Office machine and cash register servicers 324 Telephone installers and repairers 325 Vending machine servicers and repairers 327 Construction Trades and  Extractive Occupations 327 328 329 330 332 333 335 336 337 339 340 342 343 344 346  Bricklayers and stonemasons Carpenters Carpet installers Concrete masons and terrazzo workers Drywall workers and lathers Electricians Glaziers Insulation workers Painters and paperhangers Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Roofers Roustabouts Sheet-metal workers Structural and reinforcing metal workers 347 Tilesetters  page Occupational Coverage  349 Production Occupations 349 351 352 353 355 356 358 359  361 362 363 365 366  Apparel workers Bindery workers Blue-collar worker supervisors Boilermakers Butchers and meatcutters Compositors and typesetters Dental laboratory techncians Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers Inspectors, testers, and graders Jewelers Lithographic and photoengraving workers Machinists Mejalworking Metalworking and plastic-working nyicnine operators   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  page Occupational Coverage  369 Numerical-control machine-tool operators 370 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians 372 Painting and coating machine operators 373 Photographic process workers 375 Precision assemblers 376 Printing press operators 378 Shoe and leather workers and repairers 379 Stationary engineers 381 Textile machinery operators 383 Tool-and-die makers 384 Upholsterers 385 Water and wastewater treatment plant operators 387 Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators 389 Woodworking occupations  page Occupational Coverage  391 Transportation and Material  Moving Occupations 391 393 395 397  Aircraft pilots Busdrivers Material moving equipment operators Truckdrivers  400 Handlers, Equipment Cleaners,  Helpers, and Laborers 400 Construction trades helpers  401 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces  How To Get the Most From the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook de­ scribes in detail about 225 occupations—com­ prising about 80 percent of all jobs in the econ­ omy. Occupations that require lengthy education or training are given the most attention. In addition, summary information on about 125 occupations—accounting for about 10 percent of all jobs in the economy—is presented in an appendix beginning on page 406. The Handbook is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, browse through the table of contents, where related occupations are grouped in clusters. Or look in the alpha­ betical index for occupations that interest you or for those that sound familiar. Don’t limit yourself to these, however. Other jobs also might be worth looking into. For an overview of the broad trends that are likely to shape the economy and jobs through the year 2000, read the introductory chapter, Tomorrow’s Jobs.  Choosing an Occupation Identifying your interests and abilities can help you decide what you want in a career. Does science or math interest you? How about writ­ ing? Do you enjoy working with your hands or planning and organizing activities? The an­ swers to such questions can help you discover your strengths and may suggest occupations to explore. An understanding of your goals and values also will help you determine what you want in a career. Do you want a job in which you can be creative? How important is high income? Are you willing to work nights and weekends? Do you want to be self-employed? There are many publications on career de­ cisionmaking that explain how you can assess your preferences and skills on your own, and counselors and other professionals trained in human behavior can administer diagnostic tests and interpret and discuss the results with you (see the section on Where To Go for More Information).  What’s In the Handbook Once you have chosen an occupation you’d like to learn more about, you can use the Hand­ book to find out what the work is like; what education and training are needed; what the advancement possibilities, earnings, and job outlook are; and what related occupations you might explore. Each occupational description, or statement, in the Handbook follows a stan­ dard format, making it easier to compare oc­ cupations. What follows is a description of the major sections of a Handbook statement, plus some hints on how to use the information.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  About Those Numbers at the Beginning of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational state­ ments are D.O.T. codes. D.O.T. stands for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, a U.S. Department of Labor publication. Each number classifies jobs by the type of work, required training, physical demands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by State employment service offices to classify applicants and job open­ ings. They are included in the Handbook because some career information centers and libraries use them for filing occupational information. An index in the back of this book cross-references the D.O.T. numbers to occupations covered in the Handbook.  Nature of the Work This section tells what workers do on the job. Keep in mind that not all workers in an oc­ cupation perform all the duties described. Du­ ties vary by employer, industry, and size of firm—in small ones, workers generally per­ form a wider range of duties. In addition, most occupations have at least several levels of skill and responsibility. Beginners, or those without a lot of formal training, may start as trainees, performing routine tasks under close supervi­ sion. Experienced workers perform more dif­ ficult duties, with greater independence, while the most skilled and most senior ones perform the most difficult and responsible jobs. Working Conditions This section describes work hours, the physical environment, and hazards of the occupation. In many occupations, people usually work reg­ ular business hours—40 hours a week, morn­ ings and afternoons, Monday through Friday. In others, they may work nights or weekends, or more than 40 hours. In some, workers have a degree of freedom to determine their own hours. Many jobs are performed in pleasant surroundings; others are in dirty, noisy, dan­ gerous, or stressful ones. In some occupations, workers have a confined workspace; in others, workers move around a lot. Some jobs require outdoor work or overnight travel. Employment This section tells how many jobs there were in the occupation in 1986 and what industries and parts of the country they were located in. Where significant, it also gives the proportion of workers in the occupation who worked part  time (less than 35 hours a week) and the pro­ portion who were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement You can get training for jobs in high schools, colleges, postsecondary vocational schools (both public and private), home study courses, government training programs, the Armed Forces, apprenticeships and other formal train­ ing offered by employers, or informally on the job. In most occupations, there is more than one way to get training. For each occupation, the Handbook identifies all the ways and notes the most common or the type generally pre­ ferred by employers. It gives the number of training institutions and, where appropriate, lists high school and college courses considered useful preparation. Remember, the amount of training you have often determines the level at which you enter an occupation and the speed with which you advance. For entry level jobs in many occupations covered in the Handbook, employers may not require specific job training. They hire people with good general skills and the ability to learn and give them the specific training needed to do the work. Employers want people who read, write, and speak well; compute accurately; think logically; get along with others; and have good work habits. They may require a high school or college diploma as evidence of good general skills. Statements also list other desirable ap­ titudes and personal characteristics—for ex­ ample, mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, patience, accuracy, and ability to work without close supervision. This section indicates whether a certificate or license is required for entry or for indepen­ dent practice, or if it is helpful for advance­ ment. It also describes typical paths of ad­ vancement within the occupation and patterns of movement or advancement to other occu­ pations. Job Outlook The chances of getting a job in an occupation depend on the relationship between the number of openings and the number of qualified people seeking to fill them. In many occupations there is a rough balance between jobseekers and openings most of the time, but in some there are shortages or surpluses. Unanticipated growth or decline in the num­ ber of openings or in the number of jobseekers can cause shortages or surpluses. Limited train­ ing facilities, salary restrictions, or undesirable aspects of the work can cause shortages of applicants. Very attractive work—as in the arts or communications—or the prospect of high earnings can cause long-term surpluses of job-  1  Key Words in the Handbook Changing employment between 1986 and  2000 If the statement reads . . .  Employment is projected to . . .  Grow much faster than the average Grow faster than the average Grow about as fast as the average Grow more slowly than the average Show little change  Increase 35 percent or more Increase 25 to 34 percent Increase 14 to 24 percent Increase 5 to 13 per­ cent Increase or decrease 4 percent or less Decrease 5 percent or more  Decline  Opportunities and competition for jobs If the statement reads . . .  Job openings com­ pared to jobseek­ ers may be . . .  Excellent opportuni­ ties Very good opportun­ ities Good or favorable opportunities May face competi­ tion May face keen com­ petition  Much more numer­ ous More numerous About the same Fewer Much fewer  seekers. Within occupations, there may be too many applicants in some specialties, yet not enough or a balance in others. Economic forces and government programs tend to eliminate imbalances, but some may persist for long pe­ riods. Geographic imbalances may persist be­  cause many people are unwilling or unable to move. In general, shortages are most likely in rural and inner city areas and in small towns. Surpluses are most common in desirable sub­ urbs, central business districts, areas with fa­ cilities producing many graduates in the field, and areas with good cultural and recreational facilities and good climate. Some individuals, understandably, might want to enter a shortage occupation or specialty or locate in a geographic area with shortages because, under shortage conditions, jobseekers generally can choose from more job offers, get higher salaries, advance faster or, possibly, get a job with only minimal qualifications. Keep in mind, however, that even in occupations with a rough balance, almost all qualified ap­ plicants can find jobs. On the other hand, when there are surpluses, applicants may have to look for a long time, accept any offer they get, find a job in another occupation, or face extended unemployment. But since job openings do exist even in overcrowded fields, good students or well-qualified individuals should not be de­ terred from undertaking training or seeking en­ try. For some occupations—those for which quantitative data or other information on short­ ages, balances, and surpluses are available— the Handbook discusses job opportunites. And, for virtually all, it gives the expected change in employment through the year 2000. The accompanying figure explains what is meant by key phrases used to describe projected em­ ployment change. (It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of jobseekers.) If an occupation grows rapidly, it obviously will provide more openings than if it grows slowly. Moreover, the demand for talent in a rapidly growing occupation generally improves chances for advancement and mobility. Keep in mind that even slow-growing oc­ cupations, if large, also provide many job openings. The need to replace workers who  Jobs within occupations differ in complexity, and pay varies accordingly. Range of annual salaries for middle 50 percent of employees in each level, March 1986 $o 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60000 70000 so 000  Occupation and level I Computer operators  |]  ' a  1 1 1:: ■ 1  t... ■. V  t  V I Computer  |jj  1  ’  riiFiii  —  \ 1  1  programmers iv V Systems analysts  I  II m IV V VI  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  2   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1--------- 1--------- 1---------1---------  1 r .  :  "1  '"m <=3^.., r~  1  leave their jobs creates most of the openings in most occupations, regardless of the rate of growth. Large occupations generally have more replacement openings than small ones. Those with low pay and status, few training require­ ments, and a high proportion of young or old and part-time workers generally have higher replacement rates than ones with high pay and status, lengthy training requirements, and many prime-working-age full-time workers. The job outlook section also identifies fac­ tors that are expected to affect employment, such as defense spending, new technologies, changing business practices, and shifting pop­ ulation patterns. Some statements discuss job security—workers in some occupations are more likely than those in others to keep or lose their jobs during recessions or government budget cuts, or when new technologies are in­ troduced. Also keep in mind that no one possesses a crystal ball. While the projections presented in the Handbook are based on a reasonable set of assumptions about how the economy is likely to change between 1986 and the year 2000, no one can foresee with certainty all the economic, political, social, and technological forces that will ultimately affect employment growth and job prospects over the period. A summary of the assumptions and methods used by the Bu­ reau of Labor Statistics in making employment projections is presented in an appendix begin­ ning on page 420. Finally, it is possible that prospects in your community or State are better or worse than those described in the Handbook, which dis­ cusses prospects in the Nation as a whole. Therefore, it is wise to check with local sources. (See the section on Where To Go For More Information beginning on page 4 and appendix C, page 422.) Earnings Within every occupation, earnings of workers vary, depending on level of responsibility, ex­ perience and performance, industry, unioni­ zation, and geographic area. The barchart shows how the level of responsibility affects earnings. It shows annual earnings for five levels of com­ puter operators and computer programmers and six levels of systems analysts. These reflect different work levels, starting with entry level jobs and continuing up the career ladder to the most complex and responsible supervisory po­ sitions within the occupation. Therefore, it is not always possible to say that people in one occupation earn more than those in another. We can say that the average is higher or that the middle range of earnings is higher, but there is usually some overlap. Many Handbook statements cite Current Population Survey (CPS) data. They show the median earnings of full-time salaried (but not self-employed) workers in 1986. (The median is the midpoint—half earned more than this and half earned less.) They generally also give the range of earnings of the middle 50 percent of workers, and earnings of the lowest 10 per­ cent and the highest 10 percent. The accom­ panying chart, based on CPS data, shows the  Engineering technicians had median annual earnings of $24,400 in 1986. Percent distribution of full-time salaried engineering technicians, 1986 Median:  $24,400  First quartile:  Third quartile:  $18,000  $30,400 Ninth decile:  First decile:  $36,600  $14,000  $10,000  20,000  30,000  '2 percent earned $52,000 or more.  earnings distribution of engineering technicans in 1986. The shaded area under the curve in­ dicates that one-half earned between $18,000 and $30,400. The lowest 10 percent earned under $14,000, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $36,600. You can compare CPS earnings data between occupations or to the average for all occupations. The median for all full-time wage and salary workers in 1986 was $18,600; the middle 50 percent earned between $12,500 and $26,800; the top 10 per­ cent earned $37,700 or more, the bottom 10 percent, $9,100 or less. Statements also include earnings data from   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  40,000  in cities than in rural areas and vary from one city to another. Keep in mind that the areas that offer the highest earnings often are those in which living costs are highest. Most workers also receive employer-paid benefits such as paid vacations and holidays, health insurance, and pensions. Some also get stock options, profit-sharing plans, savings plans, and bonuses. Handbook statements do not mention benefits unless they are unusually high or low. Workers in many occupations also receive discounts on merchandise, meals and housing, reduced travel fares, business expense ac­ counts, or use of a company car. About 10 percent of all workers are selfemployed. Their earnings vary more than those of salaried workers, and they pay for benefits which salaried workers generally receive from their employers.  50,000'  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  a wide range of other sources. Coverage of these data varies, making it difficult to compare earnings precisely between occupations. Earnings are based on several types of pay plans. Some workers are paid a straight annual salary. Some receive an hourly wage for the hours they work, commissions based on a per­ centage of what they sell, or a piece rate for each item they produce. Others receive tips for services to customers. Workers may also be paid a combination of a salary or hourly wage, plus bonus, piecework, or tips. Earnings generally are highest in the West, lowest in the South. They generally are higher  Related Occupations If you find that an occupation appeals to you, you also may wish to explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually, the related occupations are those that require similar aptitudes, inter­ ests, and education and training. Sources of Additional Information This section lists names and addresses of as­ sociations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that provide useful infor­ mation on careers. Also, for some occupations, this section refers you to free or relatively in­ expensive publications that offer more infor­ mation. These publications may also be avail­ able in libraries, school career centers, or guidance offices.  3  Where To Go for More Information Listed at the end of each occupational statement in the Handbook, under Sources of Additional Information, are organizations that have agreed to provide information upon request. This sec­ tion describes many other sources of infor­ mation about occupations, and about counsel­ ing, education and training, financial aid, and finding a job.  Sources of Career Information Public libraries, career centers, and guid­ ance offices have a great deal of career ma­ terial. Begin your library search by looking in the card catalog under “vocations” or “careers” and then under specific fields. Information may also be found in pamphlet files. Check the periodical section, where you will find trade and professional magazines and journals ad­ dressed to people in specific occupations. Also check annual reports; they can familiarize you with the activities of potential employers. Occupational information is also available on films and cassettes, in kits, and through computerized information systems. Career centers may also provide individual counsel­ ing, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips and career days. Counselors can provide vocational testing and counseling. They work in: —guidance offices in high schools. —career planning and placement offices in col­ leges. —placement offices in private vocational/tech­ nical schools and institutes. —vocational rehabilitation agencies. —counseling services offered by community organizations. —private counseling agencies or private prac­ tices. —State employment service offices affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service. A counselor will not tell you what to do, but will administer interest inventories and ap­ titude tests, interpret the results, and help you explore your options. Counselors can discuss local job markets and the entry requirements and costs of the schools, colleges or training programs that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. Before employing the services of a private counselor or agency, seek recommendations or check their credentials. The International As­ sociation of Counseling Services (1ACS) ac­ credits counseling services for areas throughout the U.S. To receive the listing of accredited services for your region, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to IACS, 5999 Stevenson Ave., 3rd Floor, Alexandria, VA 22304. The 4   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Directory of Counseling Services, an IACS publication providing employment counseling and other assistance, may be available in your library or school career counseling center. Professional societies, trade associations, labor unions, business firms, and educa­ tional institutions publish a great deal of free or inexpensive career material. Many are iden­ tified in the Sources of Additional Information section of each Handbook statement. For in­ formation on an occupation not covered in the Handbook, consult the directories in your li­ brary’s reference section for the names of po­ tential sources. A good place to start is The Guide to American Directories or The Direc­ tory of Directories. The Encyclopedia of As­ sociations, an annual multivolume publication listing thousands of trade associations, profes­ sional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations, is another useful re­ source. The National Audiovisual Center, a central source for all audiovisual material produced by the U.S. Government, rents and sells material on jobs and careers. For a catalogue, contact the National Audiovisual Center, 8700 Edge­ worth Dr., Capitol Heights. MD 20743. Phone: (301) 763-1896. Carefully assess career guidance materials. Information should be current. Some materials are produced by schools for recruitment pur­ poses and may omit important details, glam­ orize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the demand for workers. Don’t overlook the importance of personal contacts. Talk with people in an occupation you are considering. You can find out what type of training is recommended, how they entered and advanced, and what they like and dislike about the work. In order to learn about an occupation, you may wish to intern or take a summer or a part­ time job. Some internships offer academic credit or pay a stipend. Check with guidance offices, college career resource centers, or directly with employers.  Sources of State and Local Information The Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. State occupational infor­ mation coordinating committees (SOICC’s) can help you locate State or area information. Committees may provide the information di­ rectly or refer you to other sources. Addresses and telephone numbers for SOICC’s are listed in an appendix beginning on page 422. Forty-six States have career information de­ livery systems (CIDS). They use on-line com­ puters, microcomputers, printed material, mi­  crofiche, and toll-free hotlines to provide information on occupations, educational op­ portunities, student financial aid, apprentice­ ships, and military careers. These systems can be found in secondary schools, postsecondary institutions, libraries, job training sites, vo­ cational rehabilitation centers and employment service offices. Counselors and SOICC’s can tell you the locations. State employment security agencies de­ velop detailed information about the labor mar­ ket. They report on current and projected em­ ployment by occupation and industry, characteristics of the work force, and changes in State and area economic activity. Addresses and telephone numbers of the State employ­ ment security agency directors of research and analysis are listed in the appendix beginning on page 422.  Sources of Education and lYaining Information Professional and trade associations usually pro­ vide lists of schools that offer career prepa­ ration in a particular field. The Sources of Ad­ ditional Information section of each Handbook statement directs you to organizations that can provide training information. Various directories describe courses of study, admissions requirements, expenses, and stu­ dent financial aid for colleges, universities, and other training institutions. Guidance offices, libraries and large bookstores usually carry copies. Since they are updated and revised fre­ quently, be sure to use the most recent edition. Guidance offices and libraries have collections of college catalogs as well. The Directory of Educational Institutions, an annual publication, lists schools accredited by the Association of Independent Colleges and Schools (AICS). Most AlCS-accredited insti­ tutions are business schools. These schools of­ fer programs in secretarial science, business administration, accounting, data processing, court reporting, paralegal studies, fashion mer­ chandising, travel/tourism, culinary arts, draft­ ing, electronics, and other subjects. For a copy of the Directory, write: Association of Inde­ pendent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036. Phone: (202) 659-2460. Information on private trade and technical schools is available from the National Asso­ ciation of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS). Among their publications are the Handbook of Accredited Private Trade and Technical Schools and a series of pamphlets, including How to Choose a Career and a Ca­ reer School. For a complete list, write: NATTS,  Department OOH, P.O. Box 10429, Rock­ ville, MD 20850. The National Home Study Council provides information about home study programs. They publish the Directory of Accredited Home Study Schools. Requests for this and a list of other publications should be directed to National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Phone: (202) 234­ 5100. Labor unions, school guidance counselors and State employment offices can provide in­ formation about apprenticeships. Copies of The National Apprenticeship Program and Ap­ prenticeship Information are available from the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 535-0545. To get a copy of A Woman’s Guide to Apprenticeship, send a self-addressed mail­ ing label to the Women’s Bureau, U.S. De­ partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 523­ 6631.  Sources of Financial Aid Information High school guidance counselors and college financial aid officers are two of the best sources of advice concerning financial aid—scholar­ ships, fellowships, grants, loans, and workstudy programs. Every State administers fi­ nancial aid programs—contact State Depart­ ments of Education. Banks or credit unions may also provide information, since they make student loans. Study the directories and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. Need a Lift?, an annual publication of the American Legion, contains career and schol­ arship information. It costs SI prepaid (in­ cludes postage) and can be obtained from: American Legion, Attn: National Emblem Sales, P.O. Box 1050, Indianapolis, IN 46206. Meeting College Costs, an annual publica­ tion of the College Board, explains how student financial aid works and how to apply for it. The current edition is available to high school students through guidance counselors. The Federal Government provides grants, loans, work-study, and benefits to students. Information about programs administered by the U.S. Department of Education is presented in The Student Guide to Federal Financial Aid Programs, updated annually. To get a copy, call: (301) 984-4070, or write: Federal Student Aid Programs, P.O. Box 84, Washington, DC 20044. Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups: Hispanics, blacks, native Americans, or women, for example. Higher Education Opportunities for Minorities and Women, published by the U.S. Department of Education, is a guide to organizations offering assistance. This publication can be found in libraries and guidance offices, or may be pur­ chased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing­ ton, DC 20402. Phone (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The Armed Forces have several educational assistance programs. These include Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), the New G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. Information can be obtained from military recruiting cen­ ters, which are located in most cities.  Information for Special Groups Veterans, youth, handicapped persons, mi­ norities, women and others may face special difficulties in obtaining employment. Many communities have career counseling, training, placement and support services for employ­ ment. These programs are sponsored by a va­ riety of organizations, including churches and synagogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agencies, the State employment ser­ vice, and vocational rehabilitation agencies. The organizations listed below provide in­ formation on career planning and job hunting techniques for special groups. Handicapped: President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, 1111 20th St., NW., Room 636, Washington, DC 20036. Phone: (202) 653-5044. The Blind: Call the Job Opportunities for the Blind Program, a division of the National Federation for the Blind, toll-free, at: 1-800­ 638-7518. Minorities: League of United Latin Amer­ ican Citizens (LULAC), National Educational Service Centers Inc., 400 First St. NW., Suite 716, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 347-1652. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 4805 Mount Hope Dr., Baltimore, MD 21215-3297. Phone: (301) 358-8900. Older Workers: National Association of Older Workers Employment Services, c/o Na­ tional Council on Aging, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200. Veterans: Department of Veterans Benefits, Veterans Administration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20420. Phone: (202) 872-1151. Women: U.S. Department of Labor, Wom­ en’s Bureau, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 523­ 6652. Catalyst, 250 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10003. Phone: (212) 777-8900. Wider Opportunities for Women, 1325 G St. NW., Lower Level, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 638-3143. Many local organizations such as women’s centers provide employment information or counseling programs. Many cities have com­ missions that attend to the concerns of and provide services for these special groups. Federal laws, Executive Orders, and se­ lected Federal grant programs bar discrimi­ nation in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and hand­ icap. Information on how to file a charge of discrimination is available from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and tele­  Where To Learn About Job Openings • State employment service offices • Civil service announcements (Fed­ eral, State, local) • Classified ads —Local and out-of-town newspapers —Professional journals —Trade magazines • Labor unions • Professional associations (State and local chapters) • Libraries and community centers • Women’s counseling and employ­ ment programs • Youth programs • School or college placement services • Employment agencies and career consultants • Employers • Parents, friends, and neighbors  phone numbers are listed in telephone direc­ tories under U.S. Government, EEOC, or are available from the Equal Employment Oppor­ tunity Commission, 2401 E St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20507. Phone: (202) 634-6922. Information on Federal laws concerning fair labor standards such as the minimum wage law and equal employment opportunity can be ob­ tained from the Office of Information and Con­ sumer Affairs, Employment Standards Admin­ istration, U.S. Department of Labor, RoomC4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20210.  Information on Finding a Job It may take some effort to find a job. You may have to pursue many leads. Parents, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of avail­ able jobs. Read the want ads. Consult State public employment service offices and private or nonprofit employment agencies or contact employers directly. Merchandising Your JobTalents, a U.S. De­ partment of Labor pamphlet, offers tips on or­ ganizing your job search, writing a resume, taking preemployment tests, and making the most of an interview. It is available at most State public employment service offices or may be purchased from the Superintendent of Doc­ uments, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Phone (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information. Informal job search methods. Many job­ seekers apply directly to employers with or without referral by friends or relatives. They locate a potential employer and file an appli­ cation, often without certain knowledge that an opening exists. The Yellow Pages, local chambers of commerce directories, and other directories list employers. Want ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in news­ papers list hundreds of jobs. However, many 5  Job Interview Tips Preparation: • Learn about the organization • Have specific job or jobs in mind • Review your qualifications for the job • Prepare to answer broad questions about yourself • Review your resume  • Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview Personal Appearance: • Be well groomed • Dress appropriately • Do not chew gum or smoke The Interview: • Answer each question concisely • Be prompt in giving responses • Use good manners • Use proper English and avoid slang • Convey a sense of cooperation and enthusiasm • Ask questions about the position and the organization Test (if employer gives one): • Listen carefully to instructions • Read each question carefully • Write legibly and clearly • Budget your time wisely and don't dwell on one question Information To Bring to an Interview: • Social Security number • Driver’s license number • Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the interviewer with information about your education and previous employment • Usually an employer requires three references. Get permission from people before using their names. Try to avoid using relatives. For each reference, provide the following information: Name, address, telephone number, and occupation. For more information on interviews and resumes, see Resumes, Application Forms, Cover Letters, and Interviews in the Spring 1987 Occupational Outlook Quarterly.  job openings are not listed there. Also, clas­ sifieds commonly do not mention important information. Many offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. Furthermore, some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others ad­ vertise employment agencies rather than em­ ployment. If you use want ads, keep the following in mind: —Do not pin your hopes on finding a job through the classifieds; follow other leads, too. —Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops ap­ pearing in the paper. —Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every day as early as possible gives you an advantage which may result in your being hired. —Beware of “no experience necessary” ads. These ads often signal low wages or poor working conditions or straight commission work. 6   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  —Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded.  Public employment service. The State em­ ployment service, sometimes called the Job Service, operates in coordination with the La­ bor Department’s U.S. Employment Service. Its 2,000 local offices, also known as employ­ ment service centers, help jobseekers locate employment and help employers find qualified workers without charge. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government tele­ phone listings under “Job Service” or “Em­ ployment.” Job matching and referral. At a State em­ ployment service office, an interviewer deter­ mines if the applicant is “job ready” or if coun­ seling and testing services are needed. Those who are "job ready” may examine the Job Bank, a computerized listing of public and private sector job openings that is updated daily. Ap­ plicants may select openings that interest them, then meet with a staff member who can de­  What Goes Into a Resume A resume should summarize your qual­ ifications and employment history. It is usually required when applying for a managerial, administrative, profes­ sional, or technical position. Although there is no set format, it should contain the following information: • Name, address, and telephone num­ ber • Employment objective • Education, including school name and address, dates of attendance, curric­ ulum, and highest grade completed or degree awarded • Experience, paid or volunteer. In­ clude the following for each job: Job title, name and address of employer, and dates of employment • Special skills, knowledge of machin­ ery, honors received, awards, or membership in organizations • On a separate sheet, list the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of three references. Note on your resume that these references are available on request. scribe job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Counseling and testing. Centers can also test jobseekers to measure their occupational ap­ titudes and interests and then help them choose and prepare for a career. Services for special groups. By law, vet­ erans are entitled to priority at State employ­ ment service centers. Veterans employment representatives can inform them of available assistance and help them deal with their prob­ lems. Youths between 16 and 21—including stu­ dents, dropouts, and graduates entering the la­ bor market—are eligible for special programs. Summer Youth Programs provide summer jobs in city, county, and State government agencies for low-income youth. In addition, the Job Corps, with more than 100 centers throughout the United States, helps young people learn a skill or obtain education. Service centers also refer applicants to op­ portunities available under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982. JTPA pre­ pares economically disadvantaged persons and those facing barriers to employment for jobs.  Private employment agencies. These agen­ cies can be very helpful, but don’t forget that they are in business to make money. Most agencies operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a successful match. The fee may be paid by either the applicant or the hiring firm. If borne by you, find out the exact cost before using the service. While employment agencies can help the job seeker save time and contact employers who otherwise may be difficult to locate, in some cases, the costs to the seeker may outweigh  the benefits. In addition to considering the cost to you, weigh any guarantee they offer.  your church, synagogue, or public library also may provide useful information.  Community agencies. Nonprofit organiza­ tions provide counseling, career development, and job placement services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a partic­ ular labor force group, such as women, youth, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers. A local State employment service office or  College career planning and placement of­ fices. College placement offices operate as em­ ployment agencies, matching applicants with suitable jobs and arranging interviews. They set up schedules and facilities for interviews with recruiters. Additionally, many offices maintain lists of part-time, temporary, and   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  summer jobs. They often provide counseling, testing and job search advice and maintain a career resource library. They administer tests that identify and evaluate interests, work val­ ues, and skills; conduct workshops on such topics as job search strategy, resume writing, letterwriting, and effective interviewing; cri­ tique drafts of resumes and videotapes of mock interviews; maintain files of resumes and ref­ erences; and conduct job fairs.  7  Tomorrow’s Jobs Every other year, the Bureau of Labor Statistics develops projections of the labor force, eco­ nomic growth, industry employment, and oc­ cupational employment under alternative as­ sumptions. These projections, which usually cover a 10- to 15-year period into the future, provide the framework for the discussion of job outlook in each of the occupational state­ ments in the Handbook. Each of the approx­ imately 225 statements in this edition of the Handbook identifies the principal factors that affect job prospects and indicates how these are expected to affect the occupation in the future. This chapter uses the moderate alter­ native of each of the projections to provide a framework for the individual job oulook dis­ cussions.  Population Trends Population trends affect employment oppor­ tunities in a number of ways. Changes in the size and composition of the population influ­ ence the demand for goods and services— bringing about a boom in school construction in one era, for example, and heightened de­ mand for retirement housing in another. Equally important, population changes produce cor­ responding changes in the size and demo­ graphic composition of the labor force. The U.S. population is expected to grow more slowly over the next 14 years than during the previous 14-year period. However, even slow population growth will create increased demand for goods and services, causing greater demand for workers in many occupations and industries. The population will consist of relatively fewer  children and youth and a considerably greater proportion of middle-aged and older people well into the 21st century. Several things ac­ count for this. The decline in the proportion of children and youth reflects low birth rates that have prevailed for the past 20 years and that seem likely to continue far into the future; the increase in the middle-aged population re­ flects the maturing of the large “baby boom” generation bom after World War II; and the very rapid growth in the number of old people is attributable to high birth rates prior to the Great Depression of the 1930’s, together with strides in medical science that have made it possible for more Americans to survive into old age. Minorities and immigrants will make up a larger share of the U.S. population in the year 2000 than they do today. Substantial increases in the number of blacks, Hispanics, and Asians are anticipated, reflecting high birth rates in these population groups as well as a continued flow of immigrants. The arrival of immigrants has significant implications for the labor force since immigrants tend to be of working age, but have different educational and occupational backgrounds than the U.S. population as a whole. Population growth varies among geographic regions, reflecting, among other factors, higher birth rates in some areas than in others and the drawing power of some areas for jobseekers and of others for retirees. Between 1970 and 1980, the population of the Northeast and the Midwest grew by only 0.2 percent and 4 per­ cent, respectively, compared with 20 percent in the South and 24 percent in the West.  Chart 1.  Labor force growth will slow in the future due to slowing population growth. Percent change in labor force 40  40  ?'  X' ^  30 -  20  - 30  -  Ig  liliiiitt 10  .  . '  :  ■  , ■ ■* : . ___________________  1972-86 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  8  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  20  -  10  1  ;V--*  ■ .  -  J  ■  | _L_ _ _ _  1986-2000  If current trends persist, the West will con­ tinue to be the fastest growing region of the country, increasing about 45 percent between 1980 and the year 2000. In the South, the population is expected to increase about 31 percent. The number of people in the Midwest is expected to remain about the same, while the Northeast is projected to have 6 percent fewer people. Geographic shifts in the population alter the demand for and the supply of workers in local job markets. Moreover, many areas are dom­ inated by one or two industries, and local job markets may be extremely sensitive to the eco­ nomic fortunes of those industries. For these and other reasons, local employment oppor­ tunities may differ substantially from the pro­ jections for the Nation as a whole presented in the Handbook. Sources of information on State and local employment prospects are identified on page 422.  Labor Force Population is the single most important factor governing the size and composition of the labor force, which comprises people who are either working or looking for work. The civilian labor force totaled about 118 million in 1986 and is expected to reach 139 million in the year 2000. This projected increase—nearly 18 percent— represents a slowing in both the number joining the labor force and the rate of growth of the labor force. (See chart I.) American workers will continue to be a di­ verse group; in the year 2000 minority group members will make up an even larger share than in 1986. Blacks will increase their share from 11 to 12 percent; Hispanics, from 7 to 10 percent, and Asians and others, from 3 to 4 percent. These groups are projected to ac­ count for about 58 percent of labor force growth between 1986 and 2000. Women will continue to join the labor force in growing numbers, accounting for nearly 2 out of 3 entrants. Women were only 39 percent of the labor force in 1972; by 2000, they are expected to account for over 47 percent. Past fluctuations in the birth rate will produce abrupt changes in major labor force age groups during the 1990’s. The number of young work­ ers (16 to 24 years of age) will decline until the mid-1990’s, then turn upward as the chil­ dren of the baby boom generation enter the labor force. The number of older workers (those 55 and above) will decline through the mid1990’s, then start to rise sharply as the baby boomers themselves enter the preretirement years. Contrary to popular belief, the number of older workers is expected to be only slightly higher in 2000 than in 1986. Declining labor  force participation of persons age 65 and older and men age 55 to 64 will largely offset the increase in the number of persons in this pop­ ulation group. The youth share of the labor force is pro­ jected to drop to only 16 percent by 2000, down from 20percent in 1986 and 23 percent in 1972. (See chart 2.) Many who have a primary in­ terest in this age group—colleges, the Armed Forces, eating and drinking establishments, and other retail establishments—can expect to see the population from whom they draw students, recruits, part-time workers, and customers shrink throughout most of the 1986-2000 pe­ riod. In the year 2000, almost 3 out of 4 workers will be between 25 and 54 years of age. The very large proportion of workers of “prime working age,” together with sustained growth in business investment, is expected to result in improved labor productivity. In recent years, the educational attainment of the labor force has risen dramatically. Be­ tween 1972 and 1986, the proportion of the labor force age 18 to 64 with at least 1 year of college increased from 28 to 41 percent, while the proportion with 4 years of college or more increased from 14 to 21 percent. (See chart 3.) The emphasis on education will continue. The fastest growing jobs will be in executive, managerial, professional, and technical fields requiring the highest levels of education and skill. In contrast, such factors as office and factory automation, changes in consumer de­ mand, and substitution of imports for domestic products are expected to cause employment to stagnate or dwindle in many occupations that require little, formal education—helpers, la­ borers, assemblers, and machine operators, for example. Opportunities for high school drop­ outs will be increasingly limited.  Employment Change Employment is projected to increase from 111.6 million in 1986 to 133.0 million in 2000, or about 19 percent. This is only about half the rate of increase during the previous 14-year period. The 21 million jobs that are expected to be added to the U.S. economy by 2000 will not be evenly distributed across major industry and occupational groups, which means that the structure of employment will change. The fol­ lowing two sections look at projected 1986­ 2000 employment change from both the in­ dustry and occupational perspectives.  Chart 2.  Workers in the prime working ages will account for three-fourths of the labor force in the year 2000. Distribution of the labor force by age i  m-b lit ism  i 1 1  13% ■  60%  — 55 years  110*  and over  73®,o '  - _ , ■ 67% '  -  25-54 years  23% 20%  16-24 years  16%  _________ 1972  1986  _  2000  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Services. Employment in services—one of the subgoups within the service-producing sec­ tor—is expected to rise 34 percent, from 31.9 to 42.6 million—making it the fastest growing industry division. (See chart 5.) These jobs will be found in large corporations and government agencies as well as in one- or two-person firms, for the services industries are a diverse group. A few of these industries are expected to grow extremely fast and a few will grow very slowly, but most are projected to grow at a rate ex­ ceeding that for the economy as a whole. Job growth in legal services and business services (advertising, accounting, word pro­ cessing, and computer support, for example) will be exceptionally rapid. Employment in^ health services also should make impressive gains as demand for health care continues to expand. Cost-containment policies are ex­ pected to slow employment growth in hospitals as services once performed in hospitals are shifted to outpatient care facilities. This will  dramatically boost employment in outpatient settings such as clinics and physicians' offices. Retail and wholesale trade. Employment in both retail and wholesale trade is expected to rise by 27 percent; from 17.8 to 22.7 million in retail trade, and from 5.7 to 7.3 million in wholesale trade. Over half the nearly 5 million new retail jobs will be in eating and drinking places. Substantial increases in retail employ­ ment are also anticipated in grocery stores, department stores, and miscellaneous shopping goods stores—chiefly establishments selling sporting goods, jewelry, books, cards, and sta­ tionery. About half of the 1.5 million new jobs in wholesale trade will occur in machinery and equipment distributors, reflecting large outlays for electronic machinery in the future by do­ mestic manufacturers. Finance, insurance, and real estate. Em­ ployment is expected to increase by 26 percent, from 6.3 to 7.2 million jobs. The demand for financial products and services is expected to  Chart 3.  The proportion of workers with a college background has increased substantially since the early 1970’s, Distribution of the labor force1 by years of school completed 4 years of college or more /  21%  1 to 3 years of college  Industrial Profile  20%  Service-Producing Industries. The long-term shift from goods-producing to service-produc­ ing employment will continue. (See chart 4). By 2000, nearly 4 out of 5 jobs will be in industries that provide services—industries such as banking, insurance, health care, education, data processing, and management consulting. Factors responsible for • arying growth pros­ pects in major industry sectors are noted below.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  4 years of high school or less 1Age 18 to 64. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  9  Chart 4.  Industries providing services will account for nearly 4 out of 5 jobs by the year 2000. Workers (millions)1 150 Total employment  ____________ —------- --  100  -  Service producing 50  ;  "/"""-'I  Goods produc.ng 0 1972  1979  1986  1993  2000  11ncludes wage and salary workers, the self-employed, and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  continue unabated, but technological ad­ vances, such as automated banking and com­ puterized underwriting for insurance agencies, will act to dampen job growth. Government. Between 1986 and 2000, em­ ployment in this division (which does not in­ clude public education or public hospitals) is expected to increase by 9 percent, from 8.6 million to 9.4 million jobs. Most of the growth will be in State and local government; the Fed­ eral Government is expected to add only 100,000 jobs. Transportation, communications, and pub­ lic utilities. Employment in this broad sector is expected to rise only 9 percent, from 5.2 to 5.7 million jobs, making this the slowest grow­ ing industry division in the service-producing sector. The transportation industry is projected to grow almost twice as fast as the division as a whole, reflecting continued employment gains in trucking and airline transportation services.  Demand for electric power, gas utilities, and water and transportation services will continue to increase, too, producing slow but steady employment growth in utilities. Employment in the communications industry is expected to decline as competition among providers of tele­ phone service encourages productivity gains and as job growth in cable TV begins to taper. Goods-Producing Industries. Employment in this sector peaked in the late 1970’s and has not recovered from the recessionary period of the early 1980’s. Although overall employment in goods-producing industries is expected to remain constant, growth prospects within the sector vary a great deal. Construction. Construction is the only goodsproducing division that is expected to show an increase in employment over the period—up 18 percent, from 4.9 million to 5.8 million jobs, in response to economic conditions and demographic trends. When household forma­  Chart 5.  Some industries will grow more rapidly than others. - 10  Percent change in employment,1 1986-2000 0 10 20 30 1  I'll'  Service producing: Services  ..............................................  Retail trade Wholesale trade Finance, insurance, and real estate  .................... i  Government Transportation, communications, and public utilities  ----------- _J1  ..  ■  .  i  '  1  , ,  1  ,  -.................  ~1  '  :  i  Goods producing: Construction  l B2  Manufacturing Mining  r~-  Agriculture f... 'Wage and salary employment except for agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics  10   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  40  tion slows during the 1990’s, employment in residential construction is expected to follow suit. Nonresidential construction, however, should take up the slack. Growth will be es­ pecially strong in construction and renovation of health facilities. Manufacturing. Employment in manufac­ turing is expected to decline by 4 percent, from 19.0 to 18.2 million jobs; 500,000 of the net decrease is expected to be in durable goods manufacturing and 300,000 in nondurable goods. The projected loss of manufacturing jobs reflects productivity gains achieved from increased investment in manufacturing tech­ nologies as well as a winnowing out of less efficient operations. Within durable goods manufacturing, job losses are projected to be greatest in blast fur­ naces, basic steel products, and the aircraft industry; within nondurable goods, in apparel and the weaving, finishing, and yam and thread mills industries. Not all manufacturing industries will de­ cline, however. Those in which increases are expected include, among the durable goods industries, electronic computing equipment and medical instmments and supplies; and miscel­ laneous plastics products and commercial printing and business forms among nondurable goods. The occupational composition of manufac­ turing employment is expected to shift since most of the jobs that will disappear will be production jobs. The number of professional, technical, and managerial positions in manu­ facturing firms will actually increase. Mining. Mining employment is expected to drop from 783,000 to 725,000—a 7-percent decline. Underlying this projection is the as­ sumption that domestic oil production will drop and oil imports will rise sharply. Other mining industries are expected to experience decreases in employment because of improvements in mining technology as well as import compe­ tition. Agriculture. Employment in agriculture has been declining for many decades and this trend is expected to continue—the number of jobs is projected to decline by 14 percent, from 3.3 to 2.9 million. The decline in agricultural jobs reflects a decrease of almost 500,000 in the number of self-employed workers. Wage and salary po­ sitions will increase by about 150,000—with especially strong growth in the agricultural ser­ vices industry.  Occupational Profile Continued expansion of the service-producing sector conjures up an image of a work force dominated by cashiers, retail sales workers, and waiters. Elowever, although service sector growth will usideniably create millions of cler­ ical, sales, and service jobs, it will also create jobs for engineer;"., accountants, lawyers, nurses, and many0 'her managerial, profes­ sional, and technical * orkers. In fact, the fast­ est growing occupation s will be those that re­ quire the most educational preparation.  This section furnishes an overview of pro­ jected employment in broad occupational groupings that adhere in principle to the Stan­ dard Occupational Classification (SOC). The SOC is the organizational framework used by all Federal agencies that collect occupational employment data. In the discussion that follows, projected em­ ployment change is described as faster, slower, or about the same as the average for all oc­ cupations. (These phrases are explained on page 2.) While occupations that are growing fast generally offer good opportunities, the nu­ merical change in employment also is impor­ tant because large occupations, such as retail sales worker, may offer many more new jobs than a small, fast-growing occupation, such as medical assistant. (See chart 6.) Managerial and management-related oc­ cupations. Employment in this cluster is ex­ pected to increase 29 percent, from 10.6 to 13.6 million jobs. Growth will be spurred by the increasing complexity of business opera­ tions and by large employment gains in trade and services—industries that employ a higher than average proportion of managers. Employment in management-related occu­ pations tends to be tied to industry growth. Thus, employment of health services managers is projected to grow very rapidly, in line with growth trends in nursing homes, health main­ tenance organizations, group medical prac­ tices, and other health care facilities except hospitals. On the other hand, employment of school principals, superintendents, and other education administrators is projected to grow more slowly than average, since the educa­ tional services industry will not expand much. Hiring requirements in many managerial and administrative jobs are rising. Work experi­ ence, specialized training, or graduate study will be increasingly necessary. Familiarity with computers is a “must” in a growing number of firms, due to the widespread use of comput­ erized management information systems. Engineers, architects, and surveyors. Em­ ployment in this cluster is expected to grow 32 percent, from 1.6 to 2.1 million jobs. The out­ look generally will be the brightest for engi­ neers. Electrical engineers, for example, are the fastest growing occupation in this cluster. More electrical engineers will be required in the future to create new products, update ex­ isting ones, and develop more efficient ways to produce goods. Employment of architects, except landscape and marine architects, is pro­ jected to grow faster than the average due to increased demand for office buildings, apart­ ment buildings, and residential housing. Natural, computer, and mathematical sci­ entists. Employment is expected to increase by 46 percent, from 738,000 to 1,077,000 jobs— making it one of the fastest growing occupa­ tional areas in the U.S. economy. (See chart 7.) Especially rapid employment growth is an­ ticipated for computer and mathematical sci­ entists, largely due to substantial growth in computer and data processing services. Government and health services are ex­ pected to employ increasing numbers of life   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Chart 6.  Even though an occupation is expected to grow rapidly, it may provide fewer openings than a slower growing but larger occupation. Percent change in employment, 1986-2000  Absolute change in employment, 1986-2000 (millions)  100  1.4  80  -  1.2  Medical assistants  _  Retail sales workers  1.0 60  .8 .6  40  20  Retail sales workers  .4  Medical  .2  “  n  J______ L  assistants  .  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  scientists for genetic research. Employment opportunities for physical scientists will ex­ pand due to private research and development efforts in the fields of lasers, superconductors, and other areas of advanced science. Teachers, librarians, and counselors. Em­ ployment in this cluster is expected to grow about 16 percent, from 4.9 to 5.7 million jobs. Projected job growth reflects underlying dem­ ographic trends: preschool and elementary school teaching, which involves young chil­ dren, will experience more growth than sec­ ondary school and college and university teach­ ing. Jobs for counselors are expected to grow as fast as the average; those for librarians, more slowly than the average. Health diagnosing, assessment, and treating occupations. Employment of health profes­ sionals is projected to grow 42 percent, from 2.6 to 3.7 million jobs. Faster than average growth in most health occupations is consistent with rapidly rising demand for health care. However, staffing patterns and advances in treatment and technology will also affect oc­ cupational employment. Demand for registered nurses is expected to rise sharply, for example, despite a slowdown in hospital industry growth, because the combination of shorter hospital stays, sicker patients, and more complex equipment calls for more and better trained nurses. Other professional specialists. These work­ ers are covered in two separate Handbook clus­ ters. Altogether, employment for this group is projected to grow by 26 percent, from 3.7 to 4.7 million. Growth in individual occupations varies greatly, however. Most of the occupations in the cluster cov­ ering lawyers, social scientists, social workers, and religious workers, with the exception of religious workers, are expected to record faster or much faster than average employment growth. Employment of lawyers is expected to grow much faster than the average due to very strong demand for legal services. Among social scientists, economists and psychologists are  expected to experience the greatest job growth. Competition for academic positions will re­ main keen, however, and prospects for those with advanced degrees will be best in applied fields. Social workers are expected to be in greater demand with the expansion of programs for chronically ill, abused, and neglected chil­ dren; services for the elderly; and private prac­ tice opportunities in clinical social work and organizational consulting. Employment in the writers, artists, and en­ tertainers cluster is expected to grow faster than the average largely because of anticipated growth in advertising, public relations, print and broadcast communications, and entertain­ ment. This group includes reporters, writers, designers, public relations specialists, and per­ forming artists. Keen job competition is likely, however, due to the large numbers of people these fields attract. Talent and personal drive will continue to be important for success. For those wishing to write for a living, it will be easier to land a job in technical writing than as a reporter for a newspaper. Technician occupations. Employment is ex­ pected to increase 38 percent, from 3.7 to 5.1 million jobs. Workers in this group provide technical assistance to engineers, scientists, health practitioners, and other professional workers as well as operate and program tech­ nical equipment. Employment in this cluster is expected to grow much faster than the average, reflecting the fact that it contains two of the fastest growing occupations in the economy, legal assistants and computer programmers. Employment of legal assistants is expected to skyrocket due to increased utilization of these workers in the rapidly expanding legal services industry. Employment of computer program­ mers will continue to grow rapidly, and more engineering technicians will be needed to assist the ever-growing number of engineers. Technological advances in health care are not laborsaving, as a rule, but there are ex­ ceptions. New kinds of heart monitoring equip­ ment have greatly increased the productivity 11  Chart 7.  Employment growth will vary widely by broad occupational group. Percent change in employment, 1986-2000 -10  0  10  20  30  40  50  Total, all occupations Natural, computer, and mathematical scientists Health diagnosing, assessment, and treating occupations  tt§ISIfl|l  Technician occupations Engineers, architects, and surveyors Service occupations Marketing and sales occupations Managerial and management-related workers Other professional specialists Construction trades and extractive occupations Teachers, librarians, and counselors Mechanics, installers, and repairers Administrative support occupations, including clerical Transportation and material moving occupations Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers Production occupations Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations  ’No change.  of EKG technicians, for example, and pro­ ductivity has increased in clinical laboratory work, most phases of which are highly auto­ mated. As a result, employment of EKG tech­ nicians and clinical laboratory personnel is pro­ jected to grow only about as fast as the average—despite very substantial growth in the volume of testing in both areas. Marketing and sales occupations. Employ­ ment in this large cluster is projected to grow by 30 percent, from 12.6 to 16.3 million jobs. Demand for real estate agents and brokers, travel agents, and securities and financial ser­ vices sales workers is expected to grow much faster than the average due to strong employ­ ment growth in the industries that employ them. Many part-time and full-time job openings arc expected for retail sales workers and cashiers due to the large size, high turnover, and faster than average employment growth in these oc­ cupations. The higher paying sales jobs, how­ ever, tend to be more competitive. Personable, ambitious people who enjoy selling will have the best chance for success. Administrative support occupations, includ­ ing clerical. Workers in these occupations per­ form the wide variety of tasks essential to keep­ ing an office in order. Employment is expected to increase by only 11 percent, from 19.9 to 22.1 milion jobs, making this one of the slow­ est growing occupational areas. However, the relatively slow growth projected for secre­ taries, typists and word processors, bookkeep­ ers, and other clerical positions does not mean 12   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  that administrative support jobs offer poor prospects. On the contrary, because of their large size and substantial replacement needs, clerical occupations will offer abundant op­ portunities for qualified jobseekers in the years ahead. The slowdown in job growth is generally attributable to technological change. Techno­ logical advances in mail sorting equipment, for example, will slow demand for postal service clerks. Increased use of word processing equip­ ment is expected to lead to a decline in the number of typists. Operations that involve in­ teraction with others will generally grow faster than “back-office” jobs that do not. Employ­ ment of receptionists and information clerks, for example, is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Other cler­ ical occupations—-such as computer operators and hotel desk clerks—are expected to grow extremely fast in the future because they are concentrated in fast-growing industries. Service occupations. This large group— which includes a wide range of workers in protective, food and beverage preparation, cleaning, personal, and health services—is ex­ pected to grow by 31 percent, from 17.5 to 22.9 million jobs. Most occupations in this group are expected to grow faster or much faster than the average. Of the health services occupations, medical assistant, dental assis­ tant, and nursing aide will be among the fastest growing in the economy. Growth among the food service occupations will be spurred as  people eat more meals out. Within the protec­ tive service workers group, employment of guards will grow particularly fast as companies contract out for protective services. Among cleaning and building service occupations, jan­ itors and cleaners will enjoy a sizable em­ ployment gain as the number of office build­ ings, factories, hospitals, schools, and other buildings increases. Within the personal ser-, vices area, homemaker-home health aide will grow very rapidly as a result of the growing frail elderly population and the expansion of home care services and programs. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations. Overall employment in this clus­ ter is projected to decline 5 percent, from 3.6 to 3.4 million—largely because of the contin­ ued consolidation of small farms into larger ones. The larger farms will require more tech­ nically skilled workers to manage them—lead­ ing to faster than average growth for farm man­ agers. Mechanics, installers, and repairers. These workers adjust, maintain, and repair automo­ biles, industrial equipment, computers, and many other types of equipment. Overall, em­ ployment is expected to increase 15 percent, from 4.7 to 5.4 million jobs. Employment in most of these occupations is expected to grow as fast as the average due to increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment. The fastest growing occupation in this group is ex­ pected to be data processing equipment re­ pairers. Automotive mechanics, in sharp con­ trast, are expected to record slower than average job growth due to the enhanced performance of automobiles. Construction trades and extractive occu­ pations. Employment in this broad group of occupations is expected to grow about as fast as the average—18 percent, from 4.0 to 4.7 million. Construction occupations will grow more rapidly than extractive occupations, how­ ever, because of divergent industry trends. Em­ ployment growth in construction will be spurred by new projects and alterations to existing structures. Production occupations. Workers in these occupations set up, install, adjust, operate, and tend machinery and equipment and use handtools and hand-held power tools to fabricate and assemble products. Employment in this group is expected to remain unchanged from the 1986 level of 12.3 million. More efficient production techniques—such as computer-aided manufacturing and industrial robotics—will eliminate jobs for production workers. Like other occupations found in manufacturing, workers may experience layoffs or shortened workweeks during economic downturns. Transportation and material moving occu­ pations. Workers in this group of occupations operate the equipment used to move people and equipment. Overall, employment in these occupations is expected to grow by 10 percent, from 4.8 to 5.3 million. Employment of ma­ terial moving equipment operators, for ex­ ample, is expected to decline due to greater use of automated material handling equipment in factories and warehouses. In sharp contrast,  employment of aircraft pilots and flight engi­ neers is expected to grow faster than the av­ erage due to rapid growth in air transportation. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. These workers assist skilled workers and perform routine, unskilled tasks. Occu­ pations in this group are expected to grow by only 6 percent, from 4.3 to 4.5 million, as routine tasks are automated.  Replacement Needs Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupa­ tions as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Others stop working, return to school, assume household responsibilities, or retire. Most job openings that arise are the result   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of replacement needs. Thus, even occupations with little or no employment growth or slower than average employment growth may still of­ fer many job openings. The number of replacement jobs and the proportion of job openings arising from re­ placement needs vary by occupation. Occu­ pations with the most replacement openings generally are large, with low pay and status, low training requirements, and a high propor­ tion of young and part-time workers. Some examples include file clerks, retail sales work­ ers, and construction laborers. The occupations with relatively few replace­ ment openings, on the other hand, are ones with high pay and status, lengthy training re­ quirements, and a high proportion of prime working age, full-time workers. Among these occupations are dentists, architects, and phy­  sicians. Workers in these occupations generally have spent years acquiring training that often is not applicable to other occupations.  Interested in More Detail? Readers interested in more information about projections and detail on the labor force, eco­ nomic growth, industry and occupational em­ ployment, or methods and assumptions should consult the September 1987 Monthly Labor Review or Projections 2000, BLS Bulletin 2302. Information on the limitations inherent in eco­ nomic projections also can be found in either of these two publications. Additional occu­ pational data as well as statistics on educational and training completions can be found in the 1988 edition of Occupational Projections and Training Data, BLS Bulletin 2301.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations Accountants and Auditors (D.O.T. 160 through .167-042, and .267-014)  Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial in­ formation to make important decisions. Ac­ countants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify linancial reports that furnish this kind of information to managers in all business, industrial, and government organizations. Four major fields are public, management, and government accounting, and internal au­ diting. Public accountants have their own busi­ nesses or work for accounting firms. Manage­ ment accountants, also called industrial or private accountants, handle the financial rec­ ords of their companies. Government account­ ants and auditors maintain and examine the records of government agencies and audit pri­ vate businesses and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regulations. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their firm’s fi­ nancial records and check for waste or fraud. Within each field, accountants often con­ centrate on one phase of accounting. For ex­ ample. many public accountants are employed primarily in financial auditing (examining a  Accountants provide the financial informa­ tion executives need to make sound business decisions. Digitized 14 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  client's financial records and reports and at­ testing that they are in conformity with stan­ dards of preparation and reporting). Others concentrate on tax matters, such as preparing income tax returns and advising clients of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Still others concentrate on consulting and offer advice on a variety of matters. They might develop or revise an ac­ counting system to serve the needs of clients more effectively or give advice about how to manage cash resources more profitably. Management accountants, the largest group of accountants and auditors, provide the fi­ nancial information executives need to make sound business decisions. They also may pre­ pare financial reports to meet the public dis­ closure requirements of various stock ex­ changes, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and other regulatory bodies. They may work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or investments. Internal auditing is rapidly growing in im­ portance as top management must increasingly base its decisions on reports and records rather than personal observation. Internal auditors ex­ amine and evaluate their firms’ financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review com­ pany operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations. Accountants and auditors also work for Fed­ eral, State, and local governments. Many per­ sons with accounting backgrounds work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Ser­ vice agents or in financial management, finan­ cial institution examination, and budget admin­ istration. In addition, a small number of persons trained as accountants staff the faculties of business and professional schools as accounting teach­ ers, researchers, or administrators. Some work part time as accountants or consultants. Computers are increasingly being used in accounting and auditing. With the aid of special computer software systems, accountants sum­ marize transactions in standard formats for fi­ nancial records, put the data in special formats that aid in financial or management analysis, and prepare income tax returns. Controls are placed in systems to enable auditors to ensure the reliability of the systems and the integrity of data. Software systems coming into use in accounting and auditing generally are easily  learned and require few specialized computer skills, but greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work with figures and records. Newer, less expensive personal computers are enabling accountants and auditors in all fields—even those who work independently—to use these special software systems and extract infor­ mation from large mainframe computers. A growing number of accountants and auditors have extensive computer skills and specialize in correcting problems with software systems or developing special software programs to meet unique data needs. Working Conditions Most accountants and auditors work in offices and have regular hours. Self-employed ac­ countants, who may set up offices at home, work as many hours as the business requires. Tax accountants work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season. Accountants employed by large firms may travel extensively to audit or work for clients or branches of the firm. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 945,000 jobs in 1986; about 317,000 were Certified Public Accountants (CPA), about 22,000 were licensed public accountants, about 14,000 were Certified Internal Auditors (CIA), about 8,000 were Certified Management Accountants (CMA), and over 4,300 were Certified Infor­ mation Systems Auditors (CISA). About 10 percent of all accountants were self-employed. Less than 10 percent worked part time. Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas where public accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concen­ trated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most public accounting and business firms re­ quire applicants for accountant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a closely related field. Many employers prefer those with a master’s degree in accounting or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting. A growing number of employers prefer applicants who are familiar with com­ puters and their applications in accounting and internal auditing. For beginning accounting and auditing po­ sitions, the Federal Government requires 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in ac­ counting or auditing) or an equivalent com­  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/15  bination of education and experience. How­ ever, applicants face competition for the limited number of openings in the Federal Govern­ ment. Previous experience in accounting or audit­ ing can help an applicant get a job. Many col­ leges offer students an opportunity to gain ex­ perience through summer or part-time internship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is invaluable in gaining permanent employment in the field. Professional recognition through certifica­ tion or licensure also is extremely valuable. In the majority of States, Certified Public Ac­ countants are the only accountants who are licensed and regulated. Anyone working as a Certified Public Accountant must have a cer­ tificate and a license, or permit, issued by a State board of accountancy. The vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be college graduates, but a few States substitute a certain number of years of public accounting experi­ ence for the educational requirement. Based on recommendations made by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, a few States require or are con­ sidering requiring CPA candidates to have training beyond the usual 4-year bachelor’s de­ gree—for example, a 5-year bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree. This requirement may become more common in the coming years. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination, prepared by the American Insti­ tute of Certified Public Accountants, to help establish eligibility for certification. The CPA examination is rigorous, and candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once. How­ ever, most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections of the test to be passed within a certain period of time. Most States require applicants for a CPA certificate to have some public accounting experience. For ex­ ample, bachelor’s degree holders most often need 2 years of experience, while master’s de­ gree holders often need no more than 1 year. The designation Licensed Public Accountant (LPA), or Registered Public Accountant (RPA), is also awarded by 9 States, and accountants who hold those designations have similar legal rights, duties, and obligations to CPA’s, but their qualifications for licensure are slightly less stringent. The designation Accounting Practitioner is awarded by 4 States and requires less formal training than a CPA license, but has a limited scope of practice. However, with dramatic growth in the number of CPA’s, the majority of States either no longer offer the LPA or RPA designations or are phasing it out by not issuing any more new LPA or RPA licenses. Professional societies grant other forms of certification on a voluntary basis. Voluntary certification can attest to professional compe­ tence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who ac­ quired their skills at least partially on the job,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  without the amount of formal education or pub­ lic accounting work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., con­ fers the designation Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) upon graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have completed 2 years’ experience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The EDP Aud­ itors Association confers the designation Cer­ tified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) upon candidates who pass an examination and who have completed 5 years’ experience in auditing electronic data processing systems. However, auditing or data processing experience and col­ lege education may be substituted for up to 3 years. The National Association of Accountants (NAA) confers the Certificate in Management Accounting (CMA) upon candidates who pass a series of uniform examinations and meet spe­ cific educational and professional standards. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy of the National Society of Public Accountants awards a Certificate of Accreditation in Ac­ countancy and a Certificate of Accreditation in Taxation to persons who have passed compre­ hensive examinations; there are no educational requirements to take these tests. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly, and make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must question how and why things are done and be able to clearly communicate the results of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and manage­ ment. Accountants and auditors must be patient and able to concentrate for long periods of time. They must be good at working with business systems and computers as well as with people. Accuracy and the ability to handle responsi­ bility with limited supervision are important. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial statement users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. A growing number of States require both CPA’s and licensed public accountants to com­ plete a certain number of hours of continuing education before licenses can be renewed. The professional associations representing account­ ants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Capable accountants and auditors should ad­ vance rapidly; those having inadequate aca­ demic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates of junior colleges and business and correspond­ ence schools, as well as outstanding book­ keepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience requirements set by their employers, are successful in landing jun­ ior accounting positions and advance to more responsible positions by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start  by assisting with auditing work for several clients. They may advance to intermediate po­ sitions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who deal successfully with top industry executives often become supervisors, man­ agers, or partners, or transfer to executive po­ sitions in private firms. Some open their own public accounting offices. Beginning management accountants often start as ledger accountants, junior internal aud­ itors, or as trainees for technical accounting positions. They may advance to chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, budget di­ rector, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice­ presidents, or corporation presidents. Many corporation executives have backgrounds in accounting, internal auditing, and finance.  Job Outlook Employment of accountants and auditors is ex­ pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the key role these workers play in the man­ agement of all types of businesses. Although increased demand will generate many new jobs, most openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. While accountants and auditors tend to leave the profession at a lower rate than mem­ bers of most other occupations, replacement needs will be substantial because the occupa­ tion is large. As the economy grows, the number of busi­ ness establishments increases, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up their books, prepare their taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors on costs, expendi­ tures, and taxes will increase as well. Plant expansion, mergers, or foreign investments may depend upon information on the financial con­ dition of the firm, tax implications of the pro­ posed action, and other financial considera­ tions. Requirements for accountants and auditors may also be affected by changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investment, and other fi­ nancial matters. In addition, increases in in­ vestment and lending associated with general economic growth also should spur demand for accountants and auditors. Growth in demand for personal financial planning assistance should also contribute to growth in requirements for accountants. Opportunities are expected to be favorable for college graduates seeking accounting and auditing jobs. Certified Public Accountants should have a wider range of job opportunities than other accountants. However, competition for jobs with prestigious accounting firms will remain keen; a master’s degree in accounting would be an asset. Opportunities for account­ ants without a college degree will occur mainly in small businesses and accounting and tax preparation firms. The increasing use of com­ puters in accounting should stimulate the de-  16/Occupational Outlook Handbook  For information on accredited accounting programs and educational institutions offering a specialization in accounting or business man­ agement, contact:  The number of new bachelor’s degrees in accounting has increased only slightly since the late 1970’s. Bachelor’s degrees in accounting (thousands)  American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Busi­ ness, 605 Old Balias Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, MO 63141.  Construction and Building Inspectors  ' % •in •' . i§ i  197576  1976- 197777 78  197879  (D.O.T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050; .267­ 010, -102; .367-018; 182.267; and 850.387, and .467)  197980  198081  198182  198283  198384  198485  1985­ 86  Source: Center for Education Statistics  mand for accountants and auditors familiar with their operation. Many employers prefer graduates who have worked part time in a business or accounting firm while in school. In fact, experience has become so important that some employers in business and industry seek persons with 1 or 2 years’ experience for beginning positions. Accountants rarely lose their jobs when other workers are laid off during hard economic times. Financial information must be developed and tax reports prepared regardless of the state of the economy.  Earnings According to a 1986 College Placement Coun­ cil salary survey, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received offers averaging around $21,200 a year; master’s degree candidates, $25,600. Beginning public accountants employed by public accounting firms averaged $20,500 a year in 1986, according to a national survey. The middle 50 percent had starting salaries ranging from $19,500 to $21,500. Salaries of junior public accountants who were not owners or partners of their firms averaged $24,100, but some had salaries of more than $35,000. Many owners and partners of firms earned con­ siderably more. The starting salary of management account­ ants in private industry averaged abo ut $21,000 a year in 1986, according to the sarnie survey. The middle 50 percent had starting annual sal­ aries ranging from $18,800 to $22,700. Sal­ aries of nonsupervisory management account­ ants averaged $31,800 in 1986, and some of the most experienced had salaries of over $65,000. Chief management accountants who direct the accounting program of a company or one of its establishments averaged $54,700 a year. Their salaries ranged from over $40,000 to more than $80,000, depending upon the scope of their authority and the size of their profes­ sional staff. According to the same survey, beginning   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  trainee internal auditors averaged $21,500 a year in 1986. The middle 50 percent had annual starting salaries ranging from $20,000 to $22,800. Internal auditors averaged $30,300, but some of the most experienced had salaries of more than $40,000. In the Federal Government, the starting an­ nual salary for junior accountants and auditors was about $14,800 in 1987. Candidates who had a superior academic record could begin at about $18,400. Applicants with a master’s de­ gree or 2 years’ professional experience began at about $22,500. Accountants in the Federal Government averaged about $34,500 a year in 1986; auditors, about $35,200. Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal con­ trol systems and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan offi­ cers, financial analysts, bank officers, actu­ aries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales workers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in public accounting and about competency tests administered in colleges and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036­ 8775.  Information on specialized fields of account­ ing and auditing is available from: National Association of Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645. National Society of Public Accountants and the Ac­ creditation Council for Accountancy, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314. The Institute of Internal Auditors, P.O. Box 1119, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701. The EDP Auditors Association, P.O. Box 88180, Carol Stream, IL 60188-0180.  Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors examine the construction, alteration, or repair of high­ ways, streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to in­ sure compliance with building codes and or­ dinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Following initial inspections during construction, followup inspections are conducted periodically to monitor continuing compliance with regulations. In areas subject to unusually severe environmental hazards— such as earthquakes or hurricanes—inspectors monitor compliance with additional regula­ tions. Inspectors generally specialize in one particular type of construction work. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality of buildings. Some may specialize— for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete buildings. Before construction, plan checkers determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with build­ ing code regulations and are suited to the en­ gineering and environmental demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the foot­ ings. They inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the num­ ber of other visits they must make. Upon com­ pletion of the project, they conduct a final com­ prehensive inspection. In addition, inspectors working for private industry may determine fire insurance rates by assessing the type of con­ struction, building contents, availability of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by ad­ joining buildings. Electrical inspectors inspect the installation of electrical systems and equipment to insure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security systems, motors, and generating equipment. They also may in­ spect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, kitchen appliances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and con­ veying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, personnel lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and various amuse­ ment rides.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/17  Mechanical inspectors inspect the installa­ tion of the mechanical components of kitchen appliances, heating and air-conditioning equip­ ment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers. Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing sys­ tems, including septic tanks, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors insure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed con­ tract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works in­ spectors may specialize in highways, rein­ forced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. Construction and building inspectors in­ creasingly use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and the issuance of permits. Details about con­ struction projects, building and occupancy per­ mits, and other information can be stored and easily retrieved. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape measures, survey in­ struments, metering devices, and test equip­ ment such as concrete strength measurers. They often keep a daily log of their work, take pho­ tographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction in­ spectors notify the construction contractor, su­ perintendent, or supervisor when they discover a detail of a project that does not comply with the appropriate codes, ordinances, contract specifications, or approved plans. If the defi­ ciency is not corrected within a reasonable or specified period of time, government inspec­ tors have authority to issue a “stop-work” or­ der. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of construction or alteration that is being carried on without proper permits. Vi­ olators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone on small jobs indoors and out. However, several may be assigned to a large, complex project. They may spend much of their time in a field office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. The rest of their time is spent inspecting construction and building sites. Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or several flights of stairs, or may have to crawl beneath buildings. How­ ever, the work is not considered hazardous. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, if an accident occurs at a construc­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tion site, such as a partially collapsed concrete structure, inspectors must respond immediately and may work irregular hours to complete their report. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 50,000jobs in 1986. Over half worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. The employment of lo­ cal government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large in­ spection staffs, including most of the inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, and elevator inspection. Almost 20 percent of all construction and building inspectors were employed at the Fed­ eral and State levels. Over half of the con­ struction inspectors employed by the Federal Government worked for the Department of De­ fense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Other important Federal employers include the Departments of Agriculture, Hous­ ing and Urban Development, and Interior, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Over one-fifth of all inspectors worked for private industry, primarily for construction companies. The insurance and educational ser­ vices industries employed relatively small numbers of inspectors. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a construction or building inspec­ tor, several years of experience as a construc­ tion contractor, supervisor, or craft worker are generally required. Most employers also re­ quire an applicant to have a high school di­ ploma. High school preparation should include courses in drafting, algebra, geometry, and English. Workers who want to become inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construc­ tion materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. A significant number of con­ struction and building inspectors have recent experience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Many employers prefer inspectors who have graduated from an apprenticeship program, have studied engineering or architecture for at least 2 years, or have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, mathematics, and building inspection. Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a motor vehicle operator’s license. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments usually require that inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction and building inspectors usually receive most of their training on the job. During the first couple of weeks, working with an experienced inspector, they learn about in-  PUP**  Smbw  ■ r ■  ■  ______ Building inspector assuring readiness for in­ stallation of prefabricated panels. spection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regulations; contract specifications; and re­ cordkeeping and reporting duties. They begin by inspecting less complex types of construc­ tion such as residential buildings. The difficulty of their assignments is gradually increased until they are able to handle complex assignments. An engineering degree is frequently needed to advance to supervisory inspector. Since they advise representatives of the con­ struction industry and the general public on building code interpretation, construction prac­ tices, and technical developments, construc­ tion and building inspectors must keep abreast of new building code developments. Many em­ ployers provide formal training programs to broaden inspectors’ knowledge of construction materials, practices, and inspection tech­ niques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can broaden their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training programs or by taking college or correspond­ ence courses. Certification enhances construction inspec­ tors’ chances for higher paying, more respon­ sible positions. Some States and cities require certification for employment. Inspectors hav­ ing substantial experience and education can attain certification by passing stringent ex­ aminations on construction techniques, mate­ rials, and code requirements offered by the model code organizations listed below. Job Outlook Employment of construction and building in­ spectors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increases in both the level of construc ­ tion activity and complexity of construction materials and technology, as well as rising con­ cern for public safety and for improvements in the quality of construction, should spur demand for construction and building inspectors. How­  18/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ever, the continuing assumption of some in­ spection functions by engineers, construction managers, and maintenance supervisors should expedite construction and limit growth of con­ struction and building inspector jobs. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Because of the trend toward the establishment of professional standards for inspectors, job prospects should be best for highly experienced craft workers who have some college education or who arc certified as inspectors. Employment of construction and building inspectors is not always directly affected by changes in the level of building activity. Unlike most construction occupations, inspectors do not usually experience layoffs when construc­ tion activity declines. During these periods, maintenance and renovation—which usually require more frequent inspection than new con­ struction—generally continue, enabling in­ spectors to continue working full time year round. In an upturn, new jobs for inspectors increase but not to the same degree as con­ struction activity. Earnings The median annual salary of construction and building inspectors was $27,100 in 1986. Gen­ erally, building inspectors, including plan checkers, earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small local jurisdictions. Salaries in the North and West are slightly higher than salaries in the South. The average salary of inspectors in the Fed­ eral Government was $26,100 in 1986. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine a knowledge of construction principles and law with the ability to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and communicate with people. Other occupations involving a combination of similar skills arc drafters, estimators, industrial en­ gineering technicians, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career and certification as a construction or building inspector is available from the following model code organizations: International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, CA 90601. Building Officials and Code Administrators Inter­ national, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, IL 60477. Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Road, Birmingham, AL 35213.  For information about a career as a State or local government construction or building in­ spector, contact your State or local employ­ ment service. Persons interested in a career as a construc­ tion and building inspector with the Federal Government can obtain information from: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20415.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Cost Estimators (D.O.T. 160.267-018, 221.362-018, .367-014)  Nature of the Work Being able to predict the cost of future projects is vital to the economic survival of any busi­ ness. Cost estimators are the professionals who develop this information for owners and man­ agers to use in making bids for contracts or in determining if a new product will be profit­ able. Whether in construction or in manufactur­ ing, estimators compile and analyze data on all the factors that can influence costs—ma­ terials, labor, location, and special machinery. Actual job duties vary widely depending upon the type and size of the project. On a new, large construction project, for example, the estimating process begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing the architect’s drawings, specifications, and other bidding documents, the estimator visits the site of the proposed construction to gather information on access to the site and availability of electricity, water, and other services, as well as surface topography and drainage. If the project is a remodeling or renovation job, the estimator might consider the need to control noise and dust and to perform work in such a way that occupants can continue to carry out their ac­ tivities as normally as possible. The infor­ mation developed during the site visit generally is recorded in a signed report that is made part of the project estimate. After the site visit is completed, the esti­ mator must determine the quantity of materials and labor that the firm will have to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or “takeoff,” is completed by filling out standard estimating forms that provide spaces for the entry of dimensions, numbers of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general contractor, for example, will only estimate the costs of the items the contractor must provide. Any subcontractors involved will estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process. Allowances for the waste of materials, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs are made as the takeoff proceeds. In large construction organ­ izations with several estimators, it is common practice for each person to specialize. For in­ stance, one person may estimate only electrical work, whereas another may concentrate on ex­ cavation, concrete, and forms. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator must make de­ cisions concerning equipment needs, sequence of operations, and crew sizes. On completion of the quantity surveys, a total project cost summary is prepared by the chief estimator that includes the cost of labor, equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insurance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief estimator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the developer.  In manufacturing firms, cost estimators gen­ erally are assigned to the manufacturing en­ gineering department. Their job may begin with a request by top management to estimate the costs associated with the development of a new product or a major redesign of an existing prod­ uct. Working with engineers, the estimator first reviews blueprints to determine the machining operations, tools and gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estimator then must prepare a parts list and determine whether it is more efficient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from potential suppliers. The next step is to deter­ mine the cost of manufacturing each compo­ nent of the product. This requires the cost es­ timator to review records of the cost of manufacturing similar parts in the past. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. The former indicate the time required for tool design and fabrica­ tion, tool “debugging” (finding and correcting all problems), manufacturing of parts, assem­ bly, and testing. Learning curves represent graphically the fact that performance improves with practice, which yields reduced cost. These curves are commonly called “problem-elimi­ nation” curves because many problems, such as engineering changes, rework, parts short­ ages, and lack of operator skills, diminish as the number of parts produced increases, re­ sulting in lower unit costs. Using all this information, the estimator then calculates the standard labor hours necessary to produce a predetermined number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in dollars. Then the estimator compares the cost of purchasing parts with the firm’s cost of manufacturing them to determine which is cheaper. Computers are increasingly used in esti­ mating. Although they cannot be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve es­ timators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. This leaves estimators with more time to study and analyze projects and can lead to more accurate estimates.  Working Conditions Estimators spend most of their time in an office. Nevertheless, construction estimators must make frequent visits to construction sites that are dirty and cluttered with debris. Likewise, estimators in manufacturing must spend some time on the factory floor where it can be hot, noisy, and dirty. Cost estimators often operate under great pressure, especially when facing bidding deadlines on a major contract. There always is a certain amount of pressure because inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose out on a bid that would have been profitable or to take on a job that proves to be unprof­ itable. Estimators usually work a 40-hour week, although overtime may be required when work­ ing on an important project.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/19  Employment Cost estimators held about 157,000 jobs in 1986. About 2 out of 3 worked in construction, primarily for contractors that specialize in plumbing, heating and air-conditioning, elec­ trical, or concrete work. Nearly 30 percent worked for manufacturing industries. A small number worked as self-employed consultants, and others worked for the Federal Government. Construction control specialists in the Depart­ ment of Housing and Urban Development and operations research specialists in the Depart­ ment of Defense may do significant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. (For more information, see the state­ ment on operations research analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Cost estimators work in all parts of the coun­ try, usually in or near major industrial and commercial centers and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development where large amounts of construction are taking place.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry requirements vary by industry. In con­ struction, employers prefer applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction materials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumb­ ing systems, or masonry work. In fact, most construction estimators have experience as a construction craft worker or as a contractor. Persons who combine this experience with some postsecondary training in construction esti­ mating or a bachelor’s or associate’s degree in civil engineering or building construction have the edge in landing jobs. Those with an aca­ demic background who lack work experience qualify for some jobs, but are at a distinct disadvantage when competing for jobs with experienced applicants. In manufacturing, em­ ployers prefer persons with a degree in indus­ trial engineering or in accounting, finance, or a related subject; less emphasis is placed on experience. For beginning positions in the Fed­ eral Government, applicants must have a bach­ elor’s degree with a major in engineering, mathematics, business administration, or a re­ lated subject. Regardless of background, estimators re­ ceive much training on the job. Working with an experienced estimator, they become familiar with each step in the process. Those with no experience reading construction specifications or blueprints first leant that aspect of the work. Then they may accompany an experienced es­ timator to the construction site or the shop floor where they may observe the work being done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, they leant how to tabulate quantities and di­ mensions from drawings and how to select which material prices are to be used. Cost estimating is included as part of the civil engineering and industrial engineering curriculums in most colleges and universities. In addition, many technical schools, junior col­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  leges, and universities offer courses in esti­ mating techniques and procedures. Organiza­ tions that represent cost estimators, such as the American Association of Cost Engineers, the American Society of Professional Estimators, and the National Estimating Society also spon­ sor educational programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experi­ enced estimators stay abreast of changes af­ fecting the profession. Professional recognition through certifica­ tion is valuable, because it is a mark of the estimator’s competence and experience. In or­ der to become certified, estimators must have between 3 and 7 years’ estimating experience and must pass both a written and an oral ex­ amination. In addition, certification require­ ments may include publication of at least one article or paper in the field. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to quickly analyze, com­ pare, and interpret data, and be able to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowledge. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into a management position, such as project manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial engineering department for a manufacturer. Others may go into business for themselves as consultants, providing estimat­ ing services for a fee to construction and man­ ufacturing firms.  Job Outlook Employment of cost estimators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace experienced estimators who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Employment is dependent upon the level of construction and manufacturing activity. Res­ idential construction is expected to slow over the 1986-2000 period; the aging of the popu­ lation—particularly among those of retirement age—-will stimulate demand for multiunit housing relative to single units. Nonresidential construction will expand strongly, particularly commercial and industrial buildings and healthrelated facilities. Other areas within construc­ tion also are expected to expand, such as main­ tenance and repair, commercial and industrial renovations, and hazardous waste cleanup. As more construction projects are planned, more estimators will be needed to predict the costs of these jobs. Despite a projected decline in employment in the manufacturing sector, increasing job op­ portunities for cost estimators will occur as more firms realize the importance of accurate estimating. Demand is expected to rise as com­ petition forces manufacturers to reduce their operating costs. In addition to working on new projects, estimators increasingly will be mon­ itoring operations to uncover hidden costs or other inefficiencies. Job prospects should be best for highly ex­ perienced construction workers or those with  Cost estimators receive much of their train­ ing on the job. a degree in engineering, construction, math­ ematics, accounting, or finance. Earnings Salaries for cost estimators vary widely by ex­ perience, education, size of firm, and industry. According to limited data available, average starting salaries ranged between $15,000 and $25,000 in 1986. Those with several years’ experience earned about $30,000, and those with certification earned between $30,000 and $80,000. In the Federal Government, those doing cost estimating work had a starting salary of $14,800 a year in 1987. Candidates with a superior academic record could begin at $18,400. The average salary for all Federal employees doing significant amounts of cost estimating work was $38,000 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Other workers who must have an aptitude for mathematics, skill in analyzing, comparing, and interpreting facts, figures, and measure­ ments quickly, and the ability to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowl­ edge are accountants, engineers, actuaries, mathematicians, and bank officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certi­ fication, and schools that offer training in cost estimating may be obtained from: National Estimating Society, 1001 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. American Society of Professional Estimators, Inc., 6911 Richmond Hwy., Suite 230, Alexandria, VA 22306. American Association of Cost Engineers (AACE Inc.), 308 Monongahela Bldg., Morgantown, WV 26505.  20/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Education Administrators (DOT. 075.117-010, -018; 090.117 except -034, .167; 091.107; 092.137; 094.107, .117-010, -014; 094.167­ 010; 096.167-010, -014; 097.167; 099.117 except -022; 169.267-022; 239.137-010)  Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide direction, leadership, and day-to-day management of educational ac­ tivities in preschools; elementary, secondary, religious, vocational, and technical schools; colleges and universities; businesses; correc­ tional institutions; museums; and job training and community service organizations. They set educational standards and goals and set up pol­ icies and procedures to carry them out. Edu­ cation administrators develop academic pro­ grams; hire, train, and motivate teachers and other staff; manage guidance and other services to students; administer recordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle relations with parents, pro­ spective students, employers, or others outside of education; and perform numerous other ac­ tivities. They work through and supervise subordi­ nate managers, management support staff, teachers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and  others. In a small organization, such as a day care center, there may be one administrator who handles all functions. In a major university or large school system, responsiblities are di­ vided among many administrators, organized in a hierarchy. Principals manage elementary and second­ ary schools. They set the academic tone—highquality instruction is their most important re­ sponsibility. Principals hire and assign teachers and other staff, help them improve their skills, and evaluate them. They confer with them— advising, explaining, or answering procedural questions. They visit classrooms, review in­ structional objectives, and examine learning materials. They also meet with other admin­ istrators, students, parents, and representatives of community organizations. They prepare budgets and reports, keep track of attendance, and see that supplies are requisitioned and al­ located. Assistant principals may perform principals’ duties and usually handle discipline, social and recreational programs, health and safety, and building and grounds maintenance. They may also counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. Public schools are also managed by admin­ istrators in school district central offices. This group includes education supervisors, who di­ rect subject area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special educa­  tion, and mathematics. They plan, evaluate, and improve curriculum and teaching tech­ niques and help teachers improve their skills and learn about new methods and materials. This group also includes directors of programs such as guidance, school psychology, athletics, curriculum development, and audiovisual ma­ terials. In colleges and universities, academic deans, also known as deans of faculty, provosts, or university deans, assist presidents and develop budgets and academic policies and programs. They direct and coordinate activities of deans and chairpersons of individual colleges and ac­ ademic departments. College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments such as English, biological science, or mathematics. They coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assignments, propose budgets, recruit and interview applicants for teaching positions, and perform other administrative duties in ad­ dition to teaching. Higher education administrators also pro­ vide student services. Deans of students, also known as vice-presidents of student affairs or directors of student services, direct and coor­ dinate admissions, foreign student services, and health and counseling services, as well as so­ cial, recreation, and related programs. They set and enforce student personnel policies and administer discipline. In a small college, they may counsel students. Registrars are custodi­ ans of students’ education records. They pre­ pare student transcripts, evaluate academic records, and analyze registration statistics. Di­ rectors of admissions manage the process of admitting students, oversee the preparation of college catalogs, recruit students, and work closely with financial aid directors, who over­ see scholarship, fellowship, and loan pro­ grams. Directors of student activities plan and arrange social, cultural, and recreational ac­ tivities, assist student-run organizations and orient new students. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic ac­ tivities, including publicity for athletic events, preparation of budgets, and supervision of coaches. Working Conditions Education administrators may work alone in offices but also meet with the staffs they su­ pervise, other administrators, students, alumni, and others. Some jobs include travel. Some education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, including some nights and weekends when school activities take place. Unlike teachers, they usually work year round.  Principals are usually required to have several years of experience as classroom teachers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Education administrators held about 288,000 jobs in 1986. More than 90 percent were in educational services—in elementary, second­ ary, and technical schools and colleges and universities. Some worked in child day care centers, religious organizations, job training centers, State departments of education, and businesses and other organizations that provide training activities for their employees.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/21  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education administrator is not usually an entry level job. Most education administrators begin their careers in other related occupations. Be­ cause of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experience vary considerably. Principals, assistant principals, central office administra­ tors, and academic deans usually have taught or held another related job before moving into administration. Some teachers move directly into principalships; others first gain experience in a central office administrative job. In some cases, administrators move up from related staff jobs such as recruiter, residence hall director, or financial aid or admissions officer. To be considered for education administrator posi­ tions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating candidates, superiors look for determination, confidence, innovativeness, motivation, and managerial at­ tributes such as ability to make sound deci­ sions, to organize and coordinate work effi­ ciently, and to establish good personal relationships with and motivate others. Knowl­ edge of management principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. Principals and assistant principals in all 50 States and the District of Columbia need a master’s degree or higher in education admin­ istration and a State teaching certificate. Many principals have a doctorate. Academic deans usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Admissions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars often start in related staff jobs with bachelor's degrees— any field is usually acceptable—and get ad­ vanced degrees in student counseling and per­ sonnel services or higher education adminis­ tration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. is usually necessary for top student personnel positions. Courses in data processing are an asset in admissions, rec­ ords, and financial work. Advanced degrees in education administra­ tion are offered in many colleges and univer­ sities. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits programs at over 250 campuses. There arc 92 doctorate programs in higher education administration. Graduate programs in student counseling and personnel services are offered in about 500 colleges and universities. Education adminis­ tration degree programs include courses in school management, school law, school fi­ nance and budgeting, curriculum development and evaluation, research design and data anal­ ysis, community relations, politics in educa­ tion, and leadership. Education administrators advance by mov­ ing up an administrative hierarchy or transfer­ ring to larger schools or systems. Some become administrators in industries outside education.  Job Outlook Employment of education administrators is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  job openings will be to replace administrators who leave the profession. Demand for education administrators is de­ termined primarily by enrollments. Elementary school enrollments are expected to increase moderately through the year 2000; secondary school enrollments are expected to increase only slightly. College enrollments should de­ cline through the mid-1990’s and then begin to increase, but will still be below the 1986 level in the year 2000. Therefore, jobs for el­ ementary school administrators are likely to grow faster than for other school administra­ tors. The number of education administrators em­ ployed depends largely on State and local ex­ penditures for education. Pressure from tax­ payers to limit spending could result in fewer administrators than anticipated; pressures to in­ crease spending to improve the quality of ed­ ucation could result in more. Substantial competition is expected for jobs as principals, assistant principals, and central office administrators. Many teachers and other staff meet the education and experience re­ quirements for these jobs and seek promotion. However, the number of openings is relatively small, so generally only the most highly qual­ ified are selected. Earnings The median annual salary for education ad­ ministrators who worked full time was $32,000 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,000 and $41,000. Salaries of education administrators vary ac­ cording to position, level of responsibility and experience, and the size and location of the institution. According to the Educational Research Ser­ vice, Inc., average salaries for principals and assistant principals in the school year 1986-87 were as follows:  Student services directors: Admissions and registrar............. Development and alumni affairs.......................................... Student financial.......................... Student activities..........................  38,853 38,713 30,899 27,214  Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to in­ dividuals. Related occupations include health services administrators, social service agency administrators, recreation and park managers, museum directors, library directors, and professional and membership organization ex­ ecutives. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in school admin­ istration, contact: American Association of School Administrators, 1801 North Moore St., Arlington, VA 22209. The National Association of Elementary School Prin­ cipals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3406. The National Association of Secondary School Prin­ cipals, 1904 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Association for the Study of Higher Education, Texas A&M University, Department of Educational Administration, College Station. TX 77843-4426. American Association of University Administrators, University of Alabama, Box 6211, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. National Association of Student Personnel Admin­ istrators, 1700 18th St., N.W.. Washington DC 20009-2508.  Employment Interviewers (DOT. 166.267-010)  Principals: Senior high school.......................... $47,896 Junior high/middle school............. 44,861 Elementary school........................... 41,536 Assistant principals: Senior high school......................... 39,758 Junior high/middle school............. 37,958 Elementary school.......................... 34,347 In 1986-87, according to the College and University Personnel Association, median an­ nual salaries for selected administrators in higher education were as follows: Academic deans: Medicine......................................... $120,000 Law................................................. 89,000 Engineering.................................... 68,496 Arts and sciences......................... 57,681 Business.......................................... 55,790 Education...................................... 55,259 Social sciences.............................. 42,400 Mathematics.................................. 40,750  Nature of the Work Whether you are looking for a job or trying to fill one, you could find yourself turning to an employment interviewer for help. Sometimes called account representatives, manpower de­ velopment specialists, counselors, or personnel consultants, employment interviewers have two principal duties: They help jobseekers find em­ ployment and help employers find qualified staff. Working largely in private personnel con­ sultant firms or State employment security of­ fices (also known as Job Service centers), em­ ployment interviewers act as brokers, putting together the best combination of applicant and job. To accomplish this, they obtain infor­ mation from employers as well as jobseekers. Employers generally pay private (but not public) agencies for finding them workers. Either way, the employer places a “job order” with the firm that describes the opening and lists requirements such as education, licenses or credentials, and experience. Depending on the kind of job to be filled, an interviewer might  22/Occupational Outlook Handbook  visit the employer’s facility to get a better feel for the firm as well as the job in question. Site visits also provide a chance to discuss future staffing needs and develop rapport with the employer. Maintaining good relations with employers is an important part of the employment inter­ viewer’s job since this helps assure a steady flow of job orders. Successful employment in­ terviewers know that employers need a supply of prescreened applicants. Frequent telephone calls and visits help identify an employer’s present and future needs; help demonstrate the employment interviewer’s dedication to find­ ing the best applicants possible; and allow time to test and prescreen applicants with the em­ ployer’s needs in mind. Employment inter­ viewers know that being prepared to fill an opening quickly is the best way to impress an employer. Besides helping firms fill job openings, em­ ployment interviewers help individuals find jobs. The services they provide depend upon the type of agency they work for and the clien­ tele it serves. In Job Service centers, for in­ stance, interviewers’ duties reflect the fact that applicants may lack marketable skills. Upon entering a Job Service center, appli­ cants are asked to fill out forms that ask for educational attainment, job history, skills, awards, certificates, and licenses. An employ­ ment interviewer reviews these forms for com­ pleteness and legibility before interviewing the applicant. During the interview, the inter­ viewer asks about the type of job sought, salary range, and any special needs such as require­ ments for the handicapped. Applicants may need help identifying the kind of work for which they are best suited. Some have no preference. In such cases, the employment interviewer evaluates the appli­ cant’s qualifications and either chooses an ap­ propriate occupation or class of occupations, or refers the applicant for vocational testing. Applicants sometimes have exaggerated ex­ pectations. Employment interviewers must be tactful, but persuasive, if an applicant’s job or salary requests are unreasonable. Once an appropriate type of job has been identified, the employment interviewer searches the file of job orders seeking a possible job match, and refers the applicant to the employer if a match is found. If no match is found, the interviewer shows the applicant how to use the public job listings, and may suggest that the applicant return every few days to review them since they are frequently updated. These list­ ings do not always provide the employer’s name or address. The jobseeker must request this information from an employment interviewer, who approves the match before making the referral. Applicants with limited job skills and no clear idea of what kind of work they can do pose a challenge for Job Service personnel. But some applicants are hindered by additional obstacles: Poor English language skills, no high school diploma, a history of drug or al­ cohol dependency, or a prison record, for example.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The amount and nature of special help for such applicants varies from State to State. In some States, it is the employment interviewer’s responsibility to counsel hard-to-place appli­ cants and refer them elsewhere for literacy or language instruction, vocational training, transportation assistance, child care, and the like. In other States, specially trained coun­ selors perform this task. Employment interviewers in Job Service centers have other duties as well. They may coach applicants in interview techniques; at least one State videotapes mock interviews which are reviewed and critiqued for the job­ seeker. They may explain the grounds for com­ plaints of job discrimination, and initiate re­ ferrals to job training programs. Employment interviewers in private place­ ment firms are generally called counselors, a title used regardless of whether or not they have completed formal coursework in counseling or hold professional credentials in the field. They usually place job applicants whose educational background or job skills are such that little extra assistance is required. Counselors in private placement firms do, however, offer tips on personal appearance, suggestions on present­ ing a positive picture of oneself, background on the company with which an interview is scheduled, and recommendations about inter­ viewing techniques. Many private placement firms specialize in placing applicants in par­ ticular kinds of jobs—secretarial, word pro­ cessing, engineering, accounting, law, or health, for example. Counselors in such firms must be familiar with these fields. Some employment interviewers work in temporary help service companies. These com­ panies send out their own employees to com­ panies that need temporary help. Employment interviewers take job orders from client com­ panies and match their requests against a list of available workers. The employment inter­ viewer notifies the selected worker that work is available and refers him or her to the firm requiring assistance. Subsequent to the re­ ferral, regular checks are made to insure that the temporary employee has been properly placed. Regular evaluation of employee job skills is an important part of the job for those inter­ viewers working in temporary help service companies. Initially, interviewers evaluate or test each new employee’s skills to determine their abilities and weaknesses. The results, which are kept on file, are referred to when filling job orders. Periodically, the interviewer may reevaluate or retest employees in an effort to identify any new skills they may have de­ veloped. Working Conditions Employment interviewers usually work in comfortable, well-lighted, temperature-con­ trolled offices. Work can be hectic, especially in temporary help service companies which supply clients with immediate help for short periods of time. Some overtime may be re­ quired and use of personal transportation may be necessary to make employer visits.  Work is occasionally hectic, requiring an employment interviewer to juggle paperwork, phone calls, and interviews. Employment in­ terviewers occasionally face the frustration of trying to place a difficult applicant or fill an unusual job order. Difficult situations some­ times arise; an applicant may become dis­ traught, unruly, or even violent. Employment Employment interviewers held about 75,000 jobs in 1986. Three out of five worked for employment firms or temporary help service companies in the private sector. Most of the rest worked for State employment security agencies. Employees of career consulting or outplace­ ment firms are not included in these estimates. Workers in these firms help clients market themselves; they do not act as job brokers, nor do they match individuals with particular va­ cancies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most public and private agencies pre­ fer to hire college graduates, a degree is not always necessary. Temporary help service companies and personnel firms that place cler­ ical workers generally put top priority on “peo­ ple” skills and other personal characteristics. Entry level employment interviewer posi­ tions in the public sector are generally filled by college graduates, even though a bachelor’s degree is not always a formal requirement. This situation may reflect the abundant supply of college graduates interested in State govern­ ment jobs. Some States allow substitution of suitable work experience for college education. “Suitable work experience” is generally de­ fined as public contact work or time spent at different jobs (including clerical jobs) in a Job Service office. However, college graduates are likely to be at an advantage in competing for jobs as employment interviewers in State em­ ployment security agencies. In States that per­ mit employment interviewers to engage in counseling, coursework in counseling may be required. Most if not all States and many large city and county governments use some form of merit system for hiring purposes. To establish eli­ gibility for positions covered by a merit system, applicants may take a written exam, undergo an interview, or submit records of their edu­ cation and experience for evaluation. Those who meet the standards for a particular position are placed on a list from which the top-ranked candidates are selected for interviews. Hiring requirements in the private sector re­ flect the firm’s management approach as well as the placements in which it specializes. Firms limiting themselves to placement of individuals such as accountants, lawyers, engineers, phy­ sicians, or executives prefer their counselors to have some training or experience in the field. Thus, a bachelor’s or even a master’s degree becomes a prerequisite for placing highly trained individuals in particular jobs. Firms placing secretaries, word processing  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/23  operators, and other clerical personnel do not ordinarily stress educational background when they hire interviewers or counselors. Qualities such as energy level, telephone voice, and sales ability take precedence over educational at­ tainment. Other desirable qualifications include good communications skills, a desire to help people, office skills, and adaptability. A friendly, con­ fidence-winning manner is an asset since per­ sonal interaction is a large part of this occu­ pation. Advancement as an employment interviewer in the public sector is often based on a system providing regular promotions and salary in­ creases for those meeting or exceeding estab­ lished standards. Advancement to supervisory positions is highly competitive. Advancement in personnel consulting firms generally takes the form of greater responsibility and higher income. Successful individuals may form their own businesses. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to grow much faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. Most new jobs will be in temporary help or personnel consulting firms. Relatively little growth is an­ ticipated in State Job Service offices. Addi­ tional job openings will result from replace­ ment needs, which are substantial because of relatively high turnover. Rapid expansion of firms supplying tem­ porary help will be responsible for much of the growth in this occupation. Businesses of all types are turning to temporary help service companies for additional workers during busy periods, for handling short-term assignments or one-time projects, and for launching new programs. Expansion of the personnel consulting in­ dustry will also spur job growth. Job orders will increase as the economy expands and new businesses are formed; this is expected to heighten demand for employment interview­ ers. Firms that lack the time or resources to develop their own screening procedures are likely to turn to personnel firms. It is also pos­ sible that businesses that rely on young workers will make greater use of personnel firms in the years ahead, inasmuch as competition for these workers is expected to intensify signifi­ cantly. While little job growth is foreseen in the public sector, prospects in the private sector should be excellent. Entry to this occupation is relatively easy for college graduates (or peo­ ple who have had some college courses) except in those positions specializing in placement of lawyers, doctors, and engineers. A relatively high turnover rate, due to job stress and an inability to meet job demands, will provide many opportunities in addition to those gen­ erated by very rapid industry growth. Earnings Private sector earnings vary, in part because the basis for compensation varies. Workers in personnel consulting firms generally are paid  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment interviewers help people find jobs. on a commission basis while those in temporary help service companies receive a salary. When workers are paid on a commission basis (or salary plus commission), total earn­ ings depend on how much business they bring in. This is usually based on the type as well as the number of placements. Placements of more highly skilled or hard-to-find employees command a higher price. An interviewer or counselor working strictly on a commission basis often makes around 30 percent of what he or she bills the client, although this varies from firm to firm. Some work on a salary plus commission basis because they fill difficult or highly specialized positions requiring long pe­ riods of search. The salary, usually small by normal standards, guarantees these individuals security through slow times while the com­ mission provides the incentive and opportunity to make money. Some personnel consulting firms employ new workers for a 2- to 3-month probationary period during which time they draw a regular salary. This is intended to provide new workers time to develop their skills and acquire some clients. At the end of the probationary period, the new employees are evaluated, and are either let go or switched to a commission basis. According to the limited data available, av­ erage eamings of interviewers or counselors in personnel consulting firms ranged from the high teens to the mid-twenties in 1986; some earned considerably more. Salaries are typically higher for those placing professional workers than those placing clerical workers. Most employment interviewers of temporary help service companies work on a salary basis. Salaries are higher in large cities. Based on limited data available, average salaries ranged from $16,000 to $24,000 a year in 1986. Starting salaries for employment interview­ ers in State Job Service centers vary from State to State and ranged from $9,800 to $20,200 a year in 1987.  Related Occupations Employment interviewers serve as intermedi­ aries for job seekers and employers. Workers in several other occupations do similar jobs. Personnel officers screen and help hire new employees but their major concern is the hiring needs of the firm; they never represent indi­ vidual jobseekers. Personnel officers may also have additional duties in areas such as payroll or benefits management. College career counselors help students and alumni find jobs, but their primary emphasis is career counseling and decisionmaking, not placement. A master's degree is usually the minimum educational requirement for these positions. Counselors in community organizations and vocational rehabilitation facilities help clients find jobs, but they also provide assistance with drug or alcohol dependencies, housing, trans­ portation, child care, and other problems that stand in the way of finding and keeping a job. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an employment interviewer/counselor and requirements for be­ coming a Certified Personnel Consultant, con­ tact: National Association of Personnel Consultants, 1432 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on a career as an employ­ ment interviewer in State employment security offices, contact: International Association of Personnel in Employ­ ment Security, 1801 Louisville Road, Frankfort, KY 40601.  For information on a career as an employ­ ment interviewer in temporary help service companies, contact: National Association of Temporary Services, 119 South Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  24/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Financial Managers (D.O.T. 161.117-018; 186.117-014, -038, -066, -070, -078; .167-022, -026, -054; and 189.117-038)  Nature of the Work Practically every firm—whether in manufac­ turing, communications, banking, education, or health care—has one or more financial man­ agers—treasurer, controller, cash manager, and others—who prepare the financial reports re­ quired by the firm to conduct its operations and to satisfy tax and regulatory requirements. Fi­ nancial managers also oversee the flow of cash and financial instruments and develop infor­ mation to assess the present and future financial status of the firm. In small firms, treasurers’ duties usually in­ clude all financial management functions. However, in large firms, treasurers oversee all financial management departments. In these instances, treasurers help top managers de­ velop financial and economic policy and es­ tablish procedures, delegate authority, and oversee the implementation of these policies. Highly trained and experienced financial managers head each financial department. Controllers direct the preparation of all finan­ cial reports—for example, income statements, balance sheets, and special reports such as de­ preciation schedules. They oversee the ac­ counting, audit, or budget departments. Cash managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements and other financial instruments to meet the business and invest­ ment needs of the firm. For example, loans may be obtained to meet a cash shortage, or surplus cash may be invested in interest-bear­ ing instruments. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to minimize risks and losses that may arise from financial transactions un­ dertaken by the institution. Credit card oper­ ations managers establish credit rating criteria, determine credit ceilings, and monitor their  institution’s extension of credit. Reserve of­ ficers review their institution’s financial state­ ments and direct the purchase and sale of bonds and other securities to maintain the asset-lia­ bility ratio required by law. User representa­ tives in international accounting develop in­ tegrated international financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of mul­ tinational organizations. A working knowledge of the financial systems of foreign countries is essential. Financial institutions—such as banks, sav­ ings and loan associations, and personal credit institutions—primarily serve as depositories for cash and financial instruments and offer loans, investment counseling, trust manage­ ment, and other financial services. Conse­ quently, financial managers in these institu­ tions include vice-presidents—who may head one or more financial departments—bank branch managers, savings and loan association managers, consumer credit managers, and credit union managers. Financial managers in financial institutions make decisions in accordance with Federal and State laws, regulations established by the Fed­ eral Reserve Board, and policy set by the in­ stitution’s board of directors. They must have detailed knowledge of industries allied to bank­ ing—such as insurance, real estate, and se­ curities—and broad knowledge of business and industrial activities. With growing domestic and foreign competition, promotion of an ex­ panding and increasingly complex variety of financial services is becoming a more important function of financial managers in banks and related institutions. Besides supervising finan­ cial services, they may advise individuals and businesses on financial planning and participate in community projects. Working Conditions Financial managers are provided with com­ fortable offices close to top managers and to departments which develop the financial data  IL|4  Financial managers direct the preparation offinancial reports.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  lliWi:  these managers need. Although overtime may sometimes be required, financial managers typ­ ically work a 40-hour week. Attendance at meetings of financial and economic associa­ tions and similar activities is often required. In very large corporations, some traveling to subsidiary firms may be necessary. Employment Financial managers held about 638,000 jobs in 1986. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, about one-third were employed by financial services industries— banks, insurance companies, securities deal­ ers, real estate firms, and related institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance, or in business administration with an emphasis on accounting or finance, is suitable academic preparation for financial managers. A Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree in addition to a bachelor’s degree in any field is acceptable to some employers. However, many financial management positions are filled by promoting experienced, technically skilled professional personnel—for example, ac­ countants, budget analysts, credit analysts, in­ surance analysts, loan officers, and securities analysts—or accounting or related department supervisors in large institutions. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, ad­ vancement to a financial management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotions may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by special study. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and,skills and en­ courage employees to take courses at local col­ leges and universities. In addition, financial managment and banking associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, sponsor numerous national or local training programs. Their schools, located throughout the country, each deal with a different phase of financial management. Persons enrolled pre­ pare extensively at home, then attend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget management, corporate cash manage­ ment, financial analysis, international banking, and data processing systems procedures and management. Firms also sponsor seminars and conferences and provide textbooks and other educational materials. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. Persons interested in becoming financial managers should like to work independently and analyze detailed information. The ability to communicate, both orally and in writing, with top managers is important. They also need tact, good judgment, and the ability to establish effective personal relationships to oversee su­ pervisory and professional staff members. Financial analysis and management have been revolutionized by technological improvements in computers and data processing equipment.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/25  Knowledge of their applications is vital to up­ grade managerial skills and to enhance ad­ vancement opportunities. Because financial management is critical for efficient business operations, well-trained, ex­ perienced financial managers may transfer to closely related positions in other industries. Some are promoted to top management posi­ tions. Financial managers with extensive ex­ perience and sufficient capital may head their own consulting firms.  consultants, pension consultants, real estate advisors, securities consultants, and under­ writers.  Job Outlook Employment of financial managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Expanding automation—such as use of computers for electronic funds transmission and for data and information processing—may make financial managers more productive. However, the growing need for skilled financial management in the face of increasing domestic and foreign competition, changing laws regarding taxes and other financial matters, and greater emphasis on accurate reporting of financial data should spur demand for financial managers. New jobs will also be created by the increasing variety and complexity of services—including finan­ cial planning—offered by financial institu­ tions. However, most job openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Because of the increasing number of qual­ ified applicants, competition for financial man­ agerial positions is expected to stiffen. Famil­ iarity with a range of financial services—for example, banking, insurance, real estate, and securities—and with computers and data pro­ cessing systems may enhance one’s chances for employment. Developing expertise in a rap­ idly growing industry, such as health services, may also prove helpful. Once employed, financial managers are likely to work year round, even during periods of slow economic activity, because cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on financial management activities.  National Corporate Cash Management Association, P.O. Box 7001, Newton, CT 06740.  Earnings The median annual salary of financial managers was $30,400 in 1986. The lowest 10 percent earned $17,100 or less, while the top lOpercent earned over $52,000. The salary level depends upon the size and location of the firm, and is likely to be higher in large institutions and cities. Many financial managers in private in­ dustry receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, which also vary substantially by size of firm. Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal schooling with experience in one or more areas of fi­ nance—such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or in­ surance risk and loss control. Other occupa­ tions which require similar training and ability include accountants and auditors, budget of­ ficers, credit analysts, loan officers, insurance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information For information about financial management careers, contact: American Financial Services Association, Fourth Floor, 1101 14th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Financial Executives Institute, Academic Relations Committee, P.O. Box 1938, Morristown, NJ 07960.  For information about financial management careers in banking and related financial insti­ tutions, contact: American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Center, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008.  For information about financial management careers in savings and loan associations and related financial institutions, contact: Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601.  For information about financial management careers in credit unions, contact: Credit Union Executives Society, P.O. Box 14167, Madison, W1 53714.  For information about financial management careers in the health services industry, contact: Healthcare Financial Management Association, Suite 500, 1900 Spring Rd., Oak Brook, IL 60521.  Information about careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Division, Washington, DC 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area.  State bankers’ associations can furnish spe­ cific information about job opportunities in their State. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related in­ stitutions, as well as the names of their prin­ cipal officers, consult one of the following di­ rectories. The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga.,  McFadden Business Publications). The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand  McNally & Co.). Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville. R.L. Polk  & Co.).  General Managers and Top Executives (List of D.O.T. codes available upon request. See p 425.)  Nature of the Work Chief executive officer, executive vice-presi­ dent for marketing, department store manager, financial institution president, brokerage office  manager, college president, school superin­ tendent. and city manager—these are examples of general managers and top executives who, at the top of the management hierarchy, for­ mulate the policies or direct the operations of the Nation’s private firms or government agen­ cies. (Top executives in public administration who formulate policy are excluded.) The fundamental objective of private organ­ izations is to maintain efficiency and profit­ ability in the face of accelerating technological complexity, economic interdependence, and domestic and foreign competition. Govern­ ment agencies must effectively implement pro­ grams subject to budgetary constraints and shifting public preferences. In response to these trends, successful organizations have broad­ ened their activities, grown in size and com­ plexity, and expanded their management hi­ erarchy. An organization’s general goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, usu­ ally executive vice-presidents, and with the board of directors. In a large corporation, a busy chief executive officer may frequently meet with top executives of other corporations, government, or foreign countries to discuss matters affecting the organization's policies. Although the chief executive officer retains ul­ timate authority and responsibility, the chief operating officer may be delegated the au­ thority to oversee executive vice-presidents who direct the activities of various departments and are responsible for implementing the organi­ zation's goals. The responsibilities of executive vice-pres­ idents depend greatly upon the size of the or­ ganization. In large corporations, their duties may be highly specialized. For example, they may oversee the activities of general managers of marketing, sales promotion, purchasing, fi­ nance, personnel, training, industrial relations, administrative services, electronic data pro­ cessing, property management, transportation, or legal services. (Some of these and other general managerial occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In smaller firms, an executive vice-president might be responsible for a number of these depart­ ments. General managers, in turn, direct their in­ dividual department’s activities within the framework of the organization’s overall plan. With the help of supervisory managers and their staffs, general managers strive to achieve their department’s goals as rapidly and eco­ nomically as possible. Working Conditions General managers are provided with comfort­ able offices close to the departments they direct and to the top executives to whom they report. Top executives may be provided with spacious, lavish offices and may enjoy numerous per­ quisites, such as executive dining rooms, au­ tomobiles, country club memberships, and lib­ eral expense allowances—which may facilitate meetings and negotiations with top executives from other corporations, government, or other  26/Occupational Outlook Handbook  •  w  ■  Executives in consultation with directors formulate company policy. nations. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are the rule, and business discussion may occupy most of their time during social engagements. Substantial travel is often required. General managers may travel between national, re­ gional, and local offices. Top executives may travel to meet with their counterparts in other corporations in the country or overseas. Per­ quisites such as reimbursement of an accom­ panying spouse's travel expenses help execu­ tives cope with frequent or extended periods away from home. Meetings and conferences sponsored by industries and associations occur regularly and provide invaluable opportunities to meet with peers and keep abreast of tech­ nological and other developments. In large corporations, job transfers between the parent company and its local offices or subsidiaries, here or abroad, are common. Genera! managers and top executives often work under intense pressure to attain, for ex­ ample, production and marketing goals. And sometimes they find themselves in situations over which they have limited influence—for example, when meeting with government of­ ficials, private interest groups, or competitors, or negotiating with foreign governments. Employment General managers and top executives held about 2.4 million jobs in 1986. Although they are found in every industry, employment is more concentrated in the largest industries: Eating and drinking places, grocery stores, miscel­ laneous business services, miscellaneous shop­ ping goods stores, clothing and accessories stores, commercial, stock, and mutual savings banks, educational institutions, and hospitals. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational background of managers and top executives varies as widely as the nature of their diverse responsibilities. Most general   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  managers and top executives have a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts or business administra­ tion. Their major often is related to the de­ partments they direct—for example, account­ ing for a general manager of finance or computer science for a general manager of data pro­ cessing. Graduate and professional degrees are common. Many managers in administrative, marketing, financial, and manufacturing activ­ ities have a master’s degree in business admin­ istration. Managers in highly technical man­ ufacturing and research activities often have a master’s or doctoral degree in an engineering or scientific discipline. A law degree is man­ datory for general managers of corporate legal departments, and hospital administrators gen­ erally have a master’s degree in health services administration or business administration. Col­ lege presidents and school superintendents generally have a doctorate, often in education administration; some have a law degree. In some industries, such as retail trade, competent individuals without a college degree may be­ come general managers. Most general managers in the public sector have a liberal arts degree in public adminis­ tration or in one of the social sciences such as economics, psychology, sociology, or urban studies. For others, experience is still the pri­ mary qualification. City managers usually have a liberal arts degree, although the master’s de­ gree in public administration is increasing in importance. For park superintendents, a liberal arts degree also provides a suitable back­ ground. Police chiefs are graduates of police academies; in addition, a degree in police sci­ ence or a related field is increasingly important. Similarly, fire chiefs are graduates of fire aca­ demies; in addition, a degree in fire science is gaining in importance. For harbormasters, a high school education and experience as a har­ bor pilot are sufficient. Most general management and top executive positions are filled by promoting experienced, lower level managers who display the lead­  ership, self-confidence, motivation, decisive­ ness, and flexibility required by these de­ manding positions. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotions may occur more quickly. Advancement may be accelerated by partic­ ipation in company training programs to broaden knowledge of company policy and operations. Attendance at national or local training pro­ grams sponsored by numerous industry and trade associations and continuing education, often at company expense, in colleges and uni­ versities can familiarize managers with the lat­ est developments in management techniques. Participation in interdisciplinary conferences and seminars can expand knowledge of na­ tional and international issues influencing the manager’s firm. Persons interested in becoming general man­ agers and top executives must have highly de­ veloped personal skills. A highly analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important. The ability to consider and evaluate the interrela­ tionships of numerous factors and to select the best course of action is imperative. In the ab­ sence of sufficient information, sound intuitive judgment is crucial to reaching favorable de­ cisions. General managers and top executives also must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively, both orally and in writing. General managers may advance to top ex­ ecutive positions, such as executive or admin­ istrative vice-president, in their own firm or to a corresponding general management position in a larger firm. Similarly, top-level managers may advance to peak corporate positions—chief operating officer and finally chief executive officer. Chief executive officers, upon retire­ ment, may become members of the board of directors of one or more firms. Some general managers and top executives with sufficient capital establish their own firms. Job Outlook Employment of general managers and top ex­ ecutives is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as businesses grow in number, size, and complexity. In addition to openings arising from increased demand for these managers and executives, many job openings will occur each year to replace those who transfer to better paying positions, start their own businesses, or retire. However, the ample supply of compe­ tent, experienced lower level managers seeking top management positions should result in sub­ stantial job competition. Outstanding individ­ uals whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qualities and the ability to improve the efficiency or competitive position of their organization will have the best job opportun­ ities. Projected employment growth varies by in­ dustry. For example, most services industries will continue to expand rapidly. Employment of general managers and top executives in the computer and data processing services industry  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/27  is expected to more than double as computer use expands. Very rapid employment growth is expected in firms supplying management, consulting, public relations, and other business services as many firms find it cost-efficient to contract out for these services. Employment of general managers and top executives is also expected to grow rapidly in engineering, ar­ chitectural, and surveying services firms and in some industries concerned with health and welfare such as outpatient clinics and estab­ lishments offering individual and family social services. Much faster than average employ­ ment growth is projected in the hotel, restau­ rant, and travel industries as personal income and leisure time increase. On the other hand, employment of general managers and top ex­ ecutives is expected to increase only about as fast as the average for all occupations in the educational services industry in line with the growth of the school age population. The same is projected for hospitals as more medical care is provided by outpatient clinics and other health care establishments. Little or no change or even a decline in employment is projected in some manufacturing industries.  tions in government with similar functions are governor, mayor, postmaster, commissioner, director, and office chief.  Earnings The estimated median annual salary of general managers and top executives was around $34,000 in 1986. Many earned well over $52,000. Salary levels vary substantially de­ pending upon the level of managerial respon­ sibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the firm. Most salaried general managers and top ex­ ecutives in the private sector receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, stock awards, and cash-equivalent fringe benefits such as company-paid insurance premiums, use of company cars, and paid country club mem­ berships. Chief executive officers are the most highly paid top-level managers. A recent survey of top public corporations revealed that in 1986, over 100 chief executive officers received base salaries of $1 million or more and additional compensation—such as fringe benefits and company stock—equivalent, on the average, to nearly half of their base salary. Other surveys of executive salaries reveal the importance of the size of the corporation. A top-level manager in a very large corporation can earn ten times as much as a counterpart in a small firm. Salaries also vary substantially by industry and geographic location. For example, salaries in manufacturing and finance are generally higher than those for corresponding positions in State and local governments. Also, salaries in large metropolitan areas such as New York City are normally higher than those in small cities and towns.  (D.O.T. 070.107-018, .117; 072.117; 074.131; 075.117­ 014, -022, -026, and -030; 079.117-010. .131. .137, and .167-014; 161.117-018; 162.117-014 and-018; 164.117­ 010; 165.117-010 and -014; 166.117-010 and-018, .167­ 018. -026, -030. and -050; 169.167-030 and -034; 186.117- 014 and -066; 187.117-010, -018, -058, and -062, .167-022, -034, -038, -046. -090, -106 and -194; 189.117- 014 and -030, .167-022, -030, and -050; and 195.167.038)  Related Occupations General managers and top executives plan, or­ ganize, direct, control, and coordinate the op­ erations of an organization and its major de­ partments or programs. The members of the board of directors and supervisory managers are also involved in these activities. Occupa­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information For information about careers as general man­ agers and top executives, contact: American Management Association, Management Information Service, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020. National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439.  Information about general managers and top executives in specific industries may be ob­ tained from organizations listed under a num­ ber of headings—for example, administration, administrators, directors, executives, manage­ ment, managers, and superintendents—in var­ ious encyclopedias or directories of associa­ tions in public libraries.  Health Services Managers  Nature of the Work Effective management of health care organi­ zations, and of the considerable resources at their disposal, requires competent managers. Like their counterparts in any organization, health services managers are responsible for facilities, services, programs, staff, budgets, and relations with other organizations. Health services manager is an inclusive term for individuals in many different positions who plan, organize, and coordinate the delivery of health care. Hospitals provide more than half the jobs in this field. Other places that employ health services managers include medical group practices, outpatient clinics, health mainte­ nance organizations (HMO’s), nursing homes, hospices, home health agencies, rehabilitation centers, community mental health centers, ur­ gent care centers, diagnostic imaging centers, and offices of doctors, dentists, and other health practitioners. The job of managing a health facility has become highly complex due to the many ad­ vances in medical technology and the emerg­ ence of dozens of specialty health professions, together with significant changes in consumer expectations, business practices, and health care financing. As a result, the need for professional managers continues to grow. Also contributing to the need for profes­ sional management is the extensive oversight and scrutiny to which health facilities are sub­ ject. Both past performance and plans for the future are subject to review by a variety of  groups and organizations, including consumer groups, government agencies, professional ov­ ersight bodies, insurance companies and other third-party payers, business coalitions, and even the courts. Preparing for inspection visits by observers from regulatory bodies and submit­ ting appropriate records and documentation can be time consuming as well as technically de­ manding. Three functional levels of administration are found in hospitals and other large facilities— executive, internal management, and special­ ized staff. The chief executive officer provides overall management direction, but also is con­ cerned with community outreach, planning, policymaking, response to government agen­ cies and regulations, and negotiating. The job often includes speaking before civic groups, promoting public participation in health pro­ grams, and coordinating the activities of the organization with those of government or com­ munity agencies. Institutional planning is an increasingly important responsibility for chief administrators, who must assess the need for services, personnel, facilities, and equipment and recommend such changes as shutting down a maternity ward, for example, or opening an outpatient clinic. Chief administrators need leadership ability as well as technical skills in order to respond effectively to the community's requirements for health care while, at the same time, satisfying demand for financial viability, cost containment, and public and professional accountability. Day-to-day management, particularly in large facilities, may be the responsibility of one or more associate or assistant administrators, who work with service unit managers and staff spe­ cialists. Depending on the size of the facility, associate or assistant administrators may be responsible for budget and finance; human re­ sources, including personnel administration, education, and in-service training; information management; and direction of the medical, nursing, ancillary services, housekeeping, physical plant, and other operating depart­ ments. As the health care system becomes more complex, more specialists in financial man­ agement, marketing, strategic planning, sys­ tems analysis, and labor relations will be needed as Well. Hospital and nursing home administration differ in important respects. Hospitals are com­ plex organizations, housing a great manvHe^ partments—admissions, surgery, clinical lab­ oratory, therapy, emergency medicine, nursing, physical plant, medical records, accounting, and so on. The hospital administrator works with the governing board in establishing gen­ eral policies and operating philosophy and pro­ vides direction to assistant administrators, or vice presidents as they may be called, and de­ partment heads who carry out those policies. The administrator coordinates the activities of the assistant administrators and department heads to assure that the hospital runs effi­ ciently, provides high quality medical care, and recovers adequate revenue to remain solvent or make a profit. Many of the same management skills are  28/Occupational Outlook Handbook  needed by nursing home administrators. How­ ever, administrative staffs in nursing homes are typically much smaller than those in hos­ pitals—nursing home administrators often have only one or two assistants, sometimes none. As a result, nursing home administrators “get their hands into” the detailed management de­ cisions much more than hospital administrators in all but the smallest hospitals. They wear various hats—personnel director, director of finance, director of facilities, admissions di­ rector, for example—analyzing data and then making daily management decisions in all of these areas. In addition, because many nursing home residents are long term, staying for months or even years, administrators must try to create an environment that nourishes residents’ psy­ chological, social, and spiritual well-being, as well as tend to their health care needs. In the growing field of group practice man­ agement, managers need to be able to work effectively with the physicians who own the practice. Specific job duties vary according to the size of the practice. While an office man­ ager handles the business side in very small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians themselves, larger groups generally employ a full-time administrator to advise on business strategies and coordinate the day-to­ day management of the practice. A group of 10 or 15 physicians might employ a single administrator to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, planning, equipment outlays, advertising, and patient flow, whereas a practice of 40 or 50 physicians would require a chief administrator and several assistants, each responsible for a different functional area of management. In addition to providing overall management di­ rection, the chief administrator would be re­ sponsible for assuring that the practice main­ tained or strengthened its competitive position. This is no small task, given the rapidly chang­ ing nature of the health care environment. As­ suring competitiveness might entail market re­  search to analyze the services the practice currently offers and those it might offer; ne­ gotiating contracts with hospitals or other health care providers to gain access to specialized facilities and equipment; or entering joint ven­ tures for the purchase of an expensive piece of medical equipment such as a magnetic reso­ nance imager. Managers in HMO’s perform all of the func­ tions of those in large medical group practices, but they perform one additional function—that of an insurance company. HMO enrollees pay an annual fee that covers almost all care. HMO managers must establish a comprehensive medical benefit package with enrollment fees low enough to attract adequate enrollments but high enough to operate successfully. Working Conditions Health services managers often work long hours. Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and administrators and managers may be called at alfhours to deal with emergencies. The job also may include tfavei to 'attend meetings or to inspect health care facilities. Employment Health services managers held 274,000 jobs in 1986. More than half of all jobs were in hos­ pitals, as the following tabulation shows: Percent Total............................................... 100 Hospitals.........................................................55 Nursing homes ........................................... 17 Offices of physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s) ............................................. 10 Outpatient care facilities............................ 7 Offices of dentists ...................................... 2 Medical and dental laboratories ............... 2 Offices of other health practitioners ........ 2 Other ............................................................ 4  Ipfei  Expansion and diversification of the health services industry will lead to many new jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement As is generally true with managerial jobs, most entrants transfer from other occupations. Knowledge of management principles and practices is the essential requirement for a po­ sition in this field, and such knowledge often is gained through work experience. Nonethe­ less, .formal educational preparation is impor­ tant, especially for those who wish to advance in the profession. For many positions, a grad­ uate degree in health services administration, nursing administration, or business adminis­ tration is a decided asset. For others, a degree in finance, personnel administration, or public administration provides an appropriate back­ ground. Some employers seek applicants who have had clinical experience (as nurses or ther­ apists, for example) as well as academic prep­ aration in business or health services admin­ istration. Many hospitals are setting up separate ven­ tures such as outpatient surgical centers, al­ coholism treatment centers, and home health care services. When they operate at a profit, separate companies such as these can funnel needed revenue to the hospital. To operate and manage these subsidiary companies, hospi­ tals—or the corporations that run them—are looking outside the health industry for man­ agers with well-established skills in profit and loss analysis, marketing, and finance. None­ theless, .graduate education in health services administration remains a prerequisite for many upper level administrative positions within hospitals and their subsidiaries. Academic programs in health administra­ tion, leading to a bachelor’s, master's, or doc­ toral degree, are offered by colleges, univer­ sities, and schools of public health, allied health, and business administration. The various de­ gree programs provide different levels of career preparation. The master’s degree—in hospital administration, health administration, or public TieaTfh—is regarded as the standard credential for many positions in this field. Educational requirements vary with the size of the orga­ nization and the amount of responsibility in­ volved. Generally, larger organizations require more specialized academic preparation than smaller ones do. In 1987, 31 colleges and universities offered bachelor's degree programs in health services administration. Sixty-one schools had pro­ grams leading to the master’s degree in hospital or htSflffi' services administration; 11 of these programs were in schools of public health. Some schools offer joint degree programs, leading to a master’s in public health and a master’s in business administration, for example. To enter graduate programs, applicants must have a bachelor's degree, with courses in nat­ ural sciences, psychology, sociology, statis­ tics, accounting, and economics. Competition for entry to these programs is keen, and ap­ plicants need above-average grades to gain admission. The programs generally last be­ tween 2 and 3 years. They include up to i undertaken after completion of course work in  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/29  such areas as hospital organizatign_and man­ agement, accounting and budget control, per­ sonnel administration, strategic planning, and management of health information systems. New graduates with master’s degrees in health or hospital administration may be hired by hospitals as assistant administrators or, more often, as department heads or project directors. Postgraduate residencies and fellowships are offered by hospitals and other health facilities; these are normally staff jobs. Growing numbers of graduates from mas­ ter’s degree programs are also taking jobs in HMO’s, large group medical practices, mul­ tifacility nursing home corporations, and clin­ ics. Students should be aware, however, that midlevel job transfers from one setting to an­ other may be difficult. Employers place a high value on experience in similar settings because some of the management skills are unique to each setting. Relatively few master’s degree recipients take administrative positions in nursing homes or life-care communities, although graduates of the small number of long-term care adminis­ tration programs generally do so. Many nursing home administrators pursue graduate education while employed, however. New recipients of bachelor’s degrees in health administration usually begin their careers as administrative assistants or assistant depart­ ment heads in larger hospitals, or as department heads or assistant administrators in small hos­ pitals or in nursing homes. The Ph.D. degree usually is required for positions in teaching, consulting, or research. Nursing service administrators are usually cho­ sen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and advanced ed­ ucation. Licensure is not required in most areas of health services management, except for nurs­ ing home or long-term care administration. Sixteen States currently require 2 years of col­ lege and an associate degree for licensure, while 25 require a bachelor’s degree. All States and the District of Columbia require these admin­ istrators to pass a licensing examination, and most students prepare for it by completing a special course of study. These preparatory courses, usually consisting of 100 to 200 hours of study in long-term care administration, are available through some colleges, universities, and home study programs. The licensing ex­ amination covers principles of administration; management of a long-term care facility; the role of government in long-term care; envi­ ronmental health and safety; and medical, psy­ chological, and social aspects of patient care. More than half the States require applicants to complete an internship known as an Admipistrator-in-Trairiing program before taking the licensure examination. This internship gener­ ally lasts 1 year and is supervised by a licensed administrator. Since requirements vary from State to State, persons considering a career in long-term care administration should investi­ gate licensing requirements where they wish to work. Health services managers are often respon­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  sible for millions of dollars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to different opinions and good at sifting through contradictory information. To motivate sub­ ordinates to implement those decisions, they heed strong leadership qualities. Interpersonal skills are important in all settings, but nowhere more so than in medical groups, where success depends on developing a good working rela­ tionship with the physician-owners. Tact, di­ plomacy, and communication skills are essen­ tial. Like their counterparts in other kinds of or­ ganizations, health services managers need to be self-starters. In order to create an atmo­ sphere favorable to good patient care, they must like people, enjoy working with them, and be able to deal effectively with them. They also should be good at public speaking. Health services managers may advance by moving into more responsible and higher pay­ ing positions within their own institution, or by shifting to another health care facility or organization. Frequently, the first job in a large institution is fairly narrow in scope—depart­ ment head in charge of purchasing, for ex­ ample. Advancement occurs with promotion to successively more responsible jobs such as assistant or associate administrator and, finally, chief executive officer (CEO). Health services managers sometimes begin their careers in sp-iall hospitals in positions with broad responsibil­ ities, such as assistant administrator. Outside the more traditional avenues of ad­ vancement, many managers take staff positions with the Veterans Administration, U.S. Public Health Service, or State or local departments of public health. Others find positions with voluntary health agencies such as the American Cancer Society or with trade and professional associations in the health care field. A growing number of jobs are available with firms that provide health management services on a con­ tract basis. Jobs also are available in health planning agencies and professional review or­ ganizations. Individuals with academic train­ ing or experience in health administration are well suited for such positions.  Job Outlook Employment of health services managers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations througfi flie year 2000 as health services continue to expand and diver­ sify. Some practice settings will offer more favorable prospects than others due to changes in organization and financing that are currently reshaping health care. New kinds of jobs are likely to emerge—in health care corporations, multi-institutional systems, contract manage­ ment, quality assurance, and utilization re­ view—as health care delivery in the United States increasingly takes on a business orien­ tation. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace managers who transfer to another field or stop working. Hospitals will not contribute as heavily to employment of health services managers as  they did in the past. The hospital industry is not expected to expand very much through the year 2000, although certain kinds of hospitals should"5xpgrience strong growth—major med­ ical centers to which complex cases are referred from smaller facilities, for example. Oppor­ tunities for managers should be best in these hospitals and in subsidiaries that provide am­ bulatory surgery, alcohol and drug abuse re­ habilitation, hospice facilities, or home health care, for example. Small rural hospitals and public hospitals serving a largely indigent pop­ ulation are among those most likely to cut back or close altogether. Opportunities in these hos­ pitals may be limited to filling replacement needs or may vanish entirely. Nevertheless, hospitals willjuill provide sig­ nificant career ancTadvancement opportunities for managers with appropriate skills and ex­ perience. As hospitals become more special­ ized, concentrating on services that they are particularly well suited to deliver—whether it be neonatal care or bum treatment, for ex­ ample—more managers with strategic plan­ ning and marketing skills will be needed. Man­ agers will also be needed to plan, install, and oversee comprehensive systems for monitoring and controlling resource use. Facilities that provide ambulatory or out­ patient care are expected to provide as many as one-fourth of all jobs for health services managers by the year 2000. Demand will be stimulated primarily by the very rapid expan­ sion of HMO’s and medical group practices, but continued growth of such facilities as ur­ gent care centers, cardiac rehabilitation cen­ ters, diagnostic imaging centers, pain clinics, and wellness centers will play an important role, too. Ambulatory facilities such as out­ patient surgical centers and after-hours clinics are expected to experience very rapid growth due to their convenience and competitive fee structure, generating additional management jobs. With better medical care and healthier life­ styles, Americans are living longer than ever before. Very rapid growth is projected in the number of people 85 years of age and above between now and the year 2000, and this is likely to exert strong pressure for an expansion of long-term care facilities and services—not just nursing homes, but home health care, adult day care programs, life care communities, and assisted living arrangements. Opportunities for managers in the large and rapidly expanding nursing home sector should be highly favor­ able. Nursing home chains will need more management personnel at the corporate level to plan new facilities, acquire existing ones, and promote new services and activities. Some nursing homes, for example, are expanding the scope of their activities by moving into retirement living; others have begun to offer respite and adult day care programs for non­ residents. Very rapid employment growth in the home health field is anticipated due to the aging of the population, consumer preference for noninstitutional care, incentives to discharge hos­ pital patients as soon as possible, technological  30/Occupational Outlook Handbook  advances that make it possible for patients to receive complex care at home, and changes in insurance coverage that make home health more affordable for some patients. Opportunities for administrative positions in home health will be found in visiting nurse associations and other nonprofit agencies, in hospital-based home care programs, and in the for-profit sector. New approaches to delivering care for the sick and dying will create some openings in hospices, which may be freestanding or based within a hospital or nursing home. Hospice programs are very small and take a personal approach to each patient. The hospice move­ ment stresses emotional and spiritual support for the dying patient and the family, and ready availability of drugs to control the excruciating pain that often accompanies terminal cancer, the disease most often suffered by hospice pa­ tients. Because the movement is so new, it is too soon to say what background lends itself best to hospice management. Job opportunities for health administration graduates are expected to be best in HMO’s, medical group practices, and nursing homes, although these jobs may not pay as well as hospital jobs. Traditionally a favored employ­ ment setting for health administration gradu­ ates, hospitals have become increasingly at­ tractive to people with formal training in business administration. The shift of hospitals from a service to a business orientation is ex­ pected to sustain demand for new MBA grad­ uates. This development, coupled with slow growth in the hospital sector, will greatly in­ tensify competition for entry level jobs in hos­ pital administration. One result may be that new graduates will be offered jobs at the de­ partment head or staff level rather than at the assistant administrator level, as was commonly the case until recently. Very stiff competition for upper level management jobs will continue, a reflection of the pyramidal management structure characteristic of most large and com­ plex organizations. In nursing homes and other long-term care facilities, where a graduate degree in health administration is not ordinarily a requirement, job opportunities for individuals with strong business or management skills will continue to be excellent.  Earnings The personal standing and performance of the adminRTfafbf.liospital size, geographic loca­ tion, and the type of hospital ownership are all factors in determining the earnings of hospital administrators. According to a survey con­ ducted for Modern Healthcare magazine, ad­ ministrators in hospitals with fewer than 100 beds had average earnings of nearly $51,000 in 1986. In hospitals of 100 to 349 beds, ad­ ministrators averaged close to $81,000 an­ nually. In the largest hospitals, those with more than 1,000 beds, chief administrators averaged almost $132,000. The associate administrator is directly under the chief administrator. Earn­ ings for associate administrators ranged from an average of about $37,500 annually in the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  smallest hospitals to about $76,000 in very large hospitals. According to a 1986 survey conducted by Warren Associates of Henry W. Warren As­ sociates, Inc., the average salary of the chief executive administrator in health maintenance organizations was $94,000 a year in 1986. As­ sociate administrators earned about $63,000 a year, on the average. Management incentive bonuses based on job performance are increasingly commonplace in executive compensation packages. Starting salaries for recent graduates of mas­ ter’s programs in health administration aver­ aged $30,000 in 1985, according to a national survey conducted by the Association of Uni­ versity Programs in Health Administration. Recent recipients of master’s degrees in health administration starting work in Veterans Administration hospitals earned $22,500 a year in 1986. Top administrators earned as much as $72,500 a year. Related Occupations Health services managers plan programs, set policies, create marketing plans, and coordi­ nate the use of resources for a health facilty agency. Others with similar responsibilities in­ clude social welfare administrators, emergency medical services coordinators, public health directors, community organization directors, college or university department heads, comp­ trollers, department store managers, directors of data processing, and recreation superin­ tendents. Sources of Additional Information Information about health administration and academic programs in this field is available from: American College of Healthcare Executives, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. Association of University Programs in Health Administration. 1911 Fort MyerDr., Suite 503, Ar­ lington, VA 22209. National Health Council, Health Careers Program, 622 Third Ave., 34th floor. New York, NY 10017­ 6765.  Information about health administration and job opportunities in group medical practices is available from: Medical Group Management Association, 1355 South Colorado Blvd., Suite 900, Denver, CO 80222.  For information about career opportunities in long-term care, contact: American College of Health Care Administrators, P.O. Box 5890, 8120 Woodmont Ave., Suite 200, Bethesda. MD 20814.  The American Association of Homes for the Aging maintains a listing of positions available and positions wanted in nonprofit nursing homes, life care communities, and housing for the elderly. For details, write: Job Mart, AAHA, 1129 20th St. NW„ Suite 400, Washington, DC 20036.  Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 187.117-038, .167-046, -078, -106, -110, -122; and 320)  Nature of the Work Across the Nation, hotels and motels are a welcome haven for weary travellers. For va­ cationing families and persons whose jobs take them out of town, a comfortable room, good food, and helpful hotel staff can make being away from home an enjoyable experience. They may be guests overnight at a roadside hotel or motel, spend several days at a towering down­ town convention hotel, or a week at a large resort complex with tennis courts, a golf course, and a variety of other recreational facilities. At each, hotel managers and assistant managers work to insure that guests’ visits are pleasant. Hotel managers are responsible for the ef­ ficient and profitable operation of their estab­ lishments. In a small hotel, motel, or inn with a limited staff, a single manager may direct all aspects of operations. However, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers and the man­ ager may be aided by a number of assistant managers assigned among departments re­ sponsible for various aspects of operations. The hotel manager, often titled general manager, sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and establishes stan­ dards for service to guests, decor, housekeep­ ing, food quality, and banquet operations. As­ sistant managers must insure that the day-to­ day operations of their departments meet the manager’s standards. Executive housekeepers are responsible for insuring that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, orderly, and well maintained. They train, schedule, and su­ pervise the work of room attendants, inspect rooms, and order cleaning supplies. Front office managers coordinate reserva­ tions and room assignments, and train and di­ rect the hotel’s front desk staff that deals with the public. They insure that guests are handled courteously and efficiently, complaints and problems are resolved, and requests for special services are carried out. Food and beverage managers direct the food services of hotels. They oversee the operation of hotels’ restaurants, cocktail lounges, and banquet facilities. They supervise and schedule food and beverage preparation and service workers, plan menus, estimate costs, and deal with food suppliers. Convention services managers coordinate the activities of large hotels’ various depart­ ments for meetings, conventions, and other special events. They meet with representatives of groups or organizations to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of hotel meeting space, and any banquet ser­ vices needed. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor activities to check that hotel operations con­ form to the expectations of the group.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/31  Other assistant managers may be specialists responsible for activities such as personnel, accounting and office administration, market­ ing and sales, security, and recreational facil­ ities. Large hotel and motel chains often cen­ tralize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these departments. Managers who work for chains may be as­ signed to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Hotel employ­ ees frequently must work on shifts. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Some employees of resort hotels are managers during the busy season and have other duties the rest of the year. Hotel managers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinating a wide range of func­ tions. Conventions and large groups of tourists may present unusual problems. Dealing with irate patrons can also be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers around checkin and checkout time.  ■i  I  Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable operation of hotels and motels.  programs start as trainee assistant managers, or at least advance to such positions more quickly. Hotel management programs usually include instruction in hotel adninistration, accounting, Employment economics, marketing, housekeeping, food Hotel managers and assistant managers held service management and catering, hotel main­ about 78,000 wage and salary jobs in 1986. tenance engineering, and data processing—re­ An additional number—primarily owners of flecting the widespread use of computers in small hotels and motels—were self-employed. hotel operations such as reservations, account­ ing, and housekeeping. Part-time or summer Training, Other Qualifications, work in hotels and restaurants is encouraged and Advancement _____________ because the experience gained and the contacts Postsecondary training' in hotel or restaurant ■■ made with employers may benefit students when management is preferred for most hotel man­ they seek full-time employment after gradua­ agement positions, although a college liberal tion. arts degree may be sufficient when coupled Hotel managers must be able to get along with related hotel experience. In the past, most with all kinds of people, even in stressful sit­ managers were promoted from the ranks of uations. They need initiative, self-discipline, front desk clerks, housekeepers, waiters and and the ability to organize and direct the work chefs, and hotel sales workers. While some of others. They must be able to solve problems persons still advance to hotel management po­ and concentrate on details. sitions without the benefit of education or train­ Sometimes large hotels sponsor specialized ing beyond high school, and although related on-the-job management training programs hotel experience is an asset to all persons seek­ which enable trainees to rotate among various ing to enter hotel management careers, spe­ departments and gain a thorough knowledge of cialized hotel or restaurant training is preferred the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help or even required by most hotel chains. Res­ finance the necessary training in hotel man­ taurant management training or experience is agement for outstanding employees. an acceptable background for entering hotel Most hotels promote employees who have management because a hotel’s restaurant and proven their ability. Newly built hotels, par­ cocktail lounge are often of great importance ticularly those without well-established on-theto the success of the entire establishment. job training programs, often prefer experienced A bachelor’s degree in hotel and restaurant personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel administration provides particularly strong and motel chains may offer better opportunities preparation for a career in hotel management. for advancement than small, independently In 1986, over 100 colleges and universities owned establishments, but frequent relocation offered 4-year programs in this field. Over 200 often is necessary. They have more extensive community and junior colleges, technical in­ career ladder programs and offer managers the stitutes, vocational and trade schools, and other opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel academic institutions also have programs lead­ in the chain or to the central office if an opening ing to an associate degree or other formal rec­ occurs. Career advancement can be accelerated ognition in hotel or restaurant management. by completion of certification programs offered Graduates of hotel or restaurant management by the associations listed below. These pro­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  J•  grams generally require a combination of course work, examinations, and experience. Job Outlook Employment of salaried hotel managers is ex­ pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as more large hotels and motels are built. Business travel will continue to grow, and increased domestic and foreign tourism will also create demand for additional hotels and motels. Most openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Applicants who have college degrees in hotel administration should have a decided advan­ tage in seeking entry positions and later ad­ vancement. Earnings In 1986, annual salaries of assistant hotel man­ agers averaged an estimated $34,500, based on a survey conducted for the American Hotel and Motel Association. Salaries varied greatly according to the size of the hotel in which they worked. Assistants employed in large hotels with 600 rooms or more averaged an estimated $45,500 in 1986, while those in small hotels with less than 200 rooms averaged an estimated $21,100, according to the same survey. Sal­ aries of assistant managers also varied because of differences in duties and responsibilities. For example, food and beverage managers aver­ aged $42,000, whereas front office managers averaged $24,700. The manager’s level of ex­ perience is also an important factor. In 1986, salaries of general managers av­ eraged an estimated $63,900, ranging from an average of about $38,400 in hotels and motels with less than 200 rooms, to an average of more than $87,000 in large hotels with 600 rooms or more. Managers may earn bonuses ranging up to 20 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addition, they and their fam­  32/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ilies may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services. Most managers and assistants receive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer profit sharing plans, educational assistance, and other ben­ efits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organizing and di­ recting a business in which pleasing people is very important. Others with similar responsi­ bilities include apartment building managers, department store managers, and office man­ agers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: The American Hotel and Motel Association (AH&MA), 888 7th Ave., New York, NY 10106.  For information on certification require­ ments and educational programs in hotel man­ agement, send a self-addressed, stamped en­ velope to: The Educational Institute of AH&MA, 1407 S. Har­ rison Rd., Suite 310, East Lansing, MI 48823.  Information on careers in housekeeping management may be obtained from: National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081.  For a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hotel and restaurant administration, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Ed­ ucation, 311 First St. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Inspectors and Compliance Officers, Except Construction (List of D O T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Inspectors and compliance officers enforce ad­ herence to a wide range of laws, regulations, policies, and procedures that protect the public on matters such as health, safety, food, im­ migration, licensing, and interstate commerce. Depending upon their employer, inspectors vary widely in title and responsibilities. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, and health workers to insure compliance with public health and safety regulations governing food, drugs, cosmetics, and other consumer products. They also administer regulations that govern the quarantine of persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The ma­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  jor types of health inspectors are consumer safety, food, agricultural quarantine, and en­ vironmental health inspectors. In addition, some inspectors work in a field closely related to food inspection—agricultural commodity grading. Most consumer safety inspectors specialize in food, feeds and pesticides, weights and mea­ sures, cosmetics, or drugs and medical equip­ ment. Some are proficient in several areas. Working individually or in teams under a senior or supervisory inspector, they periodically check firms that produce, handle, store, and market food, drugs, and cosmetics. They look for in­ accurate product labeling, and for decompo­ sition or chemical or bacteriological contam­ ination that could result in a product becoming harmful to health. They use portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights, container sampling devices, thermometers, chemical testing kits, radiation monitors, and other equipment to as­ certain violations. They send product samples collected as part of their examinations to lab­ oratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspectors discuss their observations with plant managers or officials and point out areas where corrective measures are needed. They write reports of their findings and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken to enforce the law. Federal and State laws empower food in­ spectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public consumption. Working as an onsite team under a veterinarian, they in­ spect meat and poultry slaughtering, process­ ing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sani­ tation. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agricultural products from the spread of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To safeguard crops, forests, gardens, and live­ stock, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles entering the United States for restricted or prohibited plant or animal ma­ terials. Environmental health inspectors, or sani­ tarians, who work primarily for State and local governments, insure that food, water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other in­ stitutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanitation rules and regulations and over­ see the treatment and disposal of sewage, re­ fuse, and garbage. In addition, inspectors ex­ amine places where pollution is a danger, test for pollutants, and collect air or water samples for analysis. They determine the nature and cause of pollution and initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, environmental health inspectors may specialize in milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, insti­ tutional sanitation, or occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be re­  sponsible for a wide range of environmental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply qual­ ity standards to aid the buying and selling of commodities and to insure that retailers and consumers receive wholesome and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, meat, poultry, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They ex­ amine product samples to determine quality and grade, and issue official grading certifi­ cates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to maintain sanitation standards. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors insure compliance with laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Important types of regulatory inspectors include immigration, customs, air safety, railroad, motor vehicle, occupational safety and health, mine, wagehour compliance, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. Immigration inspectors interview and ex­ amine people seeking to enter the United States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship status and identity. Immigration inspectors also pre­ pare reports, maintain records, and process ap­ plications and petitions for immigration or tem­ porary residence in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports. Stationed at airports, sea­ ports, and border crossing points, they ex­ amine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial cargoes entering and leav­ ing the United States to determine admissibility and the amount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn by pas­ sengers and crew members to insure that all merchandise is declared, proper duties are paid, and contraband is not present. Postal inspectors observe the functioning of the postal system and recommend improve­ ments. They investigate criminal activities such as theft and misuse of the mail. In instances of suspected mismanagement or fraud, in­ spectors conduct management or financial au­ dits. They also collaborate with other govern­ ment agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service, as members of special task forces. Aviation safety inspectors insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations which govern the quality and safety of aircraft equipment and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety inspectors may inspect aircraft and equipment manufacturing, maintenance and repair, or flight operations procedures. They usually specialize in either commercial or gen­ eral aviation aircraft. They also examine and certify aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instructors, schools, and instructional mate­ rials. Railroad inspectors verify the compliance of railroad systems and equipment with Federal safety regulations. They investigate accidents and review railroads’ operating practices. Motor vehicle inspectors verify the compli­ ance of automobiles and trucks with State re­  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/33  quirements for safe operation and emissions. They inspect truck cargoes to assure compli­ ance with legal limitations on gross weight and hazardous cargoes. Traffic inspectors oversee the scheduled ser­ vice of streetcar, bus, or railway systems and determine the need for additional vehicles, re­ vised schedules, or other changes to improve service. They also report conditions hazardous to passengers and disruptive to service. Occupational safety and health inspectors visit places of employment to detect unsafe machinery and equipment or unhealthy work­ ing conditions. They discuss their findings with the employer or plant manager and urge that violations be promptly corrected in accordance with Federal, State, or local government safety standards and regulations. Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners. They visit mines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws and regulations. They discuss their findings with the management of the mine and issue notices describing violations and hazards that must be corrected. Mine inspectors also in­ vestigate and report on mine accidents and may direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect employers’ time, payroll, and personnel rec­ ords to insure compliance with Federal laws on minimum wages, overtime, pay, employ­ ment of minors, and equal employment op­ portunity. They often interview employees to verify the employer’s records and to check for complaints. Equal opportunity representatives ascertain and correct unfair employment practices through consultation with and mediation between em­ ployers and minority groups. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors inspect distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and importers; fire­ arms and explosives manufacturers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They insure compliance with revenue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices, and deter­ mine that appropriate taxes are paid. Securities and real estate directors imple­ ment regulations concerning securities and real estate transactions. Their departments inves­ tigate applications for registration of securities sales and complaints of irregular securities or real estate transactions, and recommend nec­ essary legal action. Revenue officers investigate delinquent tax returns and liabilities. They discuss the reso­ lution of tax problems with taxpayers and rec­ ommend penalties and prosecution when nec­ essary. Attendance officers investigate continued absences of pupils from public schools. Dealer compliance representatives inspect franchised establishments to ascertain compli­ ance with the franchiser’s policies and pro­ cedures. They may suggest changes in financial and other operations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Logging operations inspectors review con­ tract logging operations. They prepare reports and issue remedial instructions for violations of contractual agreements and of fire and safety regulations. Travel accommodations raters inspect ho­ tels, motels, restaurants, campgrounds, and vacation resorts. They evaluate travel and tour­ ist accommodations for travel guide publishers and organizations such as tourism promoters and automobile clubs. Quality control inspectors and coordinators inspect products manufactured or processed by private companies for government use to insure compliance with contract specifications. They may specialize in specific products such as lumber, machinery, petroleum products, paper products, electronic equipment, or furniture. Others coordinate the activities of workers en­ gaged in testing and evaluating pharmaceuti­ cals in order to control quality of manufacture and insure compliance with legal standards. Other inspectors and compliance officers in­ clude coroners, code inspectors, mortician in­ vestigators, and construction and building in­ spectors. (Construction and building inspectors are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Inspectors and compliance officers live an ac­ tive life; they meet many people and work in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some in­ spectors travel frequently. They are furnished with an automobile or are reimbursed for travel expenses. At times, inspectors have unfavorable work­ ing conditions. For example, mine inspectors often are exposed to the same hazards as min­ ers. Customs inspectors may be threatened by smugglers and other criminals. Food and al­ cohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors fre­ quently come in contact with strong, unpleas­ ant odors. Many inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Employment Inspectors and compliance officers held 125,000 jobs in 1986. State governments employed 31 percent, the Federal Government—chiefly the Departments of Defense, Treasury, and Ag­ riculture—employed 28 percent, and local governments employed 20 percent. The re­ mainder—21 percent—were employed in the U.S. Postal Service and throughout the private sector—primarily in miscellaneous business services, hospitals, insurance companies, and manufacturing firms. The largest single employer of consumer safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State governments. Most food inspectors and agri­ cultural commodity graders in processing plants are employed by the U.S. Department of Ag­ riculture, as are agricultural quarantine in­ spectors. Most environmental health inspectors work for State and local governments. Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the United States. The Department of Defense em-  IfRCPiW  Kiss  \  It'AO! It  Inspectors insure compliance with safety regulations. ploys many quality control inspectors. The Treasury Department employs internal revenue officers, alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in­ spectors, and customs inspectors. Aviation safety inspectors work for the Federal Aviation Administration. The Department of LaboV em­ ploys wage-hour compliance officers. Occu­ pational safety and health inspectors and mine inspectors also work for the Department of Labor and for many State governments. Im­ migration inspectors are employed by the De­ partment of Justice. Like agricultural quaran­ tine inspectors, immigration and customs inspectors work at U.S. airports, seaports, and border crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of functions, quali­ fications for inspector and compliance officer jobs differ greatly. Requirements are a com­ bination of education, experience, and a pass­ ing grade on a written examination. Employers generally prefer applicants with college train­ ing, including courses related to the job. Food inspectors must have related experi­ ence and pass an examination based on spe­ cialized knowledge. Aviation safety inspectors must have con­ siderable experience in aviation maintenance and knowledge of the industry and relevant Federal laws. In addition, FA A mechanic or pilot and medical certificates are required. Some also are required to have an FAA flight in­ structor rating. Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight training and mechanical training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for mine safety inspector posi­ tions generally must have experience in mine safety, management, or supervision, or possess a skill such as that of an electrician (for mine  34/Occupational Outlook Handbook  electrical inspectors). In some cases, a general aptitude test may be required. Applicants for internal revenue officer jobs must have a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of business, legal, or investigative work experi­ ence that displays strong analytical ability. Some civil service examinations, including those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and agricultural commodity graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and education and require no written examination. Environmental health inspectors, called san­ itarians in many States, usually must have a bachelor’s degree in environmental health or in the physical or biological sciences. In most States, they are licensed by examining boards. All inspectors and compliance officers are trained in applicable laws and inspection pro­ cedures through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to express themselves well orally and in writ­ ing. Federal Government inspectors and com­ pliance officers whose job performance is sat­ isfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full performance level. For po­ sitions above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancement is competitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. Ad­ vancement opportunities in State and local gov­ ernments and the private sector are often sim­ ilar to those in the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of inspectors and compliance of­ ficers as a group is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth is expected to be constrained by slow growth in government regulatory programs and in gov­ ernment spending. Most job openings will be to replace those who transfer to other occu­ pations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is seldom affected by general economic fluctuations. Most work in programs which en­ joy wide public support. As a result, they are less likely to lose their jobs than many other workers when government programs are cut. Earnings The median annual salary of inspectors and compliance officers, except construction, was $25,200 in 1986. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,400; the highest 10 percent earned at least $46,000. Most starting Federal salaries were around $14,800 a year in 1987. However, some in­ spectors and compliance officers—for exam­ ple, aviation safety officers and postal inspec­ tors—had higher starting salaries. In the Federal Government, the average an­ nual salary was somewhat higher—$30,400— in 1986. Depending upon the nature of the inspection or compliance activity, the average salary varied substantially—from $18,900 to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Table 1. Salaries of Federal inspectors and compliance officers,  1986 Type of inspector  Salary  Patent classification examiners......... $53,600 Postal inspectors .................................. 46,800 Transportation inspectors—air, aviation, motor carrier, railroad, and highway safety.......................... 42,900 Securities compliance examiners___ 38,500 Consumer safety inspectors................. 38,500 Coal mine inspectors.......................... 38,400 Wage and hour compliance officials............................................. 35,700 Equal opportunity compliance officials............................................. 35,400 Agriculture, tobacco, and firearms inspectors.......................................... 31,800 Interval revenue officers..................... 29,700 Customs inspectors.............................. 28,100 Food and agricultural commodity inspectors......................................... 26,900 Immigration inspectors........................ 26,100 Environmental health and safety technicians........................................ 19,300  ment jobs is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Information about jobs in private industry is available from the State Employment Service. It is listed under “Job Service” or “Employ­ ment” in the State government section of local telephone directories.  Management Analysts and Consultants (D.O.T. 161.117-014, .167-010, -014, -018, -022, .267­ 010, -018, -022, -026; and 375.267-026)  Nature of the Work A rapidly growing small company needs a bet­ ter system of control over inventories and ex­ penses. An established manufacturing com­ pany decides to relocate to another State and needs assistance coordinating the move, plan­ ning the new facility, and training new work­ ers. After acquiring a new division, a large manufacturer realizes that its corporate struc­ ture must be reorganized. A division chief of a government agency wants to know why the Source: U.S. Office of Personnel Management division’s contracts are always going over budget. These are just a few of the vast array $53,600. Table 1 presents average salaries for of organizational problems that management selected inspectors and compliance officers in analysts, as they are called in government agencies, and management consultants, as the Federal Government in 1986. Salaries of inspectors and compliance offi­ business firms refer to them, help solve. Al­ though their job titles may differ, their job cers in State and local governments and in private industry are generally lower than their duties are essentially the same. The work of management analysts and con­ Federal counterparts. sultants varies from employer to employer and According to a survey by the International Personnel Management Association, nonsu- from project to project. For example, some pervisory environmental health inspectors projects require several consultants to work working for selected U.S. cities and counties together, each specializing in one area; at other received average starting salaries of about times, they will work independently. In gen­ $19,300 in 1985; those working for State gov­ eral, analysts and consultants collect, review, ernments started at about $2,800 less. Expe­ and analyze data; make recommendations; and rienced environmental health inspectors work­ assist in the implementation of their proposal. Both public and private organizations use ing for State governments earned about $19,000 consultants for a variety of reasons: Some don’t in 1985. have adequate internal resources to handle a project; others rely on the consultant’s exper­ Related Occupations tise to determine what resources will be re­ Inspectors and compliance officers are respon­ quired—or problems encountered—if they sible for seeing that laws and regulations are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction and pursue a particular course of action; while oth­ building inspectors, fire marshals, State and ers want to get outside advice on how to resolve organizational problems that have already been local police officers, customs patrol officers, identified or to avoid troublesome problems customs special agents, and fish and game war­ that could arise. dens also enforce laws. Firms providing consulting services range in size from solo practitioners to large interna­ Sources of Additional Information tional organizations that employ hundreds of Information on Federal Government jobs is workers. These services usually are provided available from offices of the State employment on a contract basis—a company chooses a con­ service, area offices of the U.S. Office of Per­ sulting firm specializing in the area in which sonnel Management, and Federal Job Infor­ it needs assistance and then the two firms de­ mation Centers in large cities throughout the termine the conditions of the contract. These country. For information on a career as a spe­ include the proposed cost of the project, staff­ cific type of inspector or compliance officer, ing requirements, and the deadline. the Federal department or agency that employs Upon getting an assignment or contract, con­ them may also be contacted directly. sultants define the nature and extent of the Information about State and local govern­ project. During this phase of the job, they may  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/35  analyze statistics and other types of data, such as annual revenues, employment, or expend­ itures; interview employees; or observe the op­ erations of the organizational unit on a day-to­ day basis. Next, they use their knowledge of manage­ ment systems and their expertise in a particular area to develop solutions. In the course of pre­ paring their recommendations, they must take into account the general nature of the business, the relationship the firm has with others in that industry, and the firm’s internal organization, as well as the information gained through data collection and analysis. Once they have decided on a course of ac­ tion, consultants usually write a report of their findings and recommendations which they present to the client. In addition to the written report, they often make formal oral presenta­ tions regarding their findings. For some proj­ ects, this is all that is required; for others, however, they may assist in the implementation of their suggestions. Management analysts in government agen­ cies use the same skills as their private-sector colleagues to advise managers in government on many types of issues—most of which are similar to the problems faced by private firms. For example, if an agency is planning to pur­ chase several personal computers, it first must determine which type to buy, given its budget and data processing needs. Management ana­ lysts would assess the various types of ma­ chines available and determine which best meets their department’s needs. Working Conditions Management analysts and consultants usually divide their time between their offices and their client’s operation. Although much of their time is spent indoors in clean, well-lighted offices, they may have to visit a client’s production facility where conditions may not be so fa­ vorable. They must follow established safety procedures when making field visits to sites where they may encounter potentially hazard­ ous conditions. Typically, analysts and consultants work at least 40 hours a week. Overtime is common, especially when deadlines must be met. In ad­ dition, because they must spend a significant portion of their time with clients, these workers may travel quite frequently. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their clientele, which can be difficult. The constant pressure of deadlines and client expectations can be very stressful. Occasion­ ally, consultants may face hostility from em­ ployees of the client’s organization, especially when a reorganization or reduction in force could be in the offing. As a result, they must be able to deal with people diplomatically. Employment Management analysts and consultants held about 126,000 jobs in 1986. About half of these workers were self-employed. Others worked  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  for Federal, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Federal Gov­ ernment were found in the Department of De­ fense. The remainder worked in the private sector for companies that provided consulting services. Management analysts and consultants are found throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal educational require­ ments for entry level jobs in this field. How­ ever, employers prefer to hire those with a master’s degree in business or public admin­ istration or those with a bachelor’s degree and several years of appropriate work experience. Most government agencies and some firms hire those with a bachelor’s degree and no work experience as entry level analysts and con­ sultants. In addition, many entrants are career changers who were formerly mid- and upperlevel managers. Many fields of study provide a suitable for­ mal educational background for this occupation because of the diversity of problem areas ad­ dressed by management analysts and consult­ ants. These include most of the detailed fields within such major fields as business and man­ agement, computer and information sciences, and engineering. Backgrounds in fields within education, communications, marketing and distribution, and architecture and environmen­ tal design may also be sought by certain em­ ployers. Management analysts and consultants who are hired directly from school often participate in formal company training programs. These programs may include instruction on policies and procedures, computer systems and soft­ ware, and management practices and princi­ ples. Because of their previous industry ex­ perience, most of those who enter at midlevel do not participate in formal company training programs. However, regardless of back­ ground, these workers routinely attend con­ ferences to keep abreast of current develop­ ments in their field. Management analysts and consultants must have strong interpersonal skills and be able to work on a variety of projects. They should be able to analyze and interpret data, draw con­ clusions, and make sound recommendations based on this knowledge. They also must be able to communicate effectively orally and in writing. In large consulting firms, beginners usually start as a member of a consulting team. The team is responsible for the entire project and each consultant is assigned to a particular area. After 1 or 2 years of experience on a variety of projects, the consultant may be promoted to team leader—overseeing a project and su­ pervising entry level workers. From there, con­ sultants may advance into more senior posi­ tions; for example, they may be responsible for several teams of consultants. Those with exceptional skills may eventually become a  About half of all management analysts and consultants are self-employed. partner in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm. Job Outlook Employment of management analysts and con­ sultants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as industry and government increasingly rely on their expertise to improve the perfor­ mance of their organizations. Most job open­ ings, however, will result from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Increased foreign competition has caused American industry to take a closer look at its operations. In a more competitive international market, firms cannot afford inefficiency and wasted resources or else they risk losing their share of the market. Management consultants are being increasingly relied upon to help re­ duce costs and streamline operations. Federal, State, and local agencies also are expected to expand their use of management analysts. In the era of growing budget deficits, analysts’ skills at identifying problems and im­ plementing cost reduction measures are ex­ pected to become increasingly important. Job opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate degree or industry ex­ pertise. Because many small consulting firms fail each year for lack of managerial expertise and clients, those interested in opening their own firm should have good organizational and marketing skills. Earnings Salaries for management analysts and con­ sultants vary widely by experience, education, and employer. In 1986, those who were wage and salary workers had median annual earnings of about $29,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,100 and $40,500. Ten percent earned less than $16,500, while 10 percent earned more than $51,700.  36/Occupational Outlook Handbook  In the Federal Government, management an­ alysts with a bachelor’s degree had a starting salary of $14,400 a year in 1986. Entrants with a superior academic record could begin at $17,800, while those with a master’s degree started at $22,400. The average salary for man­ agement analysts working in the Federal Gov­ ernment in 1986 was $32,100. Earnings of self-employed management consultants generally are considerably higher than those of salaried workers. Most self-em­ ployed management consultants charge a daily rate based on the type of project and its time requirements. Typical benefits for salaried analysts and consultants include health and life insurance, retirement plans, vacation and sick leave, profit sharing, and bonuses for'outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reim­ bursed by their employer. Self-employed con­ sultants usually have to maintain an office and they do not receive employer-provided bene­ fits. Related Occupations Management analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze data; make recommen­ dations; and assist in the implementation of their ideas. Others who utilize similar skills are managers, computer systems analysts, op­ erations research analysts, economists, and fi­ nancial analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in man­ agement consulting is available from: The Association of Management Consulting Firms, 230 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10169. The Institute of Management Consultants, 19 West 44th Street, New York, NY 10036.  For information about a career as a State or local government management analyst, contact your State or local employment service. Persons interested in a management analyst position in the Federal Government can obtain information from; U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations Managers (D.O.T. 141.137; 159.167-022; 163.117-014, -018, -022, -026; .167-010, -018, -022; .267; 164.117-010, -014, -018; .167; 185.117-014, .157-010, -014; 187.167-162; 189.117-018)  Nature of the Work The fundamental objective of any firm is to market its products or services profitably. In very small firms, all marketing responsibilities may be assumed by the owner or chief exec­ utive officer. In large firms, which may offer  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, experienced marketing, ad­ vertising, and public relations managers co­ ordinate these and related activities. In large firms, the executive vice-president for marketing directs the overall marketing pol­ icy—including marketing strategy, sales, ad­ vertising, sales promotion, and public relations activities. (This occupation is included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These activities are supervised by middle and supervisory managers who over­ see staffs of professionals and technicians. Marketing managers—also known as prod­ uct group managers—develop the firm’s de­ tailed marketing strategy. With the help of sub­ ordinates, including product managers and market research managers, they determine the demand for the firm’s products and services and identify potential consumers—for exam­ ple, business firms, wholesalers, retailers, gov­ ernment, or the general public. Marketing managers develop pricing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm’s share of the market and ultimately its profits. In collabo­ ration with sales, product, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and sales promotion managers to best describe the firm’s products and services and sway potential users. Sales managers direct the firm’s sales pro­ gram. They assign sales territories and goals and establish training programs for their sales representatives. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales managers maintain con­ tact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to de­ termine sales potential and inventory require­ ments and monitor the preferences of cus­ tomers to decide which products to develop and which to discontinue—information that is vital to the firm’s market research activities. Except in the largest firms, advertising and sales promotion staffs are generally small and serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising or sales promotion agency to which most advertising or promotional functions are contracted out. Advertising managers oversee the account services, creative services, and me­ dia services departments. The account services department is managed by account executives, who assess the need for advertising and, in advertising agencies, maintain the accounts of clients. The creative services department— which develops the subject matter and pres­ entation of advertising—is supervised by a cre­ ative director, who oversees the copy chief and art director and their staffs. The media services department is supervised by the media director, who oversees planning groups which select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, or signs— to disseminate the advertising. Sales promotion managers—who supervise staffs of sales promotion specialists—direct sales promotion programs, which combine ad­ vertising with financial incentives to increase  sales of products and services. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—deal­ ers, distributors, or consumers—sales pro­ motion programs may involve direct mail, cat­ alogs, exhibits, and special events. Financial incentives may include discounts, samples, gifts, and contests. Public relations managers—who supervise staffs of public relations specialists—direct publicity programs designed to promote, using any necessary communication media, the im­ age of the firm to various groups such as con­ sumers, stockholders, or the general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm’s point of view on health _or environmental issues to community or special interest groups. In large productoriented firms—such as motor vehicle manu­ facturers—they may evaluate advertising and sales promotion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts. In service-oriented firms—such as airlines—they may supervise many of the advertising and promotional ac­ tivities. Public relations managers may confer with labor relations managers to produce in­ ternal company communications—such as news about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. Public relations managers may assist company executives in drafting speeches, ar­ ranging interviews, and other forms of public contact. They may oversee company archives and respond to information requests. Working Conditions Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers are provided with offices close to top managers and to the departments they direct. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are usual. Working under pressure is unavoid­ able as schedules change, problems arise, and deadlines and sales goals must be met. Mar­ keting, advertising, and public relations man­ agers meet frequently with other managers, the public, or government officials. Substantial travel may be involved. Forexample, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries is often mandatory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local offices and to various dealers and dis­ tributors. Advertising and sales promotion managers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of communications media. Public relations managers may travel to meet with special interest groups or government of­ ficials. Job transfers between headquarters and regional offices are common—particularly among sales managers—and may disrupt fam­ ily life. Employment Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers held about 323,000 jobs in 1986. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, about one-third were employed by motor vehicle dealers; advertising agencies; management, consulting, and public relations firms; department stores; computer and data processing services firms; and radio and tele­ vision broadcasting stations.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/37  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer that marketing, adver­ tising, and public relations managers have a broad liberal arts background. A bachelor’s degree in sociology, psychology, literature, or philosophy is acceptable. However, require­ ments vary depending upon the particular job. For marketing and sales management posi­ tions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in business administration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in business law, economics, accounting, finance, mathe­ matics, and statistics are also highly recom­ mended. In highly technical industries, such as aircraft and guided missile manufacturing, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science combined with a master’s degree in business administration may be preferred. For advertis­ ing and sales promotion management posi­ tions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s de­ gree in advertising. The curriculum should include courses in marketing, consumer be­ havior, communications methods and tech­ nology, and visual arts courses—for example, art history and photography. For public rela­ tions management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in public relations or journalism. The curriculum should include courses in advertising, business admin­ istration, public affairs, political science, and creative and technical writing. Familiarity with computerized word processing applications is important for many marketing, advertising, and public relations management positions. Most marketing, advertising, and public re­ lations management positions are filled by pro­ moting experienced staff or related profes­ sional or technical personnel—for example, sales representatives, purchasing agents, buy­ ers, advertising workers, and public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a man­ agement position may come slowly. In large firms, promotion may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by participation in man­ agement training programs conducted by many large firms.-Many firms also provide their em­ ployees with continuing education opportuni­ ties, either in-house or at local colleges and universities, and encourage employee partici­ pation in seminars and conferences. In addi­ tion, numerous marketing and related associ­ ations, often in collaboration with colleges and universities, sponsor national or local training programs. Their schools, located throughout the country, deal with different phases of man­ agement activities. Persons enrolled attend ses­ sions on subjects such as brand and product management, international marketing, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and di­ rect sales, marketing communication, organi­ zational communication, and data processing systems procedures and management. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for those who successfully complete courses. Persons interested in becoming marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ■HU Marketing and sales managers develop the sales programs. should be mature, creative, highly motivated, resistant to stress, and flexible, yet decisive. The ability to communicate persuasively, both orally and in writing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. Marketing, ad-1 vertising, and public relations managers also j need tact, good judgment, and exceptional ability to establish and maintain effective per­ sonal relationships with supervisory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, marketing, advertising, and pub­ lic relations managers are often prime candi­ dates for advancement. Well-trained, experi­ enced, successful managers may be promoted to higher positions in their own or other firms. Some become top executives. Managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may open their own management or consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000 as increasingly intense domestic and foreign competition in products and services offered consumers re­ quires greater marketing and promotional ef­ forts. In addition to rapid growth, many job openings will occur each year to replace man­ agers who move into top management positions or leave the labor force. However, the ample supply of experienced professional and tech­ nical personnel and recent college graduates seeking these management positions may result in substantial job competition. College grad­ uates with extensive experience who possess a high level of creativity and strong commu­ nications skills should have the best job op­ portunities. Projected employment growth varies by in­ dustry. For example, employment of market­ ing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to grow the most rapidly in the data processing services industry in response to the  increasing use of computers. Much faster than average employment growth is also expected in other business services industries, including advertising agencies, public relations firms, and establishments offering direct mail, commer­ cial photography, art, and graphics services, as firms increasingly find it cost-efficient to contract out these services. Very rapid growth is also expected in the radio and television broadcasting industry as this communication medium is increasingly used, and in the travel, hotel, restaurant, and amusement and recrea­ tion services industries as personal incomes and leisure time increase. On the other hand, em­ ployment is expected to grow only about as fast as the average for all occupations in the educational services industry—in line with school enrollment projections—and in hospi­ tals as more medical care is provided by out­ patient care clinics and other health care es­ tablishments. Declining employment is projected in some manufacturing industries. Earnings The median annual salary of marketing, ad­ vertising, and public relations managers was $35,400 in 1986. The lowest 10 percent earned $ 17,700 or less, while the top 10 percent earned well over $52,500. Salaries between $75,000 and $100,000 are not uncommon. Many earn bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their salaries. Salary levels vary substantially de­ pending upon the level of managerial respon­ sibility, length of service, and size and location of the firm. For sales managers, the extent of their sales territory is another important factor. Related Occupations Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers supervise the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the com­ munication of information about their firms’ activities. Other personnel involved with mar­ keting, advertising, and public relations in­ clude art directors, commercial and graphic  38/Occupational Outlook Handbook  artists, copy chiefs, copywriters, editors, lob­ byists, market research analysts, public rela­ tions specialists, sales promotion specialists, sales representatives, and technical writers. (Some of these occupations are discussed else­ where in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in sales and mar­ keting management, contact: Sales and Marketing Executives, International, 446 Statler Office Tower, Cleveland, OH 44115.  For information about careers in advertising management, contact: American Association of Advertising Agencies, 666 Third Ave., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10017. American Advertising Federation, 1400 K St. NW., Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20005.  Information about careers in sales promotion management is available from: Council of Sales Promotion Agencies, 176 Madison Ave., Fifth Floor, New York, NY 10016. Promotion Marketing Association of America, Inc., 322 Eighth Ave., Suite 1201, New York, NY 10001.  Information about careers in public relations management is available from: Public Relations Society of America, 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.  Personnel, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists and Managers (D.O.T. 079.127:099.167-010; 166.067, .117, .167 except -046, .257, .267-014 through -046; 168.367-022' 169.107, .167-062, .207)  Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the success of any organization. But many enterprises are too large to permit close contact between management and em­ ployees. Instead, personnel and labor relations specialists and managers provide this link— helping management make effective use of em­ ployees’ skills, and helping employees find sat­ isfaction in their jobs and working conditions. Although some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve frequent contact. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. In a small organization, one person can han­ dle all aspects of personnel administration. In contrast, in a large corporation, the top human resources executive—usually an executive vicepresident—develops and coordinates person­ nel policies and programs. (Executive vice­ presidents are included in the Handbook state­ ment on general managers and top executives.) These policies are implemented by a director of personnel relations and a director of indus­ trial relations.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The director of personnel relations, also re­ ferred to as personnel manager, oversees sev­ eral departments—each headed by an experi­ enced manager—concerned with basic personnel activities—employment, compen­ sation, benefits, education and training, and employee welfare. Employment managers oversee the hiring and separation of employees. These activities require a range of specialists. Recruiters maintain contacts within the com­ munity and may travel extensively—usually to college campuses—to search for promising job applicants. Recruiters talk with applicants, and recommend those who appear qualified to fill vacancies. They may administer tests and check references. These workers need to be thor­ oughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employees. They also need to keep informed about equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this area in large organi­ zations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Job analysts, sometimes called position clas­ sifiers, do very exacting work. They collect and examine detailed information about job duties to prepare job descriptions. These de­ scriptions explain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a large organi­ zation introduces a new job or reviews existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, generally in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relationships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and industry, government, and labor unions. Employer relations representatives—who usually work in government agencies—main­ tain working relationships with local employers and promote the use of public employment programs and services. Similarly, employment interviewers—sometimes called account rep­ resentatives, manpower development special­ ists, or personnel consultants—help match job­ seekers with employers. (For more information, see the statement on employment interviewers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the principal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, com­ pensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates compare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale com­ plies with laws and regulations. Employee benefits managers handle the company’s employee benefits program, nota­ bly its health insurance and pension plans. Ex­ pertise in designing and administering benefits programs continues to gain in importance as pension and benefit plans increase in number  and complexity. Familiarity with health ben­ efits is a top priority at present, as more and more firms search for ways to respond to the pressures posed by the rising cost of health insurance for employees and retirees. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, many firms offer their employees dental insurance, accidental death and dis­ ability insurance, auto insurance, homeown­ ers’ insurance, stock options, profit sharing, and thrift/savings plans. Benefits analysts and benefits administrators handle these programs. Training or, more broadly, human resource development is supervised by education and training managers. Increasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of de­ veloping skills, enhancing productivity, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale, but this is only one of the reasons for its growing importance. Other factors include the complexity of the work environment, the rapid pace of organizational and technological change, and the growing number of jobs in fields where new knowledge is constantly gen­ erated. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how training can be organized to be most effective for adults. Training specialists are responsible for plan­ ning, organizing, and directing a wide range of training activities. Trainers conduct orien­ tation sessions and arrange on-the-job training for new employees. They help rank-and-file workers maintain and improve their job skills and possibly prepare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors improve their in­ terpersonal skills and deal effectively with em­ ployees. To help employees prepare for future responsibilities, they may set up individualized training plans to strengthen existing skills or to teach new skills. Training specialists in some companies set up programs designed to develop executive potential among employees in lower echelon positions. Planning and program development is an important part of the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and assess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with man­ agers and supervisors or conduct surveys. They also periodically evaluate training effective­ ness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, there may be considerable differences in trainers’ responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods in­ clude on-the-job training; “vestibule” schools, in which shop conditions are duplicated for trainees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; classroom training; programmed instruction, which may involve interactive videos, videodiscs, and other com­ puter-aided instructional technologies; simu­ lators; conferences; and workshops. Employee welfare managers are responsible for a wide array of programs covering occu­ pational safety and health standards and prac­ tices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treat­ ment, such as first aid; plant security; publi­  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/39  cations; food service and recreation activities; van-pooling; employee suggestion systems; child care; and counseling services—an area of rapidly growing importance. Counseling may help employees deal with emotional disorders, alcoholism, or marital, family, consumer, le­ gal, and financial problems. Career counseling and second career counseling for employees approaching retirement age may also be pro­ vided. The director of industrial relations formu­ lates labor policy, oversees industrial labor re­ lations, and negotiates agreements resulting from disputes involving the firm. The increased attention to employee benefits and working conditions and proliferation of government la­ bor regulations have greatly expanded the scope of labor relations activities—which formerly concerned only the employees and managers of the firm. The duties of the director of in­ dustrial relations include advising and collab­ orating with the director of personnel relations and other managers and members of their staff, since all aspects of personnel policy—such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work prac­ tices—may be involved in drawing up a new or revised contract. Industrial labor relations programs are im­ plemented by labor relations managers and their staff. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, labor relations specialists provide background information on behalf of management’s position, which requires famil­ iarity with economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collec­ tive bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with re­ spect to grievances, wages and salaries, em­ ployee welfare, health care, pensions, union and management practices, and other contrac­ tual stipulations. Dispute resolution—that is, attaining tacit or contractual agreements—has become in­ creasingly important as disputants attempt to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other dis­ ruptions. Dispute resolution has also become more complex, involving employees, manage­ ment, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Specialists involved in dispute res­ olution must be highly knowledgeable and ex­ perienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and management to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agreements or other labor relations issues. Arbitrators, sometimes known as um­ pires or referees, decide disputes and bind both labor and management to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. Working Conditions Personnel work is office work. Generally, the work setting is clean, pleasant, comfortable, and free from excessive noise. Personnel and training specialists and managers usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour workweek. Labor relations specialists and managers, however, may work longer hours—particularly when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Although most personnel, training, and la­ bor relations specialists and managers work in the office, some travel extensively. For ex­ ample, recruiters regularly attend professional meetings and visit college campuses to inter­ view prospective employees. Employment Personnel, training, and labor relations spe­ cialists and managers held about 381,000 jobs in 1986. They were employed in virtually every industry. Specialists accounted for 230,000 po­ sitions; the rest were managers. About 10,000— mostly specialists—were self-employed. Over 85 percent of salaried jobs were in the private sector. Labor unions—the largest em­ ployer—accounted for 11 percent of all salar­ ied jobs. Other important employers include management, consulting, and public relations firms, educational institutions, hospitals, banks, personnel supply agencies, and department stores. Approximately 15 percent of salaried per­ sonnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers worked for Federal, State, and local governments in 1986. They handled re­ cruitment, interviewing, job classification, training, salary administration, employee re­ lations, mediation, and related matters for the Nation’s 17 million public employees: Police officers, firefighters, sanitation workers, teach­ ers, hospital workers, and many others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of duties and level of responsibility, the educational backgrounds of personnel, training, and labor relations spe­ cialists and managers vary considerably. In fill­ ing entry level jobs, firms generally seek col­ lege graduates. Some employers prefer applicants who have majored in personnel administration or industrial and labor relations, while others look for college graduates with a technical or business background. Still others feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is best. Many colleges and universities have pro­ grams leading to a degree in personnel and labor relations. Others offer degree programs in personnel administration or personnel man­ agement. Some offer degrees or certificates in training and development or compensation and benefits. Depending on the school, preparation for a career in human resource management may be obtained in departments of business administration, education, instructional tech­ nology, organizational development, human services, communication, or public adminis­ tration. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. In some indus­ tries, a background in engineering or science is recommended. Prospective personnel spe­ cialists should take courses in principles of management, organization dynamics, and hu­ man relations. Other relevant courses include business administration, public administration,  Personnel specialist explaining company procedures to a new employee. psychology, sociology, political science, eco­ nomics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargaining, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Graduate study in industrial or labor rela­ tions is becoming increasingly important for those seeking work in labor relations. A law degree seldom is required for entry level jobs, but many people responsible for contract ne­ gotiations are lawyers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and law is highly desirable. A degree in dispute resolution pro­ vides an excellent background for mediators, arbitrators, and related personnel. For many specialized jobs in this field, pre­ vious experience is an asset; for managerial positions, it is essential. Personnel adminis­ tration and human resource development re­ quire the ability to work with individuals as well as having a commitment to organizational goals. They also demand skills that may be developed in many ways—computer usage, selling, teaching, supervising, and volunteer­ ing, among others. In fact, the majority of personnel and labor relations jobs are filled by people previously employed in another occu­ pation. This field offers clerical workers op­ portunities for advancement to professional po­ sitions. However, more responsible positions may be filled by experienced individuals from other fields, including business, government, education, social services administration, and the military. Personnel, training, and labor relations spe­ cialists and managers should speak and write effectively and be able to work with or super­ vise people of all levels of education and ex­ perience as part of a team. They must be patient to cope with conflicting points of view and emotionally stable to deal with the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to function under pressure is essential. Integrity, fair-minded-  40/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ness, and a persuasive, congenial personality are important qualities. Entry level workers usually enter formal or on-the-job training programs, where they learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. Next, they are assigned to specific areas in the personnel de­ partment to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a managerial position, overseeing a major element of the personnel program— compensation or training, for example. Some workers leave for a more responsible job in another organization. Exceptional em­ ployees may be promoted to director of per­ sonnel or industrial relations, which can even­ tually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a consulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work.  Corporate recognition of the importance of human resource development will spur de­ mand, however. Much greater investment in job-specific, employer-sponsored training and retraining is anticipated in the years ahead— a response to the increasing complexity of training programs, productivity concerns, the aging of the work force, and technological ad­ vances that can suddenly leave large numbers of employees with obsolete skills. Although the number of jobs in this field is projected to increase through the year 2000, most job openings will result from replacement needs. The job market is likely to remain com­ petitive in view of the abundant supply of col­ lege graduates and experienced workers with suitable qualifications.  Earnings The median annual salary of personnel, train­ Job Outlook ing, and labor relations specialists and man­ The number of personnel, training, and labor agers was $27,000 in 1986. The lowest 10 relations specialists and managers is expected percent earned under $14,400, while the high­ to grow about as fast as the average for all est 10 percent earned over $52,000. Median occupations through the year 2000. Most growth earnings of managers were $32,300; for spe­ will occur in the private sector as employers cialists, $25,200. Salaries vary widely and de­ try to provide effective training and employee pend upon the size and location of the firm and relations programs for an expanding work force. the nature of its business. Rapid employment growth is expected in man­ In 1986, according to a comprehensive sur­ agement and consulting as well as personnel vey conducted by Abbott, Langer, and Asso­ supply firms as businesses increasingly con­ ciates, the median annual salaries for selected tract out personnel functions or hire personnel personnel and labor relations occupations were: specialists on a contractual basis to meet the Labor relations managers, $46,800; training increasing cost and complexity of training and and organizational development managers, development programs. Fast growth is also ex­ $39,700; compensation and benefits managers, pected in health care, residential care, and re­ $38,700; safety specialists, $31,900; EEO/aflated industries to provide for a rapidly growing firmative action specialists, $27,300; and ben­ elderly population. Relatively little growth is efits planning analysts, $26,700. anticipated in public personnel administration. In the Federal Government, starting salaries Demand for personnel, training, and labor of personnel, training, and labor relations spe­ relations specialists and managers is governed cialists depended upon education and experi­ by the staffing needs of the firms where they ence. In 1987, persons with a bachelor’s degree work. A rapidly expanding business is likely or 3 years’ general experience in the personnel to hire additional personnel workers—either as field generally started at $14,800 a year. Those permanent employees or consultants—while a with a superior academic record or an addi­ business that is reducing its operations will tional year of specialized experience started at require fewer personnel workers. In any par­ $18,400 a year. Holders of a master’s degree ticular firm, the size and the job duties of the started at $22,500, and those with a doctorate human resources staff are determined by a va­ in a personnel field started at $27,200. There riety of factors, including the firm’s organi­ are no formal entry level requirements for man­ zational philosophy and goals, the labor inten­ agerial positions. Applicants must possess a sity and skill profile of the industry, the pace suitable combination of educational attain­ of technological change, government regula­ ment, experience, and record of accomplish­ tions, collective bargaining agreements, stan­ ment. dards of professional practice, and labor market In the Federal Government, the average an­ conditions. nual salary of personnel, training, and labor Other factors stimulate demand for person­ relations specialists and managers was $31,900 nel, training, and labor relations specialists and in 1986. Managers averaged $49,000, while managers. Legislation setting standards in oc­ specialists averaged $31,200. Generally, man­ cupational safety and health, equal employ­ agers and specialists involved in mediation, ment opportunity, and benefits has substan­ labor management relations, personnel man­ tially increased the amount of recordkeeping, agement, and related activities had substan­ analysis, and report writing in the personnel tially higher salaries than personnel involved area. Data gathering and analytical activities in routine activities such as classification, staff­ will increase as employers continue to review ing, and training. and evaluate their personnel policies and pro­ grams, but that probably will not generate many Related Occupations additional jobs because of offsetting produc­ All personnel, training, and labor relations oc­ tivity gains associated with the automation of cupations are closely related. Other workers personnel and payroll information. with skills and expertise in interpersonal re­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  lations include employment, rehabilitation, and college career planning and placement coun­ selors; lawyers; psychologists; sociologists; and teachers. These occupations are described else­ where in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in personnel and industrial relations, send a self-addressed, stamped, legal-sized envelope to: American Society for Personnel Administration, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Information on accreditation of generalists and specialists in the personnel and human re­ sources field is available from: Executive Director, Personnel Accreditation Insti­ tute, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information about careers in employee training and development, contact: American Society for Training and Development, 1630 Duke St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313.  For information about careers and certifi­ cation in employee compensation, contact: American Compensation Association, 6619 Scotts­ dale Rd.. Scottsdale, AZ 85253.  Information about careers and certification in employee benefits is available from: International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., Brookfield, WI 53005.  For information about careers in arbitration and other aspects of dispute resolution, contact: American Arbitration Association, 140 West 51st St., New York, NY 10020.  For information about academic programs in industrial relations, write to: Industrial Relations Research Association, 7226 So­ cial Science Bldg., 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison WI 53706.  Information about personnel careers in the health care industry is available from: American Society for Healthcare Human Resources Administration, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  For information about personnel and labor relations careers in government, contact: International Personnel Management Association, 1617 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Property and Real Estate Managers (D.O.T. 186.117-042, -046, -058, and -062; .167-018. -030, -038, -042, -046, -062, and -066; 187.167-190; 189.157; 191.117-030 and -042 through -050).  Nature of the Work Many people own real estate primarily as their home, but, to businesses, real estate is more than simply the roof over one’s head and the ground under one’s feet. Real estate is a valu­ able asset—land and structures, such as office buildings, shopping centers, and apartment complexes—that can produce income and ap­ preciate in value over time if well managed.  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/41  Real estate can be a source of income when its use is leased to others, but a substantial business expense when it must be leased from others. Property and real estate managers con­ trol income-producing commercial and resi­ dential properties, and manage the communal property and services of condominium and community associations. They also plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposal of real estate for businesses. The majority of property and real estate man­ agers work in the field of property manage­ ment. When owners of apartments, office buildings, retail and industrial properties, or condominiums lack the time or expertise to assume the day-to-day management of their real estate investments, they often hire a prop­ erty manager, or contract for one’s services with a real estate management company. Most property managers handle two or three prop­ erties simultaneously. Property managers act as the owners’ agent and adviser for the prop­ erty. They market vacant space to prospective tenants, through the use of a leasing agent, advertising, or by other means, and establish rental rates in light of prevailing local rates. They negotiate and prepare lease or rental agreements with tenants and collect their rent payments and other fees. Property managers direct the bookkeeping for the property, cred­ iting the owners’ accounts for rent received and dispersing checks for mortgage payments, taxes, insurance premium payments, payroll, and upkeep and maintenance costs. They also direct the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters. Property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash re­ moval, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers must solicit bids from several contractors and recommend to the owners which bid should be accepted. They monitor the performance of the contrac­ tors, and investigate and resolve complaints from tenants. Managers also purchase all sup­ plies and equipment needed for the property, and arrange for specialists to be brought in to perform any repairs that cannot be handled by the maintenance staff employed at the property. Property managers hire and, when neces­ sary, discharge the maintenance, stationary en­ gineering, and on-site management personnel employed at the property. At smaller proper­ ties, the property manager might employ only a building engineer who maintains the build­ ing’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and performs other routine mainte­ nance and repair tasks. Larger properties re­ quire a sizable maintenance staff supervised by a full-time on-site or resident manager, who works under the direction of the property man­ ager. Although some on-site managers oversee large office buildings or shopping centers, most manage apartments. They train, supervise, and assign duties to the maintenance staff at a prop­ erty. Routinely, on-site managers inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment, determine  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  what repairs and maintenance are needed, and assign workers to perform them. Occasionally, outside contractors are required, and the on­ site manager may obtain bids for the work and submit them to the property manager. On-site managers schedule routine service of the heat­ ing, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and insure that the work of the maintenance staff and contract workers is up to standards or contract specifications. They also keep rec­ ords of labor and materials costs for operating the property and submit regular cost reports to the property manager or owners. They also may recruit candidates for vacant maintenance staff positions, interview the job applicants, and rec­ ommend a qualified candidate for employment to the property manager. Dealing with tenants is an important part of the work of on-site managers, particularly apartment managers. Apartment managers handle tenants’ requests for service or repairs and try to resolve complaints concerning other tenants or visitors. They show apartments available for rent to prospective tenants and explain the occupancy terms. They also are responsible for enforcing rules and lease re­ strictions, such as limitations on tenants’ own­ ership of pets or use of parking areas. Property and on-site managers employed by condominium and homeowner associations must be particularly adept at dealing with peo­ ple. Instead of tenants, they must deal on a daily basis with homeowners—members of the community association that employs the man­ ager. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, the community association manager administers its daily affairs and over­ sees the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. Many community as­ sociations are small and do not require profes­ sional management, but managers of the larger condominiums have many of the same re­ sponsibilities as the managers of large apart­ ment complexes. Some homeowner associa­ tions encompass thousands of homes, and in addition to administering the associations’ fi­ nancial records, their managers may be re­ sponsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, community centers, and the maintenance of landscaping, parking areas, and streets. Businesses employ real estate managers to locate, acquire, and develop real estate needed for their operations, and dispose of property no longer suited to their uses. Real estate man­ agers employed by corporations that operate chains of restaurants, apparel and grocery stores, and gasoline service stations locate sites well suited for these types of establishments, and arrange to purchase or lease the property from the owners. They select a site based on their assessment of factors such as property values, zoning, likely patterns of population growth, and traffic volume and patterns. They negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the prop­ erty, bargaining to secure the most beneficial terms for their company. Real estate managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings, identifying properties which have be­  come less desirable locations for their type of business due to community development or changes in the composition of the population. They negotiate the sale or termination of the lease of properties selected for disposal. Real estate managers who work for land de­ velopment companies acquire land and plan the construction of shopping centers, houses and apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with representatives of local government, other businesses, commu­ nity and public interest groups, and public util­ ities to eliminate obstacles to the development of the land and gain support for the planned project. It sometimes takes managers years to win approval for a project, and in the process they may modify the plans for the project many times. Once they are free to proceed with a project, managers negotiate short-term loans to finance the construction of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then contract with architectural firms to draw up detailed plans, and with con­ struction companies to build the project. Real estate managers also work as land and permit agents for companies engaged in mining and quarrying, oil exploration, and construct­ ing pipe and utility lines. They search public records to determine the owners of land which their companies have identified as being likely to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits, or which lie in the path of the planned pipe or utility line. They contact the landowners and negotiate the purchase of the land, or agree­ ments such as leases, options, rights-of-way, or royalty contracts that permit use of the land. They also may settle claims by landowners for damage resulting from the activities of their company. Working Conditions Property and real estate managers work in clean, well-lighted offices, but they usually spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Property managers frequently visit the properties that they oversee, sometimes nearly on a daily basis when contractors are perform­ ing important repair or renovation work. On­ site apartment managers may spend a substan­ tial portion of their workday away from their office visiting the building engineer in the boiler room, checking up on the janitorial and main­ tenance staff, or investigating a problem re­ ported by a tenant. Many real estate managers spend the majority of their time away from home, traveling to company real estate hold­ ings or searching for properties that might be acquired. Property and real estate managers often must attend meetings in the evening with property owners, community association boards of di­ rectors, or civic groups with an interest in prop­ erty planned for development. Many apartment managers are required to live in the apartments where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs while they are normally off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off, however, for working at night or on weekends. Many apartment man­ agers receive time off during the week so that  42/Occupational Outlook Handbook  they are available on weekends to show apart­ ments to prospective tenants.  ministrative and communication abilities for manager jobs. On-site managers usually begin at a smaller Employment apartment complex, condominium, or com­ Property and real estate managers held about munity association, or as an assistant manager 128,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for real at a large property or association. As they ac­ estate operators and lessors or for property quire experience working under the direction management firms. Others worked for real es­ of a property manager, they may advance by tate development companies, government transferring to positions with greater respon­ agencies that manage public buildings, cor­ sibility at larger properties. Persons who excel porations with extensive holdings of retail as on-site managers often transfer to assistant properties, real estate investors, and mining property manager positions where they can ac­ and oil companies. Many were self-employed quire experience handling a broader range of developers, apartment owner-managers, or property management responsibilities. owners of property management or full-service Although persons often advance to assistant , real estate brokerage firms that manage as well property manager positions on the strength of as sell real estate for clients. on-site management experience, employers are increasingly hiring inexperienced college grad­ Training, Other Qualifications, uates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in and Advancement business administration, finance, or real estate Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for these jobs. Assistants work closely with a for property and real estate management po­ property manager and acquire experience per­ sitions. Degrees in business administration, fi­ forming a variety of management tasks, such nance, real estate, public administration, or as preparing financial statements, analyzing in­ related fields are preferred, but persons with surance coverage and risk options, marketing degrees in the liberal arts are often accepted. the property to prospective tenants, and col­ Good oral and written communication skills, lecting overdue rent payments. In time, many and an ability to deal tactfully with people are assistants advance to property manager posi­ essential. Most persons enter property and real tions. estate management as on-site apartment or The responsibilities and compensation of community association managers, or as assis­ property managers increase as they manage tants to property managers. Previous employ­ larger properties. Most property managers are ment as a real estate agent is an asset to apart­ responsible for two or three properties at a time, ment managers because it provides experience and as their careers advance they are gradually useful in showing apartments and dealing with entrusted with properties that are larger or whose people, as well as an understanding that an management is more complex. Many special­ attractive, well-maintained property can com­ ize in the management of one type of property, mand higher rental rates and result in less turn­ such as apartments, office buildings, condo­ over among tenants. In the past, many persons miniums and homeowner associations, or retail with backgrounds in stationary engineering properties. Managers who excel at marketing and building maintenance have advanced to properties to tenants may specialize in man­ apartment manager positions on the strength aging new properties, while those who are par­ of their knowledge of building mechanical sys­ ticularly knowledgeable about buildings and tems, but this is becoming uncommon as em­ their mechanical systems might specialize in ployers are placing greater emphasis on ad­ the management or older properties that require  College graduates are preferred for property management jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  renovation or more frequent repairs. Some ex­ perienced property and real estate managers open their own property management or real estate firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate manager jobs by transferring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate managers must be good negotiators, ad­ ept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data to assess the fair value of property or its development potential. Re­ sourcefulness and creativity in arranging fi­ nancing are essential for managers who spec­ ialize in land development. Real estate managers may be required to hold a real estate broker’s license. Many property and real estate managers at­ tend short-term formal training programs con­ ducted by various professional and trade as­ sociations active in the real estate field. Employers send many managers to these pro­ grams to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized sub­ jects, such as the operation and maintenance of building mechanical systems, insurance and risk management, business and real estate law, and accounting and financial concepts. Many managers also participate in these pro­ grams to prepare themselves to advance to po­ sitions of greater responsibility in property and real estate management. In many cases, com­ pletion of these programs, together with meet­ ing job experience standards and achieving a satisfactory score on a written examination, leads to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring as­ sociation. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Government are required to be cer­ tified, but many property and real estate man­ agers voluntarily earn a formal professional designation because it represents formal rec­ ognition of their achievements and status in the occupation. A number of organizations have such programs. The Institute of Real Estate Management awards the designations Ac­ credited Resident Manager and Certified Prop­ erty Manager, while the National Association of Home Builders awards the designation Reg­ istered Apartment Manager. The National Apartment Association confers the designa­ tions Certified Apartment Manager and Cer­ tified Apartment Property Supervisor. The Community Associations Institute bestows the designation Professional Community Associ­ ation Manager, while the Building Owners and Managers Institute International awards the designation Real Property Administrator. The International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives confers the designations As­ sociate of Corporate Real Estate and Master of Corporate Real Estate. Job Outlook Employment of property and real estate man­ agers is projected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, the majority of job openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/43  force. Opportunities are expected to be best for persons with college degrees in business administration and related fields. The projected pattern of employment growth in the economy favors growth in the demand for office buildings, retail establishments, and apartments, and consequently growth in re­ quirements for property and real estate man­ agers. A large proportion of the new jobs cre­ ated over the 1986-2000 period are expected to be in wholesale and retail trade, finance, insurance, real estate, and the various service industries. Since establishments in these in­ dustries are the primary tenants of commercial properties, rapid growth of these industries is expected to require growth in the Nation’s sup­ ply of office and retail space. In addition, the expected rapid employment growth in retail trade should require growing numbers of real estate managers to acquire and develop prop­ erties for expanding restaurant, grocery, ap­ parel, and specialized merchandise chains. Growth in the Nation’s stock of apartments and houses should also require growing num­ bers of property and real estate managers. Al­ though the rate of new household formation is expected to decline somewhat over the 1986­ 2000 period as fewer young workers enter the labor force, the high cost of purchasing a home is expected to force a growing proportion of new households to delay leaving rental hous­ ing. In addition, developments of new houses are increasingly being organized with com­ munity or homeowner associations that provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas, requiring professional man­ agement. A growing proportion of commercial and multiunit residential property owners are ex­ pected to entrust the management of their prop­ erties to a professional manager. Recent changes to income tax laws have greatly limited the tax benefits that property owners and investors can derive from unprofitable apartments and com­ mercial properties. To help properties become more profitable, more owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of property and real estate managers. Earnings Earnings of property and real estate managers vary greatly according to the level of their re­ sponsibility. A survey conducted by Huntress Real Estate Executive Search Inc. found that the middle third of the on-site apartment man­ agers surveyed had annual salaries averaging $24,800 in 1986, while the lowest third av­ eraged $16,600 a year and the highest third, $34,100 annually. Property managers had considerably higher earnings than on-site managers, according to the same survey. The middle third of property managers responsible for multiple apartment properties averaged $48,200 a year in 1986, while the lowest third averaged $39,800 and the highest third, $56,000 annually. Of prop­ erty managers responsible for shopping cen­ ters, the middle third earned $53,500, the low­ est third $44,200, and the highest third $60,500 annually. Of those who managed office build­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ings, the middle third earned $62,600, the low­ est third $44,100, and the highest third $70,200 annually. Earnings of corporate real estate managers were generally comparable to those of property managers, according to the same survey. Among those employed by fast-food and res­ taurant chains, the middle third of the lease negotiators and site selection representatives averaged $49,400 annually in 1986, while the lowest third averaged $40,400 and the highest third, $57,000 annually. The middle third of real estate directors earned $61,800 a year, while the lowest third earned $46,000 and the highest third, $95,000 annually. Among real estate managers employed by retail apparel chains, the middle third of the lease negotiators and site selection representatives averaged $53,000 a year, the lowest third $41,000, and the highest third $64,600. The middle third of real estate directors for retail apparel chains had an average annual salary of $59,300, while the lowest third earned $49,200 and the highest third, $74,000 annually. Community association managers received compensation comparable to on-site and prop­ erty managers employed by other types of properties. Property and real estate managers usually receive medical and health insurance paid by their employer. Many resident apart­ ment managers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Property and real estate managers often are given the use of a company automobile, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in projects that they develop. Related Occupations Property and real estate managers plan, or­ ganize, staff, and control the real estate op­ erations of businesses. Other workers who per­ form these functions in other fields include restaurant and food service managers, hotel and resort managers and assistants, health services managers, education administrators, and city managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in property and real estate management and programs lead­ ing to the award of a professional designation in the field is available from: Apartment Owners and Managers Association of America, 65 Cherry Plaza, Watertown, CT 06795­ 0238. Building Owners and Managers Institute Interna­ tional, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. Community Associations Institute, Suite 7, 1423 Po­ whatan St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Mich­ igan Ave., Chicago IL 60611. International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives, Suite 8, 471 Spencer Dr. South, West Palm Beach, FL 33409. National Apartment Association, Suite 804, 1101 14th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. National Association of Home Builders, 15th & M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Purchasing Agents and Managers (D.O.T. 162.117-018; .157-030, -034, and -038; .167 -022 and -030; 163.117-010; 169.167-054; 184.117-078; and 185.167-034)  Nature of the Work Purchasing agents and managers, often called industrial buyers, purchase the goods, mate­ rials, supplies, and services that are required by their organization. They insure that products are of suitable quality and sufficient quantity, secured at the right price, and available when needed. This is important because the flow of work—or even the entire production process— could be slowed or halted if the right materials, supplies, or equipment were not on hand when needed. Agents in industry and government buy raw materials, machinery, parts and components, furniture, business machines, vehicles, and of­ fice supplies, while media buyers purchase ad­ vertising time and space. Purchasing agents buy supplies when the stock on hand reaches a predetermined reorder point, when a department in the organization requisitions items it needs, or when market conditions are especially favorable. Purchas­ ing agents use computers to obtain up-to-date product and price listings, to keep track of inventory levels, to process routine orders, and to determine when to make purchases. Com­ puters are also used to maintain bidders’ lists, to record the history of vendor performance, and to issue purchase orders. The trend toward sole-source contracting, the use of a single sup­ plier for a wide variety of products, reduces the number of vendors an agent deals with. Increasingly, the agent’s main job will be to select the supplier who offers the best com­ bination of quality, service, and price. Solesource contracting does not prevail in the Fed­ eral Government, however, which in fact is moving in the opposite direction—towards en­ couraging greater competition among sup­ pliers. Purchasing agents and buyers use a variety of means to choose suppliers. They compare listings in catalogs, directories, and trade jour­ nals. They meet with salespersons to discuss items to be purchased, examine samples, and attend demonstrations of products and equip­ ment. Frequently, agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders and then select the lowest bidder from among those who meet purchasing and delivery date requirements. Sometimes, purchasing agents negotiate for custom-made products or specialized services. Increasingly, they enter into long-term con­ tracts with suppliers to guarantee future sup­ plies of goods at the negotiated price. In order to make this long-term commitment, purchas­ ing managers must carefully evaluate suppliers and take into account the future needs of the organization. Since purchasing agents and managers must thoroughly understand the characteristics and functions of the items they  44/Occupational Outlook Handbook  General Services Administration and the Vet­ erans Administration. Many purchasing agents work in organiza­ tions that have fewer than five employees in the purchasing department. Large business firms and government agencies, however, have much larger purchasing departments; some employ as many as 100 specialized purchasing agents. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no universal educational requirements for entry level jobs, most large organizations require a college degree and pre­ fer applicants with a master’s degree in busi­ l;/ i‘X ness administration or management. Educational requirements vary by industry. The Federal Government seeks applicants with a college degree or 3 years of work experience. Companies that manufacture machinery or chemicals may prefer applicants with a tech­ V nical background, such as engineering or sci­ ence. Other companies hire business admin­ istration majors as trainees. Courses in Selecting suppliers who provide quality products at good prices is important. purchasing, accounting, economics, and sta­ purchase, they often must have considerable for arranging custodial, waste disposal, and tistics are helpful. Regardless of the field, fa­ technical knowledge. other contractual services. miliarity with computers is desirable. Many Successful purchasing agents and managers The mission of the organization also affects colleges and vocational-technical institutes of­ develop good business relationships with sup­ job duties. The purchasing department for a fer courses or degrees in purchasing. pliers in order to attain cost savings, favorable manufacturing firm will focus on the produc­ Many small companies require a bachelor’s payment terms, quick delivery on emergency tion process, for example, and act in such a degree; some, however, hire graduates of as­ orders, or help in obtaining scarce materials. manner as to maximize profits. In sharp con­ sociate degree and vocational education pro­ To negotiate these and other conditions, pur­ trast, a contract specialist for a government grams in purchasing for entry level jobs. They chasing agents and managers must possess good social services agency may contract primarily also may promote clerks or technicians in the communications skills, be able to work effec­ for support services under a predetermined purchasing department. Regardless of the size tively with others, and take high-pressure sit­ budget. of an organization, however, a college degree uations in stride. They also work closely with Purchasing policy influences day-to-day job is almost essential for advancement to man­ employees in their own organization. For ex­ duties, too. Some firms use centralized or joint agement positions. ample, they may discuss design of custom- purchasing arrangements, for example, while Whatever their educational background, be­ made products with company engineers, de­ others contract out the purchasing function to ginning purchasing agents and managers are fects in purchased goods with quality control a management consultant firm, referred to as enrolled in company training programs and technicians, or shipment problems with work­ a systems contractor. spend considerable time learning about com­ ers in the shipping department. pany operations and purchasing procedures. The nature of the work may differ according They work with experienced buyers to leant Working Conditions to the size and mission of the organization as Purchasing agents and managers generally work about commodities, prices, suppliers, and ne­ well as its purchasing policy. In large organ­ gotiating techniques. They may be assigned to izations, a distinction often is drawn between a standard 35- to 40-hour week. Some overtime production planning to learn about the pur­ may be necessary if, for example, the supply the work of a purchasing agent and that of a of critical materials runs short. Although they chasing system, inventory records, and storage purchasing manager. Purchasing agents and facilities. spend most of their time in the office, some buyers typically focus on routine purchasing Junior agents purchase standard and catalog agents and managers travel to suppliers, sem­ tasks, often specializing in a commodity or items. As they gain knowledge and experience, inars, or trade shows. group of related commodities—for example, they may be promoted to purchasing agent, steel, lumber, cotton, or petroleum products. then to senior purchasing agent. Senior agents Purchasing managers usually perform more Employment purchase highly complex, usually custom-made complex purchasing tasks, and may supervise Purchasing agents and managers held about items. a group of purchasing agents handling a num­ 418,000 jobs in 1986. More than a quarter of Purchasing agents must be able to analyze ber of related goods and services. all jobs were located in manufacturing, pri­ the technical data in suppliers’ proposals, make The Federal Government distinguishes be­ marily in the machinery and transportation buying decisions, and spend large amounts of tween purchasing agents and contract special­ equipment industries. Construction compa­ money responsibly. The job requires the ability ists. Currently, purchasing agents use simpli­ nies, hospitals, schools, and advertising firms to work independently and a good memory for fied purchasing methods to procure items under also are large employers of purchasing agents. details. In addition, a purchasing agent must be $25,000, for example, whereas contract spe­ Government agencies, primarily in the Federal able to get along well with people to balance cialists use sealed bidding and negotiated sector, provided over one-tenth of all jobs. the needs of personnel in the organization with agreements for more expensive contracts. Because of its complex and extensive pur­ budgetary constraints and to negotiate with sup­ In smaller organizations, the purchasing agent chasing requirements, the Department of De­ pliers. An agent may work with lawyers, con­ may be the only employee with purchasing fense employs the greatest number of pur­ tract administrators, and engineers and scien­ responsibilities. Usually, however, agents buy chasing agents and managers in the Federal tists when involved in complex procurements. a narrower range of goods, such as all raw Government. Other important Federal em­ A qualified purchasing agent may become materials or all office supplies, furniture, and ployers are the Departments of Agriculture, an assistant purchasing manager in charge of business machines. Many have responsibility Interior, and Transportation, as well as the a group of purchasing agents before advancing  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/45  to purchasing manager, director or vice pres­ ident of purchasing, or director or vice presi­ dent of materials management. At the top lev­ els, duties may overlap into other management functions such as production, planning, and marketing. This occupation is becoming increasingly professionalized and specialized. Continuing education is essential for advancement. Most agents participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in purchasing. Certification enhances one’s chances for top management positions. In private industry, the recognized mark of experience and professional competence is the designation Certified Purchasing Manager. It is conferred by the National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., upon candi•dates who pass four examinations and meet educational and experience requirements. In State and local government, the indications of professional competence are the designations Professional Public Buyer (PPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Pur­ chasing, Inc. The PPB is earned by passing a two-part written examination and meeting ed­ ucational and experience requirements. A can­ didate must meet more stringent basic require­ ments and pass a three-part written exam and an interview assessment to earn the CPPO. As more and more purchasing is conducted on a long-term basis, both private and public purchasing agents are specializing in contrac­ tual aspects of purchasing. The National Con­ tract Management Association confers the des­ ignations Certified Associate Contract Manager or Certified Professional Contract Manager upon those who meet educational and experience requirements and pass a written examination. These designations primarily apply to contract managers in the Federal Government and its suppliers.  of 2-year programs in purchasing should con­ tinue to find good opportunities, especially in small firms.  Job Outlook Employment of purchasing agents and man­ agers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Computerization of purchasing coupled with an increased reliance on a small number of suppliers should boost the productivity of purchasing personnel. These changing busi­ ness practices will act to restrict future occu­ pational growth. However, new opportunities should arise as hospitals, schools, State and local governments, and other service-produc­ ing organizations increasingly recognize the importance of professional purchasers in re­ ducing costs. As in the past, however, most job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave their jobs. Many purchasing agents and managers transfer to other occupations, often sales or managerial positions. Others retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Persons who have a master’s degree in busi­ ness administration and a bachelor’s degree in purchasing, or in engineering, science, or busi­ ness administration with courses in purchasing, should have the best opportunities. Graduates  Federal Acquisition Institute (VF), General Services Administration, 18th and F Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20405.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Median annual earnings for purchasing agents were slightly over $23,200 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,000 and $31,700. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $13,400, and the top 10 percent earned more than $42,400. The middle 50 percent of purchasing managers earned between $24,400 and $43,600 in 1986. The average starting salary for purchasing agents in the private sector was $21,200 a year in 1986. Experienced workers earned between $26,400 and $33,600, and senior agents av­ eraged $41,300. In the Federal Government, beginning pur­ chasing agents who had college degrees earned $14,800 or $18,400 in 1987, depending on scholastic achievement and experience. Con­ tract specialists in the Federal Government av­ eraged $30,500 in 1986. Related Occupations Other workers who negotiate and contract to purchase equipment, supplies, or other mer­ chandise include retail and wholesale buyers, procurement services managers, and traffic managers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in purchas­ ing and certification is available from: National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., P.O. Box 418, Oradell, NJ 07649. National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 115 Hillwood Ave., Falls Church, VA 22046. National Contract Management Association, 6728 Old McLean Village Dr., McLean, VA 22101.  For information concerning career oppor­ tunities in the Federal Government, contact:  Restaurant and Food Service Managers (D.O.T. 185.137; 187.161-010 and .167-026, -106, and -126; 319.137-014 and -018)  Nature of the Work Eating and drinking places range from restau­ rants that serve fast food to those that empha­ size elegant dining, and from school cafeterias to hospital food services. The cuisine offered, its price, and the setting in which it is consumed vary greatly, but the managers of these diverse establishments have many common responsi­ bilities. Efficient and profitable operation of restaurants and institutional food service fa­ cilities requires that managers and assistant managers select and appropriately price inter­ esting menu items, efficiently use food and  other supplies, achieve consistent quality in food preparation and service, recruit and train adequate numbers of workers, and painstak­ ingly attend to the various administrative as­ pects of the business. In most restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the manager is assisted by one or more assistant managers, depending on the size and business hours of the establish­ ment. In large establishments, as well as many others that offer fine dining, the management team consists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for the op­ eration of the kitchen, while the assistant man­ agers oversee service in the dining room and other areas of the operation; In some smaller restaurants, the executive chef may also be the general manager, and sometimes an owner. (For additional information on executive chefs, see the Handbook statement on chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.) In fast-food res­ taurants and other food service facilities that operate long hours, 7 days a week, the manager is aided by several assistant managers, each of whom supervises a shift of workers. Many restaurants change their menu only rarely, but other eating establishments change it frequently. Institutional food service facili­ ties and some restaurants offer a new menu every day .(Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers, the past popularity of various dishes, and considerations such as food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety on the menu, and the availability of foods due to seasonal and other factors. They analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and overhead costs and assign prices to the menu items. Menus must be developed far enough in advance to receive needed supplies in time. Ordering supplies and dealing with suppliers are important aspects of the work of restaurant and food service managers. On a daily basis, managers estimate food consumption, place or­ ders with suppliers, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and beverages. They receive and check the content of deliveries, evaluating the quality of meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vege­ tables, and baked goods. Managers meet or talk with sales representatives of restaurant suppliers to place orders to replenish stocks of tableware, linens, paper, cleaning supplies, cooking utensils, and furniture and fixtures. They also arrange for equipment repairs. Managers interview, hire, and, when nec­ essary, discharge workers. They familiarize newly hired workers with the establishment’s policies and practices and oversee their train­ ing. Managers schedule the work hours of em­ ployees, insuring that there are adequate num­ bers of workers present during busy periods, but not too many during slow periods, f Restaurant and food service managers su­ pervise the preparation of food in the kitchen and the serving of meals in the dining room. They oversee food preparation and cooking, checking the quality of the food and the sizes of portions to insure that dishes are prepared  46/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Many restaurant managers work nights and weekends. and garnished correctly and in a timely manner. They also investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. Dur­ ing busy periods, managers may roll up their sleeves and help with the cooking, clearing of tables, or other tasks. They direct the cleaning of the kitchen and dining areas and the washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to maintain company and government sanita­ tion standards. They monitor workers and ob­ serve patrons on a continual basis to insure compliance with health and safety standards and local liquor regulations. Managers have a variety of administrative responsibilities. In larger establishments, much of this work is delegated to a bookkeeper, but in others, managers must keep accurate records of the hours and wages of employees, prepare the payroll, and do paperwork to comply with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compen­ sation, and Social Security laws. They also must maintain records of the costs of supplies and equipment purchased and insure that ac­ counts with suppliers are paid on a regular basis. In addition, managers record the num­ ber, type, and cost of items sold to weed out dishes that are unpopular or less profitable. Many managers are able to ease the burden of recordkeeping and paperwork through the use of computers. Managers are among the first to arrive and the last to leave at night. At the conclusion of each day, or sometimes each shift, managers must tally the cash received and charge receipts and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s income at the bank, or securing it in a safe place. Managers are also responsible for lock­ ing up and checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off and alarm systems switched on. Working Conditions Since evenings and weekends are popular din­ ing periods, night and weekend work is com­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mon. However, many managers of institutional food service facilities work more conventional hours because factory and office cafeterias are often open only on weekdays for breakfast and lunch. Many restaurant and food service man­ agers work 50 hours or more per week. Managers often experience the pressure of simultaneously coordinating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the re­ sponsibility of the manager to resolve them with minimal disruption to customers. The job can be hectic during peak dining hours, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be particularly stressful. Employment Restaurant and food service managers held about 470,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in eating and drinking establishments, but small num­ bers also were employed by educational insti­ tutions, hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, department stores, and civic, social, and fraternal organizations. Nearly half were self-employed. Jobs are located throughout the country, but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many restaurant and food service manager po­ sitions are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food work­ ers who have demonstrated their potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs when openings occur. Executive chefs need extensive experience working as a chef, and general managers need experience working as an assistant. However, most food service management companies and national or regional restaurant chains also recruit man­ agement trainees from among the graduates of 2-year and 4-year college programs. Food ser­ vice and restaurant chains prefer to hire persons  with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire grad­ uates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated interest and aptitude. A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service management provides a particularly strong preparation for a career in this occu­ pation. In 1986, more than 130 colleges and universities offered 4-year programs in restau­ rant and hotel management or institutional food service management. For persons who do not want to pursue a 4-year degree, a good alternate background is provided by the more than 200 community and junior colleges, technical in­ stitutes, and other institutions that offer pro­ grams in these fields leading to an associate degree or other formal award below the bac­ calaureate. Both 2-year and 4-year programs provide instruction in subjects such as ac­ counting, business law and management, food planning and preparation, and nutrition. Some programs combine classroom and laboratory study with internships that provide on-the-job experience. In addition, more than 100 edu­ cational institutions offer culinary programs that provide food preparation training which can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advancement to an executive chef position. Most employers emphasize personal quali­ ties. Restaurant and food service management can be demanding, so good health and stamina are important. Self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their subordinates. A neat and clean appearance is also required since managers are often in close personal contact with the public. Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for persons hired for management jobs. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operations of a restaurant or institutional food service facility—food preparation, sanitation, security, company policies and procedures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of reports. Usually after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first permanent assignment as an assistant manager. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to positions with greater respon­ sibility. Managers advance to larger establish­ ments, or regional management positions with restaurant chains. Some managers eventually open their own eating and drinking establish­ ments. Others transfer to hotel management positions, since their restaurant or institutional food service management experience is a good background for food and beverage manager jobs at hotels and resorts. Job Outlook '® Employment of restaurant and food service managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/47  2000. In addition to growth in demand for these managers, the need to replace managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working for a variety of reasons will create many new jobs. Job opportunities are expected to be best for persons with bachelor’s or associate degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management. Employment will increase with growth in the number of eating and drinking establish­ ments. Population growth, rising personal in­ comes, and increased leisure time will continue to produce growth in the number of meals con­ sumed outside the home. Also, continued growth in the number of families in which both spouses work should make dining out a more frequent and affordable convenience. Employment of managers in school and col­ lege cafeterias is expected to increase relatively slowly due to the anticipated slow growth in total student enrollments. However, growth of the number of elderly people is expected to result in rapid growth of food service manager jobs in nursing homes, residential care facili­ ties, and other health care institutions. Employment in eating and drinking estab­ lishments is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so restaurant and food service managers are rarely laid off during hard times. However, competition among restau­ rants is always intense, and many restaurants do not survive.  largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most trainees ranged between $600 and $1,600 a year. Most restaurant and food service managers received free meals, sick leave, health and ac­ cident insurance, and 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation a year, depending on length of ser­ vice.  Earnings Earnings of restaurant and food service man­ agers vary greatly according to the type and size of establishment. Based on a survey con­ ducted for the National Restaurant Association, their median base salary was estimated to be $22,400 a year in 1986, but managers of the largest restaurants and institutional food ser­ vice facilities often had annual salaries in ex­ cess of $40,000. Managers of fast-food res­ taurants had an estimated median base salary of $15,700 a year; managers of full-menu res­ taurants with table service, $22,000; and man­ agers of commercial and institutional cafete­ rias, $25,400 a year in 1986. Besides a salary, most managers received an annual bonus or incentive payment based on their performance. In 1986, most of these payments ranged be­ tween $3,000 and $7,500 a year. Executive chefs had an estimated median base salary of $22,700 a year in 1986, but those employed in the largest restaurants and insti­ tutional food service facilities often had base salaries over $35,000. Annual bonus or incen­ tive payments of most executive chefs ranged between $1,500 and $7,000 a year. The estimated median base salary of assis­ tant managers was $18,900 a year in 1986, but ranged from $13,100 in fast-food restaurants to over $28,700 in some of the largest restau­ rants and food service facilities. Annual iSonus or incentive payments of most assistant man­ agers ranged between $1,000 and $3,000 a year. Manager trainees had an estimated median base salary of $ 13,100 a year in 1986, but had salaries of more than $20,000 in some of the  Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Ed­ ucation, 311 First St. NW., Washington, DC 20001.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Restaurant and food service managers direct the activities of business establishments that provide a service to customers. Other managers in businesses that sell goods or services to the general public include hotel managers and as­ sistants, health services administrators, retail store managers, and bank managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about restaurant and food service managers and directories of 2- and 4year college programs in restaurant and food service management are available from: The Educational Foundation of the National Restau­ rant Association, Suite 2620, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606.  General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from:  For general career information and a direc­ tory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in restaurant and food service management, write to: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850.  Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.167-058)  Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume billions of dollars in risks each year by transferring the risk of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. The underwriter must analyze information in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and actuarial studies (reports that de­ scribe the probability of insured loss) and then decide whether to issue a policy. An insurance company may lose business to competitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conserva­ tively, or it may have to pay more claims if the underwriting actions are too liberal. (The term “life underwriter” is increasingly used in referring to insurance sales workers; see the statement on insurance sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook for a discussion of that oc­ cupation.) When deciding that an applicant is an ac­  ceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters frequently corre­ spond with policyholders, agents, and man­ agers about policy cancellations or other re­ quests for information. In addition, they sometimes accompany sales workers on ap­ pointments with prospective customers. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: Life, property and liability, or health. They further specialize in group or individual policies. The property and liability underwriter specializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine, or workers’ compensation. In cases where cas­ ualty companies insure in a single "package” policy, covering various types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. Some underwriters, called com­ mercial account underwriters, handle business insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a firm's entire operation in appraising its insur­ ance application. An increasing proportion of insurance sales are being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates, generally for life or health insurance protection. The group under­ writer analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that the total risk is not ex­ cessive. Another type of group policy provides members of a group—a labor union, for ex­ ample—with individual policies reflecting their individual needs. These generally are casualty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter analyzes the appli­ cation of each group member and makes in­ dividual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. Their offices gen­ erally are comfortable and pleasant. Although some overtime may be required, the normal workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwriters oc­ casionally may attend meetings away from home for several days. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 99,000 jobs in 1986. Most life insurance underwriters were in home offices in a few large cities, such as New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas, Philadelphia, and Hartford. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, most large insurance companies seek college graduates who have a degree in liberal arts or business admin­ istration, but a major in almost any field pro­ vides a good general background. Some small companies hire persons without a college de­ gree for underwriter trainee positions. In ad­ dition, some high school graduates who begin  ■  48/Occupational Outlook Handbook  V«t*f  Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, loan officers, credit managers, and real estate ap­ praisers.  *. r  Underwriters appraise risks by examining relevant data. as underwriting clerks may be trained as un­ derwriters after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating routine applications under the close supervision of an experienced risk appraiser. They study claim files to become familiar with factors as­ sociated with certain types of losses. As they develop the necessary judgment, they are as­ signed policy applications that are more com­ plex and have a greater face value. Continuing education is necessary for the underwriter to advance. Insurance companies generally pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees successfully complete; some also offer salary increases. Independent study programs are available through the American Institute of Property and Liability Underwri­ ters, the American College of Life Underwri­ ters, the Academy of Life Underwriters, the Health Insurance Association of America, the Insurance Institute of America, and the Life Office Management Association. Experienced underwriters can qualify as a “fellow” of the Academy of Life Underwriters by passing a series of examinations and completing a paper on a topic in the underwriting field. Exami­ nations are given by the Institute of Home Of­ fice Underwriters and the Home Office Life Underwriters Association. Designation as a “fellow” is recognized as a mark of achieve­ ment in the underwriting field. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with detail and enjoy evaluating information. In addition, under­ writers must be able to make prompt decisions and communicate effectively. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, especially when they have to obtain information from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may advance to chief under­ writer or underwriting manager. Some under­ writing managers are promoted to senior man­ agerial jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  $35,200; commercial lines underwriting su­ pervisors earned $33,700 a year. Personal lines underwriting managers earned $46,800 a year and commercial lines underwriting managers, about $40,600. Most insurance companies have liberal va­ cation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide em­ ployer-financed group life and retirement plans.  Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as insurance sales con­ tinue to expand. Most job openings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace underwriters who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. A number of factors underlie the expected growth in the volume and complexity of in­ surance and the resulting need for underwriters. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family respon­ sibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance. They also need protection for homes, automobiles, and other valuables. A growing demand for insur­ ance coverage for working women also is ex­ pected. Growing security consciousness also should contribute to demand for more insur­ ance protection. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equip­ ment, insurance for workers’ compensation, and product liability. In addition, competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affecting investment profits are ex­ pected to increase the need for underwriters. The increasing importance of employee ben­ efits also should result in more opportunities in this field. Since insurance is usually regarded as a ne­ cessity regardless of economic conditions, un­ derwriters are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings According to a survey of property and liability insurance companies, personal lines (noncom­ mercial) underwriters earned a median salary of $21,300 a year in 1986, while commercial lines underwriters earned $23,600 a year. Sen­ ior personal and commercial lines underwriters received a median salary of $28,600. Personal lines underwriting supervisors earned about  Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an in­ surance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities as an underwriter also may be obtained from: American Council of Life Insurance, 10001 Penn­ sylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 WoodfietdRd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173.  Wholesale and Retail Buyers (D.O.T. 162.157-018 and -022)  Nature of the Work Wholesale and retail buyers expedite the de­ livery of goods from the producer to the con­ sumer by purchasing merchandise for imme­ diate resale. All buyers seek the best available merchandise at the lowest possible price, but day-to-day job duties vary by industry and range from the mundane to the glamorous. Wholesale grocery buyers may spend many hours deciding which brand of cereal should be promoted in the grocery stores they supply, while apparel buyers for department stores attend fashion shows abroad and buy thousands of dollars worth of designer clothes at a time. Wholesale and retail buyers are integral parts of a complex system of production, distribu­ tion, and merchandising that caters to the vast variety of consumer needs and desires. Whether they work in the corporate headquarters of a retailer or the main office of a wholesale-dis­ tributor, buyers usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchandise. Wholesale buyers purchase goods directly from manufac­ turers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms or to commercial establishments and other institutions. Retail buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. (Infor­ mation about purchasing agents—buyers who purchase goods and services for their firm’s  Managerial and Management-Related Occupations/49  internal use—can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Wholesale buyers must be familiar with the characteristics of the many commodities they purchase from both domestic and foreign man­ ufacturers—often by consulting catalogs and computerized directories. Moreover, they must be able to supply institutional buyers and retail purchasers in a timely and cost-effective man­ ner. Retail outlets may be located throughout the Nation and range in size from giant discount or department store chains to small “mom and pop” stores. Meeting their diverse needs re­ quires careful assessment of manufacturers’ productive capacity and the minimum inven­ tory level necessary for the wholesaler to promptly fill current and future orders from retailers and other commercial firms. Whole­ sale buyers often consult with retail buyers, who are in closer contact with the buying pub­ lic, to anticipate changes in consumer prefer­ ences. Retail buyers must know what motivates consumers to buy. Before ordering merchan­ dise, they study market research reports and monitor sales transactions to determine which products are in demand. They keep informed about changes in existing products and the de­ velopment of new ones, and also analyze eco­ nomic conditions and examine industry and trade publications. Retail buyers must possess good commu­ nications skills to work effectively with the many manufacturers and wholesale distributors in their industry. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make purchase decisions quickly. They discuss merchandising problems with whole­ sale buyers and store executives and discuss sales promotions with advertising personnel. They consult with assistant buyers and sales persons who are in daily contact with retail customers. Retail buyers may direct assistants who handle routine functions such as verifying shipment orders and monitoring inventory lev­ els—often by computer. Technical advances in computers and other business equipment have improved the effi­ ciency of all buyers. For example, computers not only give wholesale buyers instant access to the specifications of thousands of commod­ ities, their inventory records, and their retail­ ers’ purchase records, but also speed the se­ lection and ordering of merchandise directly from the manufacturer. Many retailers are linked through electronic purchasing systems to wholesale distributors or to their own company’s corporate head­ quarters. Some retailers are connected elec­ tronically to their suppliers, and order mer­ chandise directly from the manufacturer. These complex networks allow retailers to reorder goods electronically when supplies are low. This expedites the distribution of merchandise and decreases inventory storage costs. Computers also have taken over some of the routine tasks of retail buyers, enabling them to concentrate on more complex merchandising functions. For example, cash registers con­ nected to a computer, known as point-of-sale  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tfifeS-sE  Buyers ensure that the types of goods consumers want are available. terminals, allow retail chains to maintain cen­ tralized, up-to-date sales and inventory rec­ ords, effectively eliminating the need for as­ sistant buyers on the sales floor. As a result, buying jobs in these chains are shifting from individual stores to corporate headquarters. Working Conditions Buyers often operate under great pressure since wholesale and retail trade establishments are highly competitive. They work in comfortable, well-lighted offices at stores or in corporate headquarters. Anticipating consumer prefer­ ences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self-confidence. Buyers also must be able to make decisions quickly and take risks. Buyers frequently work more than a 40-hour week because of special sales and conferences. They may have to work evenings and weekends to complete work on time. Substantial traveling is required, and most buyers spend at least several days a month on the road. Employment Wholesale and retail buyers held about 192,000 jobs in 1986. Most buyers work for department stores, apparel stores, grocery stores, machin­ ery wholesalers, electrical goods distributors, and grocery wholesalers. About two-thirds of the jobs are in retail firms. Although buyers work in all parts of the country, many are  located in major metropolitan areas, where wholesale-distributors and retail stores are con­ centrated. IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Firms prefer to hire applicants who are familiar with the merchandise they sell as well as with wholesaling and retailing practices. There are many ways to develop these skills, however, and no single route to a buying career is greatly preferred to others. Some firms promote qual­ ified employees from within the firm to assis­ tant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates and applicants who have completed postsecondary programs in market­ ing. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements for entry level buying positions tend to vary with the size of the organization. The largest stores and dis­ tributors seek applicants who have completed associate or bachelor’s degree programs in marketing and purchasing. Nonetheless, most firms that have buyer trainee programs accept college graduates from any field of study. Trainee programs combine classroom instruc­ tion in merchandising and purchasing with short rotations to jobs in areas such as sales, accounts receivable, and the stock room. This training introduces the new worker to retail or whole­ sale trade operations and the policies funda­ mental to merchandising and management.  50/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping account of stock on hand, although widespread use of computers in both wholesale and retail trade has simplified many of these tasks. Trainees gradually assume buying responsibilities— usually working as assistant buyers for 2 or 3 years before becoming buyers. Experienced buyers may advance to merchandise manager; some advance to executive jobs such as general merchandise manager for distributors, depart­ ment stores, or chain stores. Membership in professional and trade as­ sociations is helpful in keeping abreast of im­ provements and changes in industry products and practices and can facilitate advancement to more responsible positions. Persons who wish to become buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an interest in merchandising. As more wholesalers and stores computerize buying functions, familiarity with computers will become increasingly important. Leadership ability and communications skills also are required to supervise assistant buyers and to deal effectively with manufacturers’ repre­ sentatives and store executives. Buyers need physical stamina and emotional stability to   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Job Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000 as more wholesale and retail trade establishments automate and centralize their purchasing departments. Pro­ ductivity gains resulting from the increased use of computers to control inventory, maintain records, and reorder merchandise will be the principal factor restraining employment growth. Most job openings, therefore, will result from replacement needs, which occur as experienced buyers transfer to other occupations in sales or management, change careers, or stop working altogether. The number of qualified jobseekers will con­ tinue to exceed the number of openings because merchandising attracts many college gradu­ ates. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified applicants who enjoy the competitive, fast­ paced nature of merchandising. Earnings Median annual earnings of buyers were $20,700 is 1986. Most buyers earned between $14,600 and $29,000 a year. The lowest 10 percent  averaged less than $11,400, while the top 10 percent earned more than $41,300. A buyer’s income depends upon the amount and type of product purchased, the employer’s sales vol­ ume and, to some extent, the buyer’s seniority. Buyers for large wholesale distributors and for mass merchandisers such as discount or large chain department stores are among the most highly paid. Buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise bought from the employer. In addition, many firms have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and stock options. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to as­ sess consumer demand are retail sales workers, sales managers, comparison shoppers, manu­ facturers’ sales representatives, insurance sales agents, wholesale trade sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in retailing is available from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, NY 10001.  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects Engineers Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to the economical so­ lution of practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific dis­ covery and its application. Engineers design machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They develop electric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems. They design industrial ma­ chinery and equipment for manufacturing goods, and heating, air-conditioning, and ven­ tilation equipment for more comfortable living. Engineers also develop equipment to probe outer space and the ocean depths; design defense and weapons systems for the Armed Forces; and design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop consumer prod­ ucts such as automobiles, home appliances, electronic home entertainment equipment, and systems for control and automation of manu­ facturing, business, and management pro­ cesses. Engineers must consider many factors in de­ veloping a new product. For example, in de­ veloping an industrial robot, engineers must determine the general way it will work; design and test all components; and fit them together in an integrated plan. They must then evaluate its overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as dif­ ferent as lawnmowers, computers, military weapons, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, opera­ tions, or maintenance. They supervise pro­ duction processes in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test newly manu­ factured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering adminis­ tration and management or in sales, where an engineering background enables them to dis­ cuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation or use. (See the statement on manufacturers’ sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most engineers specialize; more than 25 ma­ jor specialties are recognized by professional societies. Within the major branches are nu­ merous subdivisions. Structural, hydraulic, and transportation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  such as propulsion or guidance systems. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate state­ ments on 10 branches of the profession—aero­ space; chemical; civil; electrical and electron­ ics; industrial; mechanical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Engineers in each branch apply their knowl­ edge to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, or power distri­ bution fields. Because complex problems cut across traditional fields, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in scientific, other engineering, and business occupations. Calculators and computers are often used by engineers to solve mathematical equations which describe how a machine, structure, or system operates. Many engineers also use com­ puter-aided design systems to produce and ana­ lyze designs. They also spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers. Complex projects require many en­ gineers, each working with a small part of the job. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Working Conditions Some engineers are at a desk in an office build­ ing almost all of the time but others work in  laboratories, industrial plants, or construction sites, where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite problems. Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Employment In 1986, engineers held almost 1,371,000 jobs. Over one-half of all engineering jobs were lo­ cated in manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, machin­ ery, aircraft and parts, scientific instruments, chemicals, motor vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1986, 470,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, primarily in engineering and archi­ tectural services and business and management consulting services, where firms designed con­ struction projects or did other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy. Engineers also worked in the communications, utilities, and construc­ tion industries. Federal, State, and local governments em­ ployed about 184,000 engineers. Over half were in the Federal Government, mainly in the De­ partments of Defense, Transportation, Agri­ culture, Interior, and Energy, and in the Na­ tional Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government  Almost one-third of all engineers are electrical engineers. Employment, 1986 (thousands) 0  50  100  150  200  250  300  350  400  450  500  Electrical Mechanical Civil Industrial Aerospace Chemical Petroleum Metallurgical1 Nuclear Mining Other includes ceramic and materials engineers. Source:  Bureau of Labor Statistics  51  52/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Table 1.  Degrees granted by engineering specialty, academic year 1984-85 Bachelor’s Master’s 1Doctor’s  Specialty Total............................................................................... Aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering.... Agricultural engineering........................................................... Architectural engineering......................................................... Bioengineering and biomedical engineering......................... Ceramic engineering................................................................ Chemical engineering.............................................................. Civil engineering...................................................................... Computer engineering.............................................................. Electrical, electronics, and communications enaineering .. Engineering and related technologies....................................  ......... 95,833 ......... 2,854 ......... 770 ......... 372 ......... 605 ......... 274 ......... 7,146 ......... 9,162 ......... 1,839 ......... 21,691 ......... 18,767  21,512 605 197 49 290 77 1,544 3,172 495 5,153 607  3,230 110 35 6 49 15 418 377 30 660 9  Engineering, general................................................................ Engineering mechanics............................................................. Engineering physics.................................................................. Engineering science.................................................................. Environmental health engineering .......................................... Geological engineering............................................................ Geophysical engineering ......................................................... Industrial engineering.............................................................. Materials engineering.............................................................. Mechanical engineering...........................................................  ......... 3,366 ......... 349 ......... 339 ......... 356 ......... 150 ......... 369 ......... 98 ......... 3,914 ......... 388 ......... 16,794  1,375 219 94 183 319 79 11 1,462 348 3,053  274 64 26 26 25 5 3 139 180 409  Metallurgical engineering......................................................... Mining and mineral engineering........................................... Naval architecture and marine engineering........................... Nuclear engineering.................................................................. Ocean engineering.................................................................... Petroleum engineering ............................................................ Systems engineering................................................................ Textile engineering.................................................................. Other engineering......................................................................  ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... .........  251 92 101 290 85 265 143 8 945  88 10 9 85 24 24 20 4 106  613 462 595 401 130 1,719 263 29 2,018  Source: Center for Education Statistics  agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Some engineers are self-em­ ployed consultants. Besides the jobs described above, about 40,000 persons held engineering faculty po­ sitions in colleges and universities in 1986. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is generally acceptable for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in science or mathematics and experienced engineering technicians may also qualify for some engi­ neering jobs, especially in engineering spe­ cialties in high demand. Most engineering de­ grees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering (table 1). However, engineers trained in one particular branch may work in another. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties in short supply. It   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects, or ones that match their interests more closely. Many 2- or 4-year college programs in en­ gineering technology prepare students for prac­ tical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of such 4-year technology programs may get jobs sim­ ilar to those obtained by graduates with a bach­ elor’s degree in engineering. However, some employers regard them as having skills be­ tween those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain a master’s degree, however, because it often is desirable for learning new technology or for promotion. Nearly 260 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and nearly 100 colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in en­ gineering technology. Although most institu­ tions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some em­ phasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, while others are more theoretical and would be a better choice for  students preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should investigate curriculums carefully before selecting a college. Ad­ missions requirements for undergraduate en­ gineering schools include courses in advanced high school mathematics and the physical sci­ ences. In a typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences— mathematics, physics, chemistry—introduc­ tory engineering, and the humanities, social sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a con­ centration in one branch of engineering. Some programs offer a general engineering curric­ ulum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. Some engineering schools and 2-year col­ leges have entered into agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engi­ neering education and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, some engineering schools have arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying preen­ gineering subjects and 2 years in the engi­ neering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work experience. In this way, in addition to gaining useful experience, students can finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1986, nearly 500,000 engineers were registered. Registra­ tion requires a degree from an accredited en­ gineering program, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register those with degrees in engineering technology. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the close supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger compa­ nies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more diffi­ cult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become man­ agers or administrators within engineering; others leave engineering for managerial, man­ agement support, or sales jobs. (See the state­ ments on purchasing agents, manufacturers’ sales workers, personnel specialists, and com­ puter systems analysts elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business administration to improve advance­ ment opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Many high level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail. In addition.  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/53  engineers should be able to express themselves well—both orally and in writing. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for those with de­ grees in engineering have been good for a num­ ber of years and are expected to continue to be good through the year 2000. In addition, there should continue to be some opportunities for college graduates from related fields and for experienced technicians in certain engi­ neering jobs, although employers usually pre­ fer engineering graduates. In recent years, ac­ cording to the College Placement Council, engineering majors have received about half the on-campus job offers, even though they have made up less than 10 percent of graduates. Employment of engineers is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Although only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profession each year, most job openings will arise from replacement needs. Most re­ placement openings are created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional occupations rather than by engi­ neers who leave the labor force. Much of the projected growth in require­ ments for engineers will stem from the ex­ pected higher levels of investment to meet the demand for more goods and services and to increase productivity. More engineers also will be needed to develop and manufacture defenserelated products and to improve transportation facilities. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more rapidly than in the past, further adding to requirements. Some employers will continue to hire en­ gineering graduates for nonengineering jobs in management, sales, and computer science, usually in jobs in which an engineering back­ ground is helpful. Often employers prefer en­ gineering graduates for these positions. Most industries are less likely to lay off en­ gineers than other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and development projects or in other activities which often con­ tinue even during recessions. However, in in­ dustries such as electronics and aerospace, large cutbacks in defense or research and develop­ ment may result in layoffs for engineers. New computer-aided design systems enable engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly than previously. This increased productivity might result in decreased em­ ployment opportunities for engineers doing more routine tasks. However, most of these systems have been used to improve the design process by allowing many more design vari­ ations to be produced and analyzed. Therefore, this technology is not expected to affect em­ ployment growth significantly. It is important for engineers to continue their education throughout their careers because their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-tech­ nology areas such as advanced electronics or  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  aerospace may find that their knowledge be­ comes obsolete rapidly. Even those who con­ tinue their education are vulnerable to obso­ lescence if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. En­ gineers whom employers consider not to have kept up may find themselves passed over for promotions and are particularly vulnerable to layoffs. On the other hand, it is often these high-technology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of en­ gineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolesc­ ence later in one’s career. (The outlook for var­ ious branches is discussed in the separate state­ ments that follow this introductory section.) Earnings Starting salaries for engineers with the bach­ elor’s degree are significantly higher than start­ ing salaries of college gradautes in other fields. According to the College Placement Council, engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree and no experience averaged about $27,900 a year in private industry in 1986; those with a master’s degree and no experience, $33,100 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $42,200. Starting offers for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation.  Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical sci­ ence and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include physical scientists, life sci­ entists, mathematicians, engineering and sci­ ence technicians, and architects. Sources of Additional Information A number of engineering-related organizations provide information on engineering careers. The National Engineering Council for Guid­ ance (NECG), at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314, serves as a central dis­ tribution point for information from many of these organizations. NECG is supported by The National Society of Professional Engineers, The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Tech­ nology, The National Action Council for Mi­ norities in Engineering, The Society of Women Engineers, The American Association of En­ gineering Societies, The American Society for Engineering Education, and The Junior En­ gineering Technical Society. NECG distributes literature for most other engineering societies as well. To receive information, write NECG at the above address for an order form. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed business-size en­ velope. Societies representing many of the individ­ ual branches of engineering are listed in this chapter. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch.  Petroleum engineering........................ $33,000 Chemical engineering.......................... 29,256 Electrical engineering......................... 28,368 Mechanical engineering....................... 27,864 Metallurgical engineering................... 27,864 Aeronautical engineering..................... 27,780 Nuclear engineering............................ 27,696 Industrial engineering.......................... 27,048 (D.O.T. 002.061 and .167) Engineering technology..................... 26,196 Mining engineering.............................. 25,956 Civil engineering.................................. 24,132 Nature of the Work As shown in the following tabulation, en­ Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and gineers in private industry in 1986 averaged help produce commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They develop new $27,866 at the most junior level, and $79,021 at senior managerial levels. Experienced mid­ technologies in commercial aviation, defense level engineers with no supervisory responsi­ systems, and space exploration, often special­ izing in areas like structural design, naviga­ bilities averaged $42,677. tional guidance and control, instrumentation Percent of Average and communication, or production methods. all engineers salary They also may specialize in one type of aero­ space product, such as passenger planes, heli­ Engineers I....... ... 6.8 $27,866 copters, spacecraft, or rockets. Engineers II....... ...12.0 31,194 Engineers III... ..24.4 35,715 Employment Engineers IV.... ..26.4 42,677 Engineers V .... ..18.8 50,769 Aerospace engineers held 53,000 jobs in 1986. Two-thirds were in the aircraft and parts and Engineers VI___ .. 8.8 58,883 Engineers VII... .. 2.3 68,602 guided missile and space vehicle manufactur­ ing industries. Federal Government agencies, Engineers VIII .. .. 0.5 79,021 primarily the Department of Defense and the In the Federal Government in 1986, most National Aeronautics and Space Administra­ engineers with a bachelor’s degree and no ex­ tion, provided almost 1 out of 6 jobs. Business perience could start at $18,710 or $23,170 a and engineering consulting firms, communi­ year, depending on their college records. Those cations equipment manufacturing firms, and with a master’s degree could start at $25,980, commercial airlines accounted for most of the and those having a Ph.D.degree could begin remainder. at $28,039. The average salary for engineers California, Washington, and Texas, States in the Federal Government was about $38,000 with large aerospace manufacturers, have the in 1986. most aerospace engineers.  Aerospace Engineers  54/Occupational Outlook Handbook  for engineering services or consulting firms— designing chemical plants or doing other work on a contract basis—and a small number worked for government agencies or as independent consultants.  rr i i  Aerospace engineers often specialize in areas  Job Outlook Employment of aerospace engineers is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. (Over the past decade, their employment grew very rapidly). The main reason is that Defense De­ partment expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace systems are not expected to grow much. Faster growth is ex­ pected in the civilian sector. Much of the pres­ ent fleet of airliners will be replaced with quiet­ er and more fuel-efficient aircraft and there will be increased demand for spacecraft, helicop­ ters, and business aircraft. Future growth of aerospace engineer employment could be lim­ ited because a higher proportion of engineers in aerospace manufacturing may be materials, mechanical, or electrical engineers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Since a large proportion of aerospace en­ gineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending can result in layoffs of aero­ space engineers.  Job Outlook Employment of chemical engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all ft &• occupations through the year 2000. Most open­ & ;4 ings, however, will result from the need to replace chemical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.Although output of the chemical industry, where many chemical engineers are employed, C3 c: is expected to expand, employment of chemical engineers in this industry is not expected to increase much because of anticipated produc­ tivity improvements and bontracting out of chemical engineers’ work.fAreas relating to pharmaceuticals and biotechnology should provide better opportunities than other portions of the chemical industry. Most of the projected ______ such as structural design or production methods. growth in employment will be in nonmanu­ termine and test methods of manufacturing the facturing industries, especially service indus­ products, and supervise production. Chemical tries. The drop in oil prices has reduced oppor­ engineers also work in industries other than chemical manufacturing such as electronics tunities for chemical engineers in petroleum manufacturing or aircraft manufacturing. Be­ refining and energy-related industries as well cause the duties of chemical engineers cut across as for chemical engineers working in research many fields, they apply principles of chemis­ on alternative energy sources and energy con­ try, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and servation. Opportunities for chemical engi­ electrical engineering. They frequently spec­ neers in these areas will be limited until the ialize in a particular operation such as oxidation price of oil increases. or polymerization. Others specialize in a par­ ticular area such as pollution control or the Sources of Additional Information production of a specific product like plastics American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East or rubber. 47th St., New York, NY 10017.  Employment Chemical engineers held 52,000 jobs in 1986. Over two-thirds were in manufacturing indus­ tries, primarily in the chemical, petroleum re­ fining, and related industries. One-fifth worked  American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., AIAA Student Programs, The Aerospace Cen­ ter, 370 L'Enfant Plaza, Washington, DC 20024.  (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion of training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Chemical Engineers (D O T. 008.061 and .167)_____________________  Nature of the Work Chemical engineers work in many phases of the production of chemicals and chemical prod­ ucts. They design equipment and plants, de­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Chemical engineers discuss chemical production process.  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/55  vision of these areas—industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and es­ timate the time and cost of engineering proj­ ects. Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held 401,000 jobs in 1986, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in firms that manufacture electrical and electronic equipment, business machines, professional and scientific equipment, and aircraft and parts. Engineering and business consulting firms, public utilities, and government agencies ac­ counted for most of the remaining jobs.  .  Civil engineers, like many other engineers, often work in large offices.  Civil Engineers (D.O.T. 005.061. .167 except -022; and 019.167-018)  Nature of the Work Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch of engineering, design and supervise the con­ struction of roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and build­ ings. Major specialties within civil engineering are structural, urban planning, hydraulic, en­ vironmental, construction, transportation, highway, and geotechnical engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, ranging from super­ visor of a construction site to a city engineer. Others work as independent consultants. Employment Civil engineers held 199,000 jobs in 1986. Almost 40 percent of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Over one-third were in firms that provide engineer­ ing consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. The con­ struction industry, public utilities, railroads, and manufacturing industries accounted for most of the rest. Civil engineers usually are found in or near major industrial and commercial centers, often working at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign coun­ tries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects. Job Outlook Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000. Most job open­ ings, however, will result from the need to replace civil engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A growing population and an expanding  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  economy will result in a need for more civil engineers to design and construct transporta­ tion systems, water resource and disposal sys­ tems, large buildings, and other structures. More civil engineers also will be needed to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other pub­ lic structures. Construction and related industries, includ­ ing those providing design services, employ many civil engineers. Employment opportun­ ities here may decrease during economic slow­ downs, when construction often is curtailed. Sources of Additional Information American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E 47th St., New York, NY 10017.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Job Outlook Employment opportunities for electrical and electronics engineers are expected to be good through the year 2000 because employment is expected to increase much faster than the av­ erage for all occupations and shortages of elec­ trical engineering faculty and laboratory equip­ ment may act to restrict enrollments in electrical engineering programs. Despite rapid growth, however, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace electrical and electronics engineers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Although increased demand by businesses and government for computers, communica­ tions equipment, and military electronics is ex­ pected to account for much of the projected employment growth, consumer demand for electrical and electronic goods and increased research and development on robots and other types of automation should create additional jobs. Since many electrical engineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending  Electrical and Electronics Engineers (D.O.T. 003.061, .167, and .187)  Nature of the Work Electrical and electronics engineers design, de­ velop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electrical equipment includes power generating and transmission equipment used by electric util­ ities, and electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, auto­ mobiles, and aircraft. Electronic equipment in­ cludes radar, computers, communications equipment, TV sets, and stereo components. The specialties of electrical and electronics engineers include several major areas—such as power distributing equipment, integrated circuits, computers, electrical equipment man­ ufacturing, or communications—or a subdi­  Electrical engineer reviews wiring diagram.  56/Occupational Outlook Handbook  could result in layoffs of electrical engineers. Furthermore, engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in some specialties risk technological obsolescence, which makes them more susceptible to layoffs or, at a minimum, likely to be passed over for advancement. Sources of Additional Information Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/ United States Activities Board, 1111 19th St. NW„ Suite 608, Washington, DC 20036.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 012.061 -018, .067, .167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, and -066, and .187)  Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effec­ tive ways for an organization to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, ma­ terials, information, and energy. They bridge the gap between management and operations, and are more concerned with people and meth­ ods of business organization than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. To solve organizational, production, and re­ lated problems most efficiently, industrial en­ gineers design data processing systems and ap­ ply mathematical analysis such as operations research. They also develop management con­ trol systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers conduct sur­ veys to find plant locations with the best com­ bination of raw materials, transportation, and taxes. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation pro­ grams. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related.  Industrial engineers design and supen'ise the installation of production systems. 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation both in factories and in offices underlie the projected employment growth. Jobs also will be created as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific man­ agement and safety engineering. Sources of Additional Information Institute oflndustrial Engineers. Inc., 25Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038. .167-014, and .267)  Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers are concerned with the production, transmission, and use of mechan­ ical power and heat. They design and develop power-producing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop power-using machines such as re­ frigeration and air-conditioning equipment, ro­ bots, machine tools, materials handling sys­ tems, and industrial production equipment. The work of mechanical engineers varies by  Employment Industrial engineers held about 117,000 jobs in 1986; over 4 out of 5 jobs were in manu­ facturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distrib­ uted among industries than other engineers. For example, some even work for insurance com­ panies, banks, hospitals, and retail organiza­ tions. Some work for government agencies or are independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for industrial en­ gineers are expected to be good; their em­ ployment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Mechanical engineers are increasingly using computer-aided design equipment.  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/57  industry and function. Many specialties have developed within the field, including motor vehicles; energy conversion systems; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning; instrumen­ tation; and special machines for industries such as petroleum, rubber, plastics, and construc­ tion. Some mechanical engineers work in pro­ duction operations, maintenance, and technical sales. Many are administrators or managers. Employment Mechanical engineers held 233,000 jobs in 1986. Over 3 out of 5 jobs were in manufac­ turing—most in the machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, and fabri­ cated metal products industries. Business and engineering consulting services and govern­ ment agencies provided most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for mechanical en­ gineers are expected to be good. Their em­ ployment is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the demand for machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and pro­ cesses become increasingly complex. Despite this expected employment growth, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace mechanical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers  verting refined metals into final products. Mechanical metallurgists are concerned with processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing metals to work and shape them. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic ma­ terials and methods for making ceramic ma­ terials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which re­ quire the use of high temperature in their pro­ cessing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, electronic compo­ nents, automobile and aircraft engine com­ ponents, brick, and tile. Materials engineers evaluate technical and economic factors to determine which of the many metals, plastics, ceramics, or other ma­ terials available is best for each application. Materials engineers also test and evaluate ma­ terials and develop new ones. Employment Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engi­ neers held almost 18,000 jobs in 1986. Onefifth worked in metal-producing industries. They also worked in industries that manufacture air­ craft and parts, machinery, and electrical equipment, and in business and engineering consulting firms and government agencies. Job Outlook Employment of metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. More metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers will be needed by the metalworking and other industries to develop new metals and alloys as well as to adapt current ones to new applications. For example, jet engines require metals that can withstand extreme heat. As the m  (D.O.T. 006.061; 011.061. .161, and .261-018; and 019.061-014)  Nature of the Work Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engi­ neers develop new types of metals and other materials tailored to meet specific require­ ments—for example, materials that are heat resistant, strong but lightweight, or highly malleable. Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—ex­ tractive or chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are con­ cerned with removing metals from ores, and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists deal with the na­ ture, structure, and physical properties of met­ als and their alloys, and with methods of con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Metallurgical engineers use a microscope to examine how a metal sample broke.  supply of high-grade ores diminishes, more metallurgical engineers will be required to de­ velop new ways of recycling solid waste ma­ terials and processing low-grade ores now re­ garded as unprofitable to mine. More ceramic and materials engineers will be needed to develop improved materials and products, for example, ceramic automobile en­ gines, which are more fuel efficient than metal engines. Sources of Additional Information The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 420 Common­ wealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086. ASM International, Metals Park, OH 44073. American Ceramic Society, 757 Brooks Edge Plaza Dr., Westerville, OH 43081. National Institute of Ceramic Engineers, 757 Brooks Edge Plaza Dr., Westerville, OH 43081.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -018)  Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare minerals for manufacturing industries to use. They design open pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to process­ ing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe and economical operation of mines, including ventilation, water supply, power, communications, and equipment maintenance. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and ap­ praise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials they are mixed with. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral, such as coal or copper. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers have been working to solve problems related to land re­ clamation and water and air pollution. Employment Mining engineers held about 5,200 jobs in 1986. The mining industry provided over 3 out of 5 jobs. Other jobs were located in engineering consulting firms, government agencies, or in manufacturing industries. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communities. However, those in re­ search and development, management, con­ sulting, or sales often are located in metro­ politan areas.  58/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Nuclear engineers held almost 14,000 jobs in 1986; almost one-fifth were in the Federal Gov­ ernment. Nearly half of all federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, about one-third worked for the Nu­ clear Regulatory Commission, and most of the rest worked for the Department of Energy or the Tennessee Valley Authority. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting com­ panies. Some worked for manufacturers of nu­ clear power equipment. Job Outlook Employment of nuclear engineers is expected to change little through the year 2000. Almost all job openings will result from the need to replace nuclear engineers who retire or leave the occupation. Despite the expected absence of growth, there are expected to be good op­ portunities for nuclear engineers because the number of new graduates with degrees in nu­ clear engineering is small and has been de­ clining recently. Because of concerns over the safety of nu­ clear power, few or no nuclear power plants are likely to be started before the year 2000. However, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate plants presently under construction. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to improve and enforce safety standards and to work in defense-related areas. Sources of Additional Information Employment of mining engineers is expected to remain level.  Job Outlook Employment of mining engineers is expected to remain level through the year 2000 due to expected low growth in demand for coal, met­ als, and other minerals. Most job openings will result from the need to replace the large pro­ portion of mining engineers who transfer to other occupations each year. In recent years, mining engineers have ex­ perienced poor employment opportunities be­ cause low prices for oil and metals have re­ duced coal, metal, and other mining. In the long run, prices of these commodities should increase to a level sufficient to increase output and employment opportunities, although the increase in demand for coal and, consequently, for mining engineers will depend, to a great extent, on the availability and price of other energy sources such as petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy as well as the price of coal in other countries. More technologically ad­ vanced mining systems and further enforce­ ment of mine health and safety regulations may also increase the need for mining engineers. As easily mined deposits are depleted, engi­ neers must devise more efficient methods for mining and processing low-grade ores. Em­ ployment opportunities also may rise as new alloys and new uses for minerals and metals increase the demand for less widely used ores.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information The Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Caller Number D, Littleton, CO 80127.  American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525. Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc., Public Affairs and Information Program, 7101 Wisconsin Ave., Wash­ ington, DC 20014.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Nuclear Engineers (D.O.T. 008.061-030; 015.061, .067. .137, and .167)  Nature of the Work Nuclear engineers design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to gen­ erate electricity and power Navy ships. They also conduct research on nuclear energy and radiation. For example, they may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy—or on breeder reactors or fusion energy. Some spec­ ialize in the development of nuclear weapons; others develop industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials.  Many nuclear engineers work for public util­ ities or engineering consulting companies.  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/59  Petroleum Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010 and -014, and .167)  Nature of the Work Most petroleum engineers explore and drill for oil and gas. Many petroleum engineers plan and supervise drilling operations. If the drilling is successful, petroleum engineers work to achieve the maximum profitable recovery of oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir by de­ termining and developing the most efficient production methods. Since only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods, such as flooding the oilfield with water to force more of the oil out of the reservoir. The best methods in use today recover only about half the oil in a reservoir. Petroleum engineers work to find ways to increase this proportion. Employment Petroleum engineers held almost 22,000 jobs in 1986, mostly in the petroleum industry and closely allied fields. Employers include major oil companies and hundreds of smaller, inde­ pendent oil exploration, production, and ser­ vice companies. Engineering consulting firms, government agencies, oilfield services, and equipment suppliers also employ petroleum en­ gineers. Others work as independent consult­ ants. Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are em­ ployed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California, including offshore sites. Also, many American petroleum engineers work overseas in oil-producing countries. Job Outlook Employment of petroleum engineers is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. With the drop in oil prices, domestic petroleum com­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Petroleum engineer examines drilling data on an offshore drilling rig. panies have sharply curtailed exploration and production activities, resulting in poor em­ ployment opportunities for recent petroleum engineering graduates. In the long run, how­ ever, it appears likely that the price of oil will increase to a level sufficient to increase explo­ ration and production, which would imply im­ proved employment prospects for petroleum engineers. Despite this expected employment growth, most job openings will result from the  need to replace petroleum engineers who trans­ fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information Society of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083.  (See introductory part of this section for in­ formation on training requirements and earn­ ings.)  Architects and surveyors Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-010 and .167-010)  Nature of the Work The design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Buildings must also be func­ tional, safe, and economical and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration when they design buildings. Architects provide a wide variety of profes­ sional services to individuals and organizations planning a building project. They may be in­ volved in all phases of development, from the initial discussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a variety of skills—design, engineering, man­ agerial, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the pur­ poses , requirements, and cost of a project. Based on the discussions, the architect prepares a pro­ gram—a report specifying the requirements the design must meet. The architect then prepares drawings presenting ideas for meeting the client’s needs. After the initial proposals are discussed and accepted, the architect develops final construc­ tion documents. These documents show the floor plans, elevations, building sections, and other construction details. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system; air-con­ ditioning, heating, and ventilating systems; electrical systems; plumbing; and possibly landscape plans. Architects also specify the building materials and, in some cases, the in­ terior furnishings. In developing designs, ar­ chitects follow building codes, zoning laws,  fire regulations, and other ordinances, such as those that require easy access by handicapped persons. Throughout the planning stage, the architect makes necessary changes. The architect may also assist the client in obtaining bids, selecting a contractor, and ne­ gotiating the construction contract. As con­ struction proceeds, the client may employ the architect to visit the building site to ensure that the contractor is following the design, using the specified materials, and meeting the spec­ ified standards for the quality of work. The job is not complete until all construction is fin­ ished, required tests are made, and construction costs are paid. Architects design a wide variety of build­ ings, such as churches, factories, hospitals, houses, office and apartment buildings, schools, and airport terminals. They also design mul­ tibuilding complexes such as urban renewal projects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Besides designing buildings, architects may select building sites, prepare cost and land-use studies, and do long-range planning for land development. On large projects or in large architectural firms, architects often specialize in one phase of the work, such as design or administering construction contracts. This often requires working with engineers, urban planners, in­ terior designers, landscape architects, and oth­ ers. Working Conditions Architects generally work in a comfortable en­ vironment. Most of their time is spent in offices advising clients, developing reports and draw­ ings, and working with other architects and engineers. However, they also often work at construction sites reviewing the progress of projects. Architects may work under great stress to meet deadlines, and working nights and week­ ends is common. Employment Architects held almost 84,000 jobs in 1986. Most jobs were in architectural firms—many of which employ fewer than five workers. Over one-third of all architects were self-employed. They practiced privately as partners in archi­ tectural firms or on their own. The remainder worked for builders, real estate developers, or other businesses that have large construction programs and for government agencies re­ sponsible for housing, planning, or community development such as the Departments of De­ fense, Interior, Housing and Urban Develop­ ment, and the General Services Administra­ tion. Most architects work in large cities, where many large architectural firms are located.  Architects spend much of their time consult­ ing with clients. 60   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be registered (licensed) before  they may call themselves architects or contract for providing architectural services. To qualify for the registration examination, a person gen­ erally must have at least a Bachelor of Archi­ tecture degree from a program accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board and 3 years of acceptable experience in an architect’s office. Many States have adopted standards for this 3-year period which are iden­ tical to the training and experience provided in the Intern Architect Development Program, an apprenticeship program for architects. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not registered. However, a registered architect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. In 1986, the National Architectural Ac­ crediting Board accredited the programs of 93 architecture schools. Most offer 5-year pro­ grams leading to the Bachelor of Architecture degree. Others offer 6-year Master of Archi­ tecture programs. In the 6-year programs, a non-professional bachelor’s degree is usually awarded after 4 years. Students also may trans­ fer to professional degree programs after com­ pleting a 2-year junior or community college program in architecture. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who already have a bachelor's degree in ar­ chitecture or other areas. Although graduate education is not essential for practicing archi­ tects, it is desirable for research, teaching, and certain specialties. A typical college architec­ ture program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, including its technical and legal aspects, and science and liberal arts. Contrary to what many believe, persons planning a career in architecture do not nec­ essarily need a high level of artistic or drawing ability. Although architects must be able to make drawings of proposed buildings, this is a skill which can be taught to most people. However, architects do need the ability to vis­ ualize spatial relationships and should have a capacity for solving technical problems. Math­ ematical ability is also important. Architects must be prepared to work in a competitive environment where leadership and ability to work with others are important. Students who work for architects, engineers, or building con­ tractors during summer vacations can gain use­ ful experience. New graduates usually begin in architectural firms, where they assist in preparing architec­ tural plans. They also may administer con­ struction contracts; do research on building codes and materials; or write specifications for building materials, the method of installation, the quality of finishes, and many other related details. Graduates with degrees in architecture also enter other related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design, urban planning, civil engineering, or construction. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some ar-  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/61  chitects become partners in established firms. Often, however, the goal of many architects is to have their own firm. Job Outlook Employment of architects is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, although growth in em­ ployment will be slower than in recent years. However, demand for architects is highly de­ pendent upon the level of construction, partic­ ularly of nonresidential structures such as office buildings and shopping centers. Although rapid growth in this area is expected, construction is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. During recessions or slow periods for construc­ tion, architects will face competition for job openings or clients, and layoffs may occur. Regardless of economic conditions, there will continue to be competition for jobs in the most prestigious firms which offer good potential for career advancement. Although the increas­ ing use of computer technologies such as com­ puter-aided design increases efficiency, em­ ployment is not expected to be adversely affected because computer technologies are being used to improve the quality of building designs rather than to reduce the need for ar­ chitects. Although employment is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, most job openings are expected to arise as architects transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings The median annual earnings for salaried ar­ chitects who worked full time were about $30,000 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,700 and $37,600. The top 10 per­ cent earned more than $51,100 and the lowest 10 percent, less than $16,200. Architects who are partners in well-estab­ lished architectural firms or solo practitioners generally earn much more than their salaried employees, but their income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. Architects may have difficulty getting established in their own practices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. In 1986, the average salary for architects working in the Federal Government was about $36,500. Related Occupations . Architects are concerned with the design and construction of buildings and related struc­ tures. Others who engage in similar work are landscape architects, building contractors, civil engineers, urban planners, interior designers, industrial designers, drafters, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in architec­ ture can be obtained from: Director, Education Programs, The American Insti­ tute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW.. Washington, DC 20006.  Specific questions on education for a career in architecture should be addressed to:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  a.... :■ ■  The time landscape architects spend in their offices is balanced by time spent visiting project sites. The Association of Collegiate Schools of Architec­ ture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Information about licensing and examination can be obtained from: The National Council of Architectural Registration Boards, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20006.  Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018)  Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residen­ tial areas, public parks, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional, but beautiful and environmentally appropriate as well. They may plan the location of build­ ings, roads, and walkways and the arrangement of flowers, shrubs, and trees and other features of open space. They also may redesign streets to limit automobile traffic and to improve pe­ destrian access and safety. Natural resource conservation and historic preservation are other important objectives to which landscape ar­ chitects may apply their knowledge of the en­ vironment as well as their design and artistic talents. Landscape architects are hired by many types of organizations—from real estate develop­ ment firms starting new projects to munici­ palities constructing airports or parks. They may be involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with archi­ tects and engineers, they help determine the optimal arrangement of roads and buildings. Once these decisions are made, landscape ar­ chitects create detailed plans indicating new topography, vegetation, walkways, and land­ scape amenities.  In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the nat­ ural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegeta­ tion. They observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from various angles. They assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utilities to the project. After studying and analyzing the site, they prepare sketches of what they feel the design should be. In order to account for the needs of the client as well as the conditions at the site, they may have to make numerous sketches. An increasing number of landscape architects are using computer-aided design systems to assist them in preparing their designs. Throughout all phases of the design, they consult with other professionals involved in the project. Once the landscape architects have completed their design, they prepare the pro­ posal for the client. They draw up detailed plans of the site that include written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use stud­ ies, and cost estimates. If the plans are ap­ proved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the meth­ ods of construction and draw up a list of nec­ essary materials. Although many landscape architects super­ vise the installation of their design, some are involved in the construction of the site. This usually is done by the developer or contractor. Some landscape architects work on a wide variety of projects. Others specialize in a par­ ticular area, such as residential development, historic landscape restoration, waterfront im­ provement projects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional planning and resource management; feasibil­ ity, environmental impact, and cost studies; or site construction. Landscape architects who work for govern­  62/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ment agencies do similar work at national parks, government buildings, and other governmentowned facilities. In addition, they may prepare environmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as land-use plan­ ning. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend much of their time in offices preparing drawings, models, and cost estimates and discussing projects with clients. But the time in the office is balanced by the time they spend outdoors, studying and plan­ ning sites and supervising landscape projects. Salaried employees in both government and landscape architectural firms usually work reg­ ular hours, although they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-em­ ployed landscape architects vary depending on the number of projects on which they are work­ ing. Employment Landscape architects held about 18,000 jobs in 1986. The majority worked for firms that provide landscape architecture services. Others were employed by architectural firms and con­ struction contractors. The Federal Government also employs these workers; most were found in the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Defense. About 1 of every 6 landscape archi­ tects was self-employed. Although they are found throughout the country, landscape architects are concentrated in areas with favorable weather conditions such as Florida, California, and Texas. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture, which takes 4 to 5 years, usually is the min­ imum educational requirement for entering the profession. Over the last few years, however, an increasing number have been entering the field with a master’s degree. In 1986, 45 colleges and universities offered 56 undergraduate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accredited by the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses in this field include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, computer techniques, struc­ tural design, and city and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape ar­ chitecture, plant and soil science, geology, de­ sign and color theory, and general manage­ ment. In addition, most students at the undergraduate level take a year of prerequisite courses such as English, mathematics, and so­ cial science. Increasingly, students are par­ ticipating in cooperative work/study programs that combine academic credit with practical work experience. Thirty-nine States require landscape archi­ tects to be licensed. Licensing is based on the UNE (Uniform National Examination) and ad­ mission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experience. Over a 3-day period, ex­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  aminees are tested on all aspects relating to landscape architecture. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture. In addition, previous work experience is helpful when looking for a job because of keen com­ petition. The Federal Government does not re­ quire its landscape architects to be licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape ar­ chitecture should appreciate nature, be crea­ tive, and have artistic talent. They should take high school courses in mechanical or geo­ metrical drawing, art, botany, and mathemat­ ics. Good written and oral communication skills are important, because these workers must be able to convey their ideas to other professionals and their clients and make presentations before large groups. Those interested in starting their own firm should be skilled in small business management. New graduates usually begin by preparing project drawings and doing other simple draft­ ing work. After gaining experience, they help prepare specifications and construction details and handle other aspects of project design. After 2 or 3 years, they usually can carry a design through all stages of development. After sev­ eral years, they may become associates, and from there they may become partners or open their own offices.  in well-established firms may earn much more than their salaried employees, but their in­ comes may fluctuate with changing business conditions. Those entering the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree in 1986 started at $14,800 or $18,400 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a master’s degree started at $18,400 or $22,500. In 1986, the average annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Government was about $36,600. Because many work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less gen­ erous than those of other workers with similar skills who work for large organizations. With the exception of those who are self-employed, however, most landscape architects receive health insurance, paid vacations, and sick leave.  Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is ex­ pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. De­ spite this growth, most job openings are ex­ pected to result from the need to replace ex­ perienced landscape architects who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The level of new construction plays an im­ portant role in determining demand for land­ scape architects. Anticipated growth in con­ struction is expected to increase demand for landscape architectural services over the long run. Because of the cyclical nature of the con­ struction industry, however, landscape archi­ tects may be laid off during economic down­ turns. Other factors expected to contribute to the growth of landscape architects are the need to refurbish existing sites and increased city and environmental planning and historic preser­ vation. Although landscape architects are increas­ ingly using computer-aided design, employ­ ment is not expected to be affected because this technology will be used to create more and better designs rather than reduce the demand for landscape architects.  American Society of Landscape Architects, 1733 ” Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  Earnings According to limited data, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture usually started at about $18,000 in 1986; those with a master’s degree at about $22,000. Al­ though salaries for experienced landscape ar­ chitects varied by location and experience, they generally earned between $25,000 and $50,000 per year. In addition, those who are partners  Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design theory and land use planning to develop a composite landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, in­ terior and industrial designers, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of col­ leges and universities offering accredited pro­ grams in landscape architecture, is available from:  Surveyors (D.O.T. 018.131, .167 except -022, .261, .262-010, .281; 024.061-014; and 184.167-026)  Nature of the Work This statement covers three groups of workers involved with measuring and mapping the earth’s surface. Land surveyors establish of­ ficial land and water boundaries, write descrip­ tions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents, and measure construction and min­ eral sites. They are assisted by survey tech­ nicians, who operate surveying instruments and collect information. Mapping scientists and other surveyors collect information for and pre­ pare maps and charts. Land surveyors manage one or more survey parties engaged in measuring distances, direc­ tions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s surface. To establish official boundaries, they must be licensed by the State they work in. They plan the fieldwork, select survey refer­ ence points, and determine the precise location of natural and constructed features of the sur­ vey project area. They research legal records and look for evidence of previous boundaries. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plats, maps, and reports. The information needed by the land surveyor is gathered by a survey party. A typical survey  Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/63  party is made up of the party chief and several survey technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a land surveyor or a senior survey technician, leads the day-to-day work activities of the party. The party chief is as­ sisted by survey technicians, who adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theo­ dolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic distance measuring equipment. Survey technicians also record the data obtained from using these instruments into computers. Other survey technicians hold the vertical rods that the theodolite operator sights on to measure vertical distances. They may also hold measuring tapes and chains if elec­ tronic distance measuring equipment is not used. Survey technicians also compile notes and sketches. Some survey parties include workers who may be considered laborers or helpers rather than survey technicians. They clear brush from sight lines, pound stakes, carry equip­ ment, and perform other less skilled duties. The work of mapping scientists, like that of land surveyors, involves measuring, mapping, and charting the earth’s surface but generally concerns much larger areas. Unlike land sur­ veyors, many mapping scientists work mainly in offices and may seldom or never visit the sites they are mapping. Mapping scientists in­ clude workers in several occupations. Cartog­ raphers prepare maps using information pro­ vided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare maps and drawings by measuring and inter­ preting aerial photographs, using analytical processes and mathematical formulas. Photo­ grammetrists are able to make detailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Mosaicists and map editors help develop and verify map contents from aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some surveyors perform specialized func­ tions. Geodetic surveyors use special high-ac­ curacy techniques, including satellite obser­ vations, to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum related. Marine surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bot­ tom, water depth, and other features. Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer months, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. The work of land surveyors and technicians is active and sometimes strenuous. They often stand for long periods and walk long distances or climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. They also are exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally, they must commute long distances or find temporary housing near the survey site. They also spend considerable time on office duties, such as planning surveys and preparing reports, com­ putations, and maps. Most computations and map drafting are done by using a computer.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A survey technician uses a theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles. Mapping scientists, in contrast, mainly work in offices and usually do not experience the variable working conditions of other surveyors. Employment Surveyors held about 94,000 jobs in 1986. En­ gineering, architectural, and surveying firms employ over one-half of all surveyors. Federal, State, and local government agencies employ about one-fourth. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service, the National Ocean Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors in State and local gov­ ernment agencies work for highway depart­ ments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Construction firms, oil and gas ex­ traction companies, and public utilities also employ surveyors. About 8,000 surveyors were self-employed in 1986. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare for surveying work by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job training. Some prepare by obtaining a college degree because some States now require a 4-year de­ gree to be licensed as a surveyor. A few 4year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees specif­ ically in surveying, while many others offer several courses in the field. Junior and com­  munity colleges, technical institutes, and vo­ cational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year pro­ grams in surveying technology. High school students interested in a career in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. High school graduates with no formal train­ ing in surveying usually start as a member of a survey crew. After several years of on-thejob experience and formal training in survey­ ing—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—workers may ad­ vance to survey technician, then to party chief, and finally to licensed surveyor (depending on State licensing requirements). Beginners with postsecondary school train­ ing in surveying can generally start as tech­ nicians. After gaining experience, they may advance through the technician ranks to land surveyor. Promotions to higher level positions often are based on written examinations as well as experience. Cartographers and photogrammetrists usu­ ally have a bachelor’s degree in engineering or a physical science, although it is possible to enter these jobs through experience as a photogrammetric or cartographic technician. Most cartographic and photogrammetry tech­ nicians have had some specialized postsec­ ondary school training. All 50 States license land surveyors. Re­ quirements for licensure vary among the States.  64/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Generally, the quickest route to licensure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience, and passing the State licensing examination. As a prerequisite to licensure, some States now require a bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely related field such as civil engineering or forestry with courses in surveying. A few States allow such graduates to take the licensing examination without ex­ perience in the field. In most States, however, persons without a degree may qualify to take the examination after 5 to 12 years of surveying experience. Surveyors should have the ability to visu­ alize objects, distances, sizes, and other ab­ stract forms. Also, because mistakes can be very costly, surveyors must make mathemat­ ical calculations accurately while paying close attention to the smallest detail. Leadership qualities are important for surveyors who su­ pervise others. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate over great distances by hand or voice signals. Job Outlook Employment of surveyors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to openings   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  arising from growth in the demand for these workers, many will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The anticipated growth in construction should create additional jobs for surveyors who lay out streets, shopping centers, housing devel­ opments, factories, office buildings, and rec­ reation areas. Construction and improvement of the Nation’s roads and highways also should create new surveying positions. However, em­ ployment may fluctuate from year to year be­ cause construction activity is highly sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Some growth in employment of mapping scientists and other surveyors may occur in private firms; little or no growth is expected in the Federal Government. Earnings In 1986, the median annual earnings for survey technicians who worked full time year round were about $19,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,600 and $26,400 a year; 10 percent earned less than $11,400 a year; and 10 percent earned more than $36,200. In 1987, high school graduates with little or no training or experience earned about $10,816 annually at entry level jobs on survey crews with the Federal Government. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary training earned $11,802. Those with an associate degree that  included courses in surveying generally started as instrument assistants with an annual salary of $13,248. The average annual salary for Fed­ eral surveying technicians in 1986 was $18,262. In 1987, persons starting as land surveyors or cartographers with the Federal Government earned $14,822 or $18,358 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average annual sal­ ary for Federal land surveyors in 1986 was $29,900 and, for cartographers, $30,900. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil en­ gineers and architects, since an accurate survey is the first step in a construction project. Map­ ping science and geodetic surveying are related to the work of geologists and geophysicists, who study the earth’s internal composition, surface, and atmosphere. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, licen­ sure requirements, and schools that offer train­ ing in surveying is available from: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, VA 22046.  General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 210 Little Falls St.. Falls Church, VA 22046.  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists Computer, mathematical, and operations research occupations Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010)  Nature of the Work Why do young drivers pay more for automobile insurance than older drivers'? How much should an insurance policy cost? How much should an organization contribute each year to its pen­ sion fund? Answers to these and similar ques­ tions are provided by actuaries, who design insurance and pension plans and keep informed on their operation to make sure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis. Actu­ aries assemble and analyze statistics to cal­ culate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemployment, retirement, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other hazards. They use this information to determine the expected insured loss. For ex­ ample, they may calculate how many persons who are 21 years old today can be expected to die before age 65—the probability that an in­ sured person might die during this period is a risk to the company. They must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. Finally, this price must be profit­ able and yet be competitive with other insur­ ance companies. In a similar manner, the ac­ tuary calculates premium rates and determines policy contract provisions for each type of in­ surance offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a growing num­ ber specialize in pension plans. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep informed about general economic and social trends and legislative, health, and other developments that may affect insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of insurance, company actuaries may work in investment, group underwriting, or pension planning departments. Actuaries in executive positions help determine company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to company exec­ utives, government officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  insurance business, for example, or explain intended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. They also may help companies de­ velop plans to enter new lines of business. The small number of actuaries who work for the Federal Government usually deal with a particular insurance or pension program, such as Social Security or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government are usually employed by State insurance departments that regulate in­ surance companies, oversee the operations of State retirement or pension systems, handle unemployment insurance or workers’ compen­ sation problems, and assess the impact of pro­ posed legislation. They might determine whether the rates charged by an insurance com­ pany are proper or whether an employee bpnefit plan is financially sound. Consulting actuaries provide actuarial ad­ vice for a fee to various clients including in­ surance companies, corporations, hospitals, la­ bor unions, government agencies, and attorneys. Consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans, calculate future benefits, and determine the amount of employer contributions. Con­  sulting actuaries may be called upon to testify in court regarding the value of potential lifetime earnings lost by a person who has been disabled or killed in an accident, the current value of future pension benefits in divorce cases, or the calculation of automobile insurance rates. Ac­ tuaries who are enrolled under the provisions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate these pension plans and report on their financial soundness. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require no un­ usual physical activity; their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. They generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week except during busy periods, when overtime may be required, and they may be required to travel to branch offices of their company or to clients. Employment Actuaries held about 9,400 jobs in 1986. Many worked in insurance company headquarters in New York, Hartford, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. Most of these worked for life insurance com-  Actuaries assemble and analyze statistical data to assess the insurer’s risk. 65  66/Occupational Outlook Handbook  panics; others worked for property and liability (casualty) companies. The number of actuaries employed by an insurance company depends on its volume of business and the types of insurance policies it offers. Large companies may employ over 100 actuaries; others, gen­ erally smaller companies, may rely instead on consulting firms, accounting firms, or rating bureaus (associations that supply actuarial data to member companies). Other actuaries work for private organizations administering inde­ pendent pension and welfare plans or for gov­ ernment agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty company is a bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics or statistics; a degree in actuarial science is even better. Some companies hire applicants with a major in engineering, economics, or business administration, provided the applicant has a working knowledge of mathematics, in­ cluding calculus, probability, and statistics. Courses in accounting, computer science, and insurance also are useful. Companies prefer well-rounded individuals with a liberal arts background, including social science and com­ munication, and a good technical and business background. Although only about 30 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial sci­ ence, hundreds of schools offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is es­ sential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, one or more of the examinations offered by professional actuarial societies. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in their specialty. The So­ ciety of Actuaries gives 10 actuarial exami­ nations for the life and health insurance and pension field; the Casualty Actuarial Society gives 10 examinations for the property and liability field. Because the first parts of the examination series of each society cover sim­ ilar materials, students need not commit them­ selves to a specialty until they have taken three examinations. These test competence in sub­ jects such as linear algebra, numerical meth­ ods, operations research, probability, calculus, and statistics. These first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries, and those who pass usually have better op­ portunities for employment and higher starting salaries. The American Society of Pension Actuaries gives seven examinations covering the pension field. Membership status requires the passage of two actuarial exams. Fellowship status re­ quires the passage of three actuarial and two advanced consulting exams. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of examinations as soon as pos­ sible; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Many students pass two or more actu­ arial examinations before graduating from col­ lege. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required to pass the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  advanced examinations; many actuaries study for several months to prepare for an exami­ nation. Actuaries who complete five exami­ nations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examinations in the casualty series are awarded “associate” mem­ bership in their society. Those who pass an entire series receive full membership and the title “fellow.” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and certify their solvency must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for en­ rollment must meet certain experience and ed­ ucation requirements as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs to learn various actuarial operations and dif­ ferent phases of insurance work. At first, they prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or per­ form other simple tasks. As they gain expe­ rience, they may supervise clerks, prepare cor­ respondence and reports, and do research. Advancement to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries who have a broad knowledge of the insurance, pen­ sion, and employee benefits fields often ad­ vance to top administrative and executive po­ sitions in underwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Job Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, are expected to arise each year to replace actuaries who transfer to other occu­ pations, or retire or stop working for other reasons. Job opportunities should be favorable for college graduates who have passed at least two actuarial examinations while still in school and have a strong mathematical and statistical background. Employment in this occupation is influenced by the volume of insurance sales and pension plans, which should continue to grow through the end of this century. Shifts in the age dis­ tribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people with estab­ lished careers and family responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. As people live longer, they draw health and pension benefits for a longer period, and more actuaries are needed to recalculate the proba­ bilities of such factors as death, sickness, and length of retirement. As insurance companies branch out into more than one kind of insurance coverage, more actuaries will be needed to establish rates. Growth in new forms of pro­ tection, such as dental, legal, and kidnap in­ surance, also will stimulate demand. The in­ crease in the number of mergers and acquisitions and the passage of legislation on tax reform will spur demand for actuaries to evaluate the financial condition and investment portfolios of firms. As more States pass competitive rat­ ing laws, many companies that previously re­  lied on rating bureaus for actuarial data may create their own actuarial departments or use the services of consulting actuaries. The liability of companies for damage re­ sulting from their products has received much attention in recent years. Actuaries will con­ tinue to be involved in the development of product liability insurance, as well as medical malpractice and workers’ compensation cov­ erage. Insurance coverage is considered a necessity by most individuals and businesses, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, actuaries are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings In 1986, new college graduates entering the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged about $19,000$24,000, according to estimates by the Society of Actuaries. Beginners who had completed the first exam received between $21,000 and $25,000, and those who had passed the second exam averaged between $23,000 and $26,000, depending on geographic location. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Actuaries who became associates in 1986 averaged be­ tween $32,000 and $45,000 a year; actuaries who became fellows during that year averaged between $44,000 and $55,000. Fellows with additional years of experience can earn sub­ stantially more—top actuarial executives re­ ceived salaries of $60,000 a year and higher. Related Occupations Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics in their day-to-day work. Other workers whose jobs involve similar skills include mathema­ ticians, statisticians, economists, financial an­ alysts, and engineering analysts. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial qualifications and op­ portunities, contact: American Academy of Actuaries, 1720 I St. NW., 7th Floor, Washington, DC 20006. American Society of Pension Actuaries, 2029 K St. NW., 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20006. Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250 West 34th St., New York, NY 10119. Society of Actuaries, 500 Park Blvd., Suite 440, Itasca, IL 60143.  Computer Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 012.167-066; 020.062-010, .067-010, and .224­ 010; and 109.067-010)  Nature of the Work Systems analysts plan and develop methods for computerizing business and scientific tasks or for improving computer systems already in use. They may work for the organization that wants to install a system or for a consulting firm that develops systems under contract.  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/67  Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers or specialists to determine the exact nature of the problem and to break it down into its com­ ponent parts. If a retail chain wishes to com­ puterize its inventory system, for example, sys­ tems analysts will determine what information must be collected, how it is to be processed, and the type and frequency of reports to be produced. After they have defined the goals of the system, they use techniques such as math­ ematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Once a design for the system has been de­ veloped, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They also may prepare a cost-benefit and retum-on-investment analysis to help management decide whether the proposed system is satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts may determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set up the system. They also prepare specifications for program­ mers to follow and work with them to “debug,” or eliminate errors from the system. (The work of computer programmers is described else­ where in the Handbook.) The analyst also would design any forms required to collect data and distribute information. Because the possible uses for computers are so varied and complex, analysts usually spec­ ialize in either business, scientific, or engi­ neering applications. Often, they have training or experience in the field in which they develop computer systems. Some analysts improve systems already in use by developing better procedures or adapt­ ing the system to handle additional types of data. Others do research, called advanced sys­ tems design, to devise new methods of systems analysis. A growing number of systems analysts are involved with connecting all the computers in an individual office, department, or establish­ ment. This “networking” has many variations; they may be called local area networks, wide area networks, or multiuser systems. A primary goal of networking is to allow users of micro­ computers (also known as personal computers or PC’s) to retrieve data from a mainframe computer and use it on their machine. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from the PC. Working Conditions Systems analysts work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office workers. Occasionally, however, eve­ ning or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines. Employment Systems analysts held about 331,000 jobs in 1986. Most systems analysts work in urban areas for data processing service firms, gov­ ernment agencies, insurance companies, banks, and firms that manufacture durable goods. Jobs for systems analysts are found through­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  iiiii  y  y  Systems analysts integrate hardware and software into a computer system. out the country. Compared to the total work force, a larger proportion of system analysts work in the Northeast and West, reflecting the concentration of computer manufacturing and data processing service firms in these regions. A small but growing number of systems an­ alysts are employed on a temporary basis. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several sys­ tems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract either directly with the systems ana­ lysts themselves or with a temporary help agency. The company would contract for their services for the duration of the contract; tem­ porary jobs usually are for several months at least, and some last up to 2 years or more. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally accepted way of pre­ paring for a job as a systems analyst because employers’ preferences depend on the work being done. However, college graduates al­ most always are sought for these jobs; and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Employers usu­ ally want analysts with a background in ac­ counting or business management for work in a business environment, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scien­ tifically oriented organizations. Many employ­ ers seek applicants who have a degree in com­ puter science, information science, computer information systems, or data processing. Re­ gardless of college major, employers look for people who are familiar with programming lan­ guages. Courses in computer concepts, sys­ tems analysis, and data base management sys­ tems offer good preparation for a job in this field. Prior work experience is very important. The majority of persons entering this occupation  transfer from another occupation, such as en­ gineer, manager, or computer programmer. Systems analysts must be able to think log­ ically, have good communication skills, and like working with ideas and people. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously. The ability to concentrate and pay close atten­ tion to detail also is important. Although sys­ tems analysts often work independently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with tech­ nical personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with people who have no computer background. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is nec­ essary to keep skills up to date. Training usu­ ally takes the form of 1- and 2-week courses offered by employers and software vendors. Additional training may come from profes­ sional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. Certification is an indication of experience and professional competence. The designations Certified Data Processor and Certified Systems Professional are conferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have 5 years of experience and who have passed a five-part examination. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Those who show leadership ability also can advance to jobs as managers of data processing departments. Systems analysts with several years of experience may start their own computer consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of systems analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The de­ mand for systems analysts is expected to rise as advances in technology lead to new appli­ cations for computers. Factory and office au­ tomation, advances in telecommunications  68/Occupational Outlook Handbook  technology, and scientific research are just a few areas where use of computer systems will expand. In addition, falling prices of computer hardware and software are inducing more small businesses to computerize their operations, thus stimulating demand for systems analysts. De­ spite this rapid growth in employment, most job openings will result from the need to re­ place workers who leave the occupation—al­ though a smaller proportion of systems analysts than of all professional workers leave their oc­ cupation each year. Most of the systems an­ alysts who leave the occupation transfer to other jobs such as manager or engineer. College graduates who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other data processing areas as well as training or experience in an applied field should enjoy the best prospects for employment. Persons without a college degree and college graduates unfamiliar with data processing will face stiff competition from the large number of expe­ rienced workers seeking jobs as systems ana­ lysts. Earnings Median annual earnings of systems analysts who worked full time in 1986 were about $32,800. The middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $25,600 and $41,300 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,200; the high­ est tenth, more than $51,300. In the Federal Government, the entrance sal­ ary for recent college graduates with a bach­ elor’s degree was about $14,800 a year in 1987. The average annual salary for systems analysts in the Federal Government was about $32,700 in 1986. Systems analysts working in the Northeast had the highest earnings and those in the Mid­ west, the lowest. Salaries tend to be highest in mining and public utilities and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Related Occupations Other workers who use logic and reasoning ability to solve problems are programmers, fi­ nancial analysts, urban planners, engineers, mathematicians, operations research analysts, scientists, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the occupation of systems analyst is available from; Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, OH 44138.  Mathematicians (D.O.T. 020.067-014, .187-018; 199.267-014)  Nature of the Work Mathematicians work in one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Mathematicians today are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories and tech­ niques to the translation of economic, scien­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ■  ....  r  •« T  / ■ ^ 1 f  M  ’-‘iJ  .. .'■VV's? -V ; I: II  l:jj : ; ■ aiisi  nitii  JlilUj  n Mathematicians develop quantitative models of economic interrelationships. tific, and managerial problems into mathe­ matical terms. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: Theoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance math­ ematical science by developing new principles and new relationships between existing prin­ ciples of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and ab­ stract knowledge has been instrumental in pro­ ducing many scientific and engineering achievements. Applied mathematicians use mathematics to develop theories and techniques, such as math­ ematical modeling, to solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, they may analyze the mathematical aspects of launching communications satellites, the ef­ fects of new drugs on disease, the aerodynamic characteristics of objects, and the distribution costs of businesses. Applied mathematicians use computers extensively to solve complex problems and to process large amounts of data. Much work in applied mathematics, how­ ever, is carried on by persons other than math­ ematicians. In fact, the number of workers us­ ing mathematical techniques is many times greater than the number actually designated as mathematicians. Working Conditions Mathematicians working for government agen­ cies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may work alone with only computers, calculators, and mathematical for­ mulas as company. Or they may be an integral part of a research team that includes engineers, computer scientists, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for informa­ tion, and travel to attend seminars or confer­ ences may be part of their jobs.  Mathematics faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administrative re­ sponsibilities. Employment Mathematicians held about 20,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 29,000 persons held math­ ematics faculty positions in colleges and uni­ versities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most mathematicians worked in the govern­ ment—primarily Federal—and in service and manufacturing industries. The Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer of mathematicians. Smaller numbers work for the National Aeronautics and Space Administra­ tion and the Department of Commerce. Major employers within the services sector were mis­ cellaneous business services, including re­ search and development laboratories; educa­ tional services; computer and data processing services; noncommercial educational and re­ search organizations; and engineering, archi­ tectural, and surveying services. Within man­ ufacturing, the aircraft and office, computing, and accounting machine industries provided the most jobs. Many mathematicians also worked for banks, insurance companies, and public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An advanced degree is the preferred require­ ment for beginning teaching jobs, as well as for most research positions. However, in most 4-year colleges and universities, the Ph.D. de­ gree is necessary for full faculty status. The master’s degree is generally the minimum re­ quirement for teaching jobs in 2-year and some small 4-year colleges. A bachelor’s degree is considered adequate preparation for some jobs in private industry and government. Individuals with this back­ ground usually assist senior mathematicians by  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/69  performing computations and solving less ad­ vanced problems in applied mathematics. The majority of bachelor’s degree holders work in related fields such as computer science, where employment opportunities are rapidly expand­ ing. However, an advanced degree is a pre­ requisite for the more responsible positions. Many research positions require the doctorate. The bachelor’s degree in mathematics is of­ fered by most colleges and universities. Math­ ematics courses usually required for a degree are analytical geometry, calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numer­ ical analysis, modem algebra, and mathemat­ ical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students majoring in mathe­ matics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineering, operations research, a physical science, or economics. A double major in mathematics and computer sci­ ence or mathematics and statistics is particu­ larly desirable. A prospective college mathe­ matics student should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. About 470 colleges and universities offer the master’s degree in mathematics; over 200 also offer the Ph.D. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually in a specific field of mathematics such as algebra, mathematical analysis, or geome­ try. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which applied mathematics is used extensively include phys­ ics, actuarial science, engineering, and oper­ ations research; of increasing importance are computer and information science, business and industrial management, economics, statistics, chemistry and life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. Mathematicians should have substantial knowledge of computer programming since most complex mathematical computation is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning abil­ ity, persistence, and the ability to apply basic principles to new types of problems. They must be able to communicate well since they often need to discuss the problem to be solved with nonmathematicians. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace experienced mathematicians who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The shortage of Ph.D.’s in mathematics is expected to continue, resulting in favorable employment opportunities. In industry, holders of the doctorate in applied mathematics have better employment prospects than their theo­ retically oriented colleagues. Holders of the doctorate in theoretical mathematics should continue to have good opportunities for teach­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ing and research jobs in colleges and univer­ sities. Industry and government agencies will need mathematicians for work in operations re­ search, mathematical modeling, aerodynam­ ics, numerical analysis, computer systems de­ sign and programming, information and data processing, applied mathematical physics, ro­ botics, market research, commercial surveys, and as consultants in industrial laboratories. Holders of a master’s degree in mathematics may have difficulty finding a job in college teaching or theoretical research. However, there will be many openings in related areas such as computer science and data processing. Bachelor’s degree holders in mathematics with a strong background—preferably a sec­ ond major—in computer science should have very good opportunities in computerized data processing activities in industry. Those who meet State certification requirements may be­ come high school mathematics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1986 College Placement Coun­ cil Survey, starting salary offers for mathe­ matics graduates with a bachelor’s degree av­ eraged about $24,400 a year; for those with a master’s degree, $30,600; and for new grad­ uates having the Ph.D., $39,500. Starting sal­ aries were generally higher in industry than in government or educational institutions. In the Federal Government in 1987, the av­ erage starting salary for mathematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no experience was either $14,800 or $18,400 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the mas­ ter’s degree averaged $22,500 or $27,200; and persons having the Ph.D. degree started at either $27,200 or $32,600. The average salary for all mathematicians in the Federal Government was about $38,100 in 1986. According to a 1985 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of mathematicians with a doctoral degree was $41,800; in business and industry, $51,200; in educational institutions, $40,200; and in the Federal Government, $48,300. Related Occupations A degree in mathematics generally qualifies one to enter related occupations such as ac­ tuary, statistician, computer programmer, sys­ tems analyst, and operations research analyst. In addition, a strong background in mathe­ matics facilitates employment in fields such as engineering, economics, finance, and genetics. Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available that give facts about the field of mathematics, including career opportunities, professional training, and col­ leges and universities with degree programs. Seeking Employment in the Mathematical Sciences is available for $2 from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, RI 02940.  Professional Opportunities in Mathematics is available for $2 from; Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For specific information on careers in ap­ plied mathematics, contact: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1400 Architects Building, 117 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.  For information on a career as a mathemat­ ical statistician, contact; Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hayward, CA 94545.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State em­ ployment service and the U.S. Office of Per­ sonnel Management or from Federal Job In­ formation Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Operations Research Analysts (D.O.T. 020.067-018)  Nature of the Work Each organization has its own way of doing things. But is it the best way? Operations re­ search analysts help organizations operate in the most efficient and effective manner. They accomplish this by applying the scientific method and mathematical principles to orga­ nizational problems so that managers can eval­ uate policy alternatives and choose the course of action that suits them best. Operations research analysts are problem solvers. The problems they tackle are for the most part those encountered in businesses or large organizations: Inventory control, person­ nel schedules, forecasting, resource allocation, product mix, and distribution systems. The method they use generally revolves about a mathematical model or set of equations that explains how things happen within the repre­ sented system. Models are simplified repre­ sentations that enable the analyst to break down systems into their component parts, assign nu­ merical values to each component, and ex­ amine the mathematical relationships between them. These values can be altered to determine what will happen to the system under different sets of circumstances. Different types of models include simulation, linear programming, and game theory models. Because many of these techniques have been computerized, analysts need to be able to write computer programs or use existing ones. The type of problem they usually handle varies by industry. For example, an analyst in a bank might deal with branch location, check processing, and personnel schedules, while an  70/Occupational Outlook Handbook  they work on projects that are of immediate interest to management. In these circum­ stances, analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and may work more than a 40hour week. The work is sedentary in nature, and very little physical strength or stamina is required. Employment Operations research analysts held about 38,000 jobs in 1986. Operations research analysts are employed in most industries. Major employers include manufacturers of chemicals, machin­ ery, and transportation equipment; firms pro­ viding transportation and telephone commu­ nications services; public utilities; banks; insurance agencies; and government agencies at all levels. Some analysts work for manage­ ment consulting agencies that develop opera­ tions research applications for firms that do not have an in-house operations research staff. Most analysts in the Federal Government work for the Armed Forces.  I . JS/'  Working to improve productivity and performance is the primary goal. analyst employed by a hospital would concen­ trate on a different set of problems—sched­ uling admissions, managing patient flow, as­ signing shifts, monitoring use of pharmacy and laboratory services, and forecasting demand for new hospital services. The role of the operations research analyst varies according to the structure and manage­ ment philosophy of the firm, and the operations research function is incorporated into organi­ zations in a variety of ways. Some firms cen­ tralize operations research in one department; others disperse operations research personnel throughout all divisions of the firm. Moreover, some operations research analysts specialize in one type of application; others are generalists. The degree of supervision also varies by organizational structure. In some organiza­ tions, analysts have a great deal of professional autonomy; other analysts are more closely su­ pervised. Operations research analysts work closely with managers, who have a wide va­ riety of support needs, and occasionally ana­ lysts must adapt their work to reflect these requirements. Regardless of the industry or structure of the organization, operations research entails a sim­ ilar set of procedures. Managers begin the pro­ cess by describing the symptoms of a problem to the analyst. The analyst then defines the problem, which sometimes is general in nature and at other times specific. For example, an operations research analyst for an auto man­ ufacturer may want to determine the best in­ ventory level for each of the materials for a new production process or, more specifically, to determine just how much steel should be stocked. After analysts define the problem, they learn everything they can about it. They typically begin by breaking down the problem into its component parts. They often create flow charts to pinpoint possible bottlenecks in a process. After this is done, they gather information about each part of the process. Usually this involves  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  consulting a wide variety of personnel. To de­ termine the most efficient amount of steel to be kept on hand, for example, operations re­ search analysts might talk with engineers about production levels; discuss purchasing arrange­ ments with industrial buyers; and examine data on storage costs provided by the accounting department. With this information in hand, the operations research analyst is ready to select the most appropriate analytical technique. For some problems, there may be several techniques that could be used. For other problems, there may be one standard model or technique that is used in all instances. In a few cases, the analyst must construct an original model to examine and explain the system. In almost all cases, the selected model must be modified to reflect the specific circumstances of the situation. A model for the inventory of steel, for ex­ ample, might take into account the amount of steel required to produce a unit of output, the projected level of output, the cost of steel, and storage costs. The analyst plugs in values for these variables and runs the program to produce the best inventory level consistent with these assumptions. The analyst would probably make several runs of the model in order to ascertain the best inventory level under different sets of assumptions. At this point, the operations research analyst presents the final work to management and may make a recommendation. Flowever, the man­ ager is given all of the runs and may request additional runs based on different assumptions. After reviewing the work, managers assume responsibility for the final decision. Once a decision has been reached, the analyst works with the staff to ensure successful implemen­ tation.  Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an office environment. Usually  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers look for college graduates who have a strong background in quantitative methods, including computer programming. In 1986, about 120 colleges and universities offered de­ gree programs in operations research and re­ lated disciplines. Employers generally prefer applicants with a graduate degree in operations research or management science, business administration, computer science, or other quantitative disciplines. But those with a bach­ elor’s degree in operations research, mathe­ matics, statistics, economics, or other majors with a heavy emphasis on quantitative methods are considered fully qualified for entry level positions. Regardless of educational background or prior work experience, the employer usually plays a large role in the training process. New workers typically participate in on-the-job training programs—working closely with ex­ perienced workers until they become profi­ cient. Generally they help senior analysts gather information and run computer programs. The organization also sponsors skill improvement training for experienced workers—helping them keep up with new developments in operations research techniques as well as advances in computer science. Some analysts attend col­ lege and university classes on these subjects. Operations research analysts must be able to think logically and work well with people. Thus, employers prefer workers with good oral and written communication skills. The computer is an important tool for quantitative analysis, and programming experience in the scientific lan­ guages (Pascal and Fortran) is useful. Beginning analysts usually do routine work under the close supervision of experienced an­ alysts. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more complex tasks, with greater autonomy to design models and solve problems. Operations research analysts ad­ vance by assuming positions as technical spe­ cialists or supervisors. The skills acquired by  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/71  operations research analysts are useful for up­ per level jobs in an organization, and experi­ enced analysts with leadership potential may leave the field altogether to assume nontech­ nical managerial or administrative positions.  Job Outlook Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the increasing importance of quantitative analysis in decisionmaking. In addition to jobs arising from the increased demand for these workers, many openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. More and more organizations are using op­ erations research techniques to improve pro­ ductivity and reduce costs. This reflects grow­ ing acceptance of a systematic approach to decisionmaking as well as more affordable computers, which give even small firms access to operations research applications. The inter­ play of these two trends should greatly stim­ ulate demand for these workers in the years ahead. Much of the job growth is expected to occur in the trade and service sectors, where firms have been slow to adopt operations research methods. Increasingly, however, firms in these sectors are coming to recognize that quanti­ tative analysis can achieve dramatic improve­ ments in operating efficiency and profitability. More retailers, for example, are using opera­ tions research to design store layouts, select the best store location, analyze customer char­ acteristics, and control inventory, among other things. Motel chains are beginning to utilize operations research analysis to improve their efficiency. For example, they analyze auto­ mobile traffic patterns and customer attitudes to determine location, size, and style of new motels. Firms in other service industries also are beginning to hire operations research an­ alysts, and this trend is expected to continue. Like other management support functions, op­ erations research is spread by its own success. When one firm in an industry increases pro­ ductivity by adopting a new procedure, its competitors usually follow. This competitive pressure will contribute to demand for opera­ tions research analysts. Demand should be strong in the manufac­ turing sector as firms expand existing opera­ tions research staffs in the face of growing foreign competition. More and more manu­ facturers are using mathematical models to study parts of the organization for the first time. For example, analysts will be needed to determine the best way to distribute finished products and to find out where sales offices should be based. In addition, increasing factory automation will require more operations research analysts to alter existing models or develop new ones for production layout, robotics installation, work schedules, and inventory control. Little change is expected in the number of operations research analysts working for the Federal Government.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Median annual earnings for operations research analysts were about $32,000 a year in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $25,700 and $41,400 annually. The top 10 percent earned over $51,700; the bottom 10 percent earned less than $20,800 a year. In the Federal Government, the starting an­ nual salary for operations research analysts was about $14,800 in 1987. Candidates with a su­ perior academic record could begin at $ 18,400. Operations research analysts employed by the Federal Government averaged $37,400 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply mathemat­ ical principles to industrial problems. Workers in other occupations that stress quantitative analysis include computer scientists, applied mathematicians, statisticians, and economists. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for oper­ ations research analysts and a booklet, Edu­ cational Programs in Operations Research, are available from: The Operations Research Society of America, Mount Royal and Guilford Ave., Baltimore, MD 21202.  For information on careers in the Armed Forces and Department of Defense, contact: Military Operations Research Society. 101 South Whiting St., Suite 202, Alexandria, VA 22304.  Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-022, ,167-026)  Nature of the Work Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data. Statisti­ cians design, carry out, and interpret the nu­ merical results of surveys and experiments. In doing so, they apply their knowledge of sta­ tistical methods to a particular subject area, such as biology, economics, engineering, med­ icine, or psychology. They may use statistical techniques to predict population growth or eco­ nomic conditions, develop quality control tests for manufactured products, assess the nature of environmental problems, analyze legal and social problems, or help business managers and government officials make decisions and eval­ uate the results of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain accurate information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, of the group. For example, to determine the size of the total audience, television rating ser­ vices ask only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers, what programs they watch. Statisticians decide where and how to get the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instruc­ tions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Statisticians use computers exten­  sively to process large amounts of data for statistical modeling and graphic analysis. Since statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is difficult to distinguish statis­ ticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in of­ fices. Some statisticians may travel occasion­ ally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statistical data. Some may have fairly repetitive tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks, such as in designing experiments. Employment Statisticians held about 18.000 jobs in 1986. Most of these jobs were in industry, primarily in manufacturing, finance, and insurance com­ panies and in business service establishments such as consultants’ offices. The remaining jobs were in government, primarily at the Federal level. Federally employed statisticians were concentrated in the Departments of Commerce, Agriculture, Health and Human Services, De­ fense, and Labor. Others worked in hospitals, colleges and universities, and nonprofit organ­ izations. Although statisticians work in all parts of the country, most are in metropolitan areas such as New York; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs in sta­ tistics. For other entry level statistical jobs, a bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied field such as economics or a life science and a minor in statistics is preferable. Teaching and research positions in institutions of higher ed­ ucation and some positions in private industry require a graduate degree in statistics. Over 60 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees in statistics in 1986. Many other schools also offered degrees in mathe­ matics, operations research, psychology, and other fields which included a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions. Required subjects for sta­ tistics majors include mathematics through dif­ ferential and integral calculus, statistical meth­ ods, and probability theory. Due to the increasing use of computers for statistical ap­ plications, a strong background in computer science is highly recommended; a double major in statistics and computer science is particularly desirable. For positions involving quality con­ trol, training in engineering or physical science is desirable. A background in biological or health science is useful in positions involving the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical products. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting jobs, courses in eco­ nomics and business administration are help­ ful.  72/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ernment. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school statis­ tics teachers, a newly emerging field. (For ad­ ditional information, see the statement on sec­ ondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Master’s degree holders in statistics with a strong background in computer science should have very good employment opportunities as statisticians in computerized data processing activities and in research, particularly in private industry. Some may find teaching positions in junior colleges and small 4-year colleges. Ph.D.’s in statistics have excellent employ­ ment prospects, especially in large corpora­ tions and in colleges and universities—which increasingly are establishing separate depart­ ments of statistics or expanding them.  Statisticians analyze changes over time. In 1986, over 100 universities offered a mas­ ter’s degree program in statistics, and about 80 offered a doctoral degree program. Many other schools also offered graduate level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in bi­ ology, business, economics, education, engi­ neering, psychology, and other fields. Ac­ ceptance into graduate statistics programs does not require an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time doing routine work supervised by an ex­ perienced statistician. With experience, they may advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, op­ portunities for promotion are best for those with advanced degrees. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for persons who combine training in statistics with knowledge of computer science or a field of application— such as biology, economics, or engineering— generally are expected to be favorable through the year 2000. Employment of statisticians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Most openings are ex­ pected to result from the need to replace ex­ perienced statisticians who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Private industry will require increasing num­ bers of statisticians to monitor productivity and quality in the manufacture of various products including pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, chemicals, and food products. For example, pharmaceutical firms will need more statisti­ cians to assess the safety and effectiveness of the rapidly expanding number of drugs. In an effort to meet growing competition, motor ve­ hicle manufacturers will need more statisticians to monitor the quality of automobiles, trucks, and their components. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sci­ ences will find jobs working with scientists and engineers in research and development. Busi­ ness firms will rely more heavily than in the past on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and help solve management prob­ lems. In addition, sophisticated statistical ser­ vices will increasingly be contracted out to consulting firms. Federal, State, and local government agen­ cies will need statisticians in fields such as agriculture, demography, consumer and pro­ ducer surveys, transportation, social security, health, education, energy conservation, and environmental quality control. Among graduates with a bachelor’s degree in statistics, those with a strong background in mathematics and computer science should have the best prospects of finding jobs related to their field of study in private industry or gov­  Earnings In the Federal Government in 1987, the average starting salary of statisticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience was 514,800 or $18,400 a year, depending on their college grades. Beginning statisticians with the master’s degree averaged $22,500 or $27,200. Those with the Ph.D. began at $27,200 or $32,600. The average annual salary for stat­ isticians in the Federal Government was about $39,400 in 1986. According to a 1985 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of statisticians with a doctoral degree was about $43,700; in business and industry, $43,900; in educational institutions, $42,200; and in the Federal Government, $47,100. Salaries in private industry were generally lower than those in the Federal Government, according to the limited data available. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with sta­ tistics. Among them are actuaries, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, ed­ ucators, engineers, environmental scientists, financial analysts, health scientists, informa­ tion scientists, life scientists, mathematicians, operations researchers, physical scientists, and social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on a career as a mathemat­ ical statistician, contact: Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hayward, CA 94545.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State em­ ployment service and the U.S. Office of Per­ sonnel Management or from Federal Job In­ formation Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Life scientists Agricultural Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058: 041.061-014, -018, -046, and -082, and .081)  Nature of the Work The work done by agricultural scientists has played an important part in the Nation's sharply rising agricultural productivity. Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to increase yields with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. Agricultural science is closely related to bio­ logical science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology and other sciences to solve problems in agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and in applying to agriculture the ad­ vances in knowledge brought about by bio­ technology. Many agricultural scientists manage or ad­ minister research and development programs or manage marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machin­ ery. Many do research and development. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to busi­ ness firms or to government. Agricultural scientists usually specialize in one of the following areas. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.061-010) study how field crops such as com, wheat, and cotton grow. They improve their quality and yield by developing new growth methods and by controlling dis­ eases, pests, and weeds. Some agronomists specialize in one crop or crop problem. Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do research on the selection, breeding, feeding, management, and health of domestic farm an­ imals. Dairy scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-018) and poultry scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-042) con­ duct research on the selection, breeding, feed­ ing, and management of dairy cattle and poul­ try. Food technologists (D.O.T. 041.081-010) study the chemical, physical, and biological nature of food to learn how to safely process, preserve, package, distribute, and store it. Some develop new products and others insure quality standards. Horticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) work with fruit, vegetable, greenhouse, and nursery crops and ornamental plants. They seek im­ proved quality, yield, resistance to disease, and adaptability. Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) study soil characteristics, map soil types, and deter­ - mine the best types of crops for each soil. They study the chemical and physical characteristics of soils and their responses to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ”  .  ■  IteHiiSy  Agricultural scientists examine flowers of experimental sorghum Animal breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-014) and plant breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-082) select and breed plants and animals to develop and improve their economic or esthetic character­ istics. Entomologists (D.O.T. 041.061-046) study insects and their relation to plant and animal life. Apiculturists (D.O.T. 041.061-018) study the culture and breeding of bees. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists generally work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Some agri­ cultural scientists spend much time outdoors conducting research on farms or agricultural research stations.  Employment Agricultural scientists held over 28,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 18,000 persons held agricultural science faculty positions in col­ leges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Over one-third of all agricultural scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. Over one-quarter worked for the Federal Gov­ ernment in 1986, mostly in the Department of Agriculture. In addition, large numbers worked for State governments at State agricultural col­ leges or agricultural research stations. Some worked for agricultural service companies; oth­ ers for seed companies, wholesale distributors, and food products companies. About 4,000 73  74/Occupational Outlook Handbook  agricultural scientists were self-employed in 1986, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scien­ tists depend on the specialty and the type of work performed. A Ph.D. degree in an agri­ cultural science specialty is usually required for college teaching, independent research, and for advancement to many administrative and management jobs. A master’s degree is suf­ ficient for some jobs in applied research. A bachelor's degree is adequate for some sales, production management, inspection, and other nonresearch jobs but, in some cases, promo­ tions may be limited. Degrees in related sci­ ences such as biology, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may be acceptable for some agricultural science jobs. All States have at least one land-grant col­ lege which offers agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. Ad­ vanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agriculture-related activi­ ties. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In ad­ dition to jobs arising from growth in demand for these workers, many openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment in Federal agencies is not ex­ pected to grow much, but employment of ag­ ricultural scientists in private industry may grow rapidly as advances in biotechnology, such as recombinant DNA, are applied to agriculture. Employment opportunities in agricultural science for those with only a bachelor’s degree are limited. However, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for occupations such as farmer or farm manager, cooperative extension service agent, agricultural products inspector, technician, landscape architect, or purchasing or sales agent for agricultural com­ modities or farm supplies, or for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farmers such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment manufacturers, retailers or whole­ salers, and farm credit institutions. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers for agricultural scien­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tists with a bachelor’s degree averaged $19,200 a year in 1986. In the Federal Government in 1987, agri­ cultural scientists with a bachelor’s degree could start at $14,822 or $18,358 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a mas­ ter’s degree could start at $18,358 or $22,458, depending on their academic records or work experience; and those with a Ph.D. degree could begin at $27,172 or $32,567 a year. Agricul­ tural scientists in the Federal Government av­ eraged about $35,400 a year in 1986. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of biologists and other natural scientists such as chemists and physicists. It is also related to agricultural production occu­ pations such as farmer and farm manager and cooperative extension service agent as well as to the work of foresters and conservation sci­ entists. Certain specialties of agricultural sci­ ence are also related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is re­ lated to that of veterinarians; horticulturists, to landscape architects; and soil scientists, to soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: Office of Higher Education Programs, U.S. De­ partment of Agriculture, Administration Building, 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20250. American Society of Agronomy, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711. Crop Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711. Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711.  For information on careers in horticultural science, send a stamped, self-addressed en­ velope to: American Society for Horticultural Science, 701 North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ­ ment security agencies or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas.  Biological Scientists (D.O.T. 041.061, except -010, -014, -018, -046, -054, -070, -074, and -082)  Nature of the Work Biological scientists study living organisms and the relationship of animals and plants to their environment. Most specialize in some area such as ornithology (the study of birds) or micro­ biology (the study of microscopic organisms). About half of all biological scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase knowledge of living organisms. Others, in applied research, use  knowledge provided by basic research to de­ velop new medicines, increase crop yields, and improve the environment. They apply research techniques and use laboratory equipment and computers. Much research, however, is per­ formed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in the volcanic val­ leys of Alaska to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Other biological scientists work in manage­ ment or administration, for example planning and administering programs for testing foods and drugs or directing activities at zoos or bo­ tanical gardens. Some work as consultants to business firms or to government, while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other prod­ ucts or write for technical publications. Some work in sales and service jobs for companies manufacturing chemicals or other technical products. (See the statements on manufactur­ ers’ sales representatives and wholesale trade sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Advances in basic biological knowledge, es­ pecially in genetics, have resulted in a new technology called biotechnology. Biologists using this rapidly developing technology re­ combine the genetic material of animals or plants, causing life forms to do new things. The first application of this technology has been in the medical and pharmaceutical area. The human gene that codes for the production of insulin has been inserted into bacteria, causing them to produce human insulin. This insulin, used by diabetics, is much purer than insulin from animals, the only previous source. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Advances in biotechnology have opened up research op­ portunities in almost all areas of biology, in­ cluding commercial applications in agriculture and the chemical industry. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist (D.O.T. 041.061-030) are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific ac­ tivity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cellular level have blurred the traditional classifications. Biochemists (D.O.T. 041.061-026) study the chemical composition of living things. They try to understand the complex chemical com­ binations and reactions involved in metabo­ lism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by bio­ chemists because this technology involves un­ derstanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061-038) deal with plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, and the causes and cures of plant diseases. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-058) in­ vestigate the growth and characteristics of mi­ croscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses,  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/75  and molds. Medical microbiologists study the relationship between bacteria and disease or the effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Other mi­ crobiologists specialize in soil bacteriology (the study of the effect of microorganisms on soil fertility), virology (the study of viruses), or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists are using biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease. Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study life functions of plants and animals under nor­ mal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, repro­ duction, photosynthesis, respiration, or move­ ment, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the body. Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study an­ imals—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live an­ imals in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study their struc­ ture. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationship between or­ ganisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as pollutants, rainfall, tem­ perature, and altitude on organisms. Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as biological scientists, are included in a separate statement elsewhere in the Hand­ book.  Working Conditions Biological scientists generally work regular hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un­ healthy conditions. However, some work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory. They could be exposed if safety procedures are not followed. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zo­ ologists take field trips which involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living condi­ tions.  TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree generally is required for col­ lege teaching, independent research, and for advancement to administrative research posi­ tions and other management jobs. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research. The bachelor’s degree is adequate for some beginning jobs, but may not be for pro­ motion. Some graduates with a bachelor’s de­ gree start as biological scientists in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to biological science such as technical sales or service rep­ resentatives. Others become senior biological technicians, medical laboratory technologists and technicians or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the state­ ments on clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, science technicians, and second­ ary school teachers elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in bi­ ology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Some enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connec­ tion to biology. Most colleges and universities offer bach­ elor’s degrees in biological science and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for ad­ vanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany but not all univer­ sities offer all curriculums. However, special­ ization on one life form is being deemphasized in favor of study of basic biochemical and ge­ netic life processes. Advanced degree pro­ grams include classroom and field work, lab­ oratory research, and a thesis. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may become managers or administrators within biology; others leave biology for non­ technical managerial, administrative, and sales jobs. Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those doing field re­ search in remote areas must have physical stamina.  Employment Biological scientists held 61,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 56,000 held biology faculty positions in colleges'and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Over one-third of all biological scientists worked in private industry, mostly in com­ mercial research and development laboratories and the pharmaceutical ("chemical, and food industries. About one-fifth worked in nonfa­ culty positions in colleges and universities. Others worked for nonprofit research organi­ zations and foundations or hospitals. About one-fifth worked for the Federal Gov­ ernment, mainly in the Departments of Agri­ culture, Interior, and Defense, and in the Na­ tional Institutes of Health. State and local governments employed about 1 in 6. A few were self-employed.  Job Outlook Employment of biological scientists is ex­ pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most growth will be in private industry, primarily in genetic and biotechnical research and in pro­ duction—using newly developed biological methods. Efforts to preserve the environment should also result in growth. Employment of biologists is expected to grow slowly in gov­ ernment. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for biologists, openings will occur as biological scientists transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Many persons with a bachelor's degree in biological science find jobs as science or en­ gineering technicians or health technologists and technicians. Some become high school bi­ ology teachers. However, they are usually re­ garded as teachers rather than biologists. Those with a doctorate in biological science may be-   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Many biological scientists work in laborato­ ries while engaged in basic research.  come college and university faculty. (See state­ ments on science and engineering technicians, health technologists and technicians, high school teachers, and college and university fac­ ulty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than those in many other occupations since most are employed on long-term research projects or in agriculture, activities which are not much affected by eco­ nomic fluctuations.  Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1986 averaged $19,000 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal Government in 1987, biolog­ ical scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $14,822 or $18,358 a year, depending on their college records. Those having the mas­ ter’s degree could start at $18,358 or $22,458, depending on their academic records or work experience; those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $27,172 or $32,567 a year. Biological scientists in the Federal Government averaged $37,200 a year in 1986.  Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living or­ ganisms. These include the conservation oc­ cupations of forester, forestry technician, range manager, and soil conservationist, as well as agricultural scientist, soil scientist, oceanog­ rapher, and life science technician. The wide array of health occupations are all related to those in the biological sciences, as are occu­ pations dealing with raising plants and animals such as farmer and farm manager, animal breeder, landscape contractor, florist, nursery manager, and greenskeeper.  1 76/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in biological science is available from: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 730 11th St. NW., Washington, DC 20001-4584. American Physiological Society, Membership Ser­ vices Dept., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. American Society of Zoologists, P.O. Box 2739, California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, CA 91360.  For information on careers in biochemistry, contact: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814.  For information on careers in botany, con­ tact: Dr. David L. Dilcher, Secretary, Botanical Society of America, Dept, of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405.  For information on careers in microbiology, contact: American Society for Microbiology, Office of Ed­ ucation and Professional Recognition, 1913 I St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ­ ment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major met­ ropolitan areas.  Foresters and Conservation Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-030, -034, -046, -050, -054, and -062, .261: and 049.127)  Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands serve a variety of needs: They provide habitats for wildlife, serve as sites for recreational activities, and supply lum­ ber, livestock forage, minerals, and water. For­ esters and conservation scientists manage, de­ velop, and help protect these and other natural resources. Foresters plan and supervise the growing, protection, and harvesting of trees. They map forest areas, estimate the amount of standing timber and future growth, and manage timber sales. Foresters also protect the trees from fire, harmful insects, and disease. Some foresters also protect wildlife and manage watersheds; develop and supervise campgrounds, parks, and grazing lands; and do research. Foresters in extension work provide information to forest owners and to the general public. Range managers, also called range conser­ vationists, range ecologists, or range scien­ tists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damaging the environment. Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the Western States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources, including grass and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facili­ ties, and valuable mineral and energy re­ sources. Rangelands also serve as areas for scientific study of the environment. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum live­ stock production by determining the number and kind of animals to graze, the grazing sys­ tem to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, they try to conserve the soil and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recreation. Soil conservationists provide technical as­ sistance to farmers, ranchers, and others con­ cerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They develop programs that are designed to get the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil conservationists do most of their work in the field. Conservationists visit areas with ero­ sion problems, find the source of the problem, and help land owners and managers develop programs to combat it. Foresters and conservation scientists often specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, outdoor recreation, urban for­ estry, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions for foresters and conser­ vation scientists vary considerably. Their im­ age as solitary horseback riders singlchandedly protecting large areas of land far from civili­ zation no longer holds true. Modem foresters and conservation scientists spend a great deal of time working with people. They deal reg­ ularly with land owners, loggers, forestry tech­ nicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, govern­ ment officials, and the public. The work can still be physically demanding, though. Many foresters and conservation sci­ entists often work outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in remote areas. To get to these areas, they use airplanes, helicopters, four-wheel drive vehicles, and horses, or walk. Foresters and conservation scientists also may work long hours fighting fires or in other emer­ gencies. Employment Foresters and conservation scientists held about 23,000 jobs in 1986. Over 50 percent of the salaried workers were in the Federal Govern­ ment, primarily in the Department of Agri­ culture’s Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service and in the Department of Interior’s Bureau of Land Management; 20 percent worked for State governments; and 6 percent worked for local governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly in the for­ estry industry. Others were employed by log­ ging and lumber companies and electric util­ ities. A few were self-employed either as consultants or forest owners. Most soil conservationists work for the De­ partment of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service. Others are employed by State gov­ ernments in their soil conservation districts. Although foresters and conservation scien­ tists work in every State, employment is con­  centrated in the Western and Southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks are located and where most of the lumber and pulpwood producing forests are located. Range managers work almost entirely in the Western States, where most of the range­ land is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum educational requirement for professional ca­ reers in forestry. However, due to keen job competition and the increasingly complex na­ ture of the forester’s work, many employers prefer graduates who hold advanced degrees. Jobs such as teaching and research require ad­ vanced degrees. In 1986, 55 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry; 47 of these were accredited by the Society of Amer­ ican Foresters. Curriculums stress liberal arts, communications skills, and computer science, as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business administra­ tion supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Many colleges require students to complete a field session in a camp operated by the college. All schools encourage summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conservation work. A bachelor’s degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum edu­ cational requirement for range managers. Graduate degrees in range management gen­ erally are required for teaching and research positions and may be helpful for advancement in other jobs. In 1986, 35 colleges and uni­ versities offered degrees in range management or range science. A number of other schools offered some courses in range management. Specialized range management courses com­ bine plant, animal, and soil sciences with prin­ ciples of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, for­ estry, hydrology, agronomy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer de­ grees in soil conservation. Most soil conser­ vationists have degrees in agronomy, agricul­ tural education, or general agriculture; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Pro­ grams of study generally include 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, in­ cluding at least 3 hours in soil science. In addition to meeting the intellectual de­ mands of forestry and conservation work, for­ esters and conservation scientists must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to move—often to remote places. They must also be able to work well with people and have good communication skills. Decisive­ ness, firmness, and tact are important in dis­ putes involving rights and uses of land and other natural resources. Recent forestry and range management grad­ uates usually work under the supervision of  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/77 /fc'  Pi  started at $ 14,800 a year. Those with a master’s degree could start at $22,500. Holders of doc­ torates could start at $27,200 or, in research positions, at $32,600. In 1986, the average Federal salary for foresters was $32,800; for range conservationists, $28,500; and for soil conservationists, $29,600. Salaries in State and local government and in private industry were generally lower. Related Occupations Foresters and conservation scientists are not the only workers concerned with managing, developing, and protecting natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities in­ clude agricultural scientists, agricultural en­ gineers, biological scientists, farmers, farm managers, forest fire officers and aides, ranch­ ers, ranch managers, soil scientists, and wild­ life managers.  ■mJwm  'JeiSK  Foresters monitor reforestation activity. experienced foresters or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. In the Federal Govern­ ment, an experienced forester may supervise an entire forest area, and may advance to re­ gional forest supervisor or to a top adminis­ trative position. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administra­ tive aspects of the business. Many foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and with experience may advance to the area. State, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations such as farm or ranch management advisor or land appraiser. Job Outlook Employment of foresters and conservation sci­ entists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to budgetary constraints in govern­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ment, where employment is highly concen­ trated. More foresters and range managers may be needed in private industry to ensure an in­ creasing output from forests and rangelands. Also, private owners of timberland and grazing land may employ more foresters and range managers as they recognize the need for—and the higher profitability of—improved forestry, logging, and range management practices. However, employment of soil conservationists is expected to change little through the year 2000 since the Federal Government, the major employer, is not expected to increase its em­ ployment of soil conservationists. Most job openings for foresters and conservation sci­ entists will be created by the need to replace those, who retire or transfer to other occupa­ tions. Earnings Most graduates entering the Federal Govern­ ment as foresters, range managers, or soil con­ servationists in 1987 with a bachelor’s degree  Sources of Additional Information General information about the forestry profes­ sion and lists of schools offering education in forestry are available from: Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814. American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Information about a career as a range man­ ager as well as a list of schools offering training is available from: Society for Range Management, 2760 W. 5th Ave., Denver, CO 80204.  Information about careers in soil conserva­ tion is available from: National Association of Conservation Districts, 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 2(3005.  For information about career opportunities in the Federal Government, contact: Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, Room 3070, Washington, DC 20240. U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agricul­ ture, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20013. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Ag­ riculture, Room 6144, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, DC 20013.  Physical scientists Chemists (D.O.T. 022.061-010 and -014. .137-010 and .161-010)  Nature of the Work Although chemicals are often thought of as artificial or toxic substances, all physical things, both natural and manmade, are composed of chemicals. Chemists search for and put to prac­ tical use new knowledge about chemicals. Chemists have developed a tremendous variety of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, electronic components, lu­ bricants, and other products. They also develop processes which save energy and reduce pol­ lution, such as improved oil refining methods. Research on the chemistry of living things pro­ vides the basis for advances in medicine, ag­ riculture, and other areas. Most chemists work in research and devel­ opment. Much research is performed in lab­ oratories, but research chemists also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their research re­ sults. Some chemical research laboratories re­ semble high school chemical labs, but others arc large and may incorporate prototype chem­ ical manufacturing facilities as well as ad­ vanced equipment. Chemists may also do some of their research in a chemical plant or out­ doors—while gathering samples of pollutants, for example. In basic research, chemists investigate the properties, composition, and structure of mat­ ter and 'the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and development, they create new products or improve existing ones, often  3fcif:  w  ill h  Many chemists spend at least part of their time in the laboratory. 78   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics re­ sulted from research on small molecules un­ iting to form large ones (polymerization). Chemists also work in production and in­ spection in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers which specify ingredients, mixing times, and tem­ peratures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield, and test samples to insure they meet industry and government standards. Chemists also record and report on test results. Others are marketing or sales representatives who sell and provide technical information on chemical products. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. An­ alytical chemists determine the structure, com­ position, and nature of substances and develop analytical techniques. They also identify the presence of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon compounds. Many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers, have been developed by organ­ ic chemists. Inorganic chemists study com­ pounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those in electronic com­ ponents. Physical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and in­ vestigate how chemical reactions work. Their research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemistry, are included under biological scientists elsewhere in the Hand­ book.  Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Some are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chem­ icals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed.  Employment Chemists held over 86,000 jobs in 1986. Over half of all chemists work for manufacturing firms—over one-half of these are in the chem­ ical manufacturing industry; the rest are scat­ tered throughout other manufacturing indus­ tries. Chemists also work for State and local governments, primarily in health and agricul­ ture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly the De­ partments of Defense, Health and Human Ser­ vices, and Agriculture. Some work for nonprofit research organizations. In addition, about 19,000 persons held chemistry faculty posi­ tions in colleges and universities in 1986. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concentrated in large in­ dustrial areas.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry or a related discipline is sufficient for many beginning jobs as a chemist. However, grad­ uate training is required for most research jobs, and most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Beginning chemists should have a broad background in chemistry, with good laboratory skills. Many colleges and universities offer a bach­ elor’s degree program in chemistry. About 580 are approved by the American Chemical So­ ciety. In addition to required courses in ana­ lytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chem­ istry, undergraduates usually study biology, mathematics, physics, and liberal arts. Several hundred colleges and universities award advanced degrees in chemistry. Grad­ uate students generally specialize in a subfield of chemistry. Requirements for a master’s and doctor’s degree usually include a thesis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experi­ ments. Perseverance, curiosity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work indepen­ dently are essential: In government or industry, beginning chem­ ists with a bachelor’s degree analyze or test products, work in technical sales or services, or assist senior chemists in research and de­ velopment laboratories. Employers may have training and orientation programs which pro­ vide special knowledge needed for the em­ ployer’s type of work. Beginning chemists with a master’s degree can usually teach in a 2-year college or go into applied research in government or private in­ dustry. A Ph.D. generally is required for basic research, for 4-year college faculty positions, and for advancement to many administrative positions. Many people with a bachelor’s degree in chemistry enter other occupations in which a chemistry background is helpful, such as tech­ nical writers and manufacturers’ sales repre­ sentatives and wholesale trade sales workers in chemical marketing. Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Others enter a wide range of occu­ pations with little or no connection to chem­ istry.  Job Outlook Employment of chemists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Although output of the chemical industry, where many chemists are employed, is expected to expand, employ­ ment of chemists in this industry is not expected to increase much because of anticipated pro­ ductivity improvements and more contracting  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/79  out of chemists’ work. Areas relating to phar­ maceuticals and biotechnology should provide better opportunities than other portions of the chemical industry. In addition, the petroleum refining and most other manufacturing indus­ tries that employ chemists are expected to grow slowly, if at all. However, many openings will result as chemists transfer to other occupations or leave the occupation for other reasons. Chemistry graduates may become high school teachers. However, they usually are then re­ garded as science teachers rather than chemists. Others may qualify as engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering. Those with a doctorate in chemistry may be­ come college and university faculty. (See state­ ments on secondary school teachers, engineers, and college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)  Earnings According to the College Placement Council, chemists with a bachelor’s degree were offered starting salaries averaging $23,400 a year in 1986; those with a master’s degree, $28,000; and those with a Ph.D., $36,400. According to the American Chemical So­ ciety, median salaries of their members with a bachelor’s degree were $33,000 a year in 1986; with a master’s degree, $37,900; with a Ph.D., $47,800. In a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, chemists in private industry averaged $22,500 a year in 1986 at the most junior level, and $74,600 at senior supervisory levels. Experi­ enced midlevel chemists with no supervisory responsibilities averaged $41,500. Depending on a person’s college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal Govern­ ment in early 1987 for an inexperienced chem­ ist with a bachelor’s degree was either $14,822 or $ 18,358. Those who had 2 years of graduate study began at $22,458 a year, and with a Ph.D. degree, $27,172 or $32,567. The av­ erage salary for all chemists in the Federal Government in 1986 was $38,600 a year.  Related Occupations The work of chemical engineers, occupational safety and health workers, agricultural scien­ tists, biological scientists, and chemical tech­ nicians is closely related to the work done by chemists. The work of other physical and life science occupations may also be similar to that of chemists.  Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chemists is available from; American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ­ ment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major met­ ropolitan areas.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Geologists and Geophysicists (DOT. 024,061 except -014, .161, and .167)  Nature of the Work Geologists and geophysicists study the physical aspects and history of the earth. They identify and examine surface rocks and buried rocks recovered by drilling; study information col­ lected by satellites, conduct geological sur­ veys, construct maps, and use instruments to measure the earth’s gravity and magnetic field. They also analyze information collected through seismic prospecting, which involves bouncing sound waves off deeply buried rock layers. Many geologists search for oil, natural gas, minerals, and underground water. Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories under controlled temperature and pressure. They may study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Laboratory instruments used include X-ray diffractome­ ters, which determine the crystal structure of minerals, and petrographic microscopes, for study of rock and sediment samples. Earth­ quakes are located using seismographs, which measure small movements of the earth. Geologists and geophysicists also apply geo­ logical knowledge to engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams, tunnels, and highways. Some administer and manage research and exploration programs and others become general managers in petroleum and mining companies. Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are some major differences. Geologists study the composition, structure, and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geo­ physicists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study the earth’s internal com­ position, surface, and atmosphere and its mag­ netic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Geologists and geophysicists usually spec­ ialize. Geological oceanographers study the ocean bottom. They collect information using remote sensing devices aboard surface ships or underwater research craft. Physical oceanog­ raphers study the physical aspects of oceans such as currents and their interaction with the atmosphere. Geochemical oceanographers study the chemical composition, dissolved ele­ ments, and nutrients of oceans. Although bio­ logical scientists who study ocean life are also called oceanographers (as well as marine bi­ ologists), the work they do and the training they need are related to biology rather than geology or geophysics. (See the statement on biological scientists elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Hydrologists study the distribution, cir­ culation, and physical properties of under­ ground and surface waters. They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infil­ tration into the soil, and its return to the ocean  and atmosphere. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the earth. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other in­ struments to locate earthquakes and earthquake faults. Stratigraphers study the distribution and arrangement of sedimentary rock layers by ex­ amining their fossil and mineral content. Me­ teorologists sometimes are classified as geo­ physical scientists. (See the statement on meteorologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most geologists and geophysicists divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. Geologists often travel to remote field sites by helicopter or jeep and cover large areas by foot. Exploration geologists and geophy­ sicists often work overseas or in remote areas, and geological and physical oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea. Employment Geologists and geophysicists held almost 44,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 8,500 persons held geology, geophysics, and oceanography faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About one-half were in oil and gas com­ panies or oil and gas field service firms, many of which explore for oil and gas. Many other geologists worked for business service and consulting firms, which often provide services to oil and gas companies. About 1 geologist in 6 was self-employed; most were consultants to industry or government. The Federal Government employed about 6,600 geologists, geophysicists, oceanogra­ phers, and hydrologists in 1986. Three-fifths worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclamation. Others worked for the Departments of Defense, Ag­ riculture, and Commerce. Some worked for State agencies such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. Geol­ ogists and geophysicists also worked for non­ profit research institutions and museums. Some were employed by American firms overseas for varying periods of time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good ad­ vancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree in geology or geophysics. Per­ sons with strong backgrounds in physics, math­ ematics, or computer science also may qualify for some geophysics jobs. A Ph D. degree is essential for most research positions. Over 500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics. Other programs offering training for beginning geophysicists include geophysical technology,  80/Occupational Outlook Handbook  it is difficult to predict when oil prices and exploration will increase. Some analysts expect the price of oil to increase enough by the early 1990’s to encourage more exploration. Not all employment in this occupation is tied to the oil industry. Geophysicists and ocean­ ographers in research on the environment, oceans, and climate may have better employ­ ment prospects than those in oil and gas ex­ ploration, at least until the price of oil in­ creases. There is continued concern and interest in how land, atmosphere, and oceans are re­ lated and how man’s activities affect them. However, much of this research is supported by the Federal Government. While the overall level of Federal spending is projected to grow, it is not clear whether spending for geological research will grow. Earnings Surveys by the College Placement Council in­ dicate that graduates with bachelor’s degrees in physical and earth sciences received an av­ erage starting offer of $19,200 a year in 1986. In the Federal Government in early 1987, geologists and geophysicists having a bache­ lor’s degree could begin at $ 14,822 or $18,358 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a master’s degree could start at $18,358 or $22,458 a year; those having the Ph.D. degree, at $27,172 or $32,567. In 1986, the average salary for geologists in the Federal Government was about $37,500 a year and for geophysicists, about $40,900 a year. Related Occupations Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry. This in­ dustry also employs many other workers in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas exploration and extraction, in­ cluding drafters, engineering technicians, sci­ ence technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors. Also, some physicists, chemists, and meteorologists, as well as mathematicians, computer scientists, and cartographers, do re­ lated work. A geologist examines rock samples. geophysical engineering, geophysical pros­ pecting, engineering geology, petroleum ge­ ology, and geodesy. In addition, more than 270 universities award advanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. They should be curious, analytical, and able to communicate effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Geologists and geophysicists usually begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or other manage­ ment and research positions. Job Outlook Employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow more slowly than the average  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  for all occupations through the year 2000. Most jobs for geologists and geophysicists are in or related to the petroleum industry, and, in par­ ticular, the exploration for oil and gas. This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations, and exploration activities have been greatly re­ duced because of the drop in the price of oil; consequently, employment prospects for many geologists and geophysicists have been poor recently. Employment opportunities will re­ main poor until oil prices increase enough to make more exploration worthwhile. Since new sources of oil and gas must be found eventu­ ally, exploration activities will increase in the future. When this occurs, geologists and geo­ physicists probably will have excellent em­ ployment opportunities because many experi­ enced geologists and geophysicists have left the occupation and the number of degrees granted in geology probably will be greatly reduced until opportunities improve. However,  Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportun­ ities for geologists and a directory of college and university geoscience departments are available from: American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Al­ exandria, VA 22302.  Information on training and career oppor­ tunities for geophysicists is available from: American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20009. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 70240, Tulsa, OK 74170.  A directory of college and university curriculums in oceanography is available from: Marine Technology Society, 2000 Florida Ave. NW, Suite 500, Washington. DC 20009.  Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ­ ment services or offices of the U.S. Office of  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/81  Personnel Management located in major met­ ropolitan areas.  Meteorologists (D.O.T. 025.062-010)  Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, the air that surrounds the earth. Meteorologists study the atmosphere’s physical characteris­ tics, motions, and processes, and the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our environment. The best-known application of this knowledge is in forecasting the weather. However, weather information and meteorological research also are applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, air and sea transportation, and the study of trends in the earth’s climate. Meteorologists who forecast the weather, known professionally as operational or syn­ optic meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They study information on air pres­ sure, temperature, humidity, and wind veloc­ ity, and apply physical and mathematical re­ lationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Their information comes from weather satellites and from remote sen­ sors and observers in many parts of the world. Meteorologists are aided in their forecasts by sophisticated computer models of the world’s atmosphere. Meteorologists interpret the re­ sults of these models to make short-term and local-area forecasts. Some meteorologists engage in research. Physical meteorologists study the atmo­ sphere’s chemical and physical properties and how these affect the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves. They also study fac­ tors affecting formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena. Climatologists analyze past records of wind, rainfall, sun­ shine, and temperature. Their studies are used to plan heating and cooling systems, design buildings, and aid in effective land utilization. Much meteorological research is centered on improving weather forecasting, mainly through building better computer models of how the atmosphere interacts with land and water sur­ faces. Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, most of which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often involve night work and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Meteorologists in smaller weather stations generally work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists not doing forecasting work reg­ ular hours, usually in offices. Employment Meteorologists held about 5,600 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 1,000 persons held mete­ orology faculty positions in colleges and uni­ versities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A meteorologist examines a weather map while preparing a forecast. The largest employer of civilian meteorol­ ogists is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which employs about 1,800 meteorologists. About half of NOAA’s meteorologists work in the National Weather Service at stations in all parts of the United States and in a few foreign countries. The re­ mainder of NOAA’s meteorologists work mainly in research. The Department of Defense employs over 250 civilian meteorologists. Oth­ ers worked for private weather consultants, en­ gineering services firms, and nonprofit organ­ izations. In addition to civilian meteorologists, thou­ sands of members of the Armed Forces do forecasting and other meteorological work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteor­ ology is the usual minimum requirement for beginning jobs in weather forecasting. How­ ever, employers prefer to hire those with an advanced degree, and an advanced degree is increasingly necessary for promotion. For research and college teaching and for many top level positions in other meteorolog­ ical activities, an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. in meteorology, is essential. People with graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have advanced courses in meteorology, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. Almost 100 colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology. In addition, some de­ partments of physics, earth science, and geo­ physics offer many atmospheric science and related courses. Many programs combine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, engineering, or physics. Beginning meteorologists often do routine data collection, computation, or analysis and are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to various supervisory or admin­  istrative jobs. A few meteorologists establish their own weather consulting services. Job Outlook Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The National Weather Service, which employs many meteorologists, plans to increase its employment of meteor­ ologists significantly, mainly in its field offices, to improve short-term and local-area weather forecasts. Although some of these additional jobs will be filled internally through the up­ grading of meteorological technicians, there still should be many more openings in the Na­ tional Weather Service in the next 5 to 10 years than there have been in the past. Employment of meteorologists in other parts of the Federal Government is not expected to increase. How­ ever, many new jobs will be created in private industry as more organizations recognize the value of private weather forecasting and me­ teorological services. Despite the projected faster-than-average growth, most of the job openings in this very small occupation will arise from the need to replace those who trans­ fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings The average salary for meteorologists em­ ployed by the Federal Government was $39,700 in 1986. In early 1987, meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received starting salaries of $14,822 or $18,358 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $18,358 or $22,458; those with the Ph.D. degree, at $27,172 or $32,567. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environment include oceanogra­ phers, geologists and geophysicists, and en­ vironmental engineers.  82/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities in mete­ orology is available from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02108.  For facts about job opportunities with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis­ tration, contact: NOAA Personnel Office, Room 706,6010 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20852.  Physicists and Astronomers (D-O.T. 021.067-010, 023.061-010, -014, and .067-010)  Nature of the Work Physicists attempt to discover the most basic principles governing the structure and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of en­ ergy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in very theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe, while others work in practical areas such as the development of advanced materials, electronic devices, and medical equipment. They design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclotrons, telescopes, mass spectrom­ eters, and other equipment. Based on obser­ vations and analysis, they formulate theories and laws to describe the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear in­ teractions. They also devise ways to apply the laws and theories to problems in nuclear en­ ergy, electronics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instrumen­ tation. Astronomy is sometimes considered a sub­ field of physics. Astronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to answer ques­  tions about the fundamental nature of the uni­ verse, and about celestial bodies such as the sun, moon, planets, and stars. They may apply their knowledge to problems in navigation and space flight. Most physicists work in research and de­ velopment. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. For example, they in­ vestigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. Some physicists conduct applied research and develop new devices, products, and pro­ cesses. For instance, research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then to integrated circuits used in calcu­ lators and computers. They also design re­ search equipment. This equipment often has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers (devices that amplify light and emit it in a highly directional, intense beam) are used in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. Much physics research is done in small or medium-sized laboratories, where physicists work alone or in small groups. However, some experiments in nuclear, particle, and some other areas of physics require extremely large, ex­ pensive equipment such as atomic accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation, most research phy­ sicists spend much of their time in offices plan­ ning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research. Physicists in theoretical research gen­ erally do not use research facilities. Almost all astronomers do research. They analyze large quantities of data and write sci­ entific papers on their findings. Most astron­ omers spend only a few weeks each year mak­ ing observations with telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. Contrary to  £______ An astronomer prepares a telescope for an observation.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the popular image, astronomers almost never make observations by looking through a tele­ scope because photographic and electronic ra­ diation detecting equipment is more effective than the human eye. Most physicists specialize in one subfield— elementary particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic and molecular physics; physics of con­ densed matter (solid-state physics); optics; acoustics; health physics; plasma physics; or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a sub­ division of one of these subfields; for example, superconductivity, crystallography, or semi­ conductors within solid-state physics. How­ ever, since all physics involves the same fun­ damental principles, specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Furthermore, the practical applications of physicists' work in­ creasingly have merged with engineering. Working Conditions Physicists generally work regular hours in lab­ oratories and offices. Most physicists do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists work away from home temporarily at national or international facilities with unique equipment such as particle accelerators; as­ tronomers who make observations may travel to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and frequently work at night. Employment Physicists held over 22,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, about 14,000 persons held physics faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About onequarter of all physicists worked for independent research and development laboratories. The Federal Government, mostly the Departments of Defense, Energy, and Commerce, employed about one-fifth. Others worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty positions and for electrical equipment manufacturers, noncom­ mercial research laboratories, engineering ser­ vices firms, and the aircraft and automobile industries. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, most are in areas that have heavy industrial concentrations and large re­ search and development laboratories. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training in physics or a closely related field is almost essential for most entry level jobs in physics. The doctorate usually is re­ quired for full faculty status at colleges and universities and for industrial or government jobs directing research and development pro­ grams. A doctorate is also the usual require­ ment for a job in astronomy. Those having master's degrees may qualify for some research jobs in private industry and in the Federal Government as well as for teach­ ing jobs in 2-year colleges. Those having bach­  Natural, Computer, and Mathematical Scientists/83  elor’s degrees may qualify for a few applied research and development jobs in private in­ dustry and in the Federal Government. Many become engineers or go into other scientific fields. (See statements on engineers, geologists and geophysicists, computer programmers, and computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. The undergrad­ uate program provides a broad background in the sciences and mathematics. Some typical physics courses are mechanics, electromagne­ tism, electronics, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. About 250 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in physics. Graduate stu­ dents usually concentrate in a subfield of phys­ ics. Many begin studying for their doctorates immediately after their bachelor’1; degree with­ out obtaining a master's degree. About 40 universities offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy. Students take courses in astron­ omy, physics, and mathematics and, in some schools, work at an observatory. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, mathematical ability, imagination, and the ability to work on their own. Beginning physicists, especially without a Ph.D., often do routine work under the close supervision of more senior workers. After some experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and given more independence. Some ad­ vance to project leaders, research directors, or top managers. Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form their   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook Physicists with the Ph.D. should experience good employment opportunities by the late 1990’s. The employment of physicists is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Em­ ployment opportunities are expected to im­ prove as retirements increase. Many physicists and college and university physics faculty were hired during the 1960’s. They will begin re­ tiring in the late 1990’s. Furthermore, the num­ ber of Ph. D.’ s granted to U. S. citizens has been declining and is not expected to increase much by the year 2000. A large proportion of physicists are em­ ployed on defense-related projects. Changes in defense expenditures, especially for re­ search—on the Strategic Defense Initiative, for example—could have a major impact on the growth of jobs. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics are not qualified to enter most physicist jobs. However, many find jobs as engineers, technicians, computer specialists, or high school physics teachers. (See the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings Starting salaries for physicists in private in­ dustry averaged about $31,200 a year in 1986 for those with a master’s degree and $42,500 for those with a Ph.D., according to an Amer­ ican Institute of Physics survey. Depending on their college records, physi­  cists with a bachelor’s degree could start in the Federal Government in early 1987 at either $14,822 or $18,358 a year. Beginning phy­ sicists having a master’s degree could start at $18,358 or $22,458, and those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $27,172 or $32,567. Average earnings for all physicists in the Fed­ eral Government in 1986 were $45,600 a year. Starting salaries for college and university physics faculty with the Ph.D. averaged $29,500 in 1986, according to the American Institute of Physics. (See the statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regular incomes with consulting and research projects. Related Occupations Physics is closely related to other scientific occupations such as chemistry, geology, and geophysics. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York. NY 10017. American Physical Society, 335 East 45th St., New York, NY 10017.  For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, send 35 cents to: Dr. Charles R. Tolbert, Education Officer, American Astronomical Society, Box 3818 University Station, Charlottesville, VA 22903.  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers Lawyers (D.O.T. 110)  Laws affect every aspect of our society. They regulate the entire spectrum of relationships among individuals, groups, businesses, and governments. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such diverse activities as judging and punishing criminals, granting pat­ ents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and administering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are con­ tinually changing, the legal system that regu­ lates our social, political, and economic rela­ tionships also changes. Lawyers, also called attorneys, link the legal system and society. To perform this role, they must understand the world around them and be sensitive to the nu­ merous aspects of society that the law touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circum­ stances it addresses as well. As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in new ways as the legal system takes on regulatory tasks in areas such as trans­ portation, energy conservation, consumer pro­ tection, the environment, and social welfare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and reg­ ulations for individuals and businesses.  Nature of the Work In our society, lawyers act as both advocates and advisors. As advocates, they represent one of the opposing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting arguments that support the client in a court of law. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as advocates or advisors, nearly all attorneys have certain activities in common. Probably the most fundamental ac­ tivities are the interpretation of the law and its application to a specific situation. This requires in-depth research into the purposes behind the applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have applied those laws to circumstances sim­ ilar to those currently faced by the client. Based on this research, attorneys advise clients on what actions would best serve their interests. A growing number of lawyers are using computers in legal research. While all lawyers continue to employ law libraries to prepare 84for FRASER Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  cases, some supplement their search of the con­ ventional printed sources with computer soft­ ware packages that automatically search the legal literature and identify legal texts that may be relevant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting documents, lawyers may also use computers to organize and index the material. Tax lawyers are also increasingly using computers to make tax com­ putations and explore alternative tax strategies for clients. Lawyers must deal with people in a cour­ teous, efficient manner and not disclose matters discussed in confidence with clients. They hold positions of great responsibility, and are ob­ ligated to adhere to strict rules of ethics. Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must communicate clearly and pre­ cisely. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field and position. While all licensed attorneys are allowed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. A few lawyers specialize in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thor­ oughly familiar with courtroom rules and strat­ egy. Trial lawyers still spend most of their time outside the courtroom conducting research, in­ terviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Although most lawyers deal with many dif­ ferent areas of the law, a significant number concentrate on one branch of law, such as ad­ miralty, probate, or international law. Com­ munications lawyers, for example, may rep­ resent radio and television stations in court and in their dealings with the Federal Communi­ cations Commission. They help established stations prepare and file license renewal ap­ plications, employment reports, and other doc­ uments required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes in FCC regulations. Communications lawyers help individuals or corporations buy or sell a station or establish a new one. Lawyers who represent public utilities be­ fore the Federal Energy Regulatory Commis­ sion and other Federal and State regulatory agencies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy, arguments, and testi­ mony; prepare cases for presentation; and argue the case. These lawyers also inform clients about changes in regulations and give advice about the legality of their actions. Still other lawyers advise insurance com­ panies about the legality of insurance trans­ actions. They write insurance policies to con­  form with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent companies in court. Lawyers in private practice may concentrate on areas such as litigation, wills, trusts, con­ tracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some manage a person’s property as trustee or, as executor, see that provisions of a client’s will are carried out. Others handle only public in­ terest cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential impact extending well beyond the in­ dividual client. Attorneys hope to use these cases as a vehicle for legal and social reform. A lawyer may be employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as house counsel and usually advises a company about legal questions that arise from its business activities. These ques­ tions might involve patents, government reg­ ulations, a business contract with another com­ pany, a property interest, or a collective bargaining agreement with a union. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute still another category. Criminal lawyers may work for a State attorney general, a prosecutor or public defender, or a court. At the Federal level, attorneys may in­ vestigate cases for the Department of Justice or other agencies. Lawyers at every govern­ ment level help develop laws and programs, draft and interpret legislation, establish en­ forcement procedures, and argue cases. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies— private, nonprofit Corporations established to serve poor people in particular areas. These lawyers generally handle civil rather than crim­ inal cases. A relatively small number of trained attor­ neys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more sub­ jects, while others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional information, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. They sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They frequently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to appear before courts, legis­ lative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations generally have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may work  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/85  irregular hours while conducting research, con­ ferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and some regularly work considerably more than 40 hours per week. They are under particularly heavy pressure when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Since lawyers in private prac­ tice can determine their own workload, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retire­ ment age. Employment Lawyers held about 527,000 jobs in 1986. About four-fifths of them practiced privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in gov­ ernment, the majority at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense, but they work for other Federal agen­ cies as well. Others are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other business firms and nonprofit organiza­ tions. Some salaried lawyers also have part­ time independent practices; others work as law­ yers part time while in another occupation. Many people trained as attorneys are not employed as lawyers; they work as judges, law clerks, law school professors, and managers and administrators and in a variety of other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules established by the State’s supreme court. Nearly all States require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examination. Most States also require appli­ cants to pass a separate written ethics exami­ nation. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one State occasionally may be ad­ mitted in another State without taking an ex­ amination if they meet that State’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school—partic­ ularly its library or faculty—meets certain standards developed by the association to pro­ mote quality legal education.) In 1986, the American Bar Association approved 176 law schools. Others were approved by State au­ thorities only. With certain exceptions, grad­ uates of schools not approved by the ABA generally are restricted to taking the bar ex­ amination and practicing in the State in which  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  I I  On the basis of legal research, lawyers interpret the law and its application to a case the school is located; most of these schools are in California. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualification for taking the bar examination. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar ex­ amination, 46 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, Saipan, and the Virgin Islands require the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the State bar examination; the MBE is not required in Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, and Washington. The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given in addition to a locally prepared part of the State bar examination. States vary in their use of MBE scores. The required college and law school edu­ cation usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Al­ though some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1985, about oneeighth of all graduates of ABA-approved schools were part-time students. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Although there is no rec­ ommended "prelaw” major, the choice of an undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Es­ sential skills—the ability to write, read and analyze, think logically, and communicate ver­ bally—are learned during high school and col­ lege. An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view  of the world is desirable. Majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suitable, although a student should not specialize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major, courses in English, a foreign language, public speaking, government, philosophy, his­ tory, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for ex­ ample, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for convenience in law school and beyond, and because it facilitates use of computers. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an apti­ tude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the college admission test, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work experience, and some­ times a personal interview. However, law schools vary in the weight that they place on each of these factors. Nearly all law schools require that applicants take the LSAT and submit a Law School Data Assembly Service Report, which contains cer­ tified copies of the applicants’ LSAT scores and undergraduate college transcript. Both are administered by the Law School Admissions Service. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. Enrollments rose very rap­ idly during the early 1970's, with applicants far outnumbering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have grown slowly and the number of applicants has declined slightly, but applicants to many law schools still greatly exceeed the number that can be admitted. En­ rollments are expected to remain at about their present level through the year 2000, and com­ petition for admission to some law schools is expected to ease somewhat. However, com-  86/Occupational Outlook Handbook  petition for admission to the more prestigious sue joint degree programs, which generally re­ Job Outlook quire an additional year. Joint degree programs Rapid growth in the Nation’s requirements for law schools will remain keen. lawyers is expected to bring job openings into During the first year or year and a half of are offered in a number of areas, including law law school, students generally study funda­ and business administration and law and public rough balance with the relatively stable number of law school graduates each year and result mental courses such as constitutional law, con­ administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep in­ in an easing of competition for jobs through tracts, property law, torts, judicial procedures, the year 2000. During the 1970’s, the annual and legal writing. In the remaining time, they formed about legal and nonlegal developments may elect specialized courses in fields such as that affect their practice. An attorney repre­ number of law school graduates more than dou­ tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical ex­ senting electronics manufacturers, for exam­ bled, even outpacing the rapid growth of jobs. perience often is acquired by participation in ple, must follow trade journals and the latest Although graduates with superior academic school-sponsored legal aid or legal clinic ac­ Federal regulations. Attorneys in the Depart­ records from well-regarded law schools con­ ment of State must remain well versed in cur­ tinued to enjoy excellent opportunities, most tivities , in the school ’ s moot court competitions rent events and international law, while divorce graduates encountered increasingly keen com­ in which students conduct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision of ex­ lawyers read about the changing role of the petition for jobs. Growth in the yearly number perienced lawyers and judges, and through re­ family in modem society. Many law schools of law school graduates has tapered off during search and writing on legal issues for the and State and local bar associations provide the 1980’s, but, nevertheless, the number re­ continuing education courses that help lawyers mains at a level high enough to tax the econ­ school’s law journal. omy’s capacity to absorb them. The number In 1986, law students in the majority of States stay abreast of recent developments. The practice of law involves a great deal of of law school graduates is expected to continue were required to pass the Multistate Profes­ sional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), responsibility. Persons planning careers in law to remain near its present level through the year 2000, allowing employment growth to bring should like to work with people and be able which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes the job market for lawyers back into balance. on professional responsibility and judicial con­ to win the respect and confidence of their clients, Employment of lawyers has grown very rap­ duct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken associates, and the public. Integrity and hon­ during law school, usually after completing a esty are vital personal qualities. Perseverance idly since the early 1970’s, and is expected to and reasoning ability are essential to analyze continue to grow much faster than the average course on legal ethics. for all occupations through the year 2000. In­ A number of law schools have clinical pro­ complex cases and reach sound conclusions. grams where students gain legal experience Lawyers also need creativity when handling creased population and growing business ac­ tivity help sustain the strong growth in demand through practice trials and law school projects new and unique legal problems. for attorneys. This demand also will be spurred Most beginning lawyers start in salaried po­ under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical pro­ sitions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually by growth of legal action in such areas as em­ act as research assistants to experienced law­ ployee benefits, consumer protection, the en­ grams might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative com­ yers or judges. After several years of progres­ vironment, and safety, and an anticipated in­ mittees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law sively responsible salaried employment, many crease in the use of legal services by middlefirms, government agencies, and corporate le­ lawyers are admitted to partnership in their income groups through legal clinics and pre­ gal departments also provide experience that firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some paid legal service programs. Employment growth of lawyers will con­ can be extremely valuable later on. Such train­ lawyers, after years of practice, become judges tinue to be concentrated in salaried jobs, as or full-time law school faculty or administra­ ing can provide references or lead directly to businesses and all levels of government employ a job after graduation, and can help students tors; a growing number have advanced degrees a growing number of staff attorneys, and as in other fields as well. decide what kind of practice best suits them. Some persons use their legal training in ad­ employment in the legal services industry is Clerkships also may be an important source of ministrative or managerial positions in various increasingly concentrated in larger law firms. financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor departments of large corporations. A transfer The number of self-employed lawyers is ex­ (J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first from a corporation’s legal department to an­ pected to decline as it becomes increasingly professional degree. Advanced law degrees may other department often is viewed as a way to difficult to establish a profitable small practice gain administrative experience and rise in the due to competition from larger law firms, the be desirable for those planning to specialize, growing complexity of law—which encour­ do research, or teach. Some law students pur­ ranks of management. ages specialization—and the cost of maintain­ ing up-to-date legal research materials. Turnover of jobs in this occupation is low The number of law degrees granted annually has increased very because its members are well paid and enjoy little since the mid-1970’s. considerable social status, and a substantial educational investment is required for entry. Law degrees (thousands) Nevertheless, most job openings will stem from the need to replace lawyers who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Large national and regional law firms will continue to be selective in hiring new lawyers for associate positions that offer the potential for partnership status. Graduates of prestigious law schools and those who rank high in their classes should have the best opportunities for such positions. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic ratings may experience difficulty in landing associate positions with partnership potential but should 1975- 1976experience an easing of competition for posi­ 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 tions with smaller law firms, and for salaried jobs on the legal staffs of corporations and Source: Center for Education Statistics government agencies. As in the past, some  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/87  graduates may continue to be forced to accept positions for which they are overqualifed or in areas outside their field of interest. They may have to enter fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For ex­ ample, banks, insurance firms, real estate com­ panies, government agencies, and other or­ ganizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business po­ sitions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law grad­ uate’s geographic mobility and work experi­ ence assume greater importance. The willing­ ness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be licensed in a new State a lawyer may have to take an additional bar examina­ tion. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and ex­ panding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such communities, competition from larger estab­ lished law firms is likely to be less than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Nevertheless, starting a new practice will re­ main an expensive and risky undertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried po­ sitions will remain in urban areas where gov­ ernment agencies, law firms, and big corpo­ rations are concentrated. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cy­ clical swings in the economy. During reces­ sions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Although few law­ yers actually lose their jobs during these times,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  earnings may decline for many. Some corpo­ rations and law firms will not hire new attor­ neys until business improves. Several factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of reces­ sions on lawyers. During recessions, individ­ uals and corporations face other legal prob­ lems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal action. Further­ more, the continuous emergence of new laws and legal interpretations will create new op­ portunities for lawyers. Earnings Beginning attorneys in private industry aver­ aged nearly $31,000 in 1986. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for at­ torneys in 1987 were about $22,500 or $27,200, depending upon academic and personal qual­ ifications. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employers; and the desired specialized educational background. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and location of the employers. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private industry in 1986 was over $101,000. General attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $46,000 a year in 1986; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Gov­ ernment averaged around $55,400. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater responsibility. Incomes of law­ yers in practice usually grow as their practices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone.  Related Occupations Legal training is useful in many other occu­ pations. Some of these are legal assistant, ar­ bitrator, hearing examiner, journalist, patent agent, title examiner, legislative assistant, lob­ byist, FBI special agent, political office holder, and corporate executive. Sources of Additional Information The American Bar Association annually pub­ lishes A Review ofLegal Education in the United States, which provides detailed information on each of the 176 law schools approved by the ABA, State requirements for admission to legal practice, a directory of State bar examination administrators, and other information on legal education. It may be purchased for $3.00 from the ABA. Free information on the bar exam­ ination, financial aid for law students, and law as a career may also be obtained from: Information Services, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  Information on legal education and applying to law school is available from: Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Suite 370, Washington, DC 20036.  Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Service, and financial aid for law students may be obtained from: Law School Admissions Service, Box 2000, New­ town, PA 18940.  The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State may also be ob­ tained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State Board of Bar Examiners. For information on the job placement of law graduates and the legal profession in general, contact: National Association for Law Placement. Admin­ istrative Office, 440 First St. NW., Suite 302, Wash­ ington DC 20001.  Social scientists and urban planners Nature of the Work Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distribution of products and services to newly formed religious groups or plans for modem mass transportation systems. Social science research provides insights that help us understand the many different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, business leaders, and others in solv­ ing social, economic, and environmental prob­ lems. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use established or newly dis­ covered methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowl­ edge. Applied research usually is designed to produce information that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including living and working among the people studied; archeological and other field investigations; the analysis of his­ torical records and documents; experiments with human subjects or animals in a psychological laboratory; the administration of standardized tests and questionnaires; and the preparation and interpretation of maps and graphic mate­ rials. Regardless of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned with some as­ pect of society, culture, or personality. Anthropologists study the way of life, re­ mains, language, and physical characteristics of people in all parts of the world; they compare the customs, values, and social patterns of dif­ ferent cultures. Anthropologists generally con­ centrate in one of four subfields; Cultural an­  thropology, archeology, linguistics, or physical anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, studying the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized soci­ eties to modem urban cultures. Archeologists determine the characteristics and history of cul­ tures from the study of artifacts and other bur­ ied remains. Linguistic anthropologists study the role of language in various cultures. Phys­ ical anthropologists study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evidences of human life. Economists study the way we allocate our resources to produce a wide variety of goods and services. They conduct surveys and ana­ lyze data to determine public preferences for these goods and services. Most economists are concerned with the practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, en­ ergy, or health. Others develop theories to ex­ plain economic phenomena such as unem­ ployment or inflation. Geographers study the interrelationship of humans and the environment. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of an area’s economic activities. Political geographers are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenomena—local, national, and international. Physical geographers study physical processes on the earth and in the at­ mosphere. Urban geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the physical, climatic, economic, polit­ ical, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin to a State, country, or continent. Medical geographers study the effect of the environment on health. (Most occupational classification systems include geographers un­  The number of annual social science graduates with a bachelor’s degree has declined substantially more than the number with an advanced degree.  der physical scientists rather than social sci­ entists.) Historians research and analyze the past. Historians usually specialize in a specific coun­ try or geographic region; in a particular time period; or in a particular field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on in­ dividuals. Genealogists trace family histories. Other historians help study and preserve ar­ chives and historic buildings and sites. Political scientists investigate the ways in which political power is organized, distributed, and used. They study a wide range of subjects such as Soviet-American relations, the beliefs and institutions of nations in Asia and Africa, the politics of a New England town or a major metropolis, and the decisions of the U.S. Su­ preme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and ideol­ ogy, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as well as informal political entities. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, or analyze public documents. Psychologists, who constitute the largest so­ cial science occupation, study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also as­ sists advertisers, politicians, and others inter­ ested in influencing or motivating people. While clinical psychology is the largest specialty, psychologists specialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimental, social, or industrial psychology. Sociologists analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighbor­ hoods, or clubs. Sociologists may specialize in a particular field such as criminology, rural sociology, or medical sociology. Urban and regional planners develop com­ prehensive plans and programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change.  Degrees awarded (thousands) 210  -  Bachelor’s  Master’s and doctor's  1970-71 71-72 72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 84-85 85-86 Source: Center for Education Statistics  88   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. While working alone behind a desk, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be nec­ essary to collect information or attend meet­ ings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures and climates. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For ex­ ample, anthropologists, archeologists, and geographers often must travel to remote areas to live among the people they study or stay for long periods at the site of their investigations.  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/89  Employment Social scientists held about 199,000 jobs in 1986. They work for a wide range of employ­ ers, including government agencies; research organizations and consulting firms; banks; se­ curities and commodities dealers; social service agencies; hospitals and other health facilities; and business firms. About 1 out of 4 social scientists is selfemployed and involved in counseling, con­ sulting, research, and related activities. In ad­ dition, many persons with graduate training in a social science discipline, usually a doctoral degree, are employed by colleges and univer­ sities, where they characteristically combine teaching with research and consulting. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) As a source of employment, the academic world is more important for graduates in anthropology, so­ ciology, or political science than for graduates in urban and regional planning or psychology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top level nonacademic posts. Grad­ uates with master’s degrees have more limited professional opportunities, although the situ­ ation varies a great deal by field. For example, job prospects for master’s degree holders in urban and regional planning are brighter than for master’s degree holders in sociology. Bach­ elor’s degree holders have very limited op­ portunities and in most social science occu­ pations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, how­ ever, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of “junior professional” jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management trainee. Training in statistics and mathematics is es­ sential for most social scientists. Mathematical and other quantitative research methods are increasingly used in economics, geography, political science, experimental psychology, and other fields. The ability to use computers for research purposes is a “must” in many disci­ plines. Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may need a wide range of per­ sonal characteristics. Because they constantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are two fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various forms of government. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying proposals to reduce Federal budget deficits. Objectivity, openmindedness, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is es­ sential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Emotional stability and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental patients. And, of course, written and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The number of annual graduates has declined in all social science fields except economics and international relations. Degrees awarded, all levels (thousands) 20  Psychology nm History  30  40  50  impum—  —  ] 1972-73 1985-86  Sociology Political science and government Economics and international relations Other \mmm  Source: Center for Education Statistics  oral communication skills are essential to all these workers. Job Outlook Employment of social scientists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, spurred primarily by rapid growth among psychologists and econ­ omists—the largest social science occupations. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace social scientists who trans­ fer to other occupations or stop working al­ together. Overall, the number of degrees awarded in the social sciences is expected to exceed job openings and result in strong competition for jobs. Prospects are generally better in disci­ plines such as economics, psychology, and ur­ ban and regional planning, which offer many opportunities in nonacademic settings. On the other hand, the predominance of academic em­ ployment in such disciplines as anthropology, history, political science, and sociology may cause problems for these specialists through the year 2000 as college enrollments decline. Compared to the past, few academic positions will be available, and efforts are continuing to acquaint new graduates in these fields with nonacademic career opportunities in areas such as marketing or administration and evaluation of social and economic programs. As in the past, top graduates of leading universities will have a decided advantage in competing for jobs, especially for the limited number of ac­ ademic jobs. Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations include degree level; specific skills and ex­ perience; desired work setting; salary require­ ments; and geographic mobility. Earnings Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $29,600 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,800 and $39,800 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned under  $15,000, while the highest 10 percent earned over $51,000. According to the College Placement Coun­ cil, persons with a bachelor’s degree in a social science field received starting offers averaging about $21,100 a year in 1986. According to a 1985 National Science Foun­ dation survey, the median annual salary of doc­ toral social scientists ranged from $37,200 to $46,100. In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $14,800 or $18,400 a year in 1987, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s degree could start at $22,500, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $27,200, while some individuals could start at $32,600. The average salary of all social scientists working for the Federal Government in 1986 was about $38,800. Related Occupations A number of fields that require training and personal qualities similar to those of various social science fields are covered elsewhere in the Handbook. These include lawyers, statis­ ticians, mathematicians, computer program­ mers, computer systems analysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers, religious workers, college and university faculty, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For general information concerning the social sciences, contact: Consortium of Social Science Associations, 1200 17th St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20036.  More detailed information about econo­ mists, psychologists, sociologists, and urban and regional planners is presented in the Hand­ book statements that follow this introductory statement. Anthropology For information about careers, job openings,  90/Occupational Outlook Handbook  grants and fellowships, and schools that offer training in anthropology, and for a copy of Getting a Job Outside the Academy (special publication no. 14), contact: The American Anthropological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  Archeology For information about careers in archeology, contact: Society for American Archaeology, 1511 KSt. NW., Suite 716, Washington, DC 20005. Archaeological Institute of America, P.O. Box 1901, Kenmore Station, Boston, MA 02215.  Geography Two pamphlets that provide information on careers and job openings for geographers— Geography-Tomorrow’s Career and Careers in Geography—and the annual publication list­ ing schools offering various programs in ge­ ography—A Guide to Departments of Geog­ raphy in the U.S. and Canada—may be obtained from: Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  History Information on careers and job openings for historians is available from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003.  General information on careers for historians is available from: Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, IN 47401.  For additional information on careers for his­ torians, send a self-addressed, stamped enve­ lope to: American Association for State and Local History, 172 Second Ave. N., Suite 102, Nashville, TN 37210.  Political Science Careers and the Study of Political Science: A Guide for Undergraduates is available for $2, with bulk rates for multiple copies, from: American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Programs in Public Affairs and Administra­ tion, a biennial directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other in­ formation, may be purchased from: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20005.  Economists (D.O.T. 050.067)  Nature of the Work Economists study the ways a society uses scarce resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to produce goods and services. They analyze the costs and benefits of distrib­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  uting and consuming these goods and services. Their research might focus on topics such as energy costs, electronic components produc­ tion, farm prices, or imports. Some economists who are primarily theo­ reticians may develop theories through the use of mathematical models to explain the causes of business cycles and inflation or the effects of unemployment and tax policy. Most econ­ omists, however, are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, trans­ portation, energy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relationships to ad­ vise business firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry associations, labor unions, government agencies, and others. Depending on the topic under study, econ­ omists devise methods and procedures for ob­ taining data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and econometric modeling techniques may be used to develop projections. Preparing reports usually is an important part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, concise language. Being able to present economic and statis­ tical concepts in a meaningful way is partic­ ularly important for economists whose research is policy directed. Market research analysts who work for business firms may be asked to provide management with information to make decisions on marketing and pricing of company products; to look at the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the company’s op­ erations; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax laws; or to prepare economic and business forecasts. Business economists working for firms that carry on operations abroad may be asked to prepare forecasts of foreign economic conditions. Economists who work for government agen­ cies assess economic conditions in the United States and abroad and estimate the economic impact of specific changes in legislation or pub­ lic policy. For example, they may study how changes in the minimum wage affect teenage unemployment. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, fi­ nance, labor, transportation, utilities, urban economics, or international trade. For exam­ ple, economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce study domestic production, distri­ bution. and consumption of commodities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commis­ sion prepare industry analyses to assist in en­ forcing Federal statutes designed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on prices, wages, employment, and productivity. Working Conditions Economists working for government agencies and private firms have structured work sched­ ules . They may work alone writing reports, pre­ paring statistical charts, and using computers  and calculators. Or they may be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, and some­ times must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, let­ ters, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences. Economics faculty have flexible work sched­ ules, dividing their time among teaching, re­ search, consulting, and administrative respon­ sibilities. Employment Economists held about 37,000 jobs in 1986. Private industry—particularly economic and market research firms, management consulting firms, advertising firms, banks, and securities, investment, and insurance companies—em­ ployed over two-thirds of all salaried econo­ mists. The remainder were employed by a wide range of government agencies, primarily in the Federal Government. The Departments of La­ bor, Agriculture, and State are the largest Fed­ eral employers. About 1 out of every 5 econ­ omists runs his or her own consulting business. A number of economists combine a full-time job in government or business with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Employment of economists is concentrated in large cities. The largest numbers are in New York City and Washington, D.C. Some work abroad for companies with major international operations; for the Department of State and other U.S. Government agencies; and for in­ ternational organizations. Besides the jobs described above, an esti­ mated 22,000 persons held economics and marketing faculty positions in colleges and uni­ versities. (For information about this occupa­ tion, see the statement on college and univer­ sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or marketing is sufficient for many beginning research, administrative, management trainee, and sales jobs. The undergraduate curriculum includes courses such as microeconomics, macroeconomics, business cycles, economic and business history, economic development of selected areas, money and banking, inter­ national economics, public finance, industrial organization, labor economics, comparative economic systems, economics of national plan­ ning, urban economic problems, marketing, and consumer behavior analysis. Courses in related disciplines, such as political science, psychology, organizational behavior, sociol­ ogy, finance, business law, and international relations, are suggested. Because of the im­ portance of quantitative skills to economists, courses in mathematics, business and eco­ nomic statistics, sampling theory and survey design, and computer science are highly rec­ ommended. Graduate training increasingly is required for most economist jobs and for advancement to more responsible positions. Areas of special­ ization at the graduate level include advanced  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/91  economic theory, mathematical economics, econometrics, history of economic thought, and comparative economic systems and planning. Other areas include economic history, eco­ nomic development, environmental and natural resource economics, industrial organization, marketing, institutional economics, interna­ tional economics, labor economics, monetary economics, public finance, regional and urban economics, and social policy. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are interested. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, eco­ nomic consulting firms, financial institutions, or market research firms. Work experience and contacts can be useful in testing career pref­ erences and learning about the job market for economists. In the Federal Government, candidates for entrance positions generally need a college de­ gree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, account­ ing, or calculus. However, because competi­ tion is keen, additional education or experience may be required. For a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and small 4-year schools, a master’s degree generally is the minimum re­ quirement. In some colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. The Ph.D. and extensive pub­ lication are required for a professorship and for tenure, which are increasingly difficult to obtain. In government, industry, research organi­ zations, and consulting firms, economists who have a graduate degree usually can qualify for more responsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top posi­ tions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong back­ ground in economics or marketing. Over 1,200 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in economics and marketing; over 600, master’s; and about 130, doctoral programs. Persons considering careers as economists should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analysis. Pa­ tience and persistence are necessary because economists may spend long hours on indepen­ dent study and problem solving. At the same time, they must be able to work well with others. Economists must be objective and sys­ tematic in their work and be able to express themselves effectively both orally and in writ­ ing. Creativity and intellectual curiosity are essential for success in this field, just as they are in other areas of scientific endeavor. Job Outlook Employment of economists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced economists who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities should be best in manufac­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  turing, financial services, advertising agencies, research organizations, and consulting firms, reflecting the complexity of the domestic and international economies and increased reliance on quantitative methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning of pur­ chasing and production. The continued need for economic analyses by lawyers, accountants, engineers, health service administrators, urban and regional planners, environmental scien­ tists, and others will also increase the number of jobs for economists. Little or no change is expected in the employment of economists in the Federal Government—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Employment of economists in State and local government combined is expected to grow more slowly than the average. While courses in economics are increasingly popular, college enrollments are expected to decline through the year 2000—resulting in declining employment in colleges and universities. As a result, some highly qualified economics grad­ uates will enter nonacademic positions. A strong background in economic theory, statistics, and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting and market research, including the use of computers, should have the best job opportunities. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s de­ gree in economics through the year 2000 should face very keen competition for the limited num­ ber of economist positions for which they qual­ ify. However, many will find employment in government, industry, and business as man­ agement or sales trainees, or as research or administrative assistants. Those with strong backgrounds in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and computer science may be hired by private firms for market research work. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school economics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates who hold master’s degrees in economics face very strong competition, par­ ticularly for teaching positions in colleges and universities. However, some may gain posi­ tions in junior and community colleges. Those with a strong background in marketing and finance may have the best prospects in busi­ ness, banking, advertising, and management consulting firms. Ph.D.’s are likely to face competition for academic positions, although top graduates from leading universities should have little difficulty in acquiring teaching jobs. Some will have to accept jobs at smaller or lower paying insti­ tutions. Ph.D.’s should have favorable oppor­ tunities to work as economists in government, industry, educational and research organiza­ tions, and consulting firms. Earnings According to a 1986 salary survey by the Col­ lege Placement Council, persons with a bach-  Some economists study the interrelationships between industries.  elor’s degree in economics received an average starting salary of about $22,400 a year; in mar­ keting and distribution, about $19,300. Median annual earnings of full-time econ­ omists were about $36,600 in 1986. The median base salary of business econo­ mists in 1986 was $54,000, according to a survey by the National Association of Business Economists. Over one-fourth of those respond­ ing also had income from secondary employ­ ment. Economists in general administration and international economics commanded the high­ est salaries; those in market research and econ­ ometrics, the lowest. The highest paid business economists were in the securities and invest­ ment, retail and wholesale trade, and insurance industries; the lowest paid were in the edu­ cation, nonprofit research organization, and real estate industries. The Federal Government recognizes edu­ cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en­ trance salary for economists having a bache­ lor’s degree averaged about $14,800 a year in 1987; however, those with superior academic records could begin at about $18,400. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for po­ sitions at an annual salary of about $22,500. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at about $27,200, while some individuals could start at $32,600. Economists in the Federal Govern­ ment averaged around $40,700 a year in 1986.  Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting financial matters, among other subjects. Others with jobs in this area include financial managers, financial analysts, ac­ countants and auditors, underwriters, actuar­ ies, securities and financial services sales workers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers.  92/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Sources of Additional Information For information on schools offering graduate training in economics, contact: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave. South, Nashville, TN 37212.  For information on careers in business eco­ nomics, contact: National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, OH 44122.  For information about careers and salaries in market research, contact: American Marketing Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606.  For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: Joint Council on Economic Education, 2 Park Ave., New York, NY 10016.  Psychologists (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046) ____________________  Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and men­ tal processes to understand, explain, and change people’s behavior. Some research psycholo­ gists investigate the physical, cognitive, emo­ tional, or social aspects of human behavior. Other psychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct training programs; do market re­ search; or provide mental health services in hospitals, clinics, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists collect and test data to formulate and check the validity of hypotheses. Research methods de­ pend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through controlled lab­ oratory experiments; personality, perfor­ mance, aptitude, and intelligence tests; obser­ vation, interviews, and questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys. Computers are widely used to record and analyze this information.  Psychologists usually specialize. Experi­ mental psychologists study behavior processes and work with human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of experimental research include motivation, thinking, learning and retention, sensory and perceptual processes, and genetic and neuro­ logical factors in behavior. Developmental psy­ chologists study the patterns and causes of be­ havioral change as people progress through life. Some concern themselves with behavior during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, while others study changes that take place during maturity and old age. Personality psychologists study human nature, individual differences, and the ways in which those differences develop. Social psychologists examine people’s inter­ actions with others and with the social envi­ ronment. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and interper­ sonal perception. Comparative psychologists study the behavior of humans and animals. Physiological psychologists study the relation­ ship of behavior to the biological and neuro­ logical functions of the body. Psychologists in the field of psychometrics develop and apply procedures for measuring psychological vari­ ables such as intelligence and personality. Clinical psychologists generally work in hospitals or clinics, or maintain their own prac­ tices. They help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life. They interview pa­ tients; give diagnostic tests; provide individual, family, and group psychotherapy; and design and implement behavior modification pro­ grams. Clinical psychologists may collaborate with physicians and other specialists in devel­ oping treatment programs. Some clinical psy­ chologists work in universities, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health services. Others administer community mental health programs. Counseling psychologists use several techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday living—personal, so­ cial, educational, or vocational. Educational  Clinical psychology accounts for over one-third of all doctoral degrees in psychology. Percent of doctoral degrees awarded by subfield, 1986 0  Clinical Counseling General Development Experimental Social School Industrial and organizational Educational Physiological Cognitive Other Source: National Research Council   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  10  20  30  40  psychologists design, develop, and evaluate educational programs. School psychologists work with teachers, parents, and administrators to resolve students’ learning and behavior problems. Industrial and organizational psy­ chologists apply psychological techniques to personnel administration, management, and marketing problems. They are involved in pol­ icy planning, applicant screening, training and development, psychological test research, counseling, and organizational development and analysis, among other activities. For ex­ ample, an industrial psychologist may work with management to develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity. Engineering psychologists, often employed in factories and plants, develop and improve industrial prod­ ucts and human-machine systems. An engi­ neering psychologist might study the psycho­ logical and physiological effects on military personnel of using various weapons or the im­ pact on pilots and astronauts of operating air­ craft and space vehicles equipped with complex equipment. Community psychologists apply psychological knowledge to problems of urban and rural life. Consumer psychologists study the psychological factors that determine an in­ dividual’s behavior as a consumer of goods and services. Health psychologists counsel the public in health maintenance to help people avoid serious emotional or physical illness. Other areas of specialization include clinical neuropsychology, environmental psychology, forensic psychology, population psychology, psychology and the arts, history of psychology, psychopharmacology, and military and reha­ bilitation psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of em­ ployment determine working conditions. For example, clinical and counseling psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often have evening hours to accommodate their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities often work evenings and weekends, while others in schools and clinics work regular hours. Psychologists employed by academic institutions divide their time among teaching, research, and adminis­ trative responsibilities. Some maintain part-time consulting practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, some in government and private in­ dustry have more structured schedules. Read­ ing and writing research reports, they often work alone behind a desk. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may be inter­ rupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment Psychologists held about 110,000 jobs in 1986. Educational institutions—primarily elemen­ tary and secondary schools—employed about one-third of all salaried psychologists in po­ sitions involving counseling, testing, special  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/93  education, research, and administration. Hos­ pitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities employed more than 1 out of 4 psychologists; government agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels, about 1 out of 6. The Veterans Administration, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service employ the overwhelming ma­ jority of psychologists employed by Federal agencies. Psychologists also work in social ser­ vice organizations, research organizations, management consulting firms, market research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some psy­ chologists enter private practice or set up their own research or consulting firms. About twofifths of all psychologists are self-employed. Besides the jobs described above, an esti­ mated 19,000 persons held psychology faculty positions at colleges and universities. (For in­ formation about this occupation, see the state­ ment on college and university faculty else­ where in the Handbook.)  -  ■  School psychologists help children overcome adjustment problems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is generally required for em­ ployment as a psychologist, particularly in the academic world. People with doctorates in psy­ chology (Ph.D or Psy.D.—Doctor of Psy­ chology) qualify for a wide range of respon­ sible research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, private industry, and govern­ ment. People with a master’s degree in psychology can administer and interpret tests as psycho­ logical assistants. Under the supervision of psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories, counsel patients, or perform ad­ ministrative duties. They may teach in 2-year colleges or work as school psychologists or counselors. (See the Handbook statement on counselors.) People with a bachelor’s degree in psy­ chology are qualified to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation of­ fices, and correctional programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as trainees in government or business. However, without additional academic train­ ing, their advancement opportunities are lim­ ited. In the Federal Government, candidates hav­ ing at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists gener­ ally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an internship; vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experience. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a master’s degree in psy­ chology. Requirements usually include prac­ tical experience in an applied setting or a mas­ ter’s thesis based on a research project. For example, a master’s degree in school psy­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  chology requires 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative re­ search methods, which include the use of com­ puters, are an integral part of graduate study and usually necessary to complete the disser­ tation. The Psy.D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree gen­ erally include an additional year or more of internship or supervised experience. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Over 1,500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in psychology; about 400, a master’s; about 300, a Ph.D. In addition, about 30 professional schools of psychology— some affiliated with colleges or universities— offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph D. training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs. In 1986, 143 colleges and universities offered fully approved programs in clinical psychology (including 13 Psy.D. programs); 47 in coun­ seling psychology; and 34 in school psychol­ ogy (including 3 Psy.D. programs). The Na­ tional Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, is also involved in the accreditation of advanced de­ gree programs in school psychology. APA also has accredited about 310 institutions that pro­ vide internships for doctoral students in clinical and counseling psychology. Although financial aid is difficult to obtain,  some universities award fellowships or schol­ arships or arrange for part-time employment. The Veterans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral traineeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related training agencies. The Na­ tional Science Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide fi­ nancial aid. Psychologists who want to enter independent practice must meet certification or licensing requirements. In 1986, all States and the Dis­ trict of Columbia had such requirements. Li­ censing laws vary by State, but generally re­ quire a doctorate in psychology and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most States require that applicants pass an exami­ nation. Most State boards administer a stand­ ardized test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay examinations. Some States certify those with master’s level training as psycho­ logical assistants or associates. Some States require continuing education for relicensure. Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their practice to those areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. The American Board of Professional Psy­ chology recognizes professional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical psy­ chology, clinical neuropsychology, and coun­ seling, forensic, industrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates need a doc­ torate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and professional endorsements; they also must pass an examination. Even more so than in other occupations, people pursuing a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compas­ sion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are  94/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most recipients of doctoral degrees in psychology enter professional services. Percent of new doctoral degree recipients by activity, 1986 0  Professional services Research and development  10  20  30  40  50  i------------- 1--------------1--------------r _  ■ ; .  ■  ' ' '  .  :  '  ■'  'j S  ••■■■■  .""  60  '8 1  1  Teaching  All academic fields  Administration Other activities  Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychiatrists, social workers, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors.  Activity unknown  Source: National Research Council  necessary to communicate research findings. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in coming.  Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000. Largely because of the substantial investment in training re­ quired to enter this specialized field, psychol­ ogists have a strong attachment to their oc­ cupation—only a relatively small proportion leave the profession each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from replacement needs. Several factors may help maintain the de­ mand for psychologists: Increased emphasis on mental health maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical illness; public concern for the development of human resources, in­ cluding the growing elderly population; and increased testing and counseling of children. Changes in the level of government funding of these services could affect the demand for psy­ chologists. Some openings are likely to occur as psy­ chologists study the effectiveness of changes in health, education, military, law enforce­ ment, and consumer protection programs. Psy­ chologists also are increasingly studying the effects on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the conser­ vation and use of natural resources, and in­ dustrial automation. Because college enrollments are expected to decline through the year 2000, employment of psychologists in colleges and universities is expected to decline. As a result, there will be keen competition for academic positions. Al­ though outstanding Ph.D.’s from leading uni­ versities should have no difficulty in obtaining teaching jobs at top schools, a larger number of Ph.D.’s will be forced to take jobs at smaller or lower paying institutions. Some may accept part-time or temporary assignments with little  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The Federal Government recognizes edu­ cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the av­ erage starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor’s degree was about $14,800 a year in 1987; those with superior academic records could begin at $18,400. Counseling psychol­ ogists with a master’s degree and 1 year of counseling experience could start at $22,500. Clinical psychologists having a Ph D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $27,200; some individuals could start at $32,600. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal Government was about $41,400 a year in 1986.  or no hope of gaining tenure. As a result, many highly qualified graduates are expected to enter independent practice or seek other nonaca­ demic jobs. Persons holding doctorates from leading uni­ versities in applied areas such as clinical, coun­ seling, health, industrial, and engineering psy­ chology should have particularly good prospects. Psychologists with extensive train­ ing in quantitative research methods and com­ puter science will have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Most graduates with only a master’s degree in psychology will probably continue to en­ counter severe competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Grad­ uates of master’s degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase student counseling and mental health services. Some master’s degree holders may find jobs as psy­ chological assistants in community mental health centers. Bachelor’s degree holders can expect very few opportunities in this field. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. (For more information, see the statement on sec­ ondary school teachers elsewhere in the Hand­ book.)  Earnings According to a 1985 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree was about $39,500. In educational institutions, the median was about $37,600; in State govern­ ment, about $32,900; in local government, about $30,700; in hospitals and clinics, about $35,900; in other nonprofit organizations, about $32,400; and in business and industry, about $50,000. Ph.D. or Psy.D. psychologists in pri­ vate practice and in applied specialties gen­ erally have higher eamings than other psy­ chologists.  Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational re­ quirements, financial assistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: American Psychological Association, Educational Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on careers, educational re­ quirements, and licensing of school psychol­ ogists, contact: National Association of School Psychologists, 1511 K St. NW., Suite 716, Washington, DC 20005.  Information about State licensing require­ ments is available from: The American Association of State Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389, Montgomery, AL 36103.  Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from colleges and universities that have graduate departments of psychology.  Sociologists (D.O.T. 054)  Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions that people form. These include families, tribes, communities, and govern­ ments, as well as a variety of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. Sociologists study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists are concerned primarily with the characteristics of social groups and institutions. Others are more interested in the ways individuals are affected by the groups to which they belong. The numerous areas of specialization avail­ able to sociologists reflect the interdisciplinary  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/95  nature of this field. These include social or­ ganization, social stratification and mobility, racial and ethnic relations, social psychology, urban sociology, rural sociology, political so­ ciology, industrial sociology, comparative so­ ciology, and sociological practice. Other spe­ cialties include medical sociology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; gerontology—the study of aging and the special problems of aged persons; envi­ ronmental sociology—the study of the effects of the physical environment and technology on people; and clinical sociology—therapy and intervention in social systems for assessment and change. Increasingly important areas of study such as demography—the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of popu­ lations—and criminology—the study of fac­ tors producing deviance from accepted legal and cultural norms—have emerged as inde­ pendent specialties. Sociological research, like other kinds of social science research, involves collecting in­ formation, assessing its validity, and analyzing the results. Sociologists usually conduct sur­ veys or engage in direct observation to gather data. For example, after providing for con­ trolled conditions, an organizational sociolo­ gist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small work group. A medical sociologist might study the inci­ dence of lung cancer in an area contaminated by industrial pollutants. Sociological research­ ers also evaluate the efficacy of different kinds of social programs. They might examine and evaluate particular programs of income assis­ tance, job training, or remedial education. In­ creasingly, sociologists utilize statistical and computer techniques in their research. The re­ sults of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others inter­ ested in resolving social problems and for­ mulating public policy. Sociologists often work closely with community groups and members of other professions, including psychologists, physicians, economists, statisticians, urban and regional planners, political scientists, anthro­ pologists, law enforcement and criminal administration officials, and social workers. Some sociologists are primarily administra­ tors. They apply their professional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, fam­ ily counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, education, personnel administra­ tion, public relations, regional and community planning, and health services planning. They may, for example, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies or develop social policies and programs for government, community, youth, or religious organizations. A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the men­ tally ill; ways of counseling ex-offenders; and market research for advertisers and manufac­ turers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare pro­ grams.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions The work of sociologists generally includes much reading, research, and report writing. Sociologists working in government agencies and private firms have structured work sched­ ules, and many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or to attend professional conferences. Sociolo­ gists in private practice may work evenings and weekends to accommodate clients. Sociology faculty have more flexible work schedules, dividing their time between teach­ ing, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities.  HUff  Employment Sociologists held several thousand jobs in 1986. Government agencies employ a significant pro­ portion of sociologists to deal with such sub­ jects as poverty, crime, public assistance, pop­ ulation policy, social rehabilitation, community development, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, and environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Government work primarily for the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, Health and Human Services, and De­ fense. Sociologists specializing in demography work for international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization and Federal agen­ cies such as the Bureau of the Census. Soci­ ologists specializing in criminology work pri­ marily for law enforcement agencies in State and local government. Sociologists also hold managerial, research, and planning positions in research firms, consulting firms, educational institutions, corporations, professional and trade associations, hospitals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting. Besides the jobs described above, about 13,000 persons held sociology faculty posi­ tions in colleges and universities. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)  TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree is required for appointment to permanent teaching and research positions in colleges and universities and is essential for many senior level positions in research insti­ tutes, consulting firms, corporations, and gov­ ernment agencies. As the job market gets tight­ er through the year 2000, a Ph.D. will be increasingly required for virtually all academic and professional sociologist positions. Sociologists with master’s degrees can qual­ ify for administrative and research positions in public agencies and private businesses. Train­ ing in research, statistical, and computer meth­ ods is an advantage in obtaining such positions. Advancement opportunities are more limited for master’s degree holders than for Ph.D.’s.  Sociologists assess the effects of population movements. Sociologists with master’s degrees may qualify for teaching positions in junior colleges and for some college instructorships. Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology often get jobs in related fields. Many work as social workers, counselors, or recreation workers in public and private welfare agencies. Others are employed as interviewers or as administrative or research assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agencies. In the Federal Government, candidates gen­ erally need a college degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work in theory and methods of social research. How­ ever, since competition for the limited number of positions is keen, advanced study in the field is highly recommended. About 185 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s degree. In about 170 schools, the master’s is the highest degree offered, and about 850 schools have bachelor’s degree programs. Sociology departments offer a wide variety of courses including sociological theory, field methods, social statistics and quantitative methods, crime and deviance, so­ cial psychology, family and society, sex roles, population, social stratification, social control, small group analysis, urban sociology, rural sociology, social organizations, and sociology of religion, law, the arts, war, politics, edu­ cation, work and occupations, and mental health. Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs, while others are relatively unstructured and leave most course selection up to individual students. Departments have different requirements regarding foreign lan­ guage skills, courses in statistics, internships, and completion of a thesis for the master’s degree.  96/Occupational Outlook Handbook  The choice of a graduate school is important for people who want to become sociologists. Students should select a school that has ade­ quate research facilities and offers appropriate areas of specialization such as theory, demog­ raphy, clinical sociology, or quantitative meth­ ods. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available, and sociology depart­ ments may help place students in business or research firms and government agencies. Certification by the Sociological Practice Association (SPA) is necessary for some clin­ ical sociology positions. Certification require­ ments generally include at least 1 year of ex­ perience that demonstrates competence in clinical sociology, a doctorate or a master’s degree from an accredited school, and suc­ cessful demonstration of competency at SPAsponsored training workshops or conferences. The ability to work independently is im­ portant for sociologists. Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait; researchers must have in­ quiring minds and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they observe. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institu­ tions and behavior; they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in their work. Because communi­ cating their findings to other people is an im­ portant part of the job, sociologists must be able to speak well and to write clearly and concisely.  Job Outlook Demand for sociologists should be spurred by research in various fields such as demography, criminology, and gerontology and by the need to evaluate and administer programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. Most job openings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace sociologists who trans­ fer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The number of persons who graduate with advanced degrees in sociology through the year 2000 is likely to greatly exceed the available job openings. Ph.D.’s will continue to face particularly keen competition for academic po­ sitions; Ph.D.’s from the most outstanding in­ stitutions will have an advantage in securing teaching jobs. An increasing proportion of Ph.D.’s will en­ ter nonacademic careers. Some may take re­ search and administrative positions in govern­ ment, research organizations, and business firms. Those well-trained in quantitative re­ search methods—including survey techniques, advanced statistics, and computer sciencewill have the widest choice of jobs. For ex­ ample, private firms that contract with the gov­ ernment to evaluate social programs and con­ duct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantitative skills. De­ mand is expected to be much stronger for so­ ciologists with training in practice areas—such as clinical sociology, criminology, environ­ mental sociology, medical sociology, geron­ tology, and demography—than for specialists  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  in sociological theory. For example, additional demographers may be sought to help busi­ nesses plan marketing and advertising pro­ grams and to help developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population projections, and formulate long-range public planning pro­ grams. More criminologists may be sought to help reduce deviance from legally and socially accepted behavior in our society. More ger­ ontologists may be needed to help formulate programs for our expanding elderly population. Sociologists with training in other applied dis­ ciplines—such as public policy, public admin­ istration, and business administration—will be attractive to employers seeking managerial and administrative personnel. Persons with a master’s degree will find few, if any, academic positions, even in junior and community colleges. They also will face strong competition for the limited number of nona­ cademic positions open to them. Some may find research and administrative jobs in re­ search firms, business, and government. For example, sociologists with backgrounds in business and quantitative research methods may find opportunities in market research firms. Bachelor's degree holders will find fewer opportunities for jobs as professional sociol­ ogists. As in the past, many graduates will take positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and government. As with advanced degree holders, extensive training in quanti­ tative research methods provides these grad­ uates with the most marketable skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning careers in law, journalism, business, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, sociology pro­ vides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school sociology teachers. (For more in­ formation, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)  Earnings According to a 1985 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of sociologists and anthropologists combined was $37,200. For those in educational insti­ tutions, it was $37,000, and in business and industry, $45,000. The Federal Government recognizes edu­ cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the av­ erage entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor’s degree was about $14,800 or $18,400 a year in 1987, depending upon the applicant’s academic record. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was about $22,500 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $27,200, while some individuals could start at $32,600. Sociologists in the Federal Government aver­ aged around $40,400 a year in 1986. In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. de­ gree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Some sociologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as consulting or coun­ seling work.  Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an understanding of social processes and institutions. Others whose work demands such expertise include anthropologists, econ­ omists, geographers, historians, political sci­ entists, psychologists, urban and regional plan­ ners, reporters and correspondents, and social workers.  Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and graduate departments of sociology is available from: The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036.  For information about careers in demogra­ phy, contact: Population Association of America, 806 15th St. NW., Suite 640, Washington, DC 20005.  For information about careers in clinical and applied sociology, contact: Sociological Practice Association, RD2, Box 141A, Chester, NY 10918.  For information about careers in rural so­ ciology, contact: Rural Sociology Society, Department of Sociology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717.  For information about careers in criminol­ ogy, contact: American Society of Criminology, 1314 Kinnear Rd., Suite 212, Columbus, OH 43212.  Urban and Regional Planners (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014)  Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called com­ munity or city planners, develop programs to provide for future growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communities and their regions. They help local officials make decisions on social, economic, and environ­ mental problems. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the economic and legal issues involved in community de­ velopment or redevelopment and changes in housing and building codes or environmental regulations. Because suburban growth has in­ creased the need for traveling between suburbs and the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transportation systems and parking facilities. Urban and regional planners prepare for sit­ uations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They estimate, for example, the com­ munity’s long-range needs for housing, trans­ portation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the com­ munity government, they analyze and propose  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/97  alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for long-range com­ munity development, urban and regional plan­ ners prepare detailed studies that show the cur­ rent use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. These reports include such information as the location of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, li­ braries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also provide information on the types of in­ dustries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this information, urban and re­ gional planners propose ways of using unde­ veloped or underutilized land and design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as subway stations. They also prepare materials that show how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. As in many other fields, planners increasingly use computers to record and analyze information. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and other public planning officials. They may prepare materials for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before leg­ islative committees to explain their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, public transportation, community relations, and the renovation or reconstruction of rundown business districts. In small organizations, plan­ ners must be able to do several kinds of work.  Working Conditions Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they oc­ casionally spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under consideration for development, its current use, and the types of structures existing on it. Although most plan­ ners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups.  Employment Urban and regional planners held about 20,000 jobs in 1986. Local government planning agen­ cies—city, county, or regional—employ 2 out of 3. An increasing proportion of public agency planners work in small jurisdictions with pop­ ulations under 50,000. Many are employed in State agencies that deal with housing, trans­ portation, or environmental protection. The largest Federal employers of this specialty are the Departments of Defense and Transporta­ tion. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to private developers or government agencies. Some planners work for architectural and surveying firms, consulting firms, or large land devel­ opers.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have ad­ vanced training in urban or regional planning.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Urban and regional planners analyze the impact of changing highway systems. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of grad­ uate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Although the master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement at the entry level, some people who have a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, or engineering may qualify for beginning positions. Courses in related disci­ plines such as demography, economics, fi­ nance, health administration, location theory, and management are highly recommended. In addition, familiarity with statistical techniques and computer usage is highly desirable. In 1986, about 80 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree program in urban or regional planning. Most of these programs have been accredited by the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the American Planning Association (APA), the American Institute of Certified Planners, and the Association of Collegiate Schools of Plan­ ning. Although students holding a bachelor’s degree in planning, architecture, or engineer­ ing may earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in planning require 2 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in studios, workshops, or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban and regional planning problems and often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer.  Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies usually must pass civil service examinations to become eligible for appointment. The American Institute of Certified Plan­ ners, a branch of the APA, grants certification to individuals with the appropriate combination of education and professional experience who pass an examination. Data on APA member­ ship indicate that certified urban planners tend to hold the more responsible, better paying positions in their field. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different view­ points to make constructive policy recommen­ dations. The ability to write clearly and effec­ tively is important. After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may advance to assignments requiring a high degree of independent judg­ ment such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are pro­ moted to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other professionals. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a large city with more complex problems and greater responsibilities.  98/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other oc­ cupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Demand will be spurred primarily by the continuing importance of environmental, eco­ nomic, and energy production planning. Other factors contributing to the demand for urban and regional planners include interest in zoning and land-use planning in undeveloped and non­ metropolitan areas, including coastal areas; the need to replace old public facilities such as bridges, highways, and sewers; historic pres­ ervation and rehabilitation activities; central city redevelopment; and commercial devel­ opment to support suburban areas with rapidly growing populations. Demand for urban and regional planners var­ ies by region. For example, demand is cur­ rently strong in rapidly growing areas such as California and Florida. Job growth is expected to occur in smaller cities and towns in older areas—for example, in the Northeast and Mid­ west—undergoing preservation and redevel­ opment.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Graduates of leading institutions with ac­ credited planning programs should have very good job prospects. For other jobseekers, geo­ graphic mobility and the willingness to work in small towns or rural areas may be necessary. Earnings According to a 1985 survey by the APA, urban and regional planners earned a median annual salary of about $34,100. The median annual salary of planners in city, county, and other local governments was $31,100; in State gov­ ernments, $33,500; in private consulting firms, $40,100; in business, $40,100; and in nonprofit foundations, $34,100. For planners with over 10 years’ experience, county and joint city/ county agencies paid about $37,700 annually, while private businesses and consulting firms paid about $48,100. Directors of public plan­ ning agencies earned as much as $9,000 more than staff members at comparable levels of experience. Salaries of planners in large juris­ dictions may be as much as $10,000 a year higher than their counterparts in small juris­ dictions. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Government at a starting average salary of $22,500 a year in 1987. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of grad­  uate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $14,800 or$18,400. Salaries of urban and regional planners em­ ployed by the Federal Government averaged $39,400 a year in 1986.  Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural com­ munities. Others whose work is related to the work of planners include architects, landscape architects, city managers, civil engineers, en­ vironmental engineers, geographers, and urban designers.  Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and salaries in urban and regional planning, a list of schools offering training, and job referrals are available from: American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Information on schools offering training in urban and regional planning is also available from: Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Col­ lege of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221.  Social and recreation workers Human Services Workers (D.O.T. 195.267-014 and .367 except -026 and -030)  Nature of the Work “Human services worker” is a generic term for people who hold paraprofessional jobs in such diverse settings as group homes and halfway houses; correctional, mental retardation, and community mental health centers; family, child, and youth service agencies; and programs con­ cerned with alcoholism, drug abuse, family violence, and aging. Depending on the em­ ployment setting and the kinds of clients served there, job titles and duties vary a great deal. Examples of job titles are: Social service tech­ nician, case management aide, social work as­ sistant, residential counselor, alcoholism or drug abuse counselor, mental health technician, child abuse worker, community outreach worker, and gerontology aide. Despite differences in what they are called and what they do, all human services workers perform under the direction of professional staff. The amount of responsibility these workers as­ sume and the degree of supervision they receive vary a great deal, however. Some workers are on their own most of the time and have little direct supervision; others work under close di­ rection. Those employed in mental health set­ tings, for example, may be assigned to assist a treatment team made up of social workers, psychologists, and other human services professionals. Human services workers in community, mental health, or residential care settings pro­ vide direct services such as leading a group, organizing an activity, or offering individual counseling. They may handle some adminis­ trative support tasks, too. Specific job duties reflect organizational policy and staffing pat­ terns, as well as the worker’s educational prep­ aration and experience. Human services workers in social service agencies help clients through the red tape that surrounds many entitlement programs. First of all, this involves interviewing clients, assess­ ing their needs, and establishing their eligibility for services that are available in the commu­ nity. Recordkeeping is another important part of the job. Regardless of whether a manual or computerized system is used, client and agency files must be kept up to date and in order. Social work assistants often handle eligibil­ ity determination, a complex job. The assistant usually examines financial documents such as rent receipts and tax returns to determine whether the client is eligible for food stamps, Medicaid, or other welfare programs. Social work assistants also provide information on how to obtain needed services; arrange for trans­ portation and escort service, if necessary; and provide emotional and psychological support.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Case aides may transport or accompany clients to group meal sites, adult day care pro­ grams, or doctors’ offices. Aides also tele­ phone or visit clients’ homes, checking to be sure that needed services are being received. Some aides serve tenants of public housing projects. They provide information about reg­ ulations and services, and may at times help resolve disagreements between tenants and landlords. Interest in alternatives to institutional care for people who are frail, severely handicapped, mentally ill, or mentally retarded has brought forth a variety of community-based facilities and programs. These include neighborhood clinics, mental health centers, emergency shel­ ters, “drop-in” centers for drug abusers and the mentally ill, and group homes and halfway houses. Human services workers play a variety of roles in community settings such as these. They may organize and lead group activities, for example; assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention; or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. Job duties vary, depending on the particular group of people receiving services. In a com­ munity mental health center, mental health technicians work directly with individual clients. They may help them master practical aspects of everyday living, for example, or teach them how to communicate more effectively and get along better with others. Technicians assist with a number of different treatment approaches, including music, art, and dance therapy, to­ gether with individual and group counseling. In addition to the personal contact with clients, human services workers in community mental health centers are responsible for keep­ ing records and informing and updating the professional staff about the clients’ condition. Monitoring progress is a typical job duty in all types of programs, whether for senior citizens, the mentally ill, or the developmentally dis­ abled. Halfway houses and group homes also serve adults who need some supervision or assistance on a day-to-day basis. These homes were orginally set up to give people with mental or physical impairments a chance to live in the community instead of in an institution. Cur­ rently, group homes for elderly persons are being launched in some communities. Activity programs at nearby community centers give residents a place to go during the day to meet people and participate in educational and re­ habilitative activities. In the evening, residents return to the group homes, where they live in a family-like setting with supervision and sup­ port from counselors and aides. Residential counselors take a close interest in each member of the group home. They have access to and may consult confidential records, confer with medical personnel, and talk with the client’s family in order to gain better insight into the client’s history and needs. These in­ terviews are conducted under the supervision  of professional social workers or psycholo­ gists. Counselors in group homes follow the in­ structions of professional staff when dealing with clients. The social worker, for example, may instruct residential staff to teach members of the group home how to prepare their own meals. It may be up to the counselor to decide how to involve every resident in all the nec­ essary steps, from menu planning and grocery shopping through cooking and cleanup. The amount of freedom the worker has in imple­ menting instructions depends on the worker’s experience and the policy of the organization. In one home, for example, the counselor may operate with relatively few guidelines, while in another a step-by-step plan must be adhered to. Residential counselors are responsible for keeping clients’ records up to date and re­ porting changes in behavior to the supervisor. The counselor must prepare oral and written reports on the condition and progress of each member of the residence. Residential coun­ selors may also be responsible for the financial management of the household, including doc­ umenting all household expenditures.  Working Conditions Working conditions vary. Human services workers in social service agencies generally spend part of the time in the office and the rest of the time in the field. Most work a 40-hour week. Some evening and weekend work may be necessary, but compensatory time off is usually granted. Human services workers in community-based settings move around a great deal in the course of a workweek. They may be inside one day and outdoors on a field visit the next. They, too, work a standard 40-hour week. Human services workers in residential set­ tings generally work in shifts. Because resi­ dents of group homes need supervision in the evening and at night, 7 days a week, evening and weekend hours are required. The work, while satisfying, can be emo­ tionally draining. Understaffing and lack of equipment add to the pressure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field.  Employment Human services workers held about 88,000 jobs in 1986. About one-third were employed by State and local governments, primarily in mental health centers, facilities and programs for the mentally retarded and developmentally disabled, and public welfare agencies. About one-fourth worked in agencies offering adult day care, group meals, crisis intervention, counseling, and other social services. Some supervised residents of group homes and half­ way houses. Human services workers also held jobs in clinics, community mental health cen­ ters, and psychiatric hospitals. 99  10O/Occupational Outlook Handbook  suffice for promotion to a supervisory position. In general, however, career advancement re­ quires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in coun­ seling, rehabilitation, social work, or a related field. Most employers encourage workers to further their education, and some are willing to pay part of the cost. In addition, many em­ ployers provide in-service training such as seminars and workshops.  SUfSjffiji  Job Outlook .  '/*V  if, i tn  mm ->  il  Patience, understanding, and caring are important traits.  IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Human services workers have a wide range of educational backgrounds. However, the kind of work they do and the amount of responsi­ bility entrusted to them often depend on formal educational attainment. Workers with a high school education or less are likely to perform clerical duties. Those with a college degree might be assigned to do direct counseling, co­ ordinate program activities, or manage a group home. While some employers hire high school graduates, most prefer applicants with college level preparation in human services, social work, or one of the social or behavioral sci­ ences. Some human services workers transfer from other occupations or enter the field on the basis of course work in psychology, sociology, rehabilitation, or special education. A strong desire to help others is an important consideration for a job as a human services worker. Individuals who show patience, un­ derstanding, and caring in their dealings with others are highly valued by employers. Other important personal traits include communica­ tion skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Hiring requirements in group homes tend to be more stringent than in other settings. In 1985, approximately 300 certificate and associate degree programs in human services or mental health were offered at community  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and junior colleges, vocational-technical in­ stitutes, and other postsecondary institutions. In addition, about 150 programs offered a bachelor’s degree in human services. A small number of programs leading to master’s de­ grees in human services administration were offered as well. Generally speaking, academic programs in this field educate students for particular kinds of roles—an associate degree program might specialize in preparing students to work with developmentally disabled adults, for example. As is also the case in social work, rehabilitation counseling, and other practice-oriented disci­ plines, educators maintain continuing contact with local employers to keep up with their changing needs. Students are exposed early and often to the kinds of situations they may en­ counter on the job. Undergraduate and graduate programs typ­ ically include courses in psychology, sociol­ ogy, crisis intervention, family dynamics, ther­ apeutic interviewing, rehabilitation, and gerontology. Through classroom simulation and required internships, students develop skills in interviewing, observing, and recording behav­ ior; learn techniques of individual and group counseling; and are introduced to program planning. Formal education is almost always necessary for career advancement. In group homes, com­ pletion of a 1-year certificate in human services along with several years of experience may  Employment of human services workers is ex­ pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Op­ portunities for qualified applicants are expected to be excellent, not only because of projected rapid growth in the occupation, but because of substantial replacement needs. Turnover among counselors in group homes is reported to be especially high. Employment prospects should be favorable in facilities and programs that serve the elderly, mentally impaired, or developmentally dis­ abled. Adult day care, a relatively new con­ cept, is expected to expand significantly due to very rapid growth in the number of people of advanced age, together with growing aware­ ness of the value of day programs for adults in need of supervision. While projected growth in the elderly pop­ ulation is the dominant factor in the anticipated expansion of adult day care, public response to the needs of people who are handicapped or mentally ill underlies anticipated employment growth in group homes and residential care facilities. As more and more mentally retarded or developmentally disabled individuals reach the age of 21 and thereby lose their eligibility for programs and services offered by the public schools, the need for community-based alter­ natives can be expected to grow. Pressures to respond to the needs of the chronically mentally ill can also be expected to persist. For many years, as deinstitutionalization has proceeded, chronic mental patients have been left to their own devices. If the movement to help the homeless and chronically mentally ill gains momentum, more community-based programs and group residences will be established, and demand for human services workers will in­ crease accordingly. Job prospects in public agencies are not as bright as they once were, due to anticipated budget constraints that may reduce the use of paraprofessionals for outreach, eligibility de­ termination, information and referral, and sim­ ilar tasks. State and local governments will remain a major employer of human services workers, however, and replacement needs alone will generate many job openings in the public sector. Because so many human services jobs in­ volve direct contact with people who are im­ paired and therefore vulnerable to exploitation, employers try to be selective in hiring. Ap­ plicants are screened for appropriate personal qualifications. Relevant academic preparation is generally required, and volunteer or work experience is preferred. Inasmuch as this is responsible and emotionally draining work  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/101  which pays relatively poorly, qualified appli­ cants should have little difficulty finding em­ ployment. Earnings According to limited data available, starting salaries for human services workers ranged from $10,000 to $14,000 a year in 1987. Experi­ enced workers earned up to about $20,000 an­ nually, depending on the amount of experience and the employer. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of human services workers include social workers, community outreach workers, religious workers, occupational ther­ apy assistants, physical therapy assistants and aides, psychiatric aides, and activity leaders. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: National Organization for Human Service Education, National College of Education, 2840 Sheridan Rd., Evanston, IL 60201. Council for Standards in Human Service Education, Montgomery Community College, Blue Bell, PA 19422.  Information on job openings may be avail­ able from State employment service offices or directly from city, county, or State departments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources.  Social Workers (D.O.T. 187.137-014; 189.267-010; 195.107-010 through -046, .137-010, .164-010, .167-010, -014, -030, and -034, .267-018, .367-018 and -026) ________  Nature of the Work Social workers help individuals, families, and groups cope with problems of every descrip­ tion. Mostly, however, they aid people who are overwhelmed by circumstances: The home­ less, the unemployed, the seriously ill, the be­ reaved. Among the major helping professions, social work is distinguished by a tradition of concern for the poor, the disadvantaged, and those too young or too old to fend for them­ selves. Through direct counseling and referral to other services, social workers help clients re­ build their lives. Through policymaking and advocacy, they help make society more re­ sponsive to people’s changing needs. Major areas of social work practice include child wel­ fare and family services, psychiatric and men­ tal health services, public assistance, medical social work, gerontological social work, school social work, community organization, plan­ ning and policy development, and social wel­ fare administration.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Social workers in child welfare and family services provide a wide array of services, de­ pending on the client’s needs and resources. Improving the well-being of children and youth is the traditional role of child welfare workers. They may advise parents on the care of hand­ icapped infants, counsel children and youth who have difficulties in social adjustment, or arrange homemaker service during a parent’s illness. If children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, and counselors to identify underlying problems. Some social workers as­ sist single parents, counsel couples about adop­ tion, and help find homes for neglected or aban­ doned children. Child welfare workers also work in residential institutions for children and ad­ olescents. A growing number of social workers spec­ ialize in child or adult protective services. Those in child protective services investigate reported cases of abuse and neglect and intervene if necessary. They sometimes institute legal ac­ tion and remove the child from the home, plac­ ing the child, temporarily, in an emergency shelter or with a foster family. Social workers who specialize in adult protective services take similar steps on behalf of adults, typically bat­ tered wives, neglected or abused elderly, or mentally impaired individuals. Whenever a social worker helps an individ­ ual or a family in crisis, direct counseling is a major part of the job. This requires effective listening skills and facility in creating a climate of openness and trust. Several meetings with the client and others familiar with the situation may be necessary in order to establish all the relevant facts. Using their training in human behavior, personality theory, and group rela­ tions, social workers engaged in direct coun­ seling help clients bring their real concerns into the open and consider possible solutions. Often, the social worker provides concrete information in areas that are unfamiliar or be­ wildering to the client: Where to go for debt counseling; how to word a help-wanted ad for childcare or eldercare; how to apply for public assistance, disability benefits, or child support; where to report suspected cases of abuse; how to get an alcoholic admitted to a rehabilitation program. Case management and other coordinating activities represent an increasingly important job duty. Case management is directed at pull­ ing together the most appropriate package of services in consultation with the client and then following through to assure that needed ser­ vices—transportation, housing, or a sheltered workshop placement for a mentally retarded adult, for example—are actually provided. Once having determined what services would benefit the client, case managers may review eligibility requirements, fill out forms and ap­ plications, arrange for transportation or escort service, visit the client on a regular basis, and step in during emergencies. The mental health field attracts the most so­ cial workers. Much effort has gone into de­ veloping community residential facilities and an array of supportive services for the mentally  disabled—services such as outreach, crisis in­ tervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday living, to name a few. Social workers provide these services in com­ munity mental health centers, outpatient psy­ chiatric clinics, emergency shelters, and “dropin” centers. Psychiatric social workers are also employed in State mental hospitals, Veterans Administration hospitals, for-profit psychiatric hospitals, substance abuse treatment facilities, and psychiatric units of general hospitals. Pro­ viding individual and group therapy for psy­ chiatric patients is one of their principal job duties. In addition, some social workers help plan for supportive services to ease patients’ return to the community. Medical social workers are trained to help patients and their families cope with devastat­ ing illnesses and handle problems that may stand in the way of recovery or rehabilitation. Most medical social workers are employed by hospitals to handle patient counseling or dis­ charge planning. A substantial number work in nursing homes, where they may help with the admissions process and direct the activities program in addition to counseling residents and their families. Some have jobs with group med­ ical practices, health maintenance organiza­ tions, rehabilitation centers, and hospices. Patient counseling—working with children suffering from a terminal illness, for exam­ ple—is handled differently from one hospital to the next. Generally, however, it is the re­ sponsibility of the social work department. This traditional role has expanded as technology has made it possible for very sick people to survive months or even years longer than they used to. In addition, the increasingly popular practice of assisting family caregivers has created new roles for hospital social workers, who have taken the lead in organizing support groups for families of patients suffering from cancer, Alz­ heimer’s disease, or other illnesses that impose a heavy burden on families. Discharge planning is an important part of the hospital social worker’s job. This has come about because hospitals are under financial pressure to release patients as soon as possible. Discharge planners arrange for the various ser­ vices—from meals-on-wheels to oxygen equipment—that make it possible to send pa­ tients home as soon as their medical condition warrants it. Other medical social work roles are evolv­ ing. In some hospitals, social workers under­ take primary care functions in departments of pediatrics or obstetrics. A few specialize in organ transplant procurements. Others work on interdisciplinary teams that specialize in eval­ uating certain kinds of patients—geriatric or transplant patients, for example. Social work­ ers are also involved in hospitals’ efforts to bring in business by offering new programs and services. Examples are adult day care, res­ pite care, hospice care, health screening and education, worksite wellness, and employee assistance programs. Some social workers specialize in treatment of criminal offenders. Correctional treatment specialists provide direct services for inmates  102/Occupational Outlook Handbook  the auspices of the Federal Government, the United Nations, or one of the voluntary inter­ national social service agencies.  a  -  Many new jobs will be in family service agencies. of penal or correctional institutions, while pro­ bation and parole officers help offenders who are eligible for parole readjust to society. They counsel on the social problems that arise on returning to family and community life, and also may help secure necessary education, training, employment, or community services. Juvenile and adult probation officers provide similar services to individuals sentenced by the court to probation as an alternative to prison. Industrial social work is another area of prac­ tice. Social workers employed by business firms run employee assistance programs, for the most part. They generally are located in the person­ nel department or health unit, and offer direct counseling to employees and their families, develop education programs, and provide in­ formation about community resources. Indus­ trial social workers typically counsel employ­ ees whose performance at work is affected by alcoholism, drug abuse, or emotional prob­ lems. In a few companies, employee assistance programs focus on other sources of stress; so­ cial workers may help employees investigate childcare or eldercare arrangements, for ex­ ample. A small but growing number of social work­ ers are in private practice. Most of these are clinical social workers who offer psychother­ apy or counseling to individuals, families, and groups. They might work with families of trou­ bled adolescents, help couples deal with mar­ ital difficulties, assist individuals experiencing job-related stress, or set up support groups for people coping with similar situations. Some private practitioners specialize in or­ ganizational consulting, and contract with business firms to counsel employees during plant closings, workforce reductions, or other stressful changes in the work environment. Still others consult for trade unions and develop educational, recreational, and service pro­ grams for active and retired members. A growing number of private practice social workers specialize in gerontological services.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Some run support groups for family caretakers or for the adult children of aging parents.Others provide geriatric case management services on a fee-for-service basis. They assess service needs and then advise elderly people or family members about the choices open to them in such areas as housing, transportation, and long­ term care. They coordinate and may monitor services, providing as much or as little assis­ tance as the client desires. In addition to their work with individual clients, gerontological social workers often serve as consultants for government agencies, community organiza­ tions, and business firms. They might evaluate existing programs for the elderly, for example, and advise on new programs and services. Working Conditions Most social workers have a 5-day, 35- to 40hour week. However, many, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. Many work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies. Extra leave is generally granted for overtime. Because social workers often must visit clients or attend meetings, some travel may be necessary. Employment Social workers held about 365,000 jobs in 1986. About 2 out of 5 jobs were in State, county, or municipal government agencies; relatively few were in the Federal Government. Social workers in the public sector are employed pri­ marily in departments of human resources, so­ cial services, mental health, health, housing, education, and corrections. Those in the private sector work mostly for voluntary social service agencies, community and religious organiza­ tions, hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies. Although employment is concentrated in ur­ ban areas, many social workers work with rural families. A small number of American social workers serve in other parts of the world under  TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum require­ ment for most professional positions in this field. Besides the bachelor’s in social work (BSW), undergraduate majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields satisfy hiring re­ quirements in many social service agencies. A master's degree in social work (MSW) is gen­ erally required for positions in the mental health field and is almost always necessary for su­ pervisory, administrative, or research posi­ tions. A doctorate in social work usually is required for teaching and is desirable for some research and administrative jobs. In 1987, there were 370 accredited BSW programs and nearly 100 MSW programs. BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service positions such as caseworker or group worker. Classroom instruction is offered in social work practice, social welfare policies, human be­ havior and the social environment, and social research methods. All accredited BSW pro­ grams require 400 hours of supervised field experience. An MSW degree is preferred for clinical positions and is a decided asset for advance­ ment to a supervisory position. It is essential for social workers in private practice. Two years of specialized study, including 900 hours of supervised field instruction, or internship, are required to earn a master’s degree in social work. Field placement affords an opportunity to test one’s suitability for social work practice. At the same time, the student may develop expertise in a specialized area and make per­ sonal contacts that later are helpful in securing a permanent job. Previous training in social work is not required for entry into a graduate program, but courses such as psychology, so­ ciology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, and urban studies, as well as social work, are recommended. Some grad­ uate schools offer accelerated MSW programs for qualified applicants who have earned BSW degrees. A limited number of scholarships and fel­ lowships are available for graduate education. A few social welfare agencies grant workers educational leave to obtain graduate education. Career advancement usually takes the form of promotion to supervisor, administrator, or director, although some social workers go into teaching, research, or consulting. In addition to experience, which is essential, advancement generally requires additional graduate educa­ tion. Some schools of social work offer ad­ vanced practice certificate programs in spe­ cialized fields of practice like family counseling. More than 50 schools offer Ph.D. or DSW (Doctor of Social Work) programs for indi­ viduals interested in careers in research, teach­ ing, policy analysis, private practice, or con­ sulting. Social workers seeking to broaden their ca­ reer options are also pursuing graduate studies  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/103  in related fields including human services reflecting differences in economic conditions, and emotional support. Social workers who administration, public administration, business budget priorities, and the tradition of p.iblic provide mental health counseling work either administration, health services administration, support for social welfare services. Among the in agency settings or as private practitioners. education, and law. A number of colleges and States, some have a long history of commit­ Demand in both areas is projected to grow universities offer joint degree programs. ment to publicly funded human services, while rapidly. Private practice offers variety, prestige, and others have had a more limited view of social Opportunities for social workers in private the potential for much higher pay than most welfare spending. Despite regional variations, practice will expand, not only because of grow­ agency jobs. Social workers who wish to ad­ State and local governments are expected to ing acceptance of private practice by the vance professionally without taking the super­ retain their importance as a leading employer profession and by the public at large, but be­ visory or administrative route often consider of social workers. Replacement needs alone cause of the anticipated availability of funding private practice. Ordinarily, this means clinical will generate many openings in this large sec­ from health insurance, from public sector con­ practice—counseling individuals or groups— tor. tracts, and from an increasingly affluent pop­ although some private practitioners specialize Substantial growth is projected for social ulation willing to pay for professional help in in organizational consulting. An MSW as well work jobs in voluntary agencies as well as in dealing with personal problems. The growing as sufficiently varied work experience to de­ the small for-profit sector. These will be case­ popularity of employee assistance programs is velop a network of contacts for referral pur­ work counseling and case management jobs, also expected to spur demand for private prac­ poses is usually a prerequisite for a career as for the most part. Projected employment growth titioners, some of whom provide social work a private practitioner. Entrepreneurial ability in this sector reflects the rapidly increasing services to corporations on a contract basis. is important for success in this rapidly devel­ number of older persons, on the one hand, and Entry into private practice does not guar­ oping but highly competitive field. stepped-up spending for child protective ser­ antee success. Private practitioners must be In 1987, 41 States had licensing or regis­ vices, on the other. able to market themselves to prospective pur­ tration laws regarding social work practice and Older people’s needs for social work ser­ chasers of their services such as schools, health the use of professional titles. Voluntary cer­ vices cut across distinctions of income and so­ care providers, corporations, or individuals. tification is offered by the National Association cial class. Death of a spouse, poor eyesight, a Moreover, they must be prepared to deal with of Social Workers (NASW), which grants the broken hip, or other characteristic losses of old competition from psychologists, psychiatric title ACSW (Academy of Certified Social age can overwhelm affluent people as well as nurses, counselors, and other mental health Workers) to those who qualify. For clinical those who are poor. Nonetheless, certain groups providers. social workers, professional credentials in­ of older people may require the services of a Prospects for hospital social workers should clude listing in the NASW Register of Clinical social worker more than others. This is par­ be favorable through the year 2000. A major Social Workers or in the Registry of Health ticularly true for people living alone, predom­ employment setting, hospitals provide about 1 Care Providers in Clinical Social Work. These inantly widows of advanced age, who fre­ out of every 10 social work jobs. Financing credentials are particularly important for social quently are in poor health and living on very and organizational changes have affected hir­ workers in private practice; some health in­ low incomes. ing practices in this sector. Because of the surance providers require them for reimburse­ Exceptionally rapid growth is projected in unprecedented emphasis on discharge plan­ the number of Americans over the age of 85 ning, the hospital social worker’s knowledge ment. Social workers should be emotionally ma­ in the years immediately ahead. This is ex­ of community resources has taken on new im­ ture, objective, and sensitive, and should pos­ pected to produce a sharp increase in social portance. Social workers in community-based sess a basic concern for people and their prob­ service needs and substantial growth in the programs for the elderly reportedly are being lems. They must be able to handle number of social work personnel involved in recruited for hospital social work jobs because responsibility, work independently, and main­ assisting the elderly and their adult children. of their knowledge of community programs. tain good working relationships with clients The demand for services provided by social The pivotal role of discharge planning in fa­ and coworkers. Volunteer, part-time, or sum­ workers will not be limited to the elderly, how­ cilitating early discharge is expected to sustain mer jobs as a social work aide offer ways of ever. Changes in society, the family, and the demand for hospital social workers despite pro­ testing one’s interest in pursuing a career in role of religion have made it more acceptable jected slow growth in the hospital industry as this field. to turn to mental health professionals instead a whole. of clergy or close family members for advice Home health care is an increasingly imporJob Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to Fewer people are completing formal preparation for a increase faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000 in response to career in social work. the needs of a growing and aging population. The need to replace social workers who leave Degrees from accredited programs (thousands) the occupation or stop working is expected to be the principal source of jobs, however. Demand for social workers is governed not only by the need for services, but also by the Master’s availability of funds to pay for these services. Due to anticipated budget constraints, pros­ pects in public agencies are not as bright as Bachelor’s they once were. Some public programs are likely to expand—notably child protective ser­ vices, services for the elderly, and communitybased services for the mentally retarded and chronically mentally ill. Others, however, may contract in the face of budgetary limitations. Programs most likely to be cut are public as­ sistance, State mental hospitals, and training 1975-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 84-85 schools for the mentally retarded. Source: Council on Social Work Education Job growth in public agencies will continue to be subject to considerable regional variation.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  104/Occupational Outlook Handbook  tant area of social work practice, not only be­ cause hospitals are moving to release patients more quickly, but because a large and growing number of people have impairments or disa­ bilities that make it difficult to live at home without some form of assistance. Social work­ ers determine what kind of assistance is most appropriate, establish the client’s eligibility for publicly funded in-home services, and super­ vise the aides who provide direct care. Demand for social workers is expected to grow in outpatient facilities, including health maintenance organizations (HMO’s) and re­ habilitation facilities that offer alcohol and drug abuse programs. Financing is not an obstacle, as a rule; HMO’s provide comprehensive care for a preestablished fee, and alcohol and drug rehabilitation programs often are covered by employers or by health insurance, although some patients pay their own costs. Services provided by social workers in HMO’s include counseling on teenage pregnancy, stress man­ agement, substance abuse, family planning, crisis intervention for cases of spouse or child abuse, assistance for the elderly, and case man­ agement. Job prospects for social workers vary a great deal. Opportunities differ depending upon ac­ ademic credentials, experience, and field of practice. Geographic location is a considera­ tion, too. Competition is keen in cities where training programs for social workers abound. At the same time, population growth in the Sunbelt States is spurring expansion of social service programs there, and some isolated rural areas are finding it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Trends in the number of individuals obtain­ ing degrees in social work may affect job pros­ pects. The number of individuals earning BSW and MSW degrees from accredited programs peaked in the late 1970’s and has declined since then, with a sharper drop in BSW degrees awarded than MSW degrees. In view of past trends in the proportion of college students majoring in social work, together with the im­ pending decrease in the college-age popula­ tion, the supply of formally prepared social workers is not likely to keep pace with antic­ ipated growth in social work positions. This does not imply a shortage of social workers, in view of the abundant supply of new college graduates, career changers, and reentrants who have the requisite education or experience. However, it does indicate that a larger proportion of social service positions will be filled by people without professional preparation. Competition for entry level human service jobs, which historically has been keen, would abate somewhat. As in the past, com­ petition will be keenest for social work posi­ tions offering the most favorable pay and ben­ efits. Earnings Salaries for social workers at all levels vary greatly by type of agency (private or public; Federal, State, or local) and geographic region, but generally are highest in large cities and in States with sizable urban populations. Private  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  practitioners, administrators, teachers, and re­ searchers often earn considerably more than other types of social workers. The average minimum salary for social case­ workers in public agencies (positions requiring a BSW) was about $16,700 in 1985, according to a survey conducted by the International Per­ sonnel Management Association; for casework supervisors (positions requiring an MSW), the average minimum salary was about $21,500. The average annual starting salary for social workers in hospitals and medical centers (po­ sitions requiring an MSW) was about $20,700 in 1986, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. The average salary for experienced social workers in these settings was about $27,300. In the Federal Government, social workers with an MSW started at $22,900 in 1986; those with a Ph D. or job experience may command a higher starting salary. Average earnings for social workers in the Federal service were $31,800 in 1986. Most social workers in the Federal Government are employed by the Vet­ erans Administration and the Departments of Health and Human Services, Education, Jus­ tice, and Interior. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in oc­ cupations with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, counseling psychologists, and vo­ cational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information Eor information about career opportunities in social work, contact: National Association of Social Workers, 7981 East­ ern Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910.  The Council on Social Work Education pub­ lishes an annual Directory of Accredited S5W and MSW Programs. Price and ordering in­ formation for this and other CSWE publica­ tions is available from: Council on Social Work Education, 1744 R St. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  For information on doctoral programs in so­ cial work, contact: Group to Advance Doctoral Education in Social Work, c/o Barbara Shore, Ph.D., ACSW, School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, Rm. 2209, Cathe­ dral of Learning, Pittsburgh, PA 15260.  Recreation Workers (D.O.T. 153.137-010; 159.124-010; 187.137-010; 195.227-010 and -014; and 352.167-010)  Nature of the Work As leisure time in our lives increases, oppor­ tunities for organized recreation become more important. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct activities that help people enjoy and benefit from leisure hours. They should not be confused with recreational therapists, who help  individuals recover or adjust to illness, dis­ ability, or specific social problems. (The work of recreational therapists is described else­ where in the Handbook.) Recreation programs, whether institution­ ally or community based, are as diverse as the people they serve. Employment settings range from pristine wilderness areas to health clubs in the city center. At local playgrounds and community centers, for example, recreation personnel organize and conduct a variety of leisure activities, including arts, crafts, fitness, and sports. Recreation workers are also em­ ployed by theme parks, tourist attractions, and firms that offer “getaway” vacations or adven­ ture trips. Other employment settings include parks, campgrounds, and recreational areas; schools, churches, and synagogues; retirement com­ munities, senior centers, and adult day care programs; military bases; and correctional in­ stitutions. Recreation personnel in industry organize and direct leisure activities and athletic pro­ grams for employees and their families such as bowling and softball leagues, social func­ tions, travel programs, discount services, and, to an increasing extent, exercise and fitness programs. These activities are generally for adults. Camp counselors lead and instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of recreation such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as outdoor education. They also provide campers with specialized instruction in a par­ ticular area such as music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, or computers. In resident camps, the staff must insure that the campers have ade­ quate living conditions. Recreation workers occupy a variety of po­ sitions at different levels of responsibility. Rec­ reation leaders provide face-to-face leadership and are responsible for a recreation program’s daily operation. They may give instruction in crafts, games, and sports; keep records; and maintain recreation facilities. Those who pro­ vide instruction in specialties such as art, mu­ sic, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. They often conduct classes and coach teams in the activity in which they specialize. Recreation leaders usually work un­ der a supervisor. Recreation supervisors plan programs to meet the needs of the population they serve; super­ vise recreation leaders, sometimes over an en­ tire region; and direct specialized activities. Working Conditions While the average workweek for recreation workers is 35-40 hours, people entering this field should expect some night work and ir­ regular hours. Work can be physically tiring. Recreation workers often spend much of their time outdoors and may work under a variety of weather conditions. Recreation supervisors may spend most of their time in an office. As is the case for anyone engaged in physical ac­ tivity, recreation workers risk physical injuries. The work setting for recreation workers may be anywhere from a vacation cruise ship to a  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/105  woodland recreational park. Generally, em­ ployment follows overall population patterns; most jobs are in urban and suburban areas, where the majority of Americans live. Jobs in camping are found mostly in the less populated areas of the country because of the outdoor orientation of camping programs. Some camp workers receive room and board as part of their compensation.  t »■ fi  Employment Recreation workers held about 164,000 jobs in 1986. (This estimate does not include many summer workers.) More than half of the jobs were in government agencies, primarily in park and recreation departments at the municipal and county levels. State park systems employ some recreation workers, and the Federal Gov­ ernment employs a small number of recreation specialists, sports specialists, outdoor recrea­ tion planners, and recreation assistants and aides m ggp ■ for programs run by the Veterans Administra­ tion and the Departments of Defense and In­ terior. Nearly 20 percent of the jobs were in mem­ bership organizations with a civic, social, fra­ ternal, or religious orientation—the Boy Scouts, the Y.W.C.A., and Red Cross, for example. Approximately 12 percent were in programs run by social service organizations (senior cen­ ters and adult day care programs, for example) or in residential care facilities such as halfway houses, group homes, and institutions for de­ linquent youth. Other employers include commercial rec­ reation establishments, amusement parks, sports and entertainment centers, wilderness and sur­ vival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation ■ \7 excursions, hotels and other resorts, camps, health spas, athletic clubs, apartment com­ plexes, and other settings. I The recreation field is characterized by an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commis­ sions. The vast majority, however, serve as volunteer activity leaders at local playgrounds, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing Recreation workers help people of all ages enjoy their leisure time. homes, hospitals, senior centers, Y.M.C.A.’s, and other settings. Volunteer experience and specialized training in a particular field, such sidered minimum requirements for administra­ part-time work during school may lead to a as art, music, drama* or athletics, and some tors. However, increasing numbers are obtain­ full-time job. The largest number of paid em­ require special certification, such as holding a ing master’s degrees in parks and recreation as ployees in the recreation field are part-time or certificate in lifesaving to teach swimming. well as in related disciplines. Many persons in seasonal workers. Typical jobs include summer A bachelor’s degree is not always necessary. other disciplines, including social work, for­ camp counselors and playground leaders, life­ Some recreation positions are filled by high estry, and resource management, pursue grad­ guards, craft specialists, and after-school and school graduates, while others are filled by uate degrees in recreation. weekend recreation program leaders. Many jobs graduates of associate degree programs in parks In industrial recreation, or “employee ser­ and recreation, social work, and other human are filled by teachers and college students. vices” as this field is more commonly called, services disciplines. A number of jobs in this companies prefer applicants with a bachelor’s Training, Other Qualifications, % field are held by college students who work degree in recreation and a strong background part time while earning a degree. in business administration. and Advancement Most supervisors have a bachelor’s degree Educational requirements for jobs in this field In 1987, about 200 community and junior range from a high school diploma or less for and experience. Persons with academic prep­ colleges offered park and recreation programs many summer jobs to graduate education for aration in parks and recreation management, leading to an associate degree, and 300 colleges administrative positions in large public sys­ leisure studies, physical education, fitness and universities offered programs leading to a tems. Many applicants for full-time career po­ management, and related fields generally have bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree. sitions arejcollege graduates with majors in better prospects for career advancement, al­ The Council on Accreditation, sponsored by recreation, leisure studiesj or physical educa­ though this varies from one employer to an­ the National Recreation and Park Association, tion, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts other. has accredited 64 park and recreation curricA bachelor’s degree and experience are con­ ulums at the bachelor’s degree level. Ac­ field may be appropriate. Some jobs require  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  106/Occupational Outlook Handbook  credited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and philosophy of park and recreation management. Courses are offered in community organization; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations such as the elderly or handicapped; and supervised fieldwork. Students have an opportunity to specialize in areas such as ther­ apeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. The American Camping Association has de­ veloped a curriculum for camp director edu­ cation in colleges and universities. Many na­ tional youth associations offer training courses for camp directors at the local and regional levels. Persons planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Good health and physical stamina are required. Activity planning calls for creativity and resourceful­ ness. Willingness to accept responsibility and the ability to exercise judgment are important qualities since recreation personnel often work alone. To increase their leadership skills and understanding of people, students are advised to obtain related work experience in high school and college. Such experience may help stu­ dents decide whether their interests really point to a human services career. Students also should talk to local park and recreation professionals, school guidance counselors, and others. Individuals contemplating careers in recre­ ation at the supervisory or administrative level should develop managerial skills. College courses in business, accounting, and personnel management are likely to be useful. Certification for this field is offered by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) and the American Camping Associ­ ation. Over 30 States have adopted NRPA standards for park/recreation technicians and park/recreation professionals. The American Camping Association certifies individuals who meet their standards of professional compe­ tence, and so does the National Employee Ser­ vices and Recreation Association. Neither registration nor certification is usu­ ally required for employment or advancement in this field. However, employers faced with an abundance of qualified applicants are likely to give preference to those with professional credentials, experience, or both. Job Outlook Employment of recreation workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Factors pointing to future expansion of this field in­ clude a growing number of people with both leisure time and the money to purchase leisure services; increased interest in fitness and health; rising demand for recreational opportunities for   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the elderly in senior centers and retirement communities; and more activity programs for special populations such as the mentally re­ tarded or developmentally disabled. As is gen­ erally the case, however, most job openings will result from replacement needs. Employment opportunities will be more fa­ vorable in some settings than others, a reflec­ tion of divergent prospects for industry growth. Much of the job growth will occur in the rapidly growing commercial recreation industry, com­ posed of amusement parks, athletic clubs, camps, sports clinics, and the like. Hiring prac­ tices in commercial recreation vary a great deal, and employer preference for applicants with formal training in recreation, physical educa­ tion, and related fields has not been clearly established. Demand for recreation workers is also ex­ pected to be strong in the fast-growing social services industry. Recreation workers will be needed to develop and lead activity programs in such settings as senior centers, halfway houses, children’s homes, and day care pro­ grams for the mentally retarded or develop­ mentally disabled. Hiring practices in social service agencies vary, too. Some jobs require course work or degrees in recreation, rehabil­ itation, or other human services fields, while others require only suitable personal qualifi­ cations and work experience. Overall job growth in local government is expected to be slow due to budget constraints, and local park and recreation departments are expected to do less hiring for permanent, full­ time positions than in the past. As a result, this sector's share of recreation worker employ­ ment will shrink by the end of the century. Nonetheless, opportunities will vary widely by region, since resources as well as priorities for public services differ from one community to another. Thus, hiring prospects for recreation personnel will be much better in some park and recreation departments than overall pro­ jections would suggest. Because the field is open to all college grad­ uates regardless of major, applications for ca­ reer positions in recreation greatly exceed the number of job openings. Keen competition for jobs is expected to continue. Individuals with both experience and formal training in recre­ ation are expected to have the best opportun­ ities for staff positions. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. While the market for full-time career posi­ tions is expected to remain competitive, pros­ pects are much better for the very large number of temporary seasonal jobs. These positions, typically filled by high school or college-age individuals, do not generally require formal education in recreation or leisure studies, al­ though swimming, lifeguarding, skiing, and  similar skills may be necessary. Demand for seasonal workers is great, and job opportunities should be plentiful: employers are competing for their share of the vacationing student labor market, and salaries in recreation are not al­ ways competitive with those in other fields. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time in 1986 were about $12,000. The middle 50 percent earned be­ tween about $8,000 and $18,000. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,000 or less. The top 10 percent earned about $28,000 or more. According to the American Camping As­ sociation, the average salary for camp directors was about $1,600 a month in municipally op­ erated camps in 1986. Salaries for camp di­ rectors in private camps were somewhat higher. Seasonally employed camp counselors earned between $200 and $800 a month. Room and board, however, were usually provided free of charge. The starting salary for recreation workers in the Federal Government was $14,821 a year in 1987. Most public and private recreation agencies provide vacation and other fringe benefits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity in dealing with people. Other oc­ cupations that require similar personal qualities include recreational therapists, social workers, parole officers, human relations counselors, school counselors, clinical and counseling psy­ chologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information Ordering information for materials describing careers and academic programs in recreation is available from: National Recreation and Park Association, 3101 Park Center Dr., Alexandria, VA 22302.  The NRPA also publishes a bulletin of job openings twice monthly. The American Association for Leisure and Recreation publishes information sheets on 25 separate careers in parks and recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: AALR, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  For information on careers in employee ser­ vices and recreation, contact: National Employee Services and Recreation Asso­ ciation, 2400 South Downing St., Westchester, IL 60153.  For information on careers in camping and summer counselor opportunities, send request and postpaid return envelope to: American Camping Association, Bradford Woods, 5000 State Rd., 67 N, Martinsville, IN 46151.  Religious workers Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and administer the various rites of the church, such as baptism, confir­ mation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruc­ tion. They also perform marriages; conduct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guid­ ance; visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and serve church members in other ways. Many Protestant ministers write articles for publi­ cation, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, community, civic, educational, and recrea­ tional activities sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries and colleges and universities. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a tra­ ditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denominations, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congregations gen­ erally work personally with parishioners. Those serving large congregations have greater ad­ ministrative responsibilities and spend consid­ erable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides other duties. They may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assistants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Working Conditions Ministers are “on call” for any serious troubles or emergencies that involve or affect members of their churches. They also may work long and irregular hours in administrative, educa­ tional, and community service activities. Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary, such as reading or doing research in a study or a library to prepare sermons or write articles. In some denominations, ministers are reas­ signed by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Employment In 1986, there were an estimated 429,000 Prot­ estant ministers, of whom 257,000 served in­ dividual congregations. Others worked in closely related fields such as chaplains in hos­ pitals, the Armed Forces, universities, and cor­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  warn.  IBHHV  Ministers may counsel and solace church members through personal correspondence. rectional institutions. While there arc numer­ ous denominations, most ministers are employed by the five largest Protestant bod­ ies—Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyter­ ian, and Episcopalian. AH cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full­ time minister. Although most ministers are lo­ cated in urban areas, many serve two or more small congregations in less densely populated areas. Some small churches increasingly are employing part-time ministers who are semi­ nary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pastors serve other churches with tight budgets. Some churches employ specially trained members of the laity to conduct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some denom­ inations have no formal educational require­ ments, and others ordain persons having var­ ious types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. In 1986, about 140 American Protestant the­ ological schools were accredited by the As­ sociation of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent in liberal arts from an accredited college. Many denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries after college graduation for the degree of master of divinity. Recommended preseminary or undergrad­ uate college courses include English, history, philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign lan­ guages. These courses provide a knowledge of  modern social, cultural, and scientific insti­ tutions and problems. However, students con­ sidering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, their denominations and the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they hope to enter. The standard curriculum for accredited the­ ological schools consists of four major cate­ gories: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accredited schools require that students work under the supervi­ sion of a faculty member or experienced min­ ister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry degrees to students who have completed ad­ ditional study, usually 2 or more years, and served at least 2 years as a minister. Schol­ arships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several in­ terdenominational schools associated with uni­ versities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Persons who have denominational qualifi­ cations for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serv­ ing a probationary pastoral period. Denomi­ nations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. For example, some Evangelical churches may or­ dain ministers with only a high school edu­ cation. Men and women entering the clergy often 107  108/Occupational Outlook Handbook  begin their careers as pastors of small congre­ gations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook The increasing cost of operating churches is expected to result in limited growth in the de­ mand for ministers through the year 2000. However, growth in the number of persons being ordained also is expected to slow down. As a result, new graduates of theological schools are expected to face less competition for jobs than in the past. The supply-demand situation will vary among denominations and geographic regions. Ministers will still face keen com­ petition for more responsible positions serving large, urban congregations. Relatively favor­ able prospects are expected for ministers in Evangelical churches. Ministers willing to work part time or for smaller, rural congregations also should have relatively favorable oppor­ tunities. Most of the openings for ministers through the year 2000 will arise from the need to replace retirees and, to a lesser extent, those who leave the ministry. Employment alternatives for newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find po­ sitions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and welfare, or­ ganizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; and serving as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and cor­ rectional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on age, experience, denomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geo­ graphic location. Based on limited informa­ tion, the estimated average annual income of Protestant ministers was about $20,000 in 1986. In large, wealthier denominations, ministers averaged $25,000 or more. Fringe benefits, such as housing and transportation, may add as much as 25 percent to a minister’s annual salary. Increasingly, ministers with modest sal­ aries earn additional income from employment in secular occupations. Related Occupations Protestant ministers advise and counsel indi­ viduals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational de­ velopment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Prot­ estant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Each the­ ological school can supply information on ad­ mission requirements. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denomination for in­ formation on special requirements for ordi­ nation. Occupational information about the Prot­ estant ministry can also be obtained from:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  National Council of Churches, Professional Church Leadership, Room 770, 475 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10115.  Rabbis (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their con­ gregations, and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct relig­ ious services and deliver sermons on the Sab­ bath and on Jewish holidays. Like other clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the be­ reaved, supervise religious education pro­ grams, engage in interfaith activities, and in­ volve themselves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative du­ ties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an asso­ ciate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, or Reconstructionist congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. Congregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of instrumental music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbi uses may vary even among congregations be­ longing to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theological seminar­ ies, colleges, and universities. Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and coun­ sel those who need it. Community and edu­ cational activities may also require long or ir­ regular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and se­ dentary, such as studying religious texts, re­ searching and writing sermons and articles for publication, and preparing lectures for adult education. Rabbis have a good deal of independent au­ thority, since they have no formal hierarchy. They are responsible only to the board of trust­ ees of the congregations they serve. Employment In 1986, there were an estimated 6,500 prac­ ticing rabbis. Over 1,000 Orthodox rabbis served congregations, many of them relatively small. In addition, 850 Conservative, 800 Re­ form, and 75 Reconstructionist rabbis served congregations. Most of the rest taught in Jewish Studies programs at colleges and universities. Others worked as chaplains in the military ser­ vices, in hospitals and other institutions, or in  A rabbi explains the significance of a holy day observance. one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas with large Jewish populations. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the cur­ riculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. About 35 seminaries educate and ordain Or­ thodox rabbis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan The­ ological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are representative of Orthodox seminaries. The former requires a bachelor’s degree for entry and has a formal 3-year or­ dination program. The latter has no formal ad­ mission requirements but may require more years of study for ordination. The training is rigorous. When students have become suffi­ ciently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they may be ordained with the approval of an authorized rabbi, acting either independently or as a representative of a rabbinical seminary. The Jewish Theological Seminary of Amer­ ica educates rabbis for the Conservative branch. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion educates rabbis for the Reform branch. Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinical program leading to ordination. A student with a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Con­ servative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. Normally, 5 years of study are required to com­ plete the rabbinical course at the Reform sem­ inary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Exceptionally well-prepared stu-  Lawyers, Social Scientists, Social Workers, and Religious Workers/109  dents can shorten this 5-year period to a min­ imum of 3 years. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College educates rabbis in the newest branch of Ju­ daism. A bachelor’s degree is required for ad­ mission. The rabbinical program is based on a 5-year course of study which emphasizes, in each year, a period in the history of Jewish civilization. Graduates are awarded the title “Rabbi” and the Master of Arts in Hebrew Letters and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of Hebrew Letters degree. In general, the curriculums of Jewish the­ ological seminaries provide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Tal­ mud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, the­ ology, and courses in education, pastoral psy­ chology, and public speaking. Students get extensive practical training in dealing with so­ cial problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as spiritual lead­ ers of small congregations, assistants to ex­ perienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Founda­ tions on college campuses, teachers in seminaries and other educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, experienced rabbis fill the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congregations. Job Outlook The job outlook for rabbis is generally favor­ able in the four major branches of Judaism. Graduates of Orthodox seminaries who seek pulpits should have good opportunities as growth in enrollments slows and as many grad­ uates choose not to seek pulpits. Orthodox rab­ bis willing to work in small communities should have particularly good prospects. Conservative and Reform rabbis are ex­ pected to have good employment opportuni­ ties—primarily in areas with rapidly growing numbers of retirees. Reconstructionist rabbis are expected to have very good employment opportunities since membership is rapidly expanding. Many rabbis who do not seek a pulpit work for Jewish social service agencies. Others may teach in a religious educational institution or serve as chaplain in the Armed Forces or in hospitals, universities, or correctional institu­ tions. Earnings Income varies, depending on the size and fi­ nancial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geographic lo­ cation. Rabbis may earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs and weddings. Based on limited information, annual av­ erage earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $25,000 to $75,000 in 1986, including fringe benefits.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as per­ sonal, social, and vocational development. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, 2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, NY 10033. (Or­ thodox) Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary, 626 Seventh St., Lakewood, NJ 08701. (Orthodox) The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, NY 10027. (Conservative) Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Reli­ gion. Director of Admissions, at any one of three campuses: 1 W. 4th St., New York, NY 10012; 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45220; 3077 Univer­ sity Mall, Los Angeles, CA 90007. (Reform) Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Church Rd. and Greenwood Ave., Wyncote, PA 19095.  Roman Catholic Priests (D.O.T. 120.007)  Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. They deliver ser­ mons, administer the sacraments, and preside at liturgical functions such as funeral services. They also comfort the sick, console and coun­ sel those in need of guidance, and assist the poor. In recent years, some priests have paid increasing attention to nonliturgical concerns such as human rights and social welfare. A priest’s day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass and may end with an individual counseling session or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in com­ munity projects. The two main classifications of priests— diocesan (secular) and religious—have the same powers, acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differences lie in their way of life, their type of work, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan priests generally work in parishes assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary work, assigned by su­ periors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic  seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the church’s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests arc usually concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Working Conditions Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the community. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some re­ ligious priests serve as missionaries in foreign countries, where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Some live a com­ munal life in monasteries, where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests are “on call” at all hours to serve their parishioners in emergencies. They also have many intellectual duties, including study of the scriptures and keeping abreast of current religious and secular events in order to prepare sermons. Diocesan priests are respon­ sible to the bishop of the diocese. Employment There were approximately 57,000 priests in 1986, according to the Official Catholic Di­ rectory. Over 19,000—primarily diocesan priests—served congregations as pastors. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally re­ quires 8 years of study beyond high school in one of about 230 seminaries. Preparatory study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social stud­ ies. Latin may be required and modem lan­ guages are encouraged. In growing Hispanic communities, knowledge of Spanish is man­ datory. The seminary college offers a liberal arts program stressing philosophy and reli­ gion, the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history, and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may concentrate in any one of these fields. The remaining 4 years of preparation include sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (mass); and canon law. Field­ work experience usually is required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Diocesan and religious priests at­ tend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences  110/Occupational Outlook Handbook  meetings. Priests will continue to offer Mass, administer sacraments, and hear confession, but may be less involved in teaching and ad­ ministrative work.  A priest explains the wedding ceremony.  in their duties. Priests commit themselves not to marry. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed so­ cial sciences, such as sociology and psychol­ ogyYoung men never are denied entry into sem­ inaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious seminaries are financed by contributions of benefactors. A newly ordained secular priest usually works as an assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are as­ signed to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Depending on the talents, inter­ ests, and experience of the individual, many   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook More priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Cath­ olics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to intensify if, as expected, seminary enrollments continue to decline and an increas­ ing proportion of priests retire. In response to the shortage of priests, certain traditional functions increasingly are being per­ formed by lay deacons and by teams of clergy and laity. Presently about 7,600 lay deacons have been ordained to preach and perform li­ turgical functions such as distributing Holy Communion and reading the gospel at the Mass. Teams of clergy and laity undertake nonliturgical functions such as hospital visits and  Earnings Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to diocese. Based on limited information, most salaries range from about $6,000 to $9,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may receive a car allowance, free room and board in the par­ ish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement benefits. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The dif­ ference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contributed service.” In some of these situ­ ations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing spe­ cial work receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Related Occupations Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel in­ dividuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational de­ velopment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priest­ hood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For information regarding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, con­ tact the diocesan Director of Vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Occupational information about the Roman Catholic priesthood can also be obtained from: National Conference of Diocesan Vocation Direc­ tors, 1307 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL 60605.  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors Adult and Vocational Education Teachers (D.O.T. 075.127-010; 090.222; 097.227-010 and -014; 099.223, .227-014, -018, -026, and -030; 149.021; 150.027-014; 151.027-014; 152.021; 153.227-014; 159.227; 166.227; 239.227; 375.227; 621.221; 683.222; 689.222; 715.221; 740.221; 789.222; 806.227; and 919.223)  Nature of the Work More and more adults are participating in vo­ cational and adult education, not only to learn job skills, but also for personal enrichment. Vocational programs prepare adults for occu­ pations that do not require a college degree, such as automotive mechanic, computer op­ erator, cosmetologist, and medical assistant. In contrast, adult or continuing education pro­ grams offer courses not specifically intended to prepare for an occupation, such as basic education for school dropouts, cooking, danc­ ing, exercise and physical fitness, photogra­ phy, and the stock market. Adult and vocational education teachers may lecture in classrooms, and, depending on the subject, also give students hands-on experi­ ence—much like secondary school shop and home economics teachers. Generally, they demonstrate techniques, have students apply them, and provide criticism so students can learn from mistakes. For example, an instructor teaching automobile mechanics shows students how to repair cars, using all the necessary tools and equipment. Similarly, teachers of painting, photography, or ceramics demonstrate the techniques before having students apply them. Some instruct in the Adult Basic Education program, which covers reading, writing, and mathematics up to the eighth grade level for adults and English for non-English-speakers. This program prepares students to take the General Educational Development Examina­ tion (GED), which offers the equivalent of a high school diploma. Teachers in this program must be able to deal with students at different levels of development who may lack proper study habits and self-confidence and who may require more attention and patience than other students. These teachers may refer students for coun­ seling or job placement. Because many people who need adult basic education are reluctant to seek it out, teachers may also recruit par­ ticipants. Adult and vocational education teachers also prepare lessons and assignments, grade papers and do related paperwork, attend faculty and professional meetings, and stay abreast of de­ velopments in their field.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Teaching involves extended periods of stand­ ing and talking and can be both physically and mentally tiring. Teachers may face frustration with students who have difficulty learning, but they also can experience satisfaction when stu­ dents succeed. Many adult and vocational education teach­ ers teach part time. Many courses are offered at night or on weekends and range from 1-day minisessions to semester-long courses. Employment Adult and vocational education teachers held about 427,000 jobs in 1986. About half taught part time, a larger proportion than for other teachers, and many taught only intermittently. However, many of them also held other jobs, in many cases doing work related to the subject they taught. Adult and vocational teachers are employed by automotive repair, bartending, business, computer, electronics, medical technology, and similar schools and institutes; colleges and uni­ versities; dance studios; health clubs; busi­ nesses that provide formal training for their employees; job training centers; labor unions; and religious organizations. IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary widely by State and by subject. In general, teachers need work or other experience in their field, and a license or certificate in fields where these are usually re­  quired for full professional status. In some cases, a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctorate degree or other credential is required and in others, an acceptable portfolio of work. Most States and the District of Columbia require adult basic education teachers to have a bachelor’s degree from an approved teacher training program, and some require teacher certification. (See statements on elementary and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)  Adult and vocational education teachers should communicate and relate well with stu­ dents, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. Adult basic education in­ structors, in particular, must be patient, un­ derstanding, and supportive to make students comfortable, develop trust, and help them bet­ ter understand their needs and aims. Some teachers advance to administrative po­ sitions in State departments of education, col­ leges and universities, and corporate training departments. (See statement on education ad­ ministrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of adult and vocational education teachers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the demand for adult and vocational education programs continues to rise. Voca­ tional education teachers will be needed to train young adults for entry level jobs and to upgrade the skills of experienced workers who want to advance or switch fields or whose jobs have  mm.  .... “*  j  mm  fJ  Vocational education teachers prepare adults for occupations which do not require a college degree.  in  112/Occupational Outlook Handbook  been eliminated due to changing technology or business reorganization. Also contributing to the demand is the in­ creased participation by adults in part-time ed­ ucation. This participation has increased sub­ stantially during the past decade, reflecting the rise in the adult population and the growing emphasis on leisure time and self-improvement activities. Also, as it becomes more difficult to get a good job without basic academic skills, the demand for adult basic education programs should increase. The number of people 16 to 24 years old, the age group traditionally most likely to enroll in a vocational program, will decline through the year 2000. However, the need to train ex­ perienced workers, combined with more in­ tensive training requirements, is expected to offset this decline. Most job openings for adult and vocational educational teachers will stem from the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Because many teach part time, their attachment to the occupation is weak and turnover is quite high. Opportunities will be best in fields such as computer technology, automotive mechan­ ics, and medical technology which offer very attractive job opportunities outside of teaching. Earnings In 1986, salaried adult and vocational educa­ tion teachers who usually worked full time av­ eraged $427 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $295 and $572. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $213, while the top 10 percent earned more than $798. Earnings varied widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Related Occupations Adult and vocational education teaching re­ quires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational, administrative, and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; and creativity. Workers in other occupations that require these aptitudes are other teachers, counselors, school administrators, public relations specialists, and employee development specialists. Sources of Additional Information Information on the Adult Basic Education pro­ gram and certification requirements is available from State departments of education. For information about vocational education teaching positions, contact State departments of vocational education. General information on adult and vocational education is available from: American Association for Adult and Continuing Ed­ ucation, 1112 16thSt. NW., Suite420, Washington, DC 20036. American Vocational Association, 1410 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on other adult education teaching positions, contact departments of lo­ cal government, State adult education depart­ ments, schools, colleges and universities, and organizations such as the YMCA and YWCA.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Archivists and Curators (D.O.T. 101; 102 except .261-014 and .367-010; 109 except .067-010 and .137-010)  Nature of the Work Most of us like to get, fix up, arrange, and show off collections of things we like. Archi­ vists and curators do this for a living. They search for, acquire, analyze, catalog, restore, exhibit, maintain, and store items of lasting value. These may consist of historical docu­ ments, corporate records, art, coins, stamps, minerals, clothing, maps, live and preserved plants and animals, buildings, or historic sites. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of information produced by govern­ ment agencies, corporations, educational in­ stitutions, and other organizations should be made part of a historical record or put on ex­ hibit. They classify information so it may be located easily and determine whether it should be stored as original documents, on microfilm, or as computer records. Archives may be part of a library or museum or may be a separate unit. Most items in ar­ chives are documents, but photographs, blue­ prints, and other items also are stored. Archi­ vists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can properly determine what should become part of the archives. Archivists may also specialize by type of record—for example, computerized information, photo­ graphs, or ancient documents. Curators manage collections in museums, zoos, aquariums, botanic gardens, and historic sites. They acquire items through purchases, gifts, field exploration, intermuseum loans, or, in the case of plants and animals, breeding. They often restore objects (such as works of art or historic items) to their original condition; this may require substantial historical and ar­ cheological research. Curators also plan and prepare attractive, interesting, and informative exhibits. Some curators plan and conduct museum education programs. Most museums, zoos, bo­ tanic gardens, and historic sites offer tours con­ ducted by instructors, guides, or docents (mu­ seum volunteers). Since many tours are composed of school groups, tours must be geared to the age of the students. Some mu­ seums conduct classes, workshops, or lectures for students or the general public which are conducted or arranged for by curators. Most curators specialize in fields such as zoology, art, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural history museum, for example, would have specialists in birds, fishes, mammals, and dinosaurs. Furthermore, in large institu­ tions, most curators specialize in functions. Some restore or maintain the collection, while others perform administrative tasks, such as registrars, who are responsible for keeping track of and moving objects in the collection. In small institutions, with only one or a few cu­  rators, they are responsible for almost every­ thing. Working Conditions Archival work requires meticulous attention to detail. Many archivists work alone, generally in offices with only one or two other persons. Curators also usually work in offices. How­ ever, working conditions vary depending upon the type and size of museum. Little physical activity is required of many curators, but those who restore and install exhibits may climb, stretch, or lift, and those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor museums or historic sites walk a lot. Curators in large, heavily endowed mu­ seums may travel extensively to evaluate po­ tential additions to the collection and to or­ ganize exhibitions. Those in museums with very limited budgets may travel only occa­ sionally. Employment Archivists and curators held almost 8,300 jobs in 1986. Most were employed in museums, botanical gardens, and zoos. Most Federal ar­ chivists are employed in the National Archives and Records Administration; others manage military archives in the Department of Defense. Most Federal Government curators are em­ ployed in the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of De­ fense, and in archeological and other museums managed by the Department of Interior. All State governments have archival or historical records sections employing archivists. State and local governments have numerous historical museums, parks, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations have archival or records centers, employing archivists to man­ age the growing volume of historical records required by law or necessary to the firms’ op­ erations. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associations, and research firms also employ a few archivists and curators. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist or curator gener­ ally requires graduate training and substantial practical or work experience. Many archivists and curators work in archives or museums while completing their formal education. Archivists usually earn undergraduate and graduate degrees in history or related fields, with courses in archival or library science. Most archivists have a master’s degree, and many have a doctorate or second master’s degree in library science. More than 70 colleges and uni­ versities offer courses or practical training in archival science; about 30 offer master’s de­ grees; and 10, doctorates. Continuing education is very important. Meetings, conferences, and workshops spon­ sored by the Society of American Archivists, the National Archives and Records Adminis­ tration, and other archival associations enable archivists to keep up with developments in their field such as the use of computers to store and access information.  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/113  Archivists need good eyesight to analyze deteriorated or poor quality printed matter, handwritten manuscripts, or photographs and films. Archivists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. Many archival units are very small, with limited promotion opportunities. Advancement generally is through transferring to a larger unit with supervisory positions. Where an archive is part of a library or a museum, archivists may become librarians, manuscript curators, or managers of these organizations. The minimum requirements for employment as a curator are a bachelor’s degree in an ap­ propriate discipline of the museum’s spe­ cialty—for example, art, history, or archeol­ ogy—and experience in museum work. In most museums, a master’s degree in a related field is generally required, but employers prefer a doctorate. For some positions, an internship of full-time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Many students interested in museum work take courses or obtain a bachelor’s or master’s degree in museum studies (museology). About 60 colleges and universities offer undergrad­ uate courses in museum studies, nearly 40 grant the bachelor’s degree, and over 90 grant the master’s degree. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum’s specialty is considered more important. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and in painting and crafts are desirable. Since curators—particularly those in small mu­ seums—may have administrative and mana­ gerial responsibilities, courses in business administration and public relations also are rec­ ommended. Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties. They need an aesthetic sense to design and present exhibits, and in small museums manual dexterity is needed to erect exhibits or restore objects. Leadership ability is important for museum directors, while public relations skills are valuable in increasing museum attendance and fundraising. Continuing education is also very important for curators; they attend conferences, meet­ ings, and workshops sponsored by the Amer­ ican Association of Museums, other museum associations, and by large museums such as the Smithsonian Institution. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, even­ tually to museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Indi­ vidual research and publications are important for advancement. Job Outlook Employment of archivists and curators is ex­ pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Gov­ ernment archival activities are expected to grow slowly, but those in other areas are expected to grow faster. Museums, where curators are  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  concentrated, are expected to grow substan­ tially in response to increased public interest in art, history, technology, and culture. Con­ sequently, employment of curators is expected to grow more rapidly than employment of ar­ chivists. Despite the anticipated increase in the em­ ployment of curators, competition for jobs is expected to be keen. A job as a curator is attractive to many people, and many have the necessary subject knowledge, yet there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, or as an intern, or even as a volunteer assistant curator or research as­ sociate after completing their formal education, and substantial work experience in collection management, exhibit design, or restoration will be necessary for permanent status. Archivists can improve their job opportun­ ities by taking courses in library or information science. Some employment opportunities will arise in related fields such as librarian, records manager, collection manager, and manuscript curator. However, employment in these fields is expected to grow relatively slowly. Earnings Earnings of archivists and curators vary con­ siderably by type and size of employer. Av­ erage salaries in the Federal Government, for example, are much higher than those in relig­ ious organizations. Salaries of curators in large, well-funded museums may be several times higher than those in small ones. Salaries in the Federal Government depend upon education and experience. In 1987, in­ experienced archivists and curators with a bachelor’s degree started at $14,822, while those with some experience started at $18,358. Those with a master’s degree started at $22,458, and with a doctorate, $27,172 or $32,567. Ar­ chivists and curators employed by the Federal Government averaged about $35,800 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Archivists’ and curators’ interests in preser­ vation and display are shared by anthropolo­ gists, arborists, archeologists, artifacts con­ servators, botanists, ethnologists, folklorists, genealogists, historians, horticulturists, infor­ mation specialists, librarians, paintings resto­ rers, records managers, and zoologists. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers as an archivist and schools offering courses in archival science is available from: Society of American Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chicago, IL 60605.  For general information about careers as a curator and schools offering courses in cura­ torial science, contact: American Association of Museums, 1225 1 St. NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005.  For information about curatorial careers in botanical gardens, contact: American Association of Botanical Gardens and Ar­ boreta, P.O. Box 206, Swarthmore, PA 19081.  Employment as an archivist or curator gen­ erally requires graduate training. For information about conservation and preservation careers, contact: American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 3545 Williamsburg Lane NW., Washington, DC 20008.  College and University Faculty (D.O.T. 090.227-010)  Nature of the Work College and university faculty teach and advise the more than 12 million full-time and part­ time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation’s research. They also study and meet with colleagues to keep up with de­ velopments in their field and consult with gov­ ernment, business, nonprofit, and community organizations. Faculty are generally organized into de­ partments, based on subject or field. They usu­ ally teach several different courses in their de­ partment—freshman composition, 18th century English literature, and modem fiction, for ex­ ample. They may instruct undergraduates, graduate students, or both. College and university faculty may give lec­ tures to several hundred students in large halls, lead small seminars, and supervise students in laboratories. They also prepare lectures, ex­ ercises, and laboratory experiments, grade ex­ ams and papers, and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they also counsel graduate students doing research. They may use closed-circuit and cable television, computers, and other teaching aids. Faculty keep up with developments in their field by reading current literature, talking to colleagues, and participating in professional conferences. They also do their own research  114/Occupational Outlook Handbook  In addition to teaching, many college faculty participate in professional activities and do research.  to expand knowledge in their field. They ex­ periment, collect and analyze data, and ex­ amine original documents, literature, and other source material. From this, they develop hypotheses, arrive at conclusions, and write about their findings in scholarly journals and books. Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative committees which deal with the policies of their institution, budgets, equipment purchases, and hiring. Some work with student organizations. Department heads generally have heavier administrative responsibilities. The amount of time spent on each of these activities varies by individual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at uni­ versities generally spend a significant part of their time doing research; those in 4-year col­ leges, somewhat less; and those in 2-year col­ leges, relatively little. However, the teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year colleges.  summer and school holidays, when they may teach or do research, travel, or pursue nona­ cademic interests. Faculty generally work more than 40 hours a week during the school year, less during the summer. College faculty have the opportunity to de­ velop and share ideas with colleagues and stu­ dents, teach and do research in their chosen field, and guide and counsel students—activ­ ities most find very attractive. On the other hand, budget constraints and the prospect of declining enrollments are making career ad­ vancement difficult, are leading to the replace­ ment of full-time and permanent positions with part-time and temporary ones, and are limiting research facilities and support services. In ad­ dition, faculty may experience a conflict be­ tween their responsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research—“publish or perish.” This may be a particular problem for young faculty seeking advancement.  Working Conditions College faculty generally have flexible sched­ ules. They must be present for classes, usually 9 to 16 hours a week, and also for faculty meetings. Otherwise, they are relatively free to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course preparation, study, research, and other activities. They may work staggered hours and teach classes at night. They have even greater flexibility during the  Employment College and university faculty held about 754,000 jobs in 1986. Over 70 percent were in public institutions. Some part-timers, known as “adjunct fac­ ulty,” have primary jobs outside of academia— in government, private industry, or in nonprofit research—and teach “on the side.” Others want but can't find full-time jobs. Some of them work part time in more than one institution.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most full-time college and university faculty are in four academic ranks: Professors, asso­ ciate professors, assistant professors, and in­ structors. A small number are lecturers. Most faculty members are hired as instruc­ tors or assistant professors. Four-year colleges and universities generally hire doctoral degree holders for full-time long-term positions, but may hire master’s degree holders or doctoral candidates for part-time and temporary jobs. However, in some departments, such as art, music, and law, other qualifications may be appropriate. Doctoral programs usually take 4 to 7 years of full-time study beyond the bachelor’s de­ gree. Candidates usually specialize in a sub­ field of a discipline, for example, organic chemistry, counseling psychology, or Euro­ pean history, but also take courses covering the whole discipline. Programs include 20 or more increasingly specialized courses and sem­ inars plus comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field. They also include a dissertation. This is a report on original re­ search to answer some significant question in the field; it sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published ma­ terial. The dissertation, done under the guid­ ance of a faculty advisor, usually takes 1 or 2 years of full-time work. In some fields, particularly the natural sci­ ences, it is common to spend an additional 2 years on postdoctoral research and study before taking a faculty position. Advancement through the academic ranks in universities and 4-year colleges usually re­ quires a doctorate plus teaching experience, research, and publication. In 2-year colleges, a doctorate is helpful but is not generally re­ quired, and research and publication are less important. A major step in the traditional academic ca­ reer is attaining tenure. Newly hired faculty serve a certain period (usually 5-7 years) under temporary contracts. Then, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable and positions are avail­ able. With tenure, a professor cannot ordinarily be fired and is likely to continue with that institution throughout his or her career. Those denied tenure usually must leave. Tenure pro­ tects the faculty’s academic freedom—its abil­ ity to teach and conduct research without fear of being fired for advocating unpopular ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effective research and teaching. About two-thirds of full-time faculty are tenured, and many others are in the pro­ bationary period. Budget constraints and the prospect of declining enrollments have made tenure harder to get. Some full-time faculty are hired in non-tenure-track positions and are not even considered for tenure. College faculty need intelligence, inquiring  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/115  and analytical minds, and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. They should be able to communicate clearly and logically, both orally and in writing. They need to be able to establish rapport with students and, as models for them, to be dedicated to the prin­ ciples of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Finally, they need to be able to work in an environment where they receive little direct supervision.  Job Outlook Employment of college and university faculty is expected to decline through the mid-1990’s and then begin to increase. By the year 2000, however, the number of positions is still likely to be below the 1986 level. The demand for faculty depends primarily on enrollments—which depend largely on the size of the traditonal college-age (18-24) pop­ ulation and the proportion who attend college. Although enrollments were expected to decline in the early and mid-1980’s along with the decline in the traditional college-age popula­ tion, they did not because a higher proportion of this declining population attended college. The college-age population will continue to shrink through 1996, and, unless the proportion attending college continues to increase sharply, which seems unlikely, enrollments will drop. The number of older students may increase, but this will not significantly increase enroll­ ments. Faculty employment opportunities will, therefore, be limited for some time. Almost all job openings will result from replacement needs. However, by the late 1990’s, when to­ day’s high school graduates who pursue a doc­ torate begin to graduate, conditions should im­ prove. The leading edge of the baby-boom “echo” generation will reach college age and enrollments will begin to increase. Also, at about this time, faculty retirements should be­ gin to increase, as the large number of faculty hired during the 1960’s approaches retirement age. There has been keen competition for faculty jobs for some time, and this is likely to continue through the mid-1990’s. Many applicants may accept part-time or short-term academic ap­ pointments that offer little hope of tenure, and many will have to seek nonacademic positions. In some cases, these nonacademic positions will not require a master’s degree or a doc­ torate. Opportunities will be better in some insti­ tutions and in some fields: Business, engi­ neering, computer science, physical sciences, and mathematics, for example—largely be­ cause very attractive nonacademic jobs will be available for many potential faculty. Employ­ ment of college faculty is also related to the nonacademic job market through an “echo ef­ fect.” Good job prospects in a field—for ex­ ample, engineering in recent years—cause more students to enroll, increasing faculty needs in that field. On the other hand, a bad job mar­ ket—for liberal arts graduates, for example— discourages students and reduces demand for faculty.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The college age population will begin to increase in the late 1990’s. Population 18 to 24 years of age (millions)  j—i—»—i__  i__ i___i___i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  Source: Bureau ot the Census  Earnings Earnings vary according to faculty rank and type of institution and, in some cases, by field. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher sal­ aries, on the average, than those in 2-year schools. According to a 1986-87 survey by the American Association of University Profes­ sors, salaries for full-time faculty on 9-month contracts averaged $35,500; professors, $45,500; associate professors, $33,800; assis­ tant professors, $27,900; and instructors, $21,300. Those on 11- or 12-month contracts obviously earned more. In fields where there are high-paying nonacademic alternatives, no­ tably medicine and law but also engineering and business, earnings exceed these averages. In others, the liberal arts, for example, they are lower. Many faculty have added earnings, both dur­ ing the academic year and the summer, from consulting, teaching additional courses, re­ search, writing for publication, or other em­ ployment. Most college and university faculty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to cam­ pus facilities and tuition waivers for depen­ dents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Related Occupations College and university faculty function both as teachers and researchers. They communicate information and ideas. Related occupations in­ clude: Elementary and secondary school teach­ ers, librarians, writers, consultants, lobbyists, trainers and employee development specialists, and policy analysts. Their research activities are often similar to those of their colleagues in industry, government, and nonprofit re­ search organizations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally provide infor­ mation on employment opportunities in their fields. Names and addresses of these societies  appear in the statements elsewhere in the Hand­ book.  Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, .117-010; 090.107-010; and 169.267.026)  Nature of the Work Counselors help people evaluate their interests and abilities and advise and assist them with personal, social, educational, and career prob­ lems and concerns. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and the settings in which they work. School and college counselors use inter­ views, counseling sessions, tests, orothertools to help students understand their abilities, in­ terests, talents, and personality characteristics. They help translate these into realistic aca­ demic and career options. They may run career information centers and career education pro­ grams. High school counselors advise on col­ lege admission requirements, entrance exams, and financial aid, and on trade, technical school, and apprenticeship programs. They help stu­ dents find part-time and summer work and, for those who are not going to college, full-time jobs. They also help students understand and deal with their social, behavioral, and personal problems. They work with students individ­ ually, or, in cases where problems are wide­ spread, as in drug or alcohol abuse, in groups. Counselors consult and work with parents, teachers, school psychologists, school nurses, and social workers. Elementary school coun­ selors observe younger children during class­ room and play activities and confer with their teachers and parents to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. College career planning and placement counselors help stu­ dents and alumni plan careers and locate jobs. Rehabilitation counselors help persons with  116/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ■ fc'Sj  itlli  When helping students in career choices, counselors often administer and evaluate tests.  disabilities become more self-sufficient and productive. They evaluate clients’ disabilities and potential for employment, and arrange for medical care, rehabilitation, occupational training, and job placement. They interview them and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer with physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists, and employers. They then recommend a rehabili­ tation program and training to help them be­ come more independent and more employable. Employment counselors help individuals make wise career decisions. They help clients explore and evaluate their education, training, work history, interests, skills, personal traits, and physical capacities and may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests. They also help clients locate and apply for jobs. Mental health counselors help individuals deal with drug and alcohol abuse, family con­ flicts, including child and spouse abuse, sui­ cide, work problems, criminal behavior, and other problems. They also counsel rape vic­ tims, individuals and families trying to cope with illness and death, and people with emo­ tional problems. Mental health counselors may work closely with other specialists, including psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, and psychiatric nurses. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the traditional 9to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, although an increasing number are employed on lO'/i- or 11-month contracts. They generally have the same hours as teachers. Rehabilitation and employment counselors generally work a standard 40-hour week. Selfemployed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. College career planning and placement counselors may work long and ir­ regular hours during recruiting periods. Since privacy is essential for confidential and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  frank discussions with clients, counselors usu­ ally have private offices. Employment Counselors held about 123,000 jobs in 1986. More than 2 out of 3 were in educational ser­ vices. Most of these worked in secondary schools; the rest worked in elementary schools and colleges and universities. Outside education settings, counselors worked in a wide variety of public and private establishments, including job training and vo­ cational rehabilitation centers, or in nonprofit organizations like Goodwill Industries and Lighthouse for the Blind. Some worked in cor­ rectional institutions and residential care fa­ cilities, such as halfway houses for offenders and group homes for children, the aged, and the disabled. Others worked in health facilities such as Veterans Administration hospitals; agencies that provide social, counseling, wel­ fare, or referral services; organizations en­ gaged in community improvement, social change, and neighborhood development; and those that deal with alcohol and drug addiction. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a master’s degree in college student personnel counseling, elementary or secondary school counseling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, counseling psychology, career counseling, or a related field is required. In some cases, individuals with a bachelor's degree in psychology, sociology, counseling, or rehabilitation services qualify for employment, particularly if they have had experience in social work, teaching, interview­ ing, job placement, psychology, or personnel. These individuals may not be eligible for cer­ tification or licensure, however. Graduate level counselor education pro­ grams are available in nearly 500 colleges and universities, usually in departments of edu­ cation or psychology. Courses include coun­  seling theory and techniques, assessment and evaluation, individual and group counseling, career development information, and com­ munity resources. One to two years of graduate study, including a period of supervised expe­ rience in counseling, are usually required for a master’s degree. Forty-eight programs are currently accredited by the Council for Accre­ ditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. Twenty-five States require that counselors in private practice have a State license. Re­ quirements for these vary from State to State. Many counselors are voluntarily certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which grants the credential “National Certified Counselor.” To be certified by NBCC, a counselor must hold a master’s degree in counseling, have at least 2 years of professional counseling experience, and pass a national written examination. Most States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certifi­ cates. Depending on the State, a master’s de­ gree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience may be required for a counseling certificate. State departments of education can provide specific information. Vocational and related rehabilitation agen­ cies generally require a master’s degree in re­ habilitation counseling, counseling and guid­ ance, or counseling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, may accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services, counseling, psy­ chology, or related fields. Experience in em­ ployment counseling, job development, psy­ chology, education, or social work may be helpful. About 30 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services ed­ ucation. In 1987, the Council on Rehabilitation Education accredited 74 graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. Usually, 2 years of study—including a period of supervised clin­ ical experience—are required for the master’s degree. In most State vocational rehabilitation agen­ cies, applicants must pass a written examina­ tion and be evaluated by a board of examiners. Many employers require rehabilitation coun­ selors to be certified. To become certified, counselors must meet educational and expe­ rience standards established by the Commis­ sion on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, and pass a written examination. They are then designated as “Certified Rehabilitation Coun­ selors.” Some States require counselors in public em­ ployment offices to have a master’s degree; others accept a bachelor’s degree with appro­ priate counseling courses. Mental health counselors generally have a master’s degree or doctorate in mental health counseling, another area of counseling, or in psychology or social work. They are certified by the National Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors. A master’s degree, a period of supervised internship, and an ex­ amination are required for certification. Al­  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/117  though this certification is voluntary, many States require a license for private practice. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Many have work-study pro­ grams so that employed counselors can earn graduate degrees. Counselors must participate in graduate studies, workshops, institutes, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Prospects for advancement vary by coun­ seling field. School counselors may move to a larger school; become directors or supervisors of counseling or pupil personnel services; or, with further graduate education, become coun­ seling psychologists or school administrators. (See statements on psychologists and education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Rehabilitation, mental health, and employ­ ment counselors may become supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some coun­ selors move into research, consulting, or col­ lege teaching, or go into private practice. Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace counselors who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Employment of school counselors, the larg­ est specialty area, is expected to grow more slowly than average—in line with projected enrollments. Faster than average growth is expected for mental health counselors and others who work with individuals with personal and social prob­ lems such as marital or other family difficulties, alcoholism, drug abuse, and aging. Private practice, community and social service agen­ cies, and human resource and employee assis­ tance programs in private industry are expected to grow rapidly. Employment of rehabilitation and employ­ ment counselors, who work primarily for State and local governments, is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Earnings The average salary of school counselors in the 1986-87 academic year was $31,132, accord­ ing to the Educational Research Service. Sal­ aries were lowest in the Southeast and highest in the Far West. Some school counselors earn additional income working summers in the school system or in other jobs. Wage and salary earnings of rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors are usually somewhat lower than those of school counselors. Self-employed counselors who have established practices have the highest earnings. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and disabilities, and deal with per­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  sonal, social, academic, and career problems. Others who help people in similar ways include college and student personnel workers, teach­ ers, personnel workers and managers, social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, mem­ bers of the clergy, occupational and physical therapists, training and employee development specialists, and equal employment opportunity/ affirmative action specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counselors, con­ tact: American Association for Counseling and Devel­ opment, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304.  For information on training programs ac­ credited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, contact: Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, American Association for Counseling and Development, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304.  For information on national certification re­ quirements and procedures, contact: National Board for Certified Counselors, 5999 Ste­ venson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304.  State departments of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer approved guidance and counseling train­ ing for State certification and licensure re­ quirements. State employment service offices have in­ formation about their job opportunities and en­ trance requirements. For information about rehabilitation coun­ seling, contact: National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 633 So. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. National Council on Rehabilitation Education, c/o Maddux O’Malley, Inc., 2921 Ermine Way, Farmers Branch, TX 75234.  A list of accredited graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling may be obtained from: Council on Rehabilitation Education, 185 North Wa­ bash St., Room 1617, Chicago, IL 60601.  For a list of federally funded programs of­ fering training in rehabilitation counseling, contact: Division of Resource Development, Rehabilitation Services Administration, U.S. Department of Edu­ cation, 330 C St. SW., Washington, DC 20202.  For information on certification require­ ments for rehabilitation counselors, contact: Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certifica­ tion, 1156 Shure Dr., Suite 350, Arlington Heights, IL 60004.  For information on certification require­ ments for mental health counselors, contact: National Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria VA 22304.  Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers (DOT. 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.224-010)  Nature of the Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What is learned and experienced during the early years can shape children’s views of them­ selves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school and work. Kindergarten and elementary school teach­ ers introduce children to numbers, language, science, and social studies. Teachers lecture and demonstrate to an entire class, and also provide individual attention as much as pos­ sible. Kindergarten teachers may use games, music, and artwork to teach basic skills, while elementary school teachers may use films, slides, and computers. They assign lessons, give tests, hear oral presentations, and oversee special projects. They maintain order in the classroom and instill good study habits and an appreciation for learning. Teachers observe and evaluate students’ per­ formance and potential, keep track of their so­ cial development and health, and discuss prob­ lems or progress with parents. They may also counsel pupils with academic or personal prob­ lems. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers team teach and are jointly responsible for a group of students or for a particular subject. Some teach one subject—usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical education—to a number of classes. Special education teachers work with children who are mentally retarded, emotion­ ally disturbed, learning disabled, or speech and hearing impaired. Some teachers work with very bright or “gifted” children, or with those who do not speak English. In addition to classroom activities, teachers plan lessons, prepare tests, grade papers, pre­ pare report cards, meet with parents, attend faculty meetings, and supervise extracurricular activities after school. Working Conditions Kindergarten and elementary school teachers spend most of their time moving about the classroom, often bending and kneeling to be at eye level with children. They may have to deal with disruptive children. On the other hand, introducing children to the joy of learning and seeing them gain new skills can be very re­ warding. Including activities outside the classroom, teachers work about 50 hours per week. Most elementary school teachers work a traditional 2-semester, 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation. Teachers on a 9- to 10-month schedule may teach in the summer  118/Occupational Outlook Handbook  •r  r  j-f  &  Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a children.  session or take other jobs. Many enroll in col­ lege courses or workshops. Some teachers in year-round schools work 8-week sessions, are off 1 week between sessions, and have a long midwinter break. Most States have tenure laws that protect the jobs of teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a certain number of years, usually 3. Tenure is not a guarantee of job security, but it does provide some protection. Employment Kindergarten and elementary school teachers held about 1,527,000 jobs in 1986. More than 4 out of 5 worked in public schools. Most were in schools that have students in kindergarten through grade six; however, some taught in middle schools, where students are between the lower elementary grades and high school. Kindergarten and elementary school teach­  vital role in the development of  ers are distributed geographically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require public elementary school teachers to be cer­ tified. Usually certification is granted by the State board of education, the State superin­ tendent of education, or a certification advisory committee. Teachers may be certified to teach the early childhood grades (usually nursery school through the third grade); the elementary grades (grades one through six or eight); special ed­ ucation; or reading, music, or another subject. Requirements for regular certification vary by State. Generally, however, they include a bachelor’s degree and completion of an ap­ proved teacher education program. Training  The elementary school age population will increase from 1985 to 1996 and then start declining again. Population 5 to 13 years of age (millions)  - 32 I 30 - 28 I  1.1  II  I  Source: Bureau of the Census   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  I  I  til  I  I ...1...1...I...I.  .1- I 1 I. I I  programs for kindergarten and elementary school teachers include courses—generally de­ signed specifically for those preparing to teach—in mathematics, science, social sci­ ence, music, art, and literature, and prescribed professional education courses such as philos­ ophy of education, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Students also do supervised practice teaching in an elementary school. A large number of States require a specific grade point average (GPA) in the coursework. States also issue emergency certificates to individuals who do not meet all requirements for a regular certificate when schools cannot hire enough teachers with regular certificates. Thirty-five States require applicants for cer­ tification to be tested for competency in basic skills, teaching skills, or subject matter. Al­ most all require additional education for re­ newal of a teacher’s certificate—many require a master’s degree. Information on certification is available from State departments of educa­ tion or superintendents of schools. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers who are certified in one State to become certified in another. Kindergarten and elementary school teach­ ers should be organized, creative, dependable, and patient. They should be able to commu­ nicate with students and understand their ed­ ucational and emotional needs. Teachers may become supervisors or ad­ ministrators, although the number of these po­ sitions is limited. In some school systems, wellqualified experienced teachers can be ap­ pointed senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while re­ taining most of their teaching responsibilities.  Job Outlook Employment of kindergarten and elementary school teachers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as enrollments increase and class sizes decline. Rising enrollments reflect the increase in births beginning in the mid-1970’s. Largely because of migration to the South and West, employment of teachers is expected to increase more in those regions and less in oth­ ers. However, most job openings will arise from the need to replace teachers who leave the occupation. Despite reports of teacher shortages in some districts in recent years, there have not been nationwide shortages. A fall 1983 survey by the U.S. Department of Education found that, in public schools, there were hardly any jobs for which a teacher could not be found, and that less than 2 percent of all teachers in public schools (1 percent of general elementary ed­ ucation teachers) were not certified in their field. More recent reports of teacher shortages in central cities do not necessarily show that general shortages have developed, since these areas have usually had difficulty attracting cer­ tified teachers. Based on projected job openings and ex­ pected supply, shortages are not likely through  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/119  the year 2000. Nevertheless, job opportunities should be good for well-qualified candidates. Hiring needs for elementary school teachers are expected to remain at current levels or in­ crease slightly through the early 1990’s and then begin to decline. Enrollments are expected to level off and then drop, reflecting a leveling off and then a drop in births some years earlier. At the same time, the supply of teachers is likely to increase in response to reports of job opportunities, greater public interest in edu­ cation, and higher salaries. In fact, enrollments in teacher education programs have already increased, and it appears that more former teachers have returned to teaching. If supply increases substantially, entry requirements are likely to rise, making it difficult for less qual­ ified applicants. Some central cities and rural areas have dif­ ficulty attracting teachers. Job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban schools. The number of teachers employed depends on State and local expenditures for education. The job outlook presented here assumes mod­ erate increases in these expenditures. Pressure from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to increase spending to improve the quality of education could result in more. Earnings According to the National Education Associ­ ation, public elementary school teachers av­ eraged $24,762 a year in 1985-86. Generally, salaries were higher in the Mid-Atlantic and far western States. Eamings in private schools generally were lower. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer working in the school system or in other jobs. Most public school teachers belong to unions that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of em­ ployment. Related Occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational and administrative abilities; a talent for working with children; communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; creativity; and pa­ tience. Workers in other occupations that re­ quire some of these aptitudes include childcare attendants, trainers and employee development specialists, employment interviewers, librar­ ians, personnel specialists, public relations specialists, social workers, and counselors.  sions can be obtained from local or State af­ filiates of the National Education Association. A list of colleges and universities accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Ed­ ucation, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, DC 20006.  Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except 100.167-010 and .367-018)  Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to peo­ ple. They collect, organize, and lend books, periodicals, films, records, videotapes, com­ puter tapes, cassettes, and other materials to all types of users. Library work is divided into two basic func­ tions: User services and technical services. Li­ brarians in user services—for example, ref­ erence and children’s librarians—help people find information. Librarians in technical ser­ vices such as acquisitions librarians and ca­ taloged acquire and prepare materials for use and deal less frequently with users. In small libraries, they generally handle all aspects of the work. They select, purchase, and process materials; publicize services; pro­ vide reference help; supervise the support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other admin­ istrative matters. In large ones, librarians spec­ ialize in a single area, such as acquisitions, cataloging, bibliography, reference, circula­ tion, or administration. Or they may handle special collections. Building and maintaining a strong collection are essential activities in any library, large or small. Acquisitions librarians (D.O.T. 100.267­ 010) select and order books, periodicals, films, and other materials. They read book reviews.  publishers’ announcements, and catalogs to keep up with current literature. They deal with publishers and wholesalers of new books as well as with distributors of records, films, and other materials. A knowledge of book pub­ lishing and business acumen are important. After materials have been received, other librarians prepare them for use. Classifiers (D.O.T. 100.367-014) classify materials by subject matter. They skim through book re­ views, encyclopedias, and technical publica­ tions to determine the subject matter. They then assign classification numbers and descriptive headings. Catalogers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) describe books and other library materials in such a way that users can easily find them. They supervise assistants who prepare cards or other access tools that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher, date of publication, and lo­ cation in the library. Many libraries have com­ puterized their acquisition and cataloging func­ tions, and some have replaced large card catalogs with compact computer terminals to provide faster and greater availability of ma­ terials to the library user. This has greatly changed the nature of library work. Bibliographers (D.O.T. 100.367-010), who usually work in research libraries, compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects. They also rec­ ommend materials to be acquired. Special col­ lections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) col­ lect and organize books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. They may prepare reports and exhibits about important additions. Librarians are also classified according to the type of library in which they work: Public libraries, school library/media centers, aca­ demic (college and university) libraries, and special libraries. Public librarians serve people of all ages and from all walks of life, including persons who, because of physical handicaps, cannot  — a. a  sHHlit  Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and edu­ cation-related issues can be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  General information on the teaching profes­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Children's librarians often conduct special programs such as story hours.  c’i  120/Occupational Outlook Handbook  use conventional print materials. The profes­ sional staff of a large public library system includes the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system. The system also may include librarians who supervise branch libraries and specialists in acquisitions, cata­ loging, special collections, and user services. Some public librarians work with specific groups of readers. Children's librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-018) find materials children will enjoy and show children how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special programs such as story hours or film programs. They often work with school and community organizations. Adult services librarians handle materials suited for adults and may conduct education programs. Young adult librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and senior high school students select and use books and other materials. They may organize programs of interest to young adults, such as book or film discussions, concerts of recorded music, or computer clubs. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school programs. Com­ munity outreach librarians and bookmobile li­ brarians (D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop li­ brary services to meet the needs of underserved groups, such as residents of rural areas and migrant labor camps, inner city housing proj­ ects, or nursing homes. School librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-030), also called media specialists, teach students how to use the school library/media center. They show them how to find, evaluate, and use its resources and assist them with special assignments or projects. They also select, or­ der, and organize materials. They prepare lists of materials on certain subjects and help select materials for school programs. The library/me­ dia center is an integral part of a school’s in­ structional program. Librarians help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for class­ room instruction, and sometimes team teach. They are often responsible for computer li­ braries. Academic librarians serve students, faculty, and researchers in colleges and universities. They work with faculty to ensure the library has reference materials needed for courses, maintain research collections, and assist stu­ dents and faculty in searching databases. Special librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-026) work in information centers or libraries main­ tained by government agencies and corpora­ tions, as well as by law firms, advertising agen­ cies, museums, professional associations, medical centers, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization’s informa­ tion resources, usually limited to subjects of particular interest to the organization. Special librarians may conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, or prepare abstracts. A growing number of libraries are tied into remote data bases through their computer ter­ minals. More libraries arc also maintaining their own computerized data bases. These libraries may employ workers in a related occupation, information scientists (D O T. 109.067-010), who design information storage and retrieval  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  systems and develop procedures for collecting, organizing, interpreting, and classifying in­ formation. (See statement on computer system analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Libraries generally are busy, demanding places in which to work. Contact with people, which often is a major part of the job, can be taxing. Physically, the job may require much standing, stooping, bending, and reaching. Librarians typically work a 5-day, 35- to 40hour week. Public and college librarians may work some weekends and evenings. School librarians generally have the same schedules as teachers. A 35- to 40-hour week during normal business hours is common for special librarians. Employment Librarians held 136.000 jobs in 1986. About one-half of all jobs were in school libraries; the rest were in college and university, public, and special libraries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for positions in most public, ac­ ademic, and special libraries, and in many school systems. In the Federal Government, an M.L.S. degree or the equivalent in expe­ rience and education is needed. The number of bachelor's degrees in library science is small and declining. About 100 schools offered an M.L.S. in 1987, but most employers prefer graduates of the 52 schools accredited by the American Li­ brary Association. Most M.L.S. programs re­ quire a bachelor’s degree for entry. Any major is appropriate; a strong liberal arts background is desirable. A typical M.L.S. program includes basic courses in the foundations of librarianship, in­ cluding the history of books and printing, in­ tellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries in society. Other basic courses cover material selection and processing; reference tools; and user services. Advanced courses in­ clude resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloging, indexing, and ab­ stracting; library administration; and library automation. Because so much library work is automated, many programs include courses in computers and information science. The M.L.S. program provides a general, all­ round preparation for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as archives, media, or library automation. A Ph.D. degree in library science is advantageous for college teaching or for a top administrative post in a college or university library or in a large library system. In special libraries or research libraries, a master's degree, doctorate, or professional degree in the subject specializa­ tion is highly desirable. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States re­ quire that school librarians be certified as teach­ ers and have courses in library science. In some  cases, an M.L.S. degree is needed. In many schools, the library has become the “learning resources center" and is staffed by media per­ sonnel with a variety of educational back­ grounds—library science, media resources, educational technology, or audiovisual com­ munications. State departments of education can provide information about specific require­ ments. Some States require certification of public librarians. State library agencies can provide information. Experienced librarians may advance to ad­ ministrative positions. A master’s degree in business or public administration may help. Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Nevertheless, a larger than average proportion of librarians are now at or will reach retirement age through 2000, thus creating many openings due to re­ placement needs. The number of graduates in library science has dropped to half the level of the mid-1970’s, prompting many States to mount recruitment efforts to attract people into the field, partic­ ularly in areas of strong demand—school li­ brarianship, children’s and young adult ser­ vices, and cataloging and other technical services. Opportunities will continue to be best in spe­ cial and research libraries, especially for li­ brarians with knowledge of scientific and tech­ nical fields including medicine, law, business, engineering, and the physical and life sciences. Individuals skilled in developing computerized library systems will also have better than av­ erage prospects because of the rapid growth of computers in library work. Foreign language skills are also desirable in many settings. Although more and more libraries are au­ tomated and librarians have to know how to use a computer, computers will not replace librarians. The judgment and knowledge of a professional librarian will still be needed. The demand for individuals with library skills is also expected to continue to be strong outside traditional library settings—in bibliographic cooperatives, regional information networks, and information search services. They employ systems analysts, database specialists, man­ agers, and researchers. Some of these jobs re­ quire a knowledge of both libraries and com­ puters; others, only a knowledge of libraries. Information management and information science, two related rapidly developing fields, are expected to offer many employment op­ portunities for those with backgrounds in in­ formation science and library automation. Most jobs will be with private corporations, con­ sulting firms, and information brokers who market information. Earnings Salaries of librarians vary by type, size, and location of library. Salaries of new graduates of M.L.S. pro­ grams accredited by the American Library As-  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/121  sociation averaged $20,874 in 1986, and ranged from $19,289 in public libraries to $23,348 in school libraries—where new graduates may be experienced teachers or librarians. In special libraries, they averaged $21,930. According to the Educational Research Ser­ vice, school librarians averaged $28,390 dur­ ing the 1986-87 school year. According to the Special Libraries Associ­ ation, the average salary for special librarians was $30,180 in 1986; for supervisory special librarians, $38,404. According to the Association of Research Libraries, the median salary for librarians in university libraries was $29,000 in 1987. Librarians in the Federal Government, in­ cluding supervisors, averaged about $35,000 in 1986. Related Occupations Librarians provide people with access to writ­ ten and recorded information, knowledge, and ideas. So do archivists, information scientists, museum curators, publishers’ representatives, research analysts, information brokers, and records managers. Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, including schol­ arships, loans, and accredited schools, may be obtained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.  For information on a career as a special li­ brarian, write to: Special Libraries Association, 1700 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  Material about a career in information sci­ ence may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1424 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Information on graduate schools of library and information science can be obtained from: Association for Library and Information Science Ed­ ucation, 471 Park Lane, State College, PA 16803.  Information on Federal assistance for library training is available from: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Room 402, Washington, DC 20208-1430.  Those interested in a position with the Li­ brary of Congress should write to: Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20540.  For information on all other Federal Gov­ ernment jobs, write to: Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415.  State library agencies can furnish informa­ tion on State scholarships, requirements for certification, and career prospects. Several of these agencies maintain job “hotlines” which report current openings. State boards of edu­ cation can furnish information on certification requirements and job opportunities for school librarians.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  In addition to teaching classes, secondary school teachers may help students with academic or personal problems.  Secondary School Teachers (D.O.T. 091.221-010, .227-010; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.244-010, and .227-022)  Nature of the Work Secondary school teachers help students move from childhood to adulthood. They help them delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and learn more about the world and about themselves. Secondary school teachers specialize in spe­ cific subject, such as English, Spanish, math­ ematics, history, or biology, in junior high or high school. They may teach a variety of re­ lated courses, for example, American history, contemporary American problems, and world geography. Special education teachers work with students who are mentally retarded, emo­ tionally disturbed, learning disabled, or speech and hearing impaired. Others work with very bright or “gifted” students. Teachers lecture and demonstrate to students, and may use films, slides, overhead projectors, and computers. They design their classroom presentations to meet student needs and abilities. They may also work with students individually. Teachers also assign lessons, give tests, and maintain class­ room discipline.  Science teachers also supervise laboratory work, and vocational education teachers give students “hands-on” experience with instru­ ments, tools, and machinery. In addition to classroom activities, second­ ary school teachers plan lessons, prepare tests, grade papers, prepare report cards, oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extra­ curricular activities, and meet with parents and school staff. They also may help students deal with academic or personal problems, or choose courses, colleges, and careers. Teachers also participate in education conferences and work­ shops. Working Conditions Teaching involves long periods of standing and talking and may be stressful for those who deal with unmotivated and disrespectful students. On the other hand, seeing students develop and gain an appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. Including activities outside the classroom, teachers work about 50 hours a week. Most teachers work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation. Teachers on a 9- to 10-month schedule may teach in summer sessions or take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses or workshops. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break.  122/Occupational Outlook Handbook  hours. Alternative certification programs are designed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects or to attract more very capable people into teaching, regardless of their subject. States also issue emergency certificates to individuals who do not meet all requirements for a regular certificate when schools cannot hire enough teachers with regular certificates. Information on certification is available from State departments of education or school su­ perintendents. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers cer­ tified in one State to become certified in an­ other. Secondary school teachers should be knowl­ edgeable in their subject and able to commu­ nicate with and motivate students. With additional preparation and certifica­ tion, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum spe­ cialists, or guidance counselors. Relatively few teachers become administrators or supervisors, since the number of positions is limited. How­ ever, in some systems, well-qualified experi­ enced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional re­ sponsibilities. They guide and assist less ex­ perienced teachers while keeping most of their teaching responsibilities.  that there were hardly any positions in public schools for which a teacher could not be found, and less than 2 percent of public school teachers were not certified in their principal field of assignment. Reports of shortages of mathe­ matics and science teachers have been partic­ ularly widespread. Even for these subjects, the Department of Education survey found that only 2 or 3 percent of mathematics and science teachers in public schools were not certified to teach these subjects. More recent reports of shortages in central cities do not necessarily mean there are na­ tionwide shortages, since these districts have generally had the most difficulty attracting cer­ tified teachers. Much evidence about shortages is difficult to interpret, however, and several Federal Government studies of math and sci­ ence teachers have found that the data are in­ sufficient for assessing whether shortages exist. Based on projections of hiring needs and probable supply, general shortages are not likely to develop through the year 2000. Neverthe­ less, job prospects should be good for wellqualified applicants. Hiring needs for secondary school teacher are expected to increase by the early 1990’s. However, the supply of secondary school teachers is also expected to increase in response to reports of job opportunities, greater public interest in education, and higher salaries. In fact, enrollments in teachef training programs have already increased. More teachers should also be available from the pool of those certified but not now teaching, and from recently in­ stituted alternative certification programs, which are making it easier for knowledgeable people without education courses to enter the occu­ pation. If the supply increases significantly, entry requirements are likely to rise, making it difficult for less qualified applicants. Some central cities and rural areas have dif­ ficulty attracting teachers. Job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban schools. t The number of teachers employed depends on State and local expenditures for education. The job outlook presented here assumes mod­ erate increases in these expenditures. Pressures from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to spend more to improve the quality of education could mean more.  Job Outlook Employment of secondary school teachers is expected to increase more slowly than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000, as high school enrollments grow slightly and as class sizes decline. Largely because of mi­ gration to the South and West, employment of teachers is expected to increase more in those regions and less in others. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace teachers who leave the occupation. Despite reports of teacher shortages in some districts and in some subjects in recent years, there have not been general nationwide short­ ages. A survey conducted by the U.S. De­ partment of Education in the fall of 1983 found  Earnings According to the National Education Associ­ ation, public secondary school teachers aver­ aged $26,080 a year in 1985-86. Generally, salaries were higher in the Mid-Atlantic and far western States. Earnings in private schools generally were lower. Most public school teachers belong to unions that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of em­ ployment. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer working in the school system or in other jobs.  The high school age population will increase after 1990. Population 14 to 17 years of age (millions)  i  iii  it  i  i  i  i  Source: Bureau of the Census  Most States have tenure laws that protect the jobs of teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a certain number of years, normally 3. Ten­ ure is not a guarantee of job security, but it does provide some protection. Employment Secondary school teachers held about 1,128,000 jobs in 1986; more than 90 percent were in public schools. Employment is distributed geo­ graphically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­ quire public secondary school teachers to be certified. Certification is generally for one or several related subjects. Usually certification is granted by the State board of education, the State superintendent of education, or a certi­ fication advisory committee. Requirements for regular certificates vary by State. However, all States require a bachelor’s degree and completion of an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching in a secondary school. Ap­ plicants generally can have majors in the sub­ ject they plan to teach, along with education courses, or majors in education along with sub­ ject courses. A large number of States require a specific grade point average in the coursework. Thirty-five States require applicants for teacher certification to be tested for compe­ tency in basic skills, teaching skills, or subject matter. Almost all require additional education for renewal of the teachers’ certificate—many require a graduate degree. Many States offer alternative teacher certif­ icates to people who have college training in the subject they will teach, but do not have the necessary education courses required for a reg­ ular certificate. These teachers work under the close supervision of experienced educators while taking education courses outside school  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/123  Related Occupations Secondary school teaching requires a wide va­ riety of skills and aptitudes, including orga­ nizational, administrative, and recordkeeping abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train oth­ ers; and creativity. Workers in other occupa­ tions requiring some of these aptitudes include: School administrators, counselors, trainers and employee development specialists, employ­ ment interviewers, librarians, public relations   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  representatives, sales representatives, and so­ cial workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is avail­ able from State departments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and edu­ cation-related issues may be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20001.  General information on the teaching profes­ sions can be obtained from local or State af­ filiates of the National Education Association. A list of colleges and universities accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Ed­ ucation, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, DC 20006.  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010)  Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the principle that a person’s health is deter­ mined largely by the nervous system, and that interference with this system impairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. The chiropractic approach to health care re­ flects a holistic view, one that stresses the pa­ tient’s overall health and well-being. In keep­ ing with this tradition, chiropractors encourage the use of natural, nondrug, nonsurgical health treatments. In cases where chiropractic care is inappropriate, chiropractors may refer patients to other health practitioners. They often rec­ ommend lifestyle changes—in eating and sleeping habits—to their patients. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard routine to secure the infor­ mation needed for diagnosis and treatment: They take the patient’s medical history, conduct physical and neurological examinations, order laboratory tests, and take X-rays. They also employ a postural and spinal analysis unique to chiropractic diagnosis. The treatment depends on the diagnosis. In cases where the patient's difficulties can be traced to weakness of the musculoskeletal structure, for example, chiropractors treat pa­ tients by manually manipulating the spinal col­ umn. In addition to manipulation, chiroprac­  tors utilize physiological therapeutics such as water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy. In addition, straps, tapes, braces, and other support mechanisms may be used as well as professional counseling. Chiropractors, like other health profession­ als, are subject to State laws and regulations that specify the types of services they may provide. Most States, for example, prohibit chiropractors from prescribing drugs and per­ forming surgery. Almost all chiropractors are solo or group practitioners. Depending on practice size, they may have administrative and financial respon­ sibilities in addition to treating patients. In larger offices, chiropractors may delegate these tasks to office managers. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in offices that are clean and comfortable. The average workweek is about 42 hours, usually including some evening and weekend time to accommodate patients who work. Because most chiropractors are self-em­ ployed, they can set their own hours. Employment In 1986, an estimated 32,000 persons practiced chiropractic. About 96 percent of active chi­ ropractors are in private practice. Although most are solo practitioners, a growing number prac­ tice in groups of three or more chiropractors. Group practices are popular since they allow practitioners to share personnel and to utilize office space and equipment more effectively. Some chiropractors hold salaried positions  Ok 1  .  Chiropractors work with patients of all ages. 124   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with established practitioners or chiropractic clinics. A small number teach and conduct re­ search at chiropractic colleges. Chiropractors often locate in small com­ munities—half work in cities of 50,000 in­ habitants or less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia reg­ ulate the practice of chiropractic and grant li­ censes to chiropractors who meet educational requirements and pass a State board exami­ nation. Many States have reciprocity agree­ ments that permit chiropractors already li­ censed in another State to obtain a license without taking an examination. The scope of the practice permitted and the educational requirements for a license vary considerably from one State to another, but in general, State licensing boards require suc­ cessful completion of a 4-year chiropractic col­ lege course following 2 years of undergraduate education. Most State boards recognize only academic training in chiropractic colleges ac­ credited by the Council on Chiropractic Edu­ cation. Several States require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination, similar to that required for other health practitioners. Tests administered by the National Board of Chi­ ropractic Examiners are accepted by all State boards and the District of Columbia. State ex­ aminations may supplement the National Board tests depending on State requirements. To maintain licensure, 41 States require that chiropractors complete a specified number of hours of continuing education each year to re­ main current in the field. Continuing education programs are offered by chiropractic colleges, the American Chiropractic Association, Inter­ national Chiropractors Association, and State chiropractic associations. In 1987, 13 of the 15 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; the other 2 were candidates for accreditation. All chi­ ropractic colleges require applicants to have at least 2 years of undergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sciences, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, psychology, and mathematics. Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in manipulation and spinal adjustments. All, however, offer a broader curriculum consisting of the basic and clinical sciences in addition to the chiropractic ones. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic colleges emphasize class­ room and laboratory work in basic science sub­ jects such as anatomy, spinal analysis, micro­ biology, pathology, physiology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years stress physical  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/125  and laboratory diagnosis, physiotherapy, and nutrition in addition to clinical experience. Stu­ dents completing chiropractic education eam the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.). Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnormalities and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or en­ durance. Persons desiring to become chiro­ practors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. The ability to work with detail is important. Sympathy and un­ derstanding are desirable qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors have a number of options upon graduation: They can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, en­ ter into partnership with an established prac­ titioner, or take a salaried position with an established chiropractor to acquire the expe­ rience and the funds needed to open and equip an office. Job Outlook Prospects for chiropractors are expected to be very good through the year 2000 due to the growing use of chiropractic services. Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of pa­ tients to pay, either directly or through health insurance, and to public acceptance of the profession, which appears to be growing. At present, newly graduated chiropractors are entering practice with little difficulty. How­ ever, the number of graduates from chiroprac­ tic colleges has increased fourfold since the early 1970’s, and enrollments are expected to continue to grow. As more students graduate, new chiropractors may encounter competition establishing a practice in areas where other practitioners already are located. Earnings In 1986, experienced chiropractors averaged about $55,000, after expenses, according to the American Chiropractic Association. In chi­ ropractic, as in other types of independent prac­ tice, earnings are relatively low in the begin­ ning. From the limited data available, new graduates who worked for established practi­ tioners earned about $20,000 a year in 1986. As in most other health professions, earnings are influenced by the characteristics and qual­ ifications of the practitioner, the number of years in practice, and geographic location. Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to pre­ vent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They emphasize the importance of the nervous sys­ tem for good health. Other professions re­ quiring similar skills include physicians, den­ tists, naturopathic doctors, optometrists, osteopathic physicians, podiatrists, and veter­ inarians. Sources of Additional Information The board of licensing in each State capital can supply information on State license re­ quirements for chiropractors. General information on chiropractic as a ca­ reer is available from:  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036.  For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a ca­ reer, contact: Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll Ave., Des Moines, IA 50312.  For information on requirements for admis­ sion to a specific chiropractic college, contact the admissions office.  Dentists (D.O.T. 072, except .117-010)  Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose and treat problems of the teeth and tissues of the mouth. To accomplish these tasks, they may take X-rays, place pro­ tective plastic sealants on childrens’ teeth, fill cavities, straighten teeth, repair fractured teeth, and treat gum disease. Dentists remove teeth only when necessary and may provide dentures to replace missing teeth. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. Increasingly, dentists are concerned with preventing dental problems. In addition to cleaning teeth and providing instruction in flossing and other aspects of dental care, they may suggest ways to prevent dental disease. Although dentists spend most of their time with patients, they may devote some time to laboratory work such as making dentures and crowns. Usually, however, dentures and crowns are made by dental laboratory technicians in a commercial setting. Some dentists employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient self-care. Den­ tists may also employ other assistants to per­ form office work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide therapeutic services under their supervision. (The work of dental hygienists, dental assistants, and dental laboratory tech­ nicians is described elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Technological advances in dentistry affect the materials and techniques that dentists em­ ploy in their work. For example, dentists now use new composite materials to repair fractured or disfigured teeth. As new technologies are proven and adopted, the nature of dentistry will continue to change. Most dentists are general practitioners who provide many types of dental care; about 15 percent practice in one of the eight specialty areas recognized by the American Dental As­ sociation (ADA). The largest group of spe­ cialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in pediatric dentistry (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal ther­ apy); public health dentistry (community dental  health); and oral pathology (diseases of the mouth). Since most dentists are in private practice, they are called upon to handle the business aspects of running an office in addition to di­ agnosing and treating dental disease. Dentists typically oversee a wide variety of adminis­ trative tasks, ranging from keeping the books to negotiating a lease for office space to buying new equipment. Sometimes they perform these tasks themselves, but often they delegate them to a member of the staff or hire an office man­ ager to make day-to-day decisions about staff, supplies, workflow, and the lease. Working Conditions Most dental offices are open 5 days a week, and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists who have offices in retail stores or work for franchised dental outlets may work weekends as well. Dentists usually work about 42 hours a week, although some spend more than 45 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in part-time practice well be­ yond the usual retirement age Employment Dentists held about 151,000 jobs in 1986. Be­ cause some dentists hold more than one job, the number of jobs exceeds the number of professionally active dentists—about 143,000 in 1986, according to the U.S. Public Health Service. Almost 9 out of 10 dentists are in private practice. Private practice, however, includes a wide variety of work settings and payment sys­ tems. Some dentists work in shopping malls; others contract with individual companies to provide dental services to a firm's employees. A growing number of dental practices contract their services to health maintenance organi­ zations. Of the dentists outside of private practice, about half do research, teach, or hold positions in dental schools. Others work in hospitals and clinics, or are dental interns, residents, or other advanced education students. About 2,000 ci­ vilian dentists work in the Federal service, pre­ dominantly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. lYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­ quire dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, a candidate must grad­ uate from a dental school approved by the Commission on Dental Accreditation and pass written and practical examinations. In 1986, candidates in 49 States and the District of Co­ lumbia could fulfill part of the State licensing requirementsmy passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Ex­ aminers. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized prac­ tice. Currently, 16 States require dentists to obtain a specialty license before practicing as  126/Occupational Outlook Handbook  an associate basis for a year or two. This en­ ables them to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Some dentists, however, purchase an established practice or open a new practice immediately after grad­ uation. A growing number of new graduates—cur­ rently about one-third—enroll in postgraduate training programs in approved hospitals or den­ tal schools. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for positions in the Federal service and for com­ missions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service.  The outlook for dentistry is competitive. a specialist. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of graduate education and, in some cases, com­ pletion of a special State examination. Extra education also is necessary in the other States, but the dental profession, not the State licen­ sing authority, regulates the specialist’s prac­ tice. To practice in a different State, a licensed dentist usually must pass that State’s exami­ nation. However, about 20 States grant licenses to dentists from other States on the basis of their credentials. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in advanced dental training in pro­ grams operated by dental schools, other insti­ tutions of higher education, and hospitals. Dental schools require a minimum of 3 to 4 years of college-level predental education. In fact, the overwhelming majority of dental stu­ dents are college graduates. Four out of five of the students entering dental schools in 1985 had a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Predental education must include courses in both the sci­ ences and humanities. All dental schools participate in a nationwide testing program, and, in selecting students, they consider scores earned on these tests along with the applicants’ overall grade point average (GPA), science course GPA, and information gathered through recommendations and inter­ views. Many State-supported dental schools give preference to residents of the State. Dental school generally lasts 4 academic years, although one institution condenses the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  program into 3 calendar years, and another program lasts 5 years. Studies begin with class­ room instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences including anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Courses in preclinical technique and beginning courses in clinical sciences also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, the student gains prac­ tical experience by treating patients, usually in dental clinics. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S). An equiv­ alent degree. Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), is conferred by the rest. Earning a dental degree is a costly process, but financial aid is available from the Federal and State governments, health-related organ­ izations, industry, and dental schools. Many dental students rely on student loans to finance their professional training. Dentistry requires both manual skills and a high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of man­ ual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists are advised to take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and mathemat­ ics. Dental school graduates typically launch their careers by working for established dentists on  Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as changes in population size and structure boost demand for restorative dentistry. Responding to the dental care needs of the rapidly growing elderly population will become increasingly important to the profes­ sion, since future generations of elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than was true in the past. Moreover, as the baby-boom generation matures, large numbers of middleaged Americans will be candidates for inten­ sive dental care. Unlike younger people, who have benefited from advances in dental health, people bom before the 1950’s tend to have intricate dental work that will require compli­ cated maintenance as they grow older. Also contributing to job growth for dentists are growing public awareness that regular den­ tal care helps prevent and control dental dis­ ease, and fairly widespread dental insurance, which makes it easier for people to purchase dental care. Because of the abundant supply of practi­ tioners, however, the private practice of den­ tistry is expected to remain competitive. Ex­ pansion of the capacity of the Nation’s dental schools during the 1960’s and 1970’s led to a marked increase in the number of new grad­ uates prepared to practice dentistry. Although enrollments have declined in recent years (see chart), it appears that more new graduates will enter the profession each year than will retire or otherwise leave dentistry. The amount of competition dentists are likely to encounter through the year 2000 is difficult to anticipate since enrollments cannot be pro­ jected with certainty. The recent downturn in first-year enrollments reflects a number of fac­ tors, including the rising cost of dental edu­ cation, lower returns on the investment in den­ tal education as greater competition for business dampens dentists’ earnings, and a smaller ap­ plicant pool. Enrollments are expected to con­ tinue to decline, which means that the supply of practicing dentists will grow more slowly than it has in the past. Nonetheless, an oversupply of dentists may develop or intensify in some localities, in the more densely populated.regions of the country in particular. Various market adjustments are  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/127  Dental school enrollments are declining, but the job outlook remains competitive. First-year enrollments (thousands) 7 6 5  6  should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply for information on schol­ arships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid.  5  -  4  -  3  4 3  2  2  1  1  0  0 197677  197778  197879  1979 80  198081  1981 82  198283  198384  1984 85  198586  198687  Source: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education  likely in those localities—increased evening and weekend office hours (although total hours may be reduced), more competitive fee struc­ tures, and less intensive use of dental assistants and dental hygienists, for example. To build clientele, dentists are likely to experiment with new ways of providing care and may, for ex­ ample, reach out to hitherto underserved groups. Educational advertising campaigns are being used to increase public awareness of the im­ portance of regular dental care. Aimed at that half of our population who are not under the regular care of a dentist, this strategy seeks to broaden the dental care market. Fluoridation of community water supplies and improved dental hygiene prevent tooth and gum disorders and preserve teeth that might otherwise be extracted. However, since the preserved teeth may need care in the future, these measures may increase rather than de­ crease the demand for dental care. Moreover, there will continue to be a need for dentists to teach in dental colleges, administer dental pub­ lic health programs, and serve in the Armed Forces. In a departure from the usual pattern, re­ placement needs create relatively few job open­ ing for dentists. This reflects the fact that den­ tists have a distinctive employment pattern: once having completed their training and en­ tered dental practice, they tend to work con­ tinuously until they reach retirement age. Some older dentists reduce their hours of work be­ cause of ill health or desire for leisure, but very few individuals leave dentistry to take up other careers. A comparable degree of occupational attachment is found in only a few other oc­ cupations, notably among other health prac­ titioners, who, like dentists, have a consider­ able investment in training.  cialists generally earn considerably more than general practitioners. The average income of dentists in general practice was about $59,000 a year in 1985, according to the limited in­ formation available. Those in specialty prac­ tices averaged about $100,000 a year. The location of the dental practice has a large influence on the dentist’s earnings. For ex­ ample, in high-income urban areas, dental ser­ vices are in great demand. However, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns, where new dentists can become known easily and where they may face less competition from established practitioners. Although income in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run, the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communities. Except for emergencies, dental work gen­ erally can be postponed. During periods of high unemployment and economic hardship, there­ fore, dentists tend to experience a reduction in the volume of work and lower earnings. How­ ever, insurance coverage somewhat dampens the impact of economic downturns on the de­ mand for dental care.  Earnings During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Spe­  American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Mas­ sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat various oral diseases and abnormalities. Others whose work involves personal contact and requires a long and rigorous period of scientific training include psychologists, optometrists, physi­ cians, veterinarians, and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited dental schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education. 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.  The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental exam­ iners. Persons interested in practicing dentistry  Optometrists (DOT. 079.101-018)  Nature of the Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of optometry) provide much of the vision care these people need. Optometrists should not be confused with either ophthalmologists or dispensing opti­ cians. Ophthalmologists are physicians (doc­ tors of medicine or osteopathy) who specialize in medical diagnosis and treatment of vision disorders, especially diseases and injuries to the eye. Ophthalmologists may perform eye surgery and prescribe drugs or other eye treat­ ment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and may in some States fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists, but they do not examine eyes or prescribe treat­ ment. (See statements on physicians and dis­ pensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Optometrists are primary eye care providers who examine people’s eyes to diagnose and in some cases treat vision problems and eye dis­ ease. They also test to insure that the patient has proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Op­ tometrists prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, vision therapy, and low-vision aids. In all but two States, Alaska and Maryland, optometrists may use drugs for diagnosis; in 19 of these States, they may also use drugs to treat eye diseases. When optometrists diagnose diseases requiring treatment beyond the optometric scope of practice, they arrange for consultation with the appropriate health care practitioners. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the el­ derly or with children. Others work with par­ tially sighted persons, who use microscopic or telescopic lenses. Still others concentrate on contact lenses or vision therapy. Optometrists teach, do research, consult, and serve on health advisory committees of various kinds. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and com­ fortable. The work requires a lot of attention to detail. Optometrists who are self-employed have considerable flexibility in setting their hours of work. They may offer Saturday or evening hours to suit the needs of their patients, and many practitioners choose to work over 40 hours a week.  128/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Optometrists held about 37,000 jobs in 1986. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some op­ tometrists hold two jobs or maintain two of­ fices. For example, an optometrist may have a full-time private practice and also work part time in another practice, clinic, or vision care center. Although the majority of optometrists are in solo practice, a growing number are in part­ nership or group practices. This trend, espe­ cially pronounced among younger optome­ trists, is associated with education-related indebtedness and the high cost of setting up a solo practice. For the same reason, some op­ tometrists work as salaried employees in the offices of established practitioners. Salaried jobs with health maintenance organizations and the Veterans Administration are becoming more attractive. In recent years, some optometrists have cho­ sen to work in retail optical stores rather than operate a private practice. Optometrists who work in these vision care centers are not always salaried employees; recently, the trend has been for optometrists to buy franchises and operate as independent business owners rather than em­ ployees of the chain. Some optometrists teach in schools of op­ tometry. Others act as consultants to industrial safety programs, insurance companies, man­ ufacturers of ophthalmic products, and others. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry de­ gree from an accredited optometric school or college and pass a State board examination. In some States, applicants can substitute the ex­ amination of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, given in the second, third, and fourth years of optometric school, for part or  all of the written State examination. Some States allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy examination if they have a license in another State. In 46 States, optometrists must earn con­ tinuing education credits in optometry to renew their licenses. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a 4-year professional degree pro­ gram at an accredited optometric school pre­ ceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor’s de­ gree). In 1987, 16 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry were accredited by the Council on Optometric Education of the American Op­ tometric Association. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, math­ ematics, physics, chemistry, and biology or zoology. Some schools require courses in psy­ chology, social studies, literature, philosophy, and foreign languages. All applicants must take the Optometric Admissions Test (OAT). Com­ petition for admission is keen. Because most optometrists are self-em­ ployed, business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success. Optometrists wishing to teach or perform research may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health admin­ istration, health information and communica­ tion, or health education. One-year postgrad­ uate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in cer­ tain aspects of optometry, including family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, ger­ iatric optometry, low-vision rehabilitation, vi­ sion training, contact lenses, hospital-based optometry, and primary care optometry. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations  through the year 2000 due to anticipated changes in the size and age structure of the population. Of central importance is the maturing of the large baby-boom generation, together with very rapid growth in the elderly population in the years immediately ahead. Visits to both op­ tometrists and ophthalmologists are more fre­ quent for persons over the age of 45, reflecting the onset of vision problems in middle age and the increased likelihood of glaucoma, diabetes, and hypertension in old age. Greater recognition of the importance of vi­ sion care on the part of an increasingly welleducated population is expected to boost de­ mand for optometric services, as is the use of computers and video display terminals (VDT’s) in the workplace and at home. VDT's have been suspected of causing eyestrain and may aggravate vision problems, leading users to seek professional care. Clinical need alone does not govern demand for health care, however. In the case of op­ tometric services, demand is projected to rise sharply in part because of improved ability to pay. This is associated with rising per capita income, an increase in employee vision care plans, and a 1986 change in the Medicare law. Medicare now pays for certain eye care services provided by an optometrist (previously, only care by an ophthalmologist was reimbursable), a change that is expected to produce more busi­ ness for optometrists. Replacement needs are expected to produce additional job openings in the years ahead. In this occupation, replacement needs arise al­ most entirely from retirements and deaths. Op­ tometrists, like other health practitioners, have a strong attachment to their profession and gen­ erally remain in practice until they leave the labor force; few transfer to other occupations. Because one-fourth of all active optometrists are now between 50 and 64 years of age, it is likely that a large number of experienced prac­ titioners will leave the profession by the year 2000.  I-----------------Earnings According to the American Optometric As­ sociation, net earnings of new optometry grad­ uates in their first full year of practice averaged about $30,000 in 1986. Experienced opto­ metrists averaged about $60,000 annually. Incomes vary greatly, depending upon lo­ cation, specialization, and other factors. Op­ tometrists who start out by working on a sal­ aried basis tend to earn more money initially than optometrists who set up their own inde­ pendent practice. However, in the long run, those in private practice generally earn more than those employed by others.  Many optometrists hold more than one job.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply log­ ical thinking and scientific knowledge to pre­ vent, diagnose, and treat disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or animals are chiropractors, dentists, physicians, podiatrists, and veteri­ narians.  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/129  Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career, write to: American Optometric Association, Student Recruit­ ment, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141.  Additional career information and a listing of accredited optometric educational institu­ tions, as well as required preoptometry courses, can be obtained from:  Physician specialists outnumber general practitioners. Percent of physicians by specialty group, 1985 Medical specialties: Internal medicine, pediatrics, etc.  Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20852.  The Board of Optometry in the capital of each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact individual optometry schools.  Surgical specialties:  |  General practice and family practice  General surgery, — orthopedic surgery, etc.  Other specialties: Psychiatry, anesthesiology, etc.  Physicians (D.O.T. 070, except .107-018 and .117-010, -014; and 071) ___________  Nature of the Work Physicians perform medical examinations, di­ agnose illnesses, and treat people who are suf­ fering from injury or disease. They also advise patients on maintaining good health. There are two types of physicians: the M.D.—Doctor of Medicine—and the D.O.—Doctor of Osteo­ pathy. Despite differences in training and phi­ losophy of treatment, both M.D.’s and D.O.’s use all accepted methods of treatment, includ­ ing drugs and surgery. Osteopathic physicians, however, place special emphasis on the mus­ culoskeletal system of the body—bones, mus­ cles, ligaments, and nerves. Physicians may be general practitioners or they may specialize in a particular field of med­ icine. Most D.O.'s are general practitioners or primary care providers; only about 25 percent are specialists. On the other hand, about 90 percent of the M.D.’s who provide patient care are specialists. (See chart.) The largest of the medical specialties for which there is graduate medical training are internal medicine, family medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, pediatrics, radiology, anesthesiology, ophthalmology, pathology, and orthopedic surgery. Some of the primary care specialties have shown especially rapid growth—family practice, internal medicine, and pediatrics. Some physicians combine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medical schools. Advances in medical technology in recent years have been many and dramatic. Liver and kidney transplants, laser surgery, and ultra­ sound and magnetic resonance imaging are but a few of these new technologies. Some are opening entirely new areas of medical practice; others are replacing traditional treatment meth­ ods. The emphasis on technology has implica­ tions for the way physicians are trained and the way they practice medicine. High-tech­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Source: American Medical Association  nology medicine requires extensive skills and training. Its dominant role in American medical care underlies the system of specialty medi­ cine, whereby most M.D.’s are specialists and subspecialists; a relatively small proportion are generalists such as family and general practi­ tioners. Further, the cost of technology is largely responsible for making the hospital the site of the most advanced medical care. Only hospitals and very large clinics or group medical prac­ tices can afford to purchase the most costly equipment. It is beyond the means of individual physicians or small groups. The shift from fee-for-service medicine to “managed care” is beginning to alter the prac­ tice environment as well. Examples of man­ aged care systems that set guidelines for med­ ical practice—limiting the kinds of tests physicians may order, for example—are health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), preferred provider organizations, and various “gate­ keeping” schemes. As the managed care con­ cept becomes more widespread, physicians will be subject to more constraints in exercising their professional judgment than traditionally has been the case.  such physicians resemble those of other phy­ sicians in group practice. A growing number of physicians hold sa­ laried positions. They may work for health maintenance organizations, clinics, or group practices, for example. Salaried physicians generally work a standard 40-hour week, al­ though some are moonlighters who hold an­ other job.  Employment Physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s) held about 491,000 patient care jobs in 1986. (An addi­ tional 44,000 M.D.’s were involved in non­ patient care activities including research, teaching, administration, and consulting for in­ surance companies or pharmaceutical firms, according to the American Medical Associa­ tion.) About 3 out of 5 patient care physicians are in office-based practice; nearly 1 in 5 is a med­ ical resident or full-time hospital staff member; and the remainder practice in a variety of set­ tings, including HMO’s, urgent care centers, surgicenters, public health clinics, schools, and prisons. While some physicians are solo practition­ ers, a growing number are partners or salaried employees of group practices. Sometimes or­ Working Conditions Physicians who practice alone or in small groups ganized as clinics and sometimes as a group generally work long, irregular hours. Most spe­ of physicians in the same or different special­ cialists work fewer hours each week than gen­ ties, medical groups can afford large outlays eral and family practitioners. As doctors ap­ for expensive medical equipment and realize proach retirement age, they may accept fewer other economies of scale. For this reason, and because such practices have the flexibility to new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many continue in practice well be­ adapt to changes in the health care environ­ ment, group practice is becoming increasingly yond 70 years of age. Physicians in group practice generally have important. The Northeast has the highest ratio of phy­ more regular hours, consult more with peers, and have more flexible work schedules than sicians to population; the South, the lowest. More than half of all D.O.’s practice in small solo practitioners. Contractual arrangements in the rapidly cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.’s, evolving outpatient care sector vary enor­ on the other hand, tend to locate in urban areas, mously. A diagnostic imaging center, for ex­ close to hospital and educational centers. Some ample, may be operated by several radiologists rural areas remain underserved, although the as a group medical practice. Work patterns of situation is changing. Currently, more medical  130/Occupational Outlook Handbook  i§ Iljl  ■ i*  a 1 Mhm  V *  Gaining the patient’s confidence is important. students are being exposed to practice in rural communities with the direct support of edu­ cational centers and hospitals in more populous areas. Some rural areas offer physicians guar­ anteed minimum incomes to offset the rela­ tively low earnings typical in rural medical practice. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have osteopathic hospitals. In 1986, three-fifths of all D.O.’s were in Florida, Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas, and Missouri. Fifteen States and the District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians in 1986. TVaining and Other Qualifications All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico require physicians to be licensed. Licen­ sure requirements for both D.O.’s and M.D.’s include graduation from an accredited profes­ sional school, successful completion of a li­ censing examination, and, in most States, 1 or 2 years of supervised practice in an accredited graduate medical education program (intemship/residency). The licensing examination taken by most graduates of U.S. medical schools is the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) test that all States except Texas and Louisiana accept. Osteopathic graduates take the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME) test that all States ex­ cept Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina ac­ cept.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Graduates of foreign medical schools gen­ erally begin practice in the United States after completing a U.S. hospital residency training program. To enter an approved residency, graduates of foreign medical schools usually must pass an examination administered by the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates and be certified by that organization. After 1 year of work in an approved residency, foreign medical graduates, as well as graduates of U.S. medical schools who have not taken the NBME or NBOME test, must take the Fed­ eration Licensure Examination (FLEX) that all jurisdictions accept. Although physicians li­ censed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further exami­ nation, some States limit reciprocity. Of the 127 accredited schools in the United States in which students can begin study for the M.D. degree, 126 award the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). One school offers a 2-year program in the basic medical sciences to students who transfer to another medical school for the last semesters of study. Fifteen schools of osteopathic medicine award the degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical or osteopathic school is nor­ mally 3 years of college; some schools require 4 years. Most applicants have at least a bach­ elor’s degree, however, and many have ad­ vanced degrees. A few medical schools offer  a combined college and medical school pro­ gram that lasts 6 years instead of the customary 8. Required premedical study includes under­ graduate work in English, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students also should take courses in the humanities, mathematics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general education. Studies have shown that medical students with undergraduate ma­ jors in the humanities do as well in their med­ ical studies as those who major in the sciences or a “premedical curriculum.” Medicine is a popular field of study, and applicants must compete for entry with highly motivated students who generally have ex­ celled in preprofessional education. Factors considered by the schools in admitting students include their academic record (largely the un­ dergraduate grade point average) and their scores on the Medical College Admission Test, which almost all applicants take. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, per­ sonality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal interviews, letters of recommenda­ tion, and extracurricular activities. Osteopathic colleges give considerable weight to a favor­ able recommendation by an osteopathic phy­ sician familiar with the applicant’s back­ ground. Many State-supported schools give preference to State residents and, through for­ mal agreements, to residents of nearby States. Students spend the first semesters of medical school primarily in laboratories and classrooms learning basic medical sciences such as anat­ omy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacol­ ogy, microbiology, and pathology. Students in some schools gain some clinical experience with patients during the first 2 years of study, learning to take case histories, perform ex­ aminations, and recognize symptoms. During the last semesters, students work under super­ vision in hospitals and clinics to learn the im­ portant aspects of acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through required ro­ tations in internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and sur­ gery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. After graduation, almost all M.D.’s com­ plete 3 or 4 years of graduate medical education (residency). Nearly all D.O.’s serve a 12-month rotating internship which includes experience in surgery, pediatrics, internal medicine, and other specialties. Physicians seeking certification in a spe­ cialty spend from 3 to 6 years—depending on the specialty—in advanced residency training, followed by 2 years or more of practice in the specialty. Training in a medical specialty is lengthy and rigorous but virtually indispen­ sable in view of the enormous amount of in­ formation to be absorbed. Moreover, techno­ logically based medical practice requires such a high level of skill that an extensive period of supervised experience is necessary. Resi­ dency training may also be required to take a specialty board examination. Passing the ap­ propriate examination is the final step in be­ coming a board-certified M.D. or D.O.  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/131  Physicians who want to teach or do research may take graduate work leading to a master’s or Ph.D. degree in a field such as biochemistry or microbiology, or spend 1 year or more in a fellowship devoted to research and advanced clinical training in a specialty area. A physician’s training is very costly; in 1986, the average debt of newly graduated M.D.’s exceeded $33,000. Loans and scholarships are available from Federal, State, and local gov­ ernments, and from private sources. Persons who wish to become physicians must have a strong desire to serve the sick and in­ jured. They must be self-motivated and com­ petitive to survive the pressures of premedical and medical education and the demanding workload during the intemship/residency that follows medical school. They must study a great deal to keep up with the latest advances in medical science. Sincerity and a pleasant personality are helpful in gaining the confi­ dence of patients. Physicians should be emo­ tionally stable and able to make decisions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of physicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to continued rapid expansion of the health services industry. Pop­ ulation growth and aging underlie future de­ mand for physicians, but widespread ability to pay for medical care, a consequence of health insurance and public programs such as Med­ icare and Medicaid, is the chief reason for projected job growth. Replacement needs account for fewer job openings than in most other occupations, be­ cause physicians exhibit very strong attach­ ment to their work. Once having completed training and entered medical practice, physi­ cians tend to remain in the profession until they retire. The supply of physicians is expected to ex­ ceed demand in the years ahead. The over­ supply originated in the 1960’s as enrollment levels in medical schools rose sharply—a de­ liberate, publicly subsidized response to the perceived shortage of medical personnel. Fed­ eral and State government support for the train­ ing of physicians has declined dramatically in recent years, and first-year enrollments have fallen slightly. Nonetheless, overall enrollment levels are more than sufficient to ensure an abundant supply of newly trained physicians through the year 2000. It seems likely that graduates of foreign med­ ical schools will continue to augment the sup­ ply of U.S.-trained physicians. Immigration laws were relaxed on several occasions in the past, making it easier for foreign nationals to enter graduate medical education programs and to immigrate permanently. At the same time, growing numbers of U.S. citizens undertook medical studies abroad. The resulting influx of foreign-trained physicians shows little sign of abating, despite efforts to discourage the entry of foreign medical graduates. The surplus of physicians will continue to affect patient load, earnings, geographic lo­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  High medical school enrollments have contributed to the competitive outlook for physicians. First-year enrollments (thousands)  197576  1976- 197777 78  1978- 197979 80  1980- 198181 82  198283  198384  198485  1985- 198686 87  Sources: Association of American Medical Colleges; American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine  cation, specialty choice, and practice setting. Thus, as the number of physicians increases, some communities may have too many phy­ sicians—leading to fewer patient visits per physician and correspondingly lower earnings. The oversupply of physicians in large metro­ politan areas may encourage some to move to rural areas that historically have been under­ served. Shortages are likely to persist in other areas—places that are too sparsely populated or too poor to attract doctors. Despite mounting concern about an oversuppply of physicians, it is not widely under­ stood that the outlook for medical subspecial­ ties varies a great deal. Agreement is widespread that more primary care physicians will be re­ quired in the future. Further, there is a pro­ nounced need for clinicians and faculty with expertise in geriatric medicine. Other areas of need include psychiatry, child psychiatry, physical medicine, and rehabilitation. On the other hand, some medical specialties will experience even greater competition in the future than they have in recent years. These specialties include many of the surgical sub­ specialties, such as neurosurgery and or­ thopedic surgery, as well as ophthalmology, pathology, and radiology. The specialty im­ balances mentioned above assume that spe­ cialty choices will not change markedly in the future. Decisions about the specialty to go into are governed by noneconomic factors, such as lifestyle and faculty role models, as well as by economic considerations. The choices of where and how to practice which newly trained physicians face are rad­ ically different from those of their predeces­ sors. Many new entrants to the profession will obtain salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and health maintenance organizations. New graduates rarely can afford to start their own practice upon graduation due to the high cost of medical technology, the skyrocketing cost of malpractice insurance, and the burden of educational debt. Many young physicians prefer to work in large organizations in order  to have regular work hours and the opportunity for peer consultation. Together with the oversupply of physicians, changes in the organization and financing of health care will have an impact on practice patterns. Managed care arrangements such as HMO’s, for example, could reduce demand for physicians. This could come about if growth in the volume of physician services is con­ strained as a result of organizational efforts to reduce resource use, or through greater reliance on services provided by nonphysician care providers, notably physician assistants and nurse practitioners. Either of these developments would lead to fewer new jobs for physicians than currently anticipated. Earnings Physicians have among the highest average an­ nual earnings of any occupational group. Ac­ cording to the American Medical Association, average earnings, after expenses, for all phy­ sicians were about $106,300 in 1985; those under 36 years of age averaged $85,100. Earn­ ings vary according to specialty; the number of years in practice; geographic region; hours worked; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self-employed physicians almost always earn more than those in salaried positions. According to a survey of office-based phy­ sicians conducted by Medical Economics, av­ erage earnings after expenses varied by spe­ cialty as shown in the accompanying table. Stipends of medical school graduates serving as residents in hospitals vary according to the type of residency, geographic area, and size of the hospital, but allowances of $20,000 to $24,000 a year are common. Many hospitals also provide full or partial room and board and other maintenance allowances to residents. Graduates who had completed approved 3year residencies but had no other medical ex­ perience received a starting salary at Veterans' Administration hospitals of about $44,400 a year in 1987. In addition, those working full  132/Occupational Outlook Handbook  I able 1. Median net practice income by medical specialty, 1986 Neurosurgeons................................... $203,570 Orthopedic surgeons......................... 182,640 ■'Plastic surgeons................................ 180,210 Thoracic surgeons............................ 156,480 Ophthalmologists.............................. 148,000 Radiologists........................................ 147,500 vGeneral surgeons.............................. 122,370 ' Internists........................................... 95,630 Psychiatrists ...................................... 86,670 N Family practitioners ......................... 86,430 Pediatricians...................................... 84,340 General practitioners......................... 72,840 Source: Medical Economics  time received up to $13,000 in other cash ben­ efits or special payments. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable financial investment to equip a modern office. During the first year or two of independent practice, physicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Professionals in other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include audiol­ ogists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, speech pathologists, and veteri­ narians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical educa­ tion, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 1L 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges. One Du­ pont Circle NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036.  For general information on osteopathic med­ icine as a career, contact: American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations. 142 East Ontario St.. Chicago, 1L 60611. American Association of Colleges of OsteopathicMedicine, 6110 Executive Blvd , Suite 405, Rock­ ville, MD 20852.  Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student fi­ nancial aid at schools of medicine and osteo­ pathic medicine. Persons who wish to practice medicine or osteopathic medicine in a particular State should inquire about licensure requirements directly from the board of examiners of that State.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022)  areas—with few podiatrists. In these areas, foot care is typically provided by primary care physicians and orthopedists.  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nature of the Work Most people fail to recognize the importance All States and the District of Columbia require of the foot until it is injured. Being unable to a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each State and jurisdiction defines its own li­ stand or move about easily is an inconvenience at the very least, but if the disability is per­ censing requirements. Generally, however, the applicant must be a graduate of an accredited manent, it can be a crushing blow. Podiatrists, also known as doctors of podiatric medicine college of podiatric medicine and pass written (DPM's), diagnose and treat disorders and dis­ and oral examinations. Some States permit ap­ plicants to substitute the examination of the eases of the foot and lower leg. Most podiatrists provide comprehensive foot National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric care services and perform basic medical and surgical procedures. Some, however, focus their medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Certain States grant reci­ practice on a specific patient group, such as procity to DPM’s who are licensed in another the elderly, or a specific field, such as sports State. injuries. The seven colleges of podiatric medicine are Podiatrists treat the major foot conditions: Corns and calluses, ingrown toenails, and bun­ located in California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, ions. Other conditions treated by podiatrists New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Prereq­ uisites for admission include the completion of include hammertoes, ankle and foot injuries, at least 3 years of undergraduate study, an and foot complaints associated with diseases acceptable grade point average, and suitable such as diabetes. In diagnosing a foot problem, podiatrists may order X-rays and laboratory scores on the Medical College Admission Test tests. Depending on the diagnosis, they may (MCAT). Most entrants surpass the minimum recommend proper shoes, fit corrective de­ qualifications. Although well-qualified stu­ dents may be admitted after 3 years of under­ vices, prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, or perform surgery. Corrective surgery—per­ graduate study, that is the exception rather than the rule. In 1986-87, for example, all first-year formed in hospitals, outpatient surgery centers, clinics, or podiatrists' offices—is an increas­ students held at least a bachelor's degree. The average enrollee had an overall grade point ingly important part of podiatric practice. Going to a podiatrist for treatment of a foot average of “B” or better and had majored in biology, chemistry, or zoology. problem may be the entry point into the health Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year care system for some patients since clinical program whose core curriculum is similar to signs of diseases such as arthritis, diabetes, that in other schools of medicine. Classroom and heart disease may first appear in the foot. Podiatrists are trained to spot these and other instruction in basic sciences, including anat­ systemic diseases, and refer patients to other omy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacol­ ogy, is given during the first 2 years. Third medical specialists when appropriate. and fourth year students have clinical rotations in different practice settings, including private Working Conditions practice, hospitals, and clinics. During these Podiatrists usually work independently in their rotations, they acquire clinical skills—learning own offices. They work about 37 hours a week, how to take general and podiatric histories, to on the average, but set their hours to suit their perform routine physical examinations, to in­ practice. Podiatrists who are employed in clin­ terpret tests and findings, to make diagnoses, ics may work nights and weekends. and to perform therapeutic procedures. Grad­ uates are awarded the degree of doctor of po­ Employment diatric medicine, DPM. Podiatrists held about 13,000 jobs in 1986. The Most graduates complete 1 to 3 years of vast majority of podiatrists are in private prac­ graduate education (cither a residency or a pretice. Traditionally, podiatrists have been solo ceptorship) after receiving the DPM degree. practitioners and most still are. Recently, how­ Competition for admission to residency pro­ ever, other practice arrangements such as part­ grams is keen. Since licensure provisions in nerships and group practices have begun to 11 States (Arizona, California, Georgia, Mary­ emerge. Some podiatrists are employed by hos­ land, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, New Jer­ pitals, nursing homes, clinics, health mainte­ sey, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Virginia) nance organizations, and podiatric medical col­ require completion of at least 1 year of post­ leges. The Veterans Administration and public graduate education, failure to secure a resi­ health departments employ podiatrists, too. dency may restrict a new DPM’s choice of Geographic imbalances are pronounced in practice location. podiatric medicine. This reflects the fact that Residency programs are hospital based. The most podiatry graduates establish their prac­ first-year resident receives advanced training tices in or near one of the seven States that in podiatric medicine and surgery and serves have colleges of podatric medicine. This has clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal left large areas of the country—particularly the medicine, pathology, radiology, emergency South, the Southwest, and nonmetropolitan medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery.  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/133  Second- and third-year residencies provide more extensive training in a specialty, usually sur­ gery. There are three recognized certifying boards: The American Board of Podiatric Surgery, the American Board of Podiatric Orthopedics, and the American Board of Podiatric Public Health. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licensure. Each board has specific requirements, including ad­ vanced training, successful completion of writ­ ten and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. Persons planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and interpersonal skills. They must be able to ac­ quire scientific knowledge and stay abreast of new developments in the field of medicine; develop the motor functions and professional skills needed for clinical practice; and develop personal rapport and empathy with patients. A good business sense and congeniality are as­ sets, as in any medical profession. Most podiatrists are in private practice, which means that they are in fact running a small business. Depending upon the size of the prac­ tice, podiatrists may handle administrative and managerial duties personally, or delegate de­ cisionmaking in these areas to an office man­ ager.  Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as more people turn to podiatrists for foot care. Very rapid growth in the population 65 years and over is expected to spur demand for podiatrists: Older people have more severe foot problems than younger ones. Moreover, the popularity of jogging, ten­ nis, racquetball, and other fast-moving sports will spur demand in the specialty of podiatric sports medicine. Because health insurance helps people pay  for podiatric care, widespread access to health insurance will contribute to increased demand in the years ahead—provided current benefit patterns are not altered substantially. Generally speaking. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services as well as diagnostic Xrays, fracture casts, and leg braces. Routine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is not ordinarily paid for by health insurance. Health maintenance organizations and other prepaid plans may provide routine foot care, however. In addition to opportunities created by rapid growth in employment, many openings will result from the need to replace podiatrists who retire or stop working for other reasons. Op­ portunities for graduates to establish new prac­ tices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should be favorable. Earnings According to a survey conducted by Podiatry Management, the median net income of po­ diatrists was about $63,000 in 1986. Newly licensed podiatrists with less than 4 years of experience earned around $35,000. Income generally rises significantly as the practice grows. Newly licensed podiatrists hired by Veterans Administration hospitals earned start­ ing salaries between $27,200 and $32,600 in 1987. Related Occupations Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Workers in other occupations that require similar skills in­ clude chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on podiatric medicine as a ca­ reer, contact: American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621.  Information on colleges of podiatric medi­ cine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Med­ icine, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 204, Rockville, MD 20852.  For information about financial assistance programs administered by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, write to: Division of Student Assistance, Health Resources and Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857.  Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010)  Demand for podiatrists is expected to grow very rapidly.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nature of the Work Veterinarians care for pets and livestock, treat sporting animals, and protect the public from exposure to animal diseases. Many enter the field because they like working with animals.  Typically, veterinarians diagnose medical problems in their animal patients, perform sur­ gery, and prescribe and administer medicines and drugs. Most veterinarians engage in private practice and treat small companion animals such as dogs, cats, and birds. Many veterinarians concentrate on larger food animals or have a mixed practice of both large and small animals. Companion animal medicine encompasses the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of pet diseases—typically found in dogs and cats. Veterinarians in this field provide these ser­ vices in animal hospitals or clinics. Food animal veterinarians specialize in the health care needs of cattle, poultry, swine, fish, and sheep. They provide preventive care by advising ranchers and farmers on the proper care and management of livestock. The type of practice varies by geographic region. Veterinarians in rural areas are more likely to work with livestock and horses than those in metropolitan centers. Since pets are found everywhere, however, very few veter­ inarians work exclusively with large animals. A number of veterinarians engage in re­ search, food safety inspection, or education. It is not generally understood that veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health care. Veterinarians may join physicians and scientists in carrying out research at an aca­ demic medical center, for example, and ex­ plore such topics as techniques of organ trans­ plantation or the efficacy of a new drug. Some veterinarians are in regulatory medi­ cine or public health. They inspect food, in­ vestigate outbreaks of disease, and work in scientific laboratories. Veterinarians help pre­ vent the outbreak and spread of animal dis­ eases, some of which—like rabies—can be transmitted to human beings. Protection of the population from environ­ mental hazards is a major concern of the small but significant number of veterinarians who specialize in toxicology or animal pathology. Although there have been impressive successes in controlling diseases transmitted through food animals, changing technology and more com­ plex methods of food production present new threats to food safety. Residues from herbi­ cides, pesticides, and antibiotics used in food production pose a particular problem. Scien­ tific advances in livestock production have, paradoxically, created a need for veterinarians capable of dealing with contamination of the food chain by toxic chemicals. Some veterinarians teach in veterinary col­ leges, work in zoos or animal laboratories, or engage in a combination of clinical and re­ search activities.  Working Conditions Veterinarians usually treat pet animals in hos­ pitals and clinics. Those in large animal prac­ tice usually work out of well-equipped mobile clinics and drive considerable distances be­ tween farms and ranches to care for their animal patients. Through their interaction with dis­ eased animals, veterinarians can be exposed to  134/Occupational Outlook Handbook  mm  :2TlV-M  Some veterinarians specialize in the care of large farm animals. injury, disease, and infection if precautions are Training, Other Qualifications, not exercised. and Advancement Those in private practice often work long All States and the District of Columbia require hours, and food animal veterinarians may work that veterinarians be licensed. To obtain a li­ outdoors in all kinds of weather. Self-employed cense, applicants must have a Doctor of Vet­ veterinarians set their own schedules and may erinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree work nights and weekends. from an accredited college of veterinary med­ icine and pass written and, in most States, oral State board proficiency examinations. Some Employment States issue licenses without further exami­ Veterinarians held 37,000 jobs in 1986. Most nation to veterinarians already licensed by an­ were in private practice. The Federal Govern­ other State. ment employed about 2,000 veterinarians in For veterinarians seeking positions in re­ civilian jobs, chiefly in the U.S. Department search and teaching, an additional master’s or of Agriculture and the U.S. Public Health Ser­ Ph D. degree usually is required. (About onevice. Other important employers of veterinar­ fifth of all students enrolled in veterinary pro­ ians are State and local governments, inter­ grams are pursuing advanced degrees.) In­ national health agencies, colleges of veterinary creasingly, academic positions require spe­ medicine, medical schools, research labora­ cialty board certification as well. Veterinarians tories, livestock farms, animal food compa­ who seek specialty board certification in a field nies, and pharmaceutical companies. such as pathology, preventive medicine, tox­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  icology, or laboratory animal medicine must complete an approved residency program, pass the board's examination, and meet any other board requirements. The D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of at least 2 years of preveterinary study that em­ phasizes the physical and biological sciences and a 4-year professional degree program. Most successful applicants have completed 4 years of college. In addition to rigorous academic instruction, professional training includes con­ siderable practical experience in diagnosing and treating animal diseases, performing surgery, and performing laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1987, all 27 colleges of veterinary med­ icine in the United States were accredited by the Council on Education of the American Vet­ erinary Medical Association (AVMA). Ad­ mission to these schools is highly competitive. Although the number of applicants has de­ creased in recent years, there are more qualified applicants than the schools can accept. Serious applicants usually need grades of “B” or better, especially in science courses; and some pro­ grams require applicants to take either the Vet­ erinary Aptitude Test, Medical College Ad­ mission Test, or the Graduate Record Examination. Experience in part-time or sum­ mer jobs working with animals is advanta­ geous. Colleges usually give preference to res­ idents of the State in which the college is located, because these schools are largely State sup­ ported. In the South and West, regional edu­ cational plans permit cooperating States with­ out veterinary schools to send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges that accept out-of-State students give priority to applicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. Veterinary medical education is expensive. However, students in veterinary programs are often able to obtain guaranteed student loans from the Federal Government to help meet ed­ ucational expenses. The average 1986 graduate had a debt of over $23,000. A small number of veterinarians receive their training in another country. To meet State li­ censure requirements, foreign-trained veteri­ narians must fulfill the English language and clinical evaluation requirements of the Edu­ cational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates. About one-third of all applicants pass this examination. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. Those who can afford the substantial investment needed for drugs, instruments, and other startup costs may set up their own practices. An even greater investment is needed to open an animal hospital or purchase an established practice. Newly trained veterinarians may qualify for civilian jobs with the U.S. Government as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control work­ ers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A license usually is not required for Federal employment.  Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/! 35  Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000, primarily be­ cause of demand for veterinary services. Mod­ est growth in the companion and food animal populations, emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breeding livestock and poultry, and continued support for public health and disease control programs will contribute to employ­ ment demand. Many veterinarians will find jobs arising from the need to replace those who stop working. Veterinary school enrollments have grown extremely fast over the last 20 years. Although enrollment levels are expected to decline slighty through the year 2000, the number of active veterinarians could exceed demand, resulting in increased competition for jobs, lower than anticipated earnings, or difficulty securing a salaried position. New veterinary school graduates are ex­ pected to encounter keen competition as they set out to establish a clinical practice. Estab­ lishing a large animal practice will be very difficult in some places because future growth   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  in the food animal population will be unevenly distributed. Demand for food animal veteri­ narians is expected to decline in some regions. The outlook is extremely good for veteri­ narians with specialty training, which generally involves at least 2 years of formal education beyond the basic veterinary medicine degree. Demand for specialists in toxicology, labora­ tory animal medicine, and pathology is ex­ pected to remain strong, as is the demand for faculty at colleges of veterinary medicine.  Earnings Newly graduated veterinarians working in pri­ vate practices of established veterinarians typ­ ically earned $20,000 to $22,000 in 1986, ac­ cording to the American Veterinary Medical Association. After 2 to 4 years, earnings rise significantly. The average net earnings of all veterinarians in private practice were about $43,000 in 1985. Newly graduated veterinarians employed by the Federal Government started at either $22,500 or $27,200 a year in 1987 depending on their academic record. The average annual  salary of veterinarians in the Federal Govern­ ment was $41,300 in 1987. Related Occupations Veterinarians use their professional training to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disor­ ders, and injuries. Workers in other occupa­ tions who require similar skills are audiolo­ gists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and speech patholo­ gists. Other occupations that involve working with animals include zoologists, marine biol­ ogists, and naturalists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Today’s Veterinarian dis­ cusses career opportunities in veterinary med­ icine and lists accredited colleges of veterinary medicine. A free copy may be obtained by submitting a request, together with a self-ad­ dressed, stamped, business-size envelope, to: American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, IL 60196.  For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply.  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants Dietitians and Nutritionists (D.O.T. 077 except .121-010)  Nature of the Work Dietitians, sometimes called nutritionists, are professionals trained in applying the principles of nutrition to food selection and meal prep­ aration, They counsel individuals and groups; set up and supervise food service systems for institutions such as hospitals, prisons, and schools; and promote sound eating habits through education and research. Major areas of specialization include clinical and com­ munity dietetics and administration. Dietitians also work in education and research. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional ser­ vices for patients in hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, or doctors’ offices. They assess pa­ tients’ nutritional needs, develop and imple­ ment nutrition programs, and evaluate and re­ port the results. Clinical dietitians confer with doctors and nurses about each patient in order to coordinate nutritional intake with other treat­ ments—medications in particular. These di­ etitians are sometimes called therapeutic dieti­ tians, a term that draws attention to the fact that they are chiefly concerned with treating the sick. Expanding knowledge in medical science has  Dietitians teach the basics of good nutrition 136  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  led to practice specialties in dietetics. Increas­ ingly, clinical dietitians specialize in such areas as management of obese patients, care of the critically ill, renal care, and diabetes care. Those who care for critically ill patients oversee the preparation of custom-mixed, high-nutrition formulas for patients who require tube or in­ travenous feedings. Dietitians who specialize in renal dietetics treat dialysis patients and other individuals with kidney problems; those who work with diabetics are responsible for estab­ lishing long-term nutritional care programs and a system for close monitoring. Aside from assessing nutritional needs and developing a plan of treatment for individual patients, clinical dietitians may also perform administrative and managerial duties. In a nursing home or small hospital, the dietitian may run the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on sound nutrition practices to prevent disease and to promote good health. Employed in such places as home health agencies, health maintenance organizations, and human service agencies that provide group and home-deliv­ ered meals, their job is to evaluate individual needs, establish nutritional care plans, and communicate the principles of good nutrition in a way individuals and their families can understand. An example of this is the concept of eating something every day from each of the four basic food groups. In addition to evaluating clients, dietitians  working in a home health setting may provide informal instruction on nutrition, grocery shop­ ping, or preparation of special infant formulas. In health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), dietitians provide nutritional counseling on a range of topics, from weight control to menu planning for diabetics. The dietitian may also collaborate with other HMO staff in conducting information sessions on such subjects as al­ coholism, smoking, or hypertension. Practice opportunities for clinical and com­ munity dietitians are becoming more diverse due to increased interest in nutrition and fitness on the part of the public and the medical profes­ sion alike. This new awareness has resulted in opportunities for private practitioners in areas such as food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing. Dietitians who work for food man­ ufacturers or grocery store chains may analyze the nutritional content of foods for labeling purposes or marketing efforts. They may also prepare literature for distribution to customers, students, or other interested parties. Dietitians employed by magazines may determine the nu­ tritional content of new recipes, analyze and report on the effectiveness of new diets, or report on important topics in nutrition such as the importance of dietary fiber or the value of vitamin supplements. Administrative dietitians are responsible for large-scale meal planning and preparation in such places as hospitals, company cafeterias, prisons, schools, and colleges and universities. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food service supervisors and workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; en­ force sanitary and safety regulations; and pre­ pare records and reports. Increasingly, dieti­ tians use computer programs to plan meals that satisfy nutritional requirements and are eco­ nomical at the same time. Dietitians who are directors of dietetic departments also decide on departmental policy; coordinate dietetic ser­ vices with the activities of other departments; and are responsible for the dietetic department budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Research dietitians usually are employed in academic medical centers or educational in­ stitutions, although some work in community health programs. Using established research methods and analytical techniques, they con­ duct studies in areas that range from basic sci­ ence to practical applications. Research di­ etitians may examine changes in the way the body uses food over the course of a lifetime, for example, or study the interaction of drugs  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/137  and diet. They may investigate nutritional needs of persons with particular diseases, behavior modification as it relates to diet and nutrition, or applied topics such as food service systems and equipment. Often, research dietitians col­ laborate with life scientists, physicians, nurses, biomedical engineers, and researchers from other disciplines. Working Conditions Most dietitians work 40 hours a week. Those employed in hospitals sometimes work on weekends, while those in commercial food ser­ vices tend to have irregular hours. Dietitians and nutritionists spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas such as research laboratories, classrooms, or offices near food preparation areas. However, they may spend time in kitchens and serving areas that are often hot and steamy and where some light lifting may be required. Dietitians and nutritionists in clinical settings may be on their feet for most of the workday. Those in­ volved in consulting spend a significant amount of time traveling. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 40,000 jobs in 1986. Hospitals and nursing homes are a major source of employment in this field, accounting for just over half of all jobs in 1986. Firms that provide food services for hospital patients on a contract basis employ a small but growing number of dietitians and nutritionists. Local government programs and schools, colleges, and universities provide over 15 per­ cent of dietitian jobs. Other jobs for dietitians are found in prison systems, hotel and restau­ rant chains, and companies that provide food service for their employees. Many dietitians work as consultants, either full time or part time. In addition to serving on the staff of a hospital, for example, a di­ etitian may be a consultant for another health care facility. Nursing homes use consultants or part-time workers to provide much of their di­ etetic supervision. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management is the basic educational requirement for this field. This de­ gree can be earned in about 270 colleges and universities, usually in departments of home economics or food and nutrition sciences. In addition to basic educational requirements, re­ quired college courses include foods, nutrition, institution management, chemistry, microbi­ ology, and physiology. Other important courses are mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. To qualify for professional credentials as a Registered Dietitian, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends one of the following educational paths: Completion of a 4-year coordinated undergraduate program which includes 900 to 1,000 hours of clinical experience; completion of a bachelor’s degree from an approved program plus an accredited  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  dietetic internship; completion of a bachelor’s or master’s degree from an approved program and 6 months’ approved work experience. Internships last 6 to 12 months and combine clinical experience under a qualified dietitian with some classroom work. In 1987, 103 in­ ternship programs were accredited by the ADA. Coordinated undergraduate programs enable students to complete their clinical experience requirement while obtaining their bachelor’s degree. In 1987, 65 such programs were of­ fered in colleges and universities. These pro­ grams are accredited by the ADA. Experienced dietitians may advance to as­ sistant or associate director or director of a dietetic department. Advancement to higher level positions in teaching and research re­ quires graduate education; public health nutri­ tionists usually must earn a graduate degree. Graduate study in institutional or business administration is valuable to those interested in administrative dietetics. Clinical specialization offers another path to career advancement. Specialty areas for clin­ ical dietitians include kidney disease, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, pediatrics, and gerontolgy. Persons who plan to become dietitians or nutritionists should have organizational and ad­ ministrative ability as well as scientific apti­ tude, and should be able to work well with people. Among the courses recommended for high school students interested in careers as dietitians are home economics, business, bi­ ology, health, mathematics, communications, and chemistry. Computer courses are valuable since dietitians use them for planning meals, keeping inventory, and analyzing the nutri­ tional content of proposed diets. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 to meet the expanding need for individual and group meals in nursing homes, hospitals, retirement and life care com­ munities, and social service programs of var­ ious kinds. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who stop working or change occu­ pations. A number of experienced dietitians and nutritionists are moving into management positions in private industry, for example. The factors that underlie anticipated rapid expansion of the health services industry— population growth and aging, emphasis on health education and promotion of prudent life­ styles, and widespread ability to pay for care through public and private health insurance— will increase demand for dietitians and nutri­ tionists. Demand is also expected to grow in commercial settings, including catering firms, restaurant chains, and medical supply firms. In addition, dietitians and nutritionists will be needed to staff community health programs, to provide nutritional counseling for employersponsored wellness and fitness programs, and to conduct research in food and nutrition. Staffing flexibility can be facilitated by using full-time and part-time staff. For this reason,  opportunities for part-time employment should remain favorable. This will be especially true in nursing homes, where dietetic services are frequently provided for only a few hours each week. Opportunities will be best for individuals with experience and for those willing to re­ locate to areas of greatest demand. Earnings Entry level salaries of dietitians in hospitals averaged $20,400 a year in 1986, according to a national survey conducted by the Univer­ sity of Texas Medical Branch. The maximum salaries for dietitians in hospitals averaged about $26,600 a year. Salaries may vary by region. The starting salary in the Federal Govern­ ment for those with a bachelor’s degree was about $14,821 in 1987. The average Federal salary for dietitians was about $29,300 in 1986. Dietitians usually receive benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, holidays, health in­ surance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dietitians and nutritionists apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Workers with duties similar to those of administrative dietitians include food and home economists and food service managers. Nurses and health educators often provide services related to those of community dietitians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs and other in­ formation about preparing for a professional career in dietetics, contact: The American Dietetic Association. 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, IL 60604-1003.  The U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC 20415, has information on hiring requirements for dietitians in Federal hospitals and for public health nutritionists and dietitians in the U.S. Public Health Service. The Veterans Administration (VA) employs dietitians and maintains a list of eligible ap­ plicants. Graduates interested in VA positions may obtain application forms by calling, toll free, 800-368-6008. Residents of Virginia should call 800-552-3045. Those interested in a VA career as a dietitian are encouraged to visit the personnel office of any VA medical center.  Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010)  Nature of the Work Occupational therapists treat people who are mentally, physically, developmentally, or emotionally disabled. They employ a variety of techniques designed to help individuals de­ velop or maintain daily living skills, and to cope with the physical and emotional effects  138/Occupational Outlook Handbook  working in the wellness and health promotion areas. Often, the practice setting determines the age level and treatment needs of a thera­ pist’s patients. In home health care, for in­ stance, a growing number of referrals involve elderly patients with conditions such as ar­ thritis, cardiac problems, and hip and other fractures. The goal of occupational therapists working in public schools differs from that of therapists in other settings. Instead of emphasizing treat­ ment and rehabilitation, as is the case in med­ ically oriented settings, the emphasis in schools is on providing handicapped children with an education. Therapists accordingly render ser­ vices designed to facilitate handicapped chil­ dren’s participation in public school programs and activities. This may involve an initial eval­ uation of a child’s ability and the implications for learning; recommending special therapeutic HH activities; consulting with parents and teachers; modifiying classroom equipment or school fa­ cilities; and developing the functional, motor, and perceptual skills necessary for learning. Computers are used to improve letter recognition. Like teachers, these occupational therapists of disability. With support and direction from These assessments are then used as a basis for work regular school hours and participate in the therapist, patients learn (or relearn) many modifying goals and therapeutic procedures. teachers' meetings and other activities. of the “ordinary” tasks that are performed every A patient suffering short-term memory loss, Occupational therapists in mental health set­ day at home, at work, at school, and in the for instance, might be encouraged to make lists tings treat individuals who are mentally ill, community. The aim is to help them establish to aid recall. One with coordination problems mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed. a lifestyle that is as independent, productive, might be given tasks to improve eye-hand co­ Among the emotional disorders that occupa­ and satisfying as possible. ordination. tional therapists encounter are alcoholism, drug Like other health professionals, occupa­ In addition to helping patients strengthen abuse, depression, eating disorders, and stresstional therapists often work as a member of a basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, related disorders. Therapists provide individual multidisciplinary team whose members may occupational therapists help patients master and group activities which simulate real-life include a physician, nurse, physical therapist, daily living skills. Helping severely disabled experiences to help people learn to cope with psychologist, rehabilitation counselor, and so­ individuals learn to cope with seemingly or­ the daily stresses of life and to manage their cial worker. Team members evaluate the pa­ dinary tasks such as getting dressed, using a work and leisure more effectively. These ac­ tient in terms of their individual specialties and bathroom, or driving a car requires sensitivity tivities may include crafts that require planning work together to develop goals that meet the as well as skill. Patients may be newly dis­ and time management skills, budgeting, shop­ patient’s needs. During the course of treatment, abled, as in the case of an accident victim who ping, meal preparation and homemaking, self­ team meetings are held to evaluate progress has suffered spinal cord injury, or they may care, and using community resources such as and modify the treatment plan, if necessary. have been disabled since infancy by a condition public transportation and service agencies. Activities of all kinds can be used for treat­ such as cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy. Therapists may also take steps intended to ment purposes. When working with children, Therapists provide individuals with adaptive improve a patient’s attitude and self-esteem. for example, occupational therapists often use eauipment such as wheelchairs, splints, and As is generally the case in the rehabilitation toys. For adults, therapy may include anything aids for eating and dressing. They may design professions, occupational therapists also work from activities that strengthen muscles to using and make special equipment for disabled in­ to support a patient’s quest for independence. a computer. While some treatments may give dividuals and recommend changes in the home Concrete assistance might take the form of the appearance of recreation, all have a serious or work environment to facilitate functioning. helping an accident victim regain a revoked purpose. Working in the kitchen may produce Computer-aided adaptive equipment offers driver’s license, for example, or encouraging a cake, but the skills practiced include memory, the prospect of independence to some severely a socially isolated person to relate to people in sequencing, coordination, and safety precau­ disabled persons. Occupational therapists often a more appropriate manner. tions, which are important for independent liv­ work with rehabilitation engineers to develop Besides working with patients, occupational ing at home. Woodworking or leatherworking such special equipment. Examples are micro­ therapists may supervise student therapists, oc­ may help increase strength, endurance, and processing devices that permit paraplegic and cupational therapy assistants, volunteers, and dexterity. “Word find” games can help improve quadriplegic patients to communicate while auxiliary nursing workers. The chief occupa­ visual acuity and the ability to discern patterns. confined to a wheelchair or bed, help para­ tional therapist in a hospital may teach medical Computer programs have been designed to help plegics walk, and enable quadriplegics to op­ and nursing students the principles of occu­ patients improve cognitive skills, including de­ erate telephones and television sets. As such pational therapy. Many therapists supervise oc­ cisionmaking, abstract reasoning, and problem devices move out of the research and devel­ cupational therapy departments, coordinate pa­ solving, and perceptual skills such as periph­ opment stage, occupational therapists are in­ tient activities, or are consultants to public health eral vision and discrimination of letters, colors, volved in helping patients learn to use them. departments and mental health agencies. Some and shapes. All of these treatments are de­ Occupational therapists tend to work with a teach or conduct research in colleges and uni­ signed to foster independence at home and at particular disability or age group. Approxi­ versities. work. mately 3 out of 5 therapists work principally Keeping notes is an important part of an During each therapy session, patients are with persons who have physical disabilities; occupational therapist’s job. Some of the rec­ assessed by the therapist to determine the treat­ the rest work with patients who have psycho­ ords for which an occupational therapist may ment’s effectiveness as well as the progress logical, emotional, or developmental prob­ be responsible include an initial evaluation, made toward meeting the treatment’s goals. lems. A growing number of therapists are progress notes, reports to the physician, special  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/139  internal staff notes, Medicare records, and dis­ charge notes. Careful and complete documen­ tation is required for reimbursement by insur­ ance companies and Medicare.  Certification is available by examination occupations through the year 2000 due to an­ through the American Occupational Therapy ticipated demand in the areas of rehabilitation Certification Board, which awards the title of and long-term care. registered occupational therapist (OTR) to The number of people who need rehabili­ qualified applicants. tative services will rise as advances in medical Working Conditions In 1986, entry level education was offered technology continue to save lives that only a in 61 bachelor’s degree programs, 9 postbac­ few years ago would have been lost—children Although occupational therapists generally work a standard 40-hour week, they may occasion­ calaureate certificate programs for students with with birth defects, for example, and accident ally have to work evenings or weekends. Their a degree other than occupational therapy, and victims, a disproportionate number of whom 14 master’s degree programs. Most programs are teenagers and young adults. Further, as the work environment varies according to the set­ ting and available facilities. In a large reha­ are full time. However, a growing number of baby-boom generation begins to move into schools are developing weekend, self-paced, bilitation center, for example, the therapist may middle age, a period of high risk of heart dis­ work in a spacious room equipped with ma­ or part-time programs. ease and stroke, demand for cardiac rehabili­ chines, handtools, and other devices that often Coursework in occupational therapy pro­ tation programs is expected to increase mark­ generate noise. In a nursing home, the therapist grams includes physical, biological, and be­ edly. Finally, substantial growth is projected may work in a kitchen when using food prep­ havioral sciences and the application of oc­ for the population 85 years of age and above, aration as therapy. In a mental hospital, ther­ cupational therapy theory and skills. These an age group that suffers a very high incidence apists may work directly with patients in the programs also require students to complete suc­ of disabling conditions. Demand for occupational therapists will be ward. Wherever they work and whatever cessfully at least a 6-month supervised clinical equipment they use, they generally have ad­ internship following the classroom component affected in the years ahead by changes in the equate lighting and ventilation. The job can be of their training. way health care is delivered and paid for. Per­ Entry to educational programs is competi­ haps the foremost consequence of current and physically tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Therapists must also tive, and applicants are screened carefully. Per­ anticipated changes in the payment system is face minor hazards. For example, occupational sons considering this profession should have a redefinition of the role of the hospital. In the therapists may develop backaches as a result above-average academic performance in bi­ future, more health services will be delivered of having to lift and move patients and equip­ ology, anatomy, psychology, and other high on an outpatient basis. This will affect occu­ school science courses. In addition to the phys­ pational therapy as well as other health profes­ ment. ical sciences, high school students interested sions. Employment in a career as an occupational therapist are Occupational therapists in general hospitals Occupational therapists held more than 29,000 advised to take courses in health, art, and the will treat patients more intensively, providing jobs in 1986. The largest number of jobs were social sciences. At least one occupational ther­ more therapy sessions over a shorter period of in hospitals, including a substantial number in apy program requires applicants to observe oc­ time than in the past. In addition, therapists rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals. Em­ cupational therapists at work before being ac­ will be less likely to see a hospital patient ployment of occupational therapists in school cepted as students. The exposure is designed through an entire course of treatment. Instead, systems rose sharply in response to require­ to prevent any misconceptions a prospective they will evaluate and prepare patients for post­ ments established by the Education for All student might have about the occupation, and hospital care by therapists in outpatient therapy Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Today, is believed to help reduce the dropout rate. In clinics, rehabilitation facilities, nursing homes, school systems and schools for handicapped choosing among applicants, many educational or home health agencies. children are the second largest employer of programs weigh heavily any previous job and As hospitals strengthen their rehabilitation occupational therapists. Other major employ­ volunteer experience in a health care setting. programs, set up new “sub-acute” units, and ers include nursing homes, community mental College students who consider transferring from expand their outpatient clinics and home health health centers, adult day care programs, out­ another academic discipline to an occupational programs, hospital-based occupational thera­ patient clinics, and residential care facilities. therapy program in their sophomore or junior pists will find themselves working in a much A small but rapidly growing number of oc­ year need superior grades because competition broader range of settings than in the past, when cupational therapists are in private practice. for entrance to programs is more intense after they dealt almost exclusively with inpatients. Some are solo practitioners, while others are the freshman year. The greatly increased emphasis on outpatient in multispecialty group practices or consulting Persons considering this career must be able and ambulatory care is expected to sustain strong firms. They typically see patients referred to to work with people of all ages, temperaments, demand for occupational therapists in hospi­ them by physicians or other health profession­ and personalities. To gain patients’ confidence, tals. it is necessary to have a warm, friendly per­ als. Some of the new hospital jobs will be part­ Private practitioners also provide occupa­ sonality that inspires both trust and respect. It time or contract positions. Use of part-time tional therapy services on a contract or con­ is also necessary to have ingenuity and imag­ workers can provide more flexibility in sched­ sultant basis. Largely because of incentives in ination in adapting activities to individual needs. uling, enabling hospitals to increase or de­ the health care financing system, much of the The potential therapist also needs to be skilled, crease staff according to fluctuations in patient occupational therapy furnished in nursing patient, and resourceful in teaching, since pa­ load. Use of contract employees also contrib­ homes, adult day care programs, and home tients often have difficult learning problems. utes to flexibility in staffing: Some organiza­ health agencies is provided by contract rather Individuals working in the growing field of tions launch new programs with contract em­ home health care must be willing and able to ployees, not only to begin operations sooner, than by staff therapists. travel and adapt to the variety of work settings but to ensure maximum flexibility as the pro­ TVaining, Other Qualifications, one experiences when providing services in the gram evolves. home. and Advancement The number of occupational therapy posi­ Preparation for this field requires a bachelor's Newly graduated occupational therapists tions in the public schools rose sharply in the degree in occupational therapy. Twenty-five generally begin as staff therapists. Advance­ 1970’s as school districts throughout the Nation States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Co­ ment is chiefly to supervisory or administrative came into compliance with Federal legislation lumbia regulate the practice of occupational positions; some therapists pursue advanced ed­ that mandates special education programs for ucation to teach or conduct research. all handicapped children. The 1975 law also therapy through licensure or trademark laws. Applicants for a license must have a degree or requires “related services” such as diagnosis certificate from an accredited educational pro­ Job Outlook and evaluation of handicapping conditions, gram and pass a national certification exami­ Employment in this occupation is expected to transportation to and from school, and support increase much faster than the average for all nation. services (including physical and occupational   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  140/Occupational Outlook Handbook  therapy) that assist handicapped students in learning self-care and independent functioning. Employment of occupational therapists and other special education personnel in the public schools appears to have peaked; little growth in the number of these jobs is expected through the year 2000. Nonetheless, replacement needs are substantial, and these will continue to pro­ vide excellent opportunities for occupational therapists prepared to work with mentally or physically disabled children. Restructuring of the health industry is ex­ pected to create additional jobs for occupa­ tional therapists in private practice. Private practitioners often work on a contract basis, and treat patients in a wide range of settings including hospitals, nursing homes, rehabili­ tation centers, adult day care programs, group homes, and in industrial settings. Recent changes in the law may accelerate the move­ ment into private practice, since occupational therapists are now permitted to bill directly for services provided to Medicare beneficiaries. Previously, occupational therapists had to sub­ mit all Medicare billings through a Medicareapproved facility such as a hospital or home health agency. The home is emerging as an increasingly important practice site, not only because of changes in the way treatment is provided in hospitals, but because of the prevalence of functional disabilities among older persons, and consumer and insurer preference for health care in home or community-based settings. The home health field is expected to experience spectacular growth, and should provide very good opportunities for occupational therapists. Job prospects in occupational therapy are expected to be excellent through the year 2000. Enrollments in occupational therapy programs have leveled off in recent years, primarily be­ cause programs are operating at capacity. Sig­ nificant growth in the number of occupational therapy students appears unlikely at present, and, barring such growth, the number of grad­ uates is projected to fall short of job openings. Employers faced with a shortage of qualified applicants might respond by raising salaries, which should increase the supply of reentrants (trained occupational therapists who are not currently engaged in practice). They might also alter staffing patterns, making greater use of occupational therapy assistants, or substituting recreational, art, music, and other expressive therapists. Earnings Beginning salaries for occupational therapists in hospitals averaged about $21,000 a year in 1986, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced occupational therapists earned an average of about $26,000; some administrators earned as much as $39,000. In 1987, the starting salary for therapists employed by the Federal Government, most of whom worked for the Veterans Administration, was $16,521 a year. Occupational therapists in supervisory positions could earn as much as $40,500 a year. The average salary paid oc­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  cupational therapists with the Federal Govern­ ment was about $25,000 in 1986. Salaries vary by school district for occu­ pational therapists employed in public schools. Some States classify occupational therapists as teachers and pay accordingly. According to the Center for Education Statistics, elementary school teachers earned an average of $24,762 a year during the 1985-86 school year. Sec­ ondary school teachers earned an average of $26,080 a year during the same time period. Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowl­ edge to help individuals return to their normal activities and achieve maximum indepen­ dence. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, prosthetists, physical ther­ apists, speech-language pathologists and au­ diologists, rehabilitation counselors, recrea­ tional therapists, art therapists, music therapists, and dance therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, a list of education programs, and requirements for certification, write to: American Occupational Therapy Association, P.O. Box 1725, 1383 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850.  Pharmacists (D O T. 074.161-010 and -014)  Nature of the Work Pharmacists advise health professionals and the public on the proper selection and use of med­ icines. The special knowledge of the phar­ macist is needed because of the complexity and potential side effects of the large and growing number of pharmaceutical products on the mar­ ket. In addition to providing information, phar­ macists dispense drugs and medicines pre­ scribed by physicians, podiatrists, and dentists. Pharmacists must understand the use, com­ position, and effects of drugs and how they are tested for purity and strength. Compounding— the actual mixing of ingredients to form pow­ ders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solu­ tions—is now only a minuscule part of a phar­ macist’s practice, since most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in the dosage and form used by the patient. Pharmacists practicing in community phar­ macies may have other duties. Besides dis­ pensing medicines, these pharmacists—espe­ cially those who are small-business owners— buy and sell nonhealth-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Some phar­ macists, however, practice in community phar­ macies that dispense only medicines, medical supplies, and health accessories. Increasingly, pharmacists give advice about and provide du­ rable medical equipment and home health care supplies.  Widespread use of computers in retail stores allows pharmacists to create medication pro­ files for their customers. A medication profile is a computerized record of the customer’s drug therapy. Pharmacists use these profiles to in­ sure that harmful drug interactions do not occur and to monitor patient compliance with the doctor’s instructions—by comparing how long it takes the patient to finish the drug versus the recommended daily dosage. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach health professions students, and perform administrative duties. They also may be in­ volved in patient education, monitoring of drug regimens, and drug use evaluation. In addition, pharmacists work as consultants to the medical team on drug therapy and patient care. In some hospitals, they make hospital rounds with phy­ sicians—talking to patients and monitoring pharmaceutical use. Their role is crucial to safe, efficient, and proper therapeutic care. Some pharmacists prepare and dispense ra­ dioactive pharmaceuticals. Called radiophar­ macists or nuclear pharmacists, they apply the principles and practices of pharmacy and ra­ diochemistry to produce radioactive drugs that are used for patient diagnosis and therapy. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in a clean, welllighted, and well-ventilated area that resembles a small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hundreds of different drug products. In addi­ tion, some items are refrigerated and many substances (narcotics, depressants, and stim­ ulants) are kept under lock and key. Pharma­ cists spend a lot of time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous pharma­ ceutical products, pharmacists must take the proper safety precautions, such as wearing gloves and masks and working with special protective equipment. Because pharmacies in many communities and hospitals are open around the clock, pharmacists in those settings may have to work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Employment Pharmacists held 151,000 jobs in 1986. About 1 in 10 was self-employed. All of the others held salaried positions. The majority of phar­ macists practice in community pharmacies, which can be independently owned, part of a national drug store chain, or even part of a grocery or department store (see chart). Hospitals are the second largest employer of pharmacists. Health maintenance organiza­ tions (HMO’s), home health agencies, and clinics provide a relatively small but rapidly growing number of jobs. Pharmacy services in nursing homes generally are provided on a con­ sultant or contract basis rather than by staff pharmacists. Pharmacists employed by the Federal Gov­ ernment work chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. State and local health  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/141  departments, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and professional associations also employ pharmacists. Some pharmacists hold more than one job. They may work a standard week in their pri­ mary work setting and work several hours a week in a secondary setting, as a consultant to a nursing home or clinic, for example. Although most rural areas and small towns have at least one pharmacy, most pharmacists practice in or near cities that have the largest populations. All States require a licensed phar­ macist to be in attendance during pharmacy hours. Self-employed pharmacists usually work more hours per week than those in salaried positions because of the additional responsi­ bility of managing a business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must grad­ uate from an accredited pharmacy program (a few States allow graduation rrom certain for­ eign pharmacy programs), pass a State board pvaminalirm  hp flypr 91 ,  demonstrate good  cEaracter, and—in all States—have a specified amount of practical experience or serve an in­ ternship under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist. Internships generally are served in a community or hospital pharmacy. In 1987, all States except California and Florida granted a license without reexamination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Many States require con­ tinuing education for license renewal. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from programs ac­ credited by the American Council on Phar­ maceutical Education in the 72 colleges of pharmacy. Five years are needed to obtain a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) degree, the degrees re­ ceived by most graduates. A Doctor of Phar­ macy (Pharm.D.) degree normally requires 6 years, during which an intervening baccalau­ reate degree is not awarded. Students who al­ ready hold the baccalaureate degree may be admitted to Pharm.D. programs, but the com­ bined period of study is usually longer than 6 years. Most pharmacy schools offer the bac­ calaureate degree, and over one-third also offer the professional doctorate degree; eight schools offer only the latter. The Pharm.D. degree as well as the B.S. and B.Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a pharmacist. Admission requirements vary. A few col­ leges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of prepharmacy education in an accredited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curriculum usually emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, but also includes courses in the hu­ manities, social sciences, and business admin https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  M -i  Hospital pharmacy is a major practice specialty. istration. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should acquaint themselves with the requirements of the school they wish to attend. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. An increasing number of students are enrolled in advanced professional programs leading to the Pharm.D. de­  | gree. The Pharm.D. degree, which may be t either an entry level or graduate one, is in­ c creasingly important for clinical pharmacy \ work. A master’s orPh.D. degree in pharmacy < a related field usually is required for re­ or s search. and a Pharm.D.. master’s, or Ph.D. t usually is necessary for administrative or fac­ i ulty positions. Fifty-five colleges of pharmacy offer the  Most pharmacists work in drug stores or community pharmacies. Percent employed by work setting, 1985  Hospitals  Drug stores and community pharmacies  Source: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy  —I Other  142/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Master of Science degree and 48 offer the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy grad­ uates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter I-or 2-year residency pro­ grams or fellowships. A pharmacy residency is an organized, directed, postgraduate training program in a defined area of pharmacy practice. A pharmacy fellowship is a directed, highly individualized program designed to prepare the participant to become an independent re­ searcher. Areas of special study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from plant or animal sources), hospital pharmacy, and phar­ macy administration. Courses in pharmacy administration are particularly helpful to phar­ macists in developing the skills needed to man­ age a community or institutional pharmacy. All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, designed to teach students the skills involved in compounding and dis­ pensing prescriptions, and to strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and re­ sponsibilities. In many cases, professional training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health professionals. Colleges of pharmacy also instruct students in the use of computers in the pharmacy. Com­ puters are used to create patient medication profiles, to file and record prescriptions, and for inventory control, billing, and other ad­ ministrative tasks. Pharmaceutical manufacturers, chain drug stores, State and national pharmacy associa­ tions, colleges of pharmacy, and other organ­ izations award scholarships annually to stu­ dents studying full time toward a degree in pharmacy. Prospective pharmacists should be orderly and accurate and have the ability to gain the confidence of clients and patients. Pharmacists often begin as employees in community pharmacies. After they gain ex­ perience and secure the necessary capital, they may become owners or part owners of phar­ macies. A pharmacist with experience in a chain drug store may advance to a managerial po­ sition, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital pharmacists who have the necessary training and experience may advance to director of pharmacy service or to other administrative positions. Pharmacists in industry often have opportunities for advance­ ment in management, sales, research, quality control, advertising, production, packaging, and other areas. Some individuals put their pharmaceutical training to work in related fields. Experienced pharmacists may be hired as sales or service representatives by pharmaceutical manufac­ turers and wholesalers. They sell to community pharmacies and hospitals and inform physi­ cians about new drugs. Other pharmacists teach in colleges of pharmacy, supervise the man­ ufacture of pharmaceuticals, or are involved in  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  research and development. Pharmacists also edit or write technical articles for pharma­ ceutical journals. Some combine pharmaceut­ ical and legal training in jobs as patent lawyers or consultants on pharmaceutical and drug laws.  who leave the profession. In pharmacy, this generally means retirement, for pharmacists— like physicians and dentists—tend to remain in the field until they retire. Relatively few transfer to other lines of work.  Job Outlook Earnings Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow Salaries of pharmacists are influenced by the as fast as the average for all occupations through location, size, and type of employer; the ed­ the year 2000, largely due to the increased ucation and professional attributes of the phar­ pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older pop­ macist; and the duties and responsibilities of ulation. the position. Median annual earnings of full­ The increased number of middle-aged and time, salaried pharmacists were about $31,600 older people will spur demand in all practice in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between settings. Projected rapid growth in the elderly $25,000 and $37,200. Ten percent earned less population is especially important since the than $19,100 and 10 percent, more than number of prescriptions influences demand for $41,500. pharmacists, and people over the age of 65 use Pharmacists working in chain drug stores twice as many prescription drugs, on the av­ had an average base salary of $32,200 per year, erage, as younger people. while pharmacists working in independent drug Other factors likely to increase demand for stores averaged $28,200, according to a survey pharmacists through the year 2000 include the by Drug Topics magazine. In general, the high­ likelihood of scientific advances that will make est salaries were paid on the West Coast. more drug products available for the preven­ The average starting salary for pharmacists tion, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases; new working in hospitals, medical schools, and developments in administering medication, such medical centers was about $26,700 a year in as skin patches and implantable pumps; well1986, according to a national survey by the informed consumers, increasingly sophisti­ University of Texas Medical Branch; experi­ cated about health care and avid for detailed enced pharmacists in these workplaces aver­ information about drugs and their conse­ aged about $36,100 a year. Pharmacists who quences; and improved health insurance cov­ do consulting work in addition to their primary erage for prescription drugs. job may have total earnings considerably higher Demand for pharmacists will be especially than this. Experienced pharmacists, particu­ strong in community pharmacies. Pharmacist larly owners or managers of pharmacies, often employment will increase with the expansion earn considerably more. of pharmacy services into nontraditional set­ The minimum entrance salary in the Federal tings such as grocery stores and department Government for a new graduate with a bach­ stores. At the same time, the number of tra­ elor’s degree from an approved pharmacy de­ ditional drug stores should continue to grow. gree program was about $22,500 a year in Employers in retail settings such as these prefer 1987. However, many graduates qualified for graduates of entry level degree programs in a beginning salary of $27,200 a year. Phar­ pharmacy. macists with additional years of experience may The number of pharmacists in hospitals is start at a higher salary. The average salary for expected to grow despite pressure from third- all federally employed pharmacists was about party payers to curtail hospital industry growth. $30,100 in 1987. The increased severity of the typical hospital According to a survey conducted by the patient’s illness, together with rapid strides in American Association of Colleges of Phar­ drug therapy, is likely to heighten demand for macy, average annual salaries of full-time fac­ clinical pharmacists in hospitals, HMO’s, and ulty in colleges of pharmacy during 1987 were other health care settings. as follows: Full professors, $57,900; associate Another factor pointing to solid job growth professors, $43,700; and assistant professors, for hospital pharmacists is the cost control ef­ $35,900. fort: Increasingly, pharmacists are being as­ signed to scrutinize the cost-effectiveness of Related Occupations pharmaceutical products. Employment pros­ Pharmacists dispense the prescription orders of pects will be especially good for applicants who physicians, dentists, and other health practi­ have a doctorate or who have completed re­ tioners and are responsible for selecting, com­ sidency training programs. pounding, dispensing, and preserving drugs and The job outlook for pharmacists is expected medicines. Workers in other professions re­ to be excellent. If current supply-demand trends quiring similar educational training and who persist, shortages are likely in some commu­ work with pharmaceutical compounds or per­ nities and practice settings. Shortages may de­ form related duties include scientists, phar­ velop in States with large concentrations of the maceutical chemists, and pharmacologists. elderly, for example. Employers unable to of­ fer competitive salaries—hospitals and Vet­ Sources of Additional Information erans Administration medical centers, in par­ Additional information on pharmacy as a ca­ ticular—may experience continued difficulty reer, preprofessional and professional require­ attracting and retaining clinical pharmacists. ments. programs offered by all the colleges of As in other occupations, most job openings pharmacy, and student financial aid is available will result from the need to replace pharmacists from:  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/143 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  General information on independent retail pharmacies is available from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 205 Daingerfield Road, Alexandria, VA 22314.  General information on the chain drug store industry is available from: National Association of Chain Drug Stores, Inc., 413 N. Lee St., P.O. Box 1417-D49, Alexandria, VA 22313.  Information about hospital pharmacy can be obtained from: American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 4630 Montgomery Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814.  For a list of accredited colleges of pharmacy, contact: American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, 311 West Superior St., Chicago, IL 60610.  Information on requirements for licensure in a particular State is available from the Board of Pharmacy of the State or from: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, O'Hare Corporate Center, 1300 Higgins Rd., Suite 103, Park Ridge, IL 60068.  Information on specific college entrance re­ quirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from the dean of any college of phar­ macy.  Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-014)  Nature of the Work Physical therapists plan, organize, and admin­ ister treatment in order to restore functional mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent disability for those suffering from a disabling injury or disease. Their patients may include accident or stroke victims and handicapped individuals. Among the condi­ tions likely to require treatment by a physical therapist are multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, nerve injuries, amputations, fractures, arthri­ tis, and heart disease, with patients varying in age from the newborn to the elderly. Therapists may treat patients with a wide variety of problems, or they may specialize. Specialty areas include pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. Since treatments may be prolonged, the full cooperation of the patient is very important. As a first step, therefore, a physical therapist must become familiar with a patient’s personal background as well as medical history, and make an effort to gain the patient’s trust and confidence. The quality of the therapist-patient relationship can make a big difference in the effectiveness of the treatment. Next, the physical therapist conducts an evaluation. Tests are performed and measure­ ments taken in order to determine a patient’s strengths, weaknesses, and ability to function. The exact nature of an evaluation, and the time  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  required to conduct one, depend upon the type and severity of the injury or impairment. For instance, football players with knee injuries usually require less evaluation time than au­ tomobile accident victims suffering from a va­ riety of injuries such as broken bones and head injuries. After reviewing the patient’s medical rec­ ords and completing the evaluation, the ther­ apist interprets the findings and develops a treatment plan, a process that requires a high level of clinical problem-solving skills. The goal is to help patients attain maximum func­ tional independence, muscle strength, and physical skills, while helping them adapt to what may be a drastic change in their physical abilities. In some settings, the treatment plan is de­ veloped on a team basis, with physicians, nurses, occupational therapists, or speech pa­ thologists contributing ideas from the perspec­ tive of their own discipline. Like other reha­ bilitation personnel, physical therapists are educated and trained to work as a member of a multidisciplinary team, and to participate ef­ fectively in team meetings where patient care plans are reviewed and services coordinated. Initial treatment may be nothing more than helping a bedridden patient become used to being in an upright position. Such patients of­ ten lose strength and flexibility in their limbs and trunk. A physical therapist may use a spe­ cial tilt-table to help rebuild leg strength by slowly raising a patient from a horizontal to a vertical position. Passive exercise is another technique that therapists use. Patients who have been immobile for long periods of time often become stiff in the joints, losing flexibility in muscles, connective tissues, and tendons. To regain flexibility, the patient relaxes while the therapist stretches and manipulates the pa­ tient’s extremities, according to the patient’s tolerance. Another portion of the treatment may include the application of heat, electricity, or ultrasound to relieve pain or improve the con­ dition of muscles or related tissues. Cold, light, and water may be used in other treatments, including the reduction of swelling and the treatment of bum patients. The therapist may introduce additional ther­ apeutic techniques designed to improve flexi­ bility, strength, endurance, and coordination. These may include resistance exercises with weights to stengthcn particular body parts, or gymnastic exercises designed to improve bal­ ance and coordination. For patients who may have suffered some permanent disability, the therapist may give instruction in the use of assistive devices and training on how to per­ form daily activities. To perform these duties, therapists must have detailed knowledge of hu­ man anatomy and physiology and know what steps to take in treating the effects of disease and injury. Therapists need to be sensitive and supportive as well as technically proficient since their patients, particularly those who are newly disabled, are likely to experience emotional as well as physical stress. Physical therapy can be more effective and progress faster if there is a coordinated effort  between the therapist, the patient, and the fam­ ily to establish and implement specific goals and a clearly understood treatment plan. This may require instruction on how to conduct pre­ scribed therapies at home. Patients and families may need specific training such as in the tech­ niques of muscle contraction and relaxation or in the care and use of braces or prosthetic ap­ pliances. As treatment progresses, physical therapists monitor and assess their patients in order to identify problems and evaluate progress. Pe­ riodic evaluations help the therapist to decide whether to continue, modify, or end a course of treatment. Physical therapists may provide the treatment personally or supervise the work of another therapist or a physical therapist as­ sistant. All physical therapists keep a variety of notes and records, including initial evaluations, daily progress notes, physician reports, internal staff notes, interdisciplinary conference notes, and discharge notes. Documentation must be main­ tained to track the patient’s progress and to identify areas requiring more or less attention in subsequent visits. Records are also kept for legal purposes; physical therapists are legally responsible for their actions whenever they evaluate a patient, plan a physical therapy pro­ gram, and carry it out. Finally, accurate records are needed for reimbursement purposes to jus­ tify the cost of each treatment billed. Working Conditions The working environment of physical thera­ pists varies from specially equipped physical therapy departments of hospitals or clinics to private homes where furniture may need to be moved to provide room for treatment. Thus, a physical therapist must be adaptable. Evening and weekend hours may be re­ quired, especially for those in private practice who must be available at times convenient for their patients. The job can be physically de­ manding. Duties may require the therapist to stoop, kneel, crouch, and stand for long periods of time. In addition, therapists must move equipment and help patients turn, stand, or walk. Physical therapy can be emotionally de­ manding, and the frustration that can result from seeing little or no improvement over time can contribute to stress. Employment Physical therapists held about 61,000 jobs in 1986; some jobs were part time. Hospitals were the largest single employer of physical therapists, providing more than a third of all jobs in 1986. Many other jobs in this field are in rehabilitation facilities, home health agencies, and nursing homes. These may be either salaried staff or contract positions. Therapists also work in residential facilities for handicapped children, school systems, clinics, health maintenance organizations, and physi­ cians’ offices. A substantial number of physical therapists are in private practice. (See chart.) Whether in solo practice, group practice, or associated with a consulting group, private practitioners  144/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ,,  *40* it  Physical therapy helps restore motor function, relieve pain, and limit disabilities. normally treat patients referred to them by phy­ sicians. (In 12 States, physical therapists treat patients who come directly to them without a physician referral.) Private practitioners also provide physical therapy services on a contract or consultant basis to institutions or organi­ zations such as nursing homes, home health agencies, adult day care programs, public schools, and hospitals. Some therapists teach, conduct research, or serve as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States, the District of Columbia, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico require a li­ cense to practice physical therapy. Applicants must have a degree or certificate from an ac­ credited physical therapy educational program prior to taking the licensure examination. Three different types of programs provide  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  educational preparation for entry level jobs in this field: Baccalaureate degree programs in physical therapy; certificate (or second bac­ calaureate degree) programs for those who al­ ready hold a baccalaureate degree in another field, such as biology; and entry level master’s degree programs in physical therapy. In 1986, entry level training was offered in 94 bachelor’s degree programs, 6 certificate programs, and 13 master’s degree programs. One of the master’s degree programs is spon­ sored jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor University; graduates are commissioned as of­ ficers in the Army. Currently, the minimum educational re­ quirement for entry into the profession is a bachelor’s degree. For a number of reasons, however, pressure is increasing to lengthen the educational process. Chief among these is the rapidly expanding body of knowledge which has enabled physical therapists to provide a  wider variety of therapy and rehabilitation ser­ vices. In addition, the expansion of services into home and community-based settings calls for additional training on how to treat patients in other than the traditional settings. For these reasons, many schools are expected to upgrade their entry level educational requirements from the baccalaureate to the master’s degree level. The physical therapy curriculum includes science courses such as anatomy, physiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also includes specialized courses such as biome­ chanics, human growth and development, manifestations of disease and trauma, and spe­ cific therapeutic procedures. Besides class­ room instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other treat­ ment centers. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is keen. Consequently, students in­ terested in enrolling in a physical therapy pro­ gram must attain superior grades in high school, especially in science courses. High school courses that are useful include health, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Individuals who want to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation are advised to volunteer for summer or part-time work in the physical ther­ apy department of a hospital or clinic. Indeed, such experience is required for admission to most education programs. Personal traits that physical therapists need include patience, tact, persuasiveness, re­ sourcefulness, and emotional stability to help patients and their families understand the treat­ ments and adjust to their handicaps. Physical therapists also should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Graduate education is available for individ­ uals wishing to specialize in an area like the popular field of sports physical therapy. A graduate degree combined with clinical ex­ perience increases opportunities for advance­ ment, especially to teaching, research, and ad­ ministrative positions. Practicing physical therapists should expect to participate in additional education from time to time throughout their careers. Continuing education courses, workshops, and symposia are offered by professional associations, pri­ vate consultants, and colleges and universities. Occasional attendance at such sessions is cus­ tomary in physical therapy, as in the health professions in general. Continuing education is required by law to maintain licensure in Del­ aware, Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico, and Puerto Rico. Requirements vary by State. Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the rapidly growing need for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Advances in re­ habilitation medicine and therapeutic tech­ niques are likely to create additional demand. Other openings will result from replacement needs.  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/145  Most new positions for physical therapists will result from the expansion of services for people with physical disabilities—a highly di­ verse group. It includes the elderly, whose number will rise sharply by the year 2000. Especially rapid growth is projected for the population age 85 and above, a group that suf­ fers a high incidence of disabling conditions such as arthritis or stroke. Also, some surgical procedures are more common among elderly patients. Anticipated increases in hip replace­ ments, knee replacements, and other surgical procedures used to treat diseased or arthritic joints, as well as other conditions, will heighten demand for postoperative physical therapy. As the baby-boom generation moves into middle age, a period of increased risk of heart disease and stroke, demand for cardiac reha­ bilitation programs is expected to rise sharply. Younger persons, too, will need physical ther­ apy. Advances in medical technology have saved lives that only a few years ago would have been lost: Children with severe birth de­ fects, for example, and car accident victims, a disproportionate number of whom are teen­ agers and young adults. Future biomedical de­ velopments are certain to permit even more people to survive traumas that in the past would have been fatal, thereby creating a need for rehabilitative care. Other factors likely to spur demand for phys­ ical therapy services include the growing im­ portance of sports medicine and widespread interest in health promotion. As more people engage in regular exercise programs, the num­ ber of injuries that require physical therapy treatment will grow as well. Industrial health programs are also growing in popularity. Var­ ious industries are employing physical thera­ pists to perform worksite evaluations, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits in hopes of reducing injuries in the workplace. Demand for physical therapists will be af­ fected in the years ahead by changes in the way health care is delivered and paid for. Per­ haps the foremost consequence of the new fi­ nancial environment is a redefinition of the role of the hospital. In an attempt to cut costs, hospitals are expanding outpatient services and reducing the length of inpatient hospital stays. As a result, services such as diagnostic work­ ups that formerly were provided in the course of a hospital stay are now provided on an out­ patient basis. Increasingly, patients will be hospitalized only for the most serious portion of an illness, a period when they will need intensive care. Physical therapists will be less likely than in the past to see a hospital patient through the entire course of treatment. Instead, they will refer patients for further care by physical ther­ apists in nursing homes, home health agencies, and outpatient rehabilitation facilities. As a means of capturing a share of the rapidly grow­ ing outpatient market, hospitals are expected to develop or expand their own outpatient re­ habilitation programs. The anticipated growth of hospital-based outpatient services is expected to cause hos­ pitals to remain a major employer of physical  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Physical therapists practice in a variety of settings. Percent employed by work setting, 1986  Private practice Hospitals  Nursing homes and home health agencies  Other Physicians’ offices Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  therapists. Turnover will create many addi­ tional openings for hospital-based physical therapists as experienced therapists transfer to other practice settings or leave the profession altogether. Restructuring of the health industry, together with a continuation of favorable third-party reimbursement policies, will contribute to very rapid growth in the number of physical ther­ apists in private practice. Also expected to spur growth in the number of private practitioners is the practice of relying on contract personnel to provide therapeutic and rehabilitation ser­ vices in nursing homes and home health agen­ cies. Home health is an increasingly important area of practice, not only because of changes in the way treatment is provided in hospitals, but because of the prevalence of functional disabilities among older persons, and consumer preference for health care in home or com­ munity-based settings. The home health field is expected to experience spectacular growth by the year 2000, and should provide very good opportunities for physical therapists. Job prospects in physical therapy should continue to be excellent through the year 2000. New graduates are in great demand, and the number of people completing training pro­ grams is expected to fall short of that needed to fill job openings. Total enrollments in ac­ credited physical therapy programs have re­ mained relatively stable in recent years. If the number of graduates remains at current levels while demand for rehabilitation services con­ tinues to grow, prospects for jobseekers may become even more favorable than they are to­ day. Earnings Starting salaries in hospitals for new physical therapy graduates averaged about $22,000 a year in 1986, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. In 1987, beginning therapists employed by  Schools  the Federal Government earned starting sala­ ries of $18,359 a year, while supervisory ther­ apists earned about $38,700. The average Fed­ eral salary paid therapists was about $26,400 annually in 1986. Related Occupations Physical therapists are concerned with the treatment and rehabilitation of persons with physical or mental disabilities or disorders. They may use general or specialized exercises, mas­ sage, heat, water, electricity, and various ther­ apeutic devices to help their patients gain in­ dependence. Others who do similar work include occupational therapists, speech-lan­ guage pathologists and audiologists, orthotists, prosthetists, respiratory therapists, chiroprac­ tors, and athletic trainers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Physician Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-018)  Nature of the Work The occupation of physician assistant (PA) came into being during the mid-1960’s in response to a shortage of primary care physicians. PA's are trained to perform many of the essential but time-consuming tasks involved in patient care. They interview patients, take medical his­ tories, perform physical examinations, order laboratory tests, make tentative diagnoses, and prescribe appropriate treatments. Studies show they have the ability to care for over half of those who visit a primary care practitioner’s office in any one day. PA’s always work under the supervision of a licensed physician. Alter-  146/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Physician assistants work in a variety of settings. Distribution of employment, 1986  Hospitals  Physicians’ offices  Other f  1 Clinics  SOURCE: Association of Physician Assistant Programs  native titles sometimes used are MEDEX, sur­ geon’s assistant, child health associate, and physician associate. PA' s assist physicians in a variety of practice settings and specialty areas. The most impor­ tant practice settings are physicians’ offices, hospitals, and clinics. Leading specialties us­ ing PA’s arc family practice, internal medicine, general surgery, emergency medicine, pedi­ atrics, and orthopedic surgery. Working Conditions Although PA’s generally work in a comfort­ able, well-lighted environment, they must of­ ten stand for long periods and do considerable walking. The workweek and schedule vary according to practice setting. A few emergency room PA’s work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The workweek of PA’s who work in physi­ cians’ offices may include weekends, night hours, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA’s' in clinics usually work a 5-day, 44-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 26,000 jobs in 1986. PA’s most commonly work in officebased medical practices or in hospitals. A small but growing number work for health mainte­ nance organizations (HMO’s), public health clinics, and institutions such as prisons, re­ habilitation centers, nursing homes, and facil­ ities for the mentally retarded or disabled. Despite efforts to encourage physicians to practice where they are needed most, many rural areas and inner cities remain underserved. An estimated 40 percent of all PA’s provide health care to communities having less than 50,000 residents and where physicians may be in limited supply. Although most PA’s in medically under­ served areas are associated with physicians in private practice, some work in clinics, where a physician may be available just 1 or 2 days  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  each week. For the rest of the week, a PA working with one or more nurses, technicians, or medical assistants provides all health care services. PA’s in these remote clinics fre­ quently consult with the supervising physician by phone. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the early years of the occupation, informal training was not uncommon, but today, almost all States require that new PA’s complete an accredited, formal education program. Ap­ proximately 20,000 PA’s had completed such training by 1986. Currently, 51 educational programs for primary care physician assistants, including three programs for surgeon assis­ tants, are accredited by the Committee on Al­ lied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association. Admission requirements vary, but 2 years of coursework at the college level in the arts and sciences or in one of the health professions is usually the minimum. About half of all ap­ plicants hold a bachelor’s or master’s degree. A background that includes “hands on” health care experience is almost essential for entry to these highly competitive programs. Most pro­ grams require applicants to have experience working directly with patients. Jobs that pro­ vide the requisite clinical experience range from nursing aide to medical technologist. The type of job is not particularly important; what counts is a background in direct patient contact. Educational programs are generally 2 years in length, although some are longer and a few are shorter. Most PA programs are located in medical schools, schools of allied health, or 4-year colleges; a few are sponsored by com­ munity colleges or are hospital based. Re­ gardless of the institutional sponsorship, most accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with academic health centers. PA education begins with a classroom or didactic phase that lasts 6 to 24 months. Class­ room instruction includes biochemistry, nutri­  tion, human anatomy, pathophysiology, mi­ crobiology, clinical pharmacology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, bio­ psychosocial issues, disease prevention, and medical ethics. During the final 9 to 15 months of PA training, students obtain supervised ex­ perience in clinical practice which develops their entry level practitioners’ skills. Clinical training consists of a series of rotations of 6 to 8 weeks. These rotations include but are not limited to family practice, inpatient and am­ bulatory medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency medicine, internal medicine, ambulatory psychiatry, and pediat­ rics. Sometimes, one or more of the rotations are served under the “preceptorship” or su­ pervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. This learning experience often leads to a permanent position. The number of PA programs that award a bachelor’s degree has been growing, and cur­ rently about two-thirds of the programs do so. The remaining programs offer a certificate and/ or an associate degree, or a master’s degree. MEDEX programs, which last about 18 months, are slightly shorter than other PA pro­ grams. MEDEX programs are designed for people who have had extensive patient-care experience, usually as medical corpsmen or registered nurses. This background allows for a shorter period of classroom training and in­ creased emphasis on clinical experience. MEDEX students usually gain most of their supervised clinical experience working with the physician who will hire them upon grad­ uation. Postgraduate education for PA’s, termed “PA residency training,” has developed since the mid-1970’s. Residency programs, as yet un­ accredited, are available in emergency medi­ cine, general surgery, critical care medicine, and neonatology. State laws and regulations govern the use of the title “physician assistant” and the scope of PA practice in all but a few States. Most States require that PA’s graduate from an AMA-accredited educational program. Currently, 38 States require that PA’s receive certification from the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants. This credential attests to clinical knowledge and basic competency; in 1986, about 17,000 PA’s had passed the written examination necessary to gain certifi­ cation. The PA’s scope of practice—the .duties he or she may perform—is determined in some States by the supervising physician and in oth­ ers by the State’s regulatory agency. There is some variation in State practice laws and reg­ ulations; therefore aspiring PA’s should care­ fully investigate the laws and regulations of the State Board of Medical Examiners or other agency in the States where they wish to prac­ tice. Individuals planning a career as a physician assistant should be conscientious and willing to study a great deal throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. They should exhibit leadership, self-confidence, and emo­ tional stability. A pleasant personality, pati-  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/147  Physician assistants practice in a variety of settings. ence, and the ability to deal with all kinds of people are essential. Formal lines of advancement are evolving within this young profession. Some hospitals have created head PA positions. However, by the very nature of the profession, individual PA’s are supervised by physicians. Since a supervising physician shares responsibility for the quality of care rendered by the PA, this relationship must be a close one. Some PA’s pursue additional education to practice in a specialty area such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. Oth­ ers—as they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience—advance to added responsi­ bilities and higher earnings, although earnings generally level off within 7 or 8 years after graduation. Job Outlook Employment of PA’s is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated ex­ pansion of the health services industry and greater reliance on PA’s to provide primary care and assist with complex medical and sur­ gical procedures. Prospects for newly trained PA’s appear excellent since demand is ex­ pected to outstrip supply. The occupation has already experienced tre­ mendous growth, considering that the number of PA’s was fewer than 100 in 1970. Public acceptance of PA’s, the high quality of PA services, and cost savings due to physicians’ delegation of routine tasks have all contributed to employment growth. However, past growth also reflects an expansion of the PA’s role: in the early years of the profession, physician assistants worked mostly in offices of family practitioners, but today they are found in in­ stitutional settings as well—not only in hos­ pitals and academic medical centers, but also in rural health clinics and prisons. Future changes in the health care sector also  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  augur well for PA employment. The greatly increased importance of HMO’s and group medical practices, for example, should lead to more jobs since PA’s are used in these settings. Employment opportunities may be enhanced by a recent change in Medicare coverage: phy­ sicians are now permitted to bill Medicare for services provided by their PA’s to hospital and nursing home patients. This change is expected to foster use of PA’s by office-based physi­ cians. In hospitals, too, employment of PA’s is expected to grow. Hospitals employ PA's to assist at surgery, perform diagnostic proce­ dures and comprehensive patient assessments, and aid in clinical research. In some areas, PA’s function as housestaff in place of medical residents. For a number of years, use of PA’s has been constrained by barriers to reimbursement by third-party payers, State laws restricting the kind of services they may perform, and un­ willingness on the part of many physicians to alter customary practice patterns. The situation has changed a great deal, although State laws regulating PA practice remain a constraint. Reimbursement barriers have begun to come down, however, and physicians’ attitudes have become more supportive. In many States, PA’s have the authority to make clinical decisions regarding treatment without the immediate supervision of a phy­ sician. In a few States, they are allowed to practice only where a licensed physician is present. Currently, 19 States allow PA’s to prescribe drugs, although some States prohibit PA’s from writing prescriptions altogether. Furthermore, laws regarding PA practice are under review in some States, where proposals to expand their scope of practice have aroused the opposition of other health providers. Earnings In 1986, physician assistants starting work in hospitals and medical centers averaged about $23,400, according to a national survey con­ ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston. The middle 50 percent started at $21,000 to $25,000 a year. The average salary of PA’s in all settings was about $27,500 in 1987. PA’s in HMO’s, hospitals, and physicians’ offices earn slightly more than those in clinics. Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct pa­ tient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, phys­ ical therapists, occupational therapists, clinical psychologists, and speech and hearing clini­ cians. Sources of Additional Information For more information about the profession, send for the brochure, Physician Assistant, available free from: American Academy of Physician Assistants, 1117 North 19th St., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22209.  Information on individual PA training pro­ grams also is available from: Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22313.  The Association’s publication. National Di­ rectory of Physician Assistant Programs, lists educational programs and describes each pro­ gram’s accreditation status, admission proce­ dures and requirements, and cost. Information on certification requirements is also given. Contact the association for price and ordering information. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, write to: National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 2845 Henderson Mill Rd. NE., At­ lanta, GA 30341.  Recreational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.124-014)  Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also known as thera­ peutic recreation specialists, work with people who are mentally, physically, or emotionally disabled. They employ leisure activities as a form of treatment—much as other health prac­ titioners use surgery, drugs, nutrition, exer­ cise, or psychotherapy. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation work­ ers, who organize recreational activities for the purpose of enjoyment. (See the statement on recreation workers elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) Recreational therapists strive to minimize patients’ symptoms and to improve their phys­ ical, mental, and emotional well-being. En­ hancing the patient’s ability to take part in everyday life is the primary goal of recreational therapy; interesting and rewarding activities provide the means for working toward that goal. Activities employed by recreational thera­ pists are as varied as the interests and abilities of the people they serve. Therapists might, for example, organize athletic events, dances, arts and crafts, musical activities, trips to movies, field trips, or poetry readings. Apart from sheer enjoyment, such activities provide opportuni­ ties for exercise and social participation, and may also help relieve anxiety, build confi­ dence, or promote independence. . Recreational therapy is a relatively new field. Closely related to occupational therapy, it shares that profession’s view that ordinary activities can be used to put disabled persons on the road to improvement and, possibly, lead to full re­ covery. Together with the “expressive” ther­ apies—art, music, drama, and dance—rec­ reational therapy owes much to the discovery that soldiers suffering from battle fatigue, shock, and emotional trauma responded favorably to organized treatment programs. During World War II, for example, the Veterans Adminis-  148/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Recreational therapists must be good at working with people. tration (VA) organized medical recreational ac­ tivities in VA hospitals. Recreational therapists are found in a variety of settings, including mental hospitals, psy­ chiatric “day hospitals,” community mental health centers, nursing homes, adult day care programs, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, school systems, and prisons. The spe­ cifics of the job—the extent to which therapists work on their own or as a member of a mul­ tidisciplinary team, for example—vary with the employment setting and capacities of the patients or clients served. In hospitals and nursing homes, recreational therapists are usually located in the activities department or therapy department, together with therapists and their assistants from such dis­ ciplines as music, dance, art, and occupational therapy. They work on a team basis with these and other health professionals as they go about evaluating the patient, developing a coordi­ nated treatment plan, and periodically moni­ toring progress. Job responsibilities may also include directing the support staff. At times, it is the therapeutic assistant who actually con­ ducts recreational programs and spends the most time with the patients. Therapists need information about a pa­ tient’s physical, mental, and emotional status in order to set realistic goals and recommend suitable activities. Therefore, during the initial session in a hospital therapy department, the therapist might chat with the patient and family to put them at ease before directing the con­ versation toward the patient’s enthusiasms, hobbies, and interests. With that information in mind, the therapist then examines medical records, talks with other members of the staff, and observes the patient’s behavior—all in the interest of identifying activities that could be used as a basis for treatment. Progress may be slow; sometimes there is no progress at all. Recreational therapists un­ derstand this, and set goals accordingly. A pa­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tient having trouble socializing, for example, may express interest in chess but be over­ whelmed by the prospect of actually playing since that involves interaction with another per­ son. The therapist would proceed slowly, first letting the patient observe a game and then assigning a therapeutic assistant to serve as a chess partner for weeks or even months—as long as it took for the patient to gain the con­ fidence to seek out other patients as partners. Recreational therapists are careful to observe patients' reactions to the activities in which they are involved. The therapist might note, for example, that one patient participates in outdoor activities more enthusiastically than before; another is ready for activities that re­ quire teamwork; still another patient, formerly cooperative, has become combative and dis­ ruptive. Observations such as these provide the basis for the therapist’s periodic review of each patient’s activity program. The program is apt to be modified as the patient’s condition changes. Documentation is an important part of the recreational therapist’s job. Among the records therapists must keep are the initial evaluation, progress notes, reports to the physician, inter­ nal staff notes, Medicare records, and dis­ charge notes. These records are used to keep track of the patient’s condition, document treatment programs, and monitor progress. In nursing homes, recreational therapists evaluate residents’ capabilities much as they do in hospitals. They look at medical records, talk with residents to learn about their interests, and discuss each resident’s condition with other members of the staff. Often, the therapist groups residents according to common or shared in­ terests and ability levels, and then plans field trips, entertainment, singing, crafts, exercises, and other group activities. The therapist doc­ uments residents' responses to the activities and continually searches for ways of height­ ening residents’ enjoyment of recreational and  leisure activities, not just in the facility, but in the surrounding community as well. Because nursing home residents are likely to remain in the facility for months or even years, the activities program makes a big dif­ ference in the quality of their lives. Without the stimulation of interesting events, the daily routine of a nursing home can be monotonous and depressing, and residents are apt to dete­ riorate. In some nursing homes, recreational therapists direct the activities program. In other facilities, activities coordinators plan and carry out the program under the part-time supervision of a consultant who is either a recreational therapist or an occupational therapist. The therapist in a community setting might work in a day care program for the elderly, for example, or in a program for mentally retarded adults operated by a county recreation depart­ ment. No matter what the disability, recrea­ tional therapists in community settings face the added logistical challenge of arranging trans­ portation and escort services, if necessary, for prospective participants. Coordinating trans­ portation is less of a problem in hospitals and nursing homes, where clients are all under one roof. Developing therapeutic recreation pro­ grams in community settings accordingly re­ quires a large measure of organizational ability, flexibility, and ingenuity. Working Conditions Working conditions vary according to the em­ ployment setting, facilities available, and the activity being implemented. In a hospital, rec­ reational therapists might work in a ward or in a specially equipped activity room. In a nursing home, the recreational therapist might work in a room equipped with arts and crafts materials. In a community setting, the recreational therapist is likely to be in several different places in the course of a day or a week. In­ terviewing clients and planning events take place in an office, but when leading activities, the therapist might be in a gymnasium, outdoors on a nature walk, or in a swimming pool. In general, recreational therapists work in well-lighted, well-ventilated areas. The job may be physically tiring because therapists often are on their feet all day, and may have to lift and carry equipment. Recreational therapists gen­ erally work a standard 40-hour week, although weekend and evening hours occasionally are required. Therapists holding supervisory po­ sitions may be required to work overtime de­ pending upon the workload. Employment Recreational therapists held about 29,000 jobs in 1986.Three out of five worked in nursing homes, where they often hold the title of “ac­ tivities director.” Hospitals—chiefly psychi­ atric, rehabilitation, and other specialty hos­ pitals—are the second leading employer of recreational therapists. Other employers in­ clude community mental health centers, adult day care programs, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, and a variety of community programs for people with disabilities. A small number of therapists are self-em­  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/149  ployed, providing recreational therapy services on a contract basis, for the most part. A selfemployed therapist might develop and oversee activities programs for several small nursing homes or community programs, for example. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hiring requirements vary by employment set­ ting. A degree in therapeutic recreation (or in recreation with an emphasis on therapeutic rec­ reation) is the usual requirement for clinical positions in this field, found principally in hos­ pitals and mental health settings. In the past, individuals with degrees in psychology, soci­ ology, social work, and other human service fields were hired for clinical positions, but this is no longer the case. Increasingly, formal preparation in therapeutic recreation is ex­ pected. An associate degree or qualifying work ex­ perience satisfies hiring requirements for many nursing home jobs, since the position of ac­ tivities director has a recreational rather than a clinical focus. Nursing homes with strong therapy and rehabilitation programs, however, employ recreational therapists for clinical po­ sitions, and applicants for these jobs need de­ grees in therapeutic recreation. Five States—California, Georgia, Mary­ land, North Carolina, and Utah—regulate this profession. Licensure is required in Georgia and Utah; certification (or eligibility for cer­ tification) is required in Maryland’s long-term care facilities and California’s State hospitals; and titling is regulated in North Carolina. Certification is available through the Na­ tional Council for Therapeutic Recreation Cer­ tification (NCTRC), which awards credentials for therapeutic recreation specialists and ther­ apeutic recreation assistants. Many employers prefer to hire certified recreational therapists; some insist on the NCTRC credential. More than 170 programs in recreational ther­ apy are offered at the college or university level. As of 1986, 64 of these programs were accredited by the National Council on Accre­ ditation. Most of these are bachelor’s degree programs, although some are associate or mas­ ter’s degree programs. There are a few doctoral programs in therapeutic recreation. Entry level preparation for a job as a rec­ reational therapist is available at both the bach­ elor’s and master’s level. Associate degree pro­ grams do not ordinarily lead to therapist jobs. Instead, graduates qualify for hospital jobs as therapeutic assistants, or for nursing home jobs as activities specialists. A graduate degree is generally required for teaching, research, and administrative positions in this field. Academic programs in therapeutic recrea­ tion emphasize coursework in the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and require 360 hours of internship under the supervision of a certified therapeutic recreation specialist. To put disabling and handicapping condi­ tions into context, these programs provide a solid foundation in human anatomy and phys­ iology. They deal with society’s response to disability as well as biological, psychological,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and social consequences for the disabled in­ dividual. In the realm of professional practice, courses deal with programming for special populations; assessment and referral proce­ dures; assistive techniques including self-help skills, signing, and orientation and mobility; adaptive devices and medical equipment; cur­ rent treatment approaches; legal issues in de­ livering services to special populations; and professional ethics. Persons considering this career must be able to work with people of all ages, temperaments, and personalities. To gain patients’ confidence, it is necessary to have good communications skills and a warm, friendly personality that inspires both trust and respect. In addition to these qualities, it is necessary to have ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to in­ dividual needs. The potential therapist must be skilled, patient, and resourceful in teaching and dealing with patients. Good physical coordi­ nation is necessary when demonstrating or par­ ticipating in group activities. Newly graduated recreational therapists gen­ erally begin as staff therapists. Advancement is chiefly to supervisory or administrative po­ sitions. Some therapists teach, conduct re­ search, or do consulting work on a contract basis. Job Outlook Employment of recreational therapists is ex­ pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, chiefly because of anticipated expansion of long­ term care facilities and services. Future changes in the size and age structure of the population portend a substantial increase in the number of people with disabilities. Very rapid growth is projected for the population age 85 and above, a group that suffers a high incidence of disabling conditions. Because of better health care, people with developmental disabilities such as Down’s syndrome are living longer than they used to, so the number of mentally retarded persons is expected to grow. Significant growth is also projected for the mentally ill, in part because of the very large number of young adults who have reached the age of peak risk for schizophrenia and other chronic mental illnesses. The incidence of al­ cohol and drug dependency problems is also growing. Public and private response to the needs of older people is expected to spur job growth in nursing homes, retirement and life care com­ munities, adult day care programs, and social service agencies. Especially rapid growth is foreseen in nursing homes, already the prin­ cipal employer of recreational therapists. Expansion of the nursing home industry is anticipated because of the extensive needs of the growing population of the frail elderly; the result will be far more openings for recreational therapists in nursing homes than in any other setting. A broad-based effort to improve the quality of nursing home care could lead to even more jobs, since there is general agreement that well-designed activities programs promote residents’ physical and mental health. The  quality of nursing home care is the subject of attention at all levels of government, but it is impossible to predict whether public concern will produce pressure for staffing changes in nursing homes. Hospitals will account for a much smaller number of recreational therapy jobs through the year 2000. Many of these will be in hos­ pital-based adult day care programs, or in units offering short-term mental health services to individuals suffering from alcohol or drug abuse, eating disorders, depression, and sim­ ilar conditions. Little job growth is foreseen in the large public mental hospital sector because of con­ straints on State government spending and con­ tinued support for the policy of deinstitution­ alization. If current trends persist, private psychiatric hospitals will diverge from the rest of the hospital sector and register rapid em­ ployment growth. Among the reasons for this are third-party coverage for acute inpatient psy­ chiatric care; growing public acceptance of for­ mal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism; and lessening of the stigma attached to receiv­ ing mental health care. Job prospects for rec­ reational therapists in private psychiatric fa­ cilities should be favorable, although it is important to bear in mind that jobs in this sector generally require strong clinical training or ex­ perience. In the areas of mental health and mental retardation, continued support for deinstitu­ tionalizing residents of large public facilities is expected to create strong and sustained pres­ sure, at State and local levels, for community residential facilities as well as day care pro­ grams for the physically and mentally disabled. Community programs for special populations are expected to expand significantly by the year 2000. Locating a job may require persistence, however, in view of the small scale and de­ velopmental nature of community-based pro­ grams. Internships may prove especially valu­ able for students interested in community practice. In recreational therapy, as in other human service fields, internships and volunteer work provide contacts that may prove invalu­ able in finding a job. Job prospects are expected to be favorable for graduates of accredited programs in ther­ apeutic recreation. Currently, there are reports of a shortage of qualified recreational therapists in some areas, rural areas in particular. In met­ ropolitan areas and localities where training programs abound, competition for the higher paying hospital jobs is keen. Earnings Salaries of recreational therapists vary accord­ ing to employment setting, educational back­ ground, work experience, and region of the country. In nursing homes, recreational therapists are often classified as activities directors. Accord­ ing to a survey of nursing home salaries and benefits conducted by the Hospital Compen­ sation Service, Hawthorne, NJ, the average salary of activities directors in nursing homes was $13,800 in 1986. Activities directors in  150/Occupational Outlook Handbook  facilities with 99 beds or fewer reported an average salary of $11,500, while those in nurs­ ing homes with 100 or more beds earned an average of $15,500. Recreational therapists employed by hos­ pitals had an average starting salary of $19,000 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Top sal­ aries of experienced recreational therapists av­ eraged $23,900. Starting salaries for recreational therapists in institutions and programs funded by State mental health or mental retardation agencies ranged from $14,500 to $19,500 a year in 1985, according to a survey by the National Thera­ peutic Recreation Society. The starting salary for therapeutic recreation specialists in Vet­ erans Administration facilities was $14,800 a year in 1987 for those who had not completed their clinical training, and $16,500 for those who had. Related Occupations Recreational therapists design activities to help people with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are orientation therapists for the blind, art therapists, drama therapists, dance therapists, music therapists, occupational ther­ apists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information To receive information on how to order ma­ terials describing careers and academic pro­ grams in recreational therapy, write: National Therapeutic Recreation Society. 3101 Park Center Dr., Alexandria, VA 22302.  The American Association for Leisure and Recreation publishes information sheets on 25 separate careers in parks and recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: AALR. 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Certification information may be obtained from: National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certi­ fication, 49 South Main St., Suite 005, Spring Val­ ley, NY 10977.  For a pamphlet on careers in mental health, write: Public Inquiries, National Institute of Mental Health, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857.  For a pamphlet on careers in nursing homes, write: American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Information about employment opportuni­ ties in Veterans Administration medical centers is available from local VA medical centers.  Registered Nurses (D.O.T. 075.124-010 and -014, .127-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030, 137-010, .264-010 and -014. .371-010, .374-010, -014, -018, and -022)  Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R.N.’s) care for the sick and help people stay well. Typically concerned  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with the “whole person,” registered nurses deal with the mental and emotional functioning of patients as well as their physical condition. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reactions, and progress; administer medica­ tions; assist in convalescence and rehabilita­ tion; instruct patients and their families in proper care; and help individuals and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. Laws gov­ erning nursing practice in each State define the tasks R.N.’s are allowed to perform, but it is the work setting—together with the nurse’s educational preparation and experience—that determines day-to-day job duties. Hospital nurses constitute by far the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses, who provide skilled bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physi­ cians. They may also supervise licensed prac­ tical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospital nurses usually work with groups of patients who re­ quire similar nursing care. For instance, some nurses work with patients who have just had surgery; others specialize in the care of acutely ill children, trauma victims, or cancer patients. Nursing home nurses manage nursing care for residents with different needs—one may be convalescing from a fall or fracture while another is in the final stages of Alzheimer’s disease. R.N.’s assess residents’ needs, de­ velop treatment plans, and supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides. R.N.’s are the only nursing home nurses trained to ad­ minister complex treatments such as starting intravenous fluids. However, they generally spend most of their time on administration and supervision of other nursing personnel. Community health nurses care for patients in clinics, schools, retirement and life care communities, and other community settings. A growing number provide home health care. They instruct patients and families in health care and give periodic care as prescribed by a physician. They may instruct community groups in proper nutrition and exercise and arrange for immunizations, blood pressure testing, and other health screening measures. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, par­ ents, and physicians in community health ed­ ucation. Some community health nurses work in schools. Private duty nurses offer nursing care ser­ vices to patients who need constant attention. They may work in a home, a hospital, or a nursing home or rehabilitation center. Office nurses assist physicians, dental sur­ geons, and, occasionally, dentists in private practice, clinics, and health maintenance or­ ganizations. Sometimes they perform routine laboratory and office work in addition to their nursing duties. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to employees in industry and government and. along with physicians and other health care providers, promote employee health. They treat minor injuries and illnesses at work, provide needed nursing care, arrange for further care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examinations and inoculations.  Working Conditions Nurses generally work indoors in well-lighted, comfortable buildings. Community health nurses may be required to travel to patients in all types of weather. For those nurses who care for the ill and infirm, the physical demands of patient care can be strenuous. Nurses in general need physical stamina because they spend con­ siderable time walking and standing. Emo­ tional stability is required to cope with human suffering and frequent emergencies. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes require care at all times, staff nurses in these institu­ tions may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hos­ pital work. Nurses may be called upon to care for individuals with infectious diseases such as hepatitis and AIDS, where rigid guidelines must be observed to ensure the safety of patients and nurses. Nurses must also guard against the dan­ gers associated with radiation, chemicals used for sterilization and other purposes, and gases used for anesthesia. In addition, nurses must take precautions to avoid back injury, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. Employment Registered nurses held about 1,406.000 jobs in 1986. Two out of three jobs were in hos­ pitals, as the following tabulation shows: Percent Total..................................................100 Hospitals.........................................................66 Offices of physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s)..................................................7 Government ..................................................... 7 Nursing and personal care facilities ........... 6 Educational services ...................................... 3 Personnel supply services .............................3 Health and allied services not elsewhere classified.................................... 3 Outpatient care facilities.............................. 1 Other ................................................................ 4 Between one-fourth and one-third of all jobs for registered nurses were part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To obtain the license that is necessary to prac­ tice as a registered nurse in all States and the District of Columbia, nurses must graduate from an approved school of nursing and pass a na­ tional examination administered by each State. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a li­ cense issued by another State. Some States require continuing education for license re­ newal . In 1985, 1,473 programs offered preparation for intitial R.N. licensure. In addition, 198 master’s degree and 33 doctoral degree pro­ grams provided advanced education in nursing. Entry level nursing programs are of three major types: Associate degree (A.D.N.), di­ ploma, and baccalaureate (B. S. N.). These vary in length from 2 to 5 years after graduation  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/151  from high school. A.D.N. programs are of­ fered by community and junior colleges and take about 2 years; diploma programs are given in hospitals and last 2 to 3 years; B.S.N. pro­ grams are offered by colleges and universities and require 4 or 5 years. With relatively few exceptions, graduates of all three types of pro­ grams qualify for entry level positions as staff nurses once they are licensed as R.N.’s. Prospective nursing students should be aware that efforts are underway to raise the educa­ tional requirements for R.N. licensure to the baccalaureate level. Proponents cite the ex­ panding knowledge base in medicine and health care, the growing complexity of technology, employer liability concerns, and the severity of many patients’ illnesses—all of which sug­ gest a need for more rigorous preparation for nursing practice. Proposals to upgrade entry requirements and, possibly, create new job titles for registered nurses have been around for years. However, interest has intensified of late, and one State— North Dakota—has formally established the B.S.N. as the minimum requirement for R.N. licensure. It remains to be seen how quickly other States will follow suit. The process is likely to be slow since it necessitates legislative or regulatory action in each State and the Dis­ trict of Columbia. Changes in licensure requirements would not affect currently licensed R.N.’s, who would be “grandfathered” in, no matter what their educational preparation. However, individuals considering a future in nursing should carefully weigh the pros and cons of enrolling in a B .S.N. program. Not only is there a possibility that baccalaureate preparation will be required in the future, but in addition opportunities for advancement are broader for those who have B.S.N. degrees than for those who do not. Some career paths are open only to nurses with bachelor’s or advanced degrees. Currently, nursing home nurses may ad­ vance to the position of director of nursing on the basis of A.D.N. or diploma preparation. However, baccalaureate preparation in nursing is generally necessary for supervisory or ad­ ministrative positions in hospitals, and is re­ quired for staff as well as supervisory positions in community nursing and home health care. Moreover, the B.S.N. is a prerequisite for ad­ mission to graduate nursing programs. Since research, consulting, teaching, administrative, and clinical specializations in nursing require graduate study as a rule, individuals consid­ ering any of these areas should start out in a B.S.N. program. A growing number of R.N.’s trained in di­ ploma or associate degree programs subse­ quently enter baccalaureate programs to pre­ pare for a broader scope of nursing practice, but this can be a costly and time-consuming way of securing baccalaureate level prepara­ tion. All nursing education programs include classroom instruction and supervised nursing practice in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychol­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Demand for registered nurses is expected to grow very rapidly. ogy and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Increasingly, nursing students learn the latest clinical and administrative uses of computers. In hospitals, for example, nurses routinely use computers to enter or retrieve patient data such as test results and medication orders, and to develop work schedules. Nursing students receive supervised clinical experience in various hospital departments— pediatrics and surgery, for example. An in­ creasing number of programs include clinical practice in nursing homes and offer course work in gerontological nursing. Students in bache­ lor’s degree programs as well as in some of the other programs are assigned to public health departments, visiting nurse associations, and other community agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in patients’ homes. Varying amounts of general education are com­ bined with nursing education in all three types of programs. Persons who want to pursue a nursing career should have a sincere desire to assist humanity and be sympathetic to the needs of others. Nurses must be able to accept responsibility and direct or supervise the activity of others; they must have initiative and, in appropriate situations, be able to follow orders precisely or determine if additional consultation is re­ quired. Good judgment is essential. From staff positions in hospitals, nurses may be promoted to increasingly responsible jobs, many of which can be obtained through ex­  perience and good performance. Nurses who choose a career in management can advance to a position as assistant head nurse or head nurse. From there, advancement to assistant director, director, and vice president positions is possible. Increasingly, positions at the man­ agement level require a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration, with emphasis on finance. Executive level nursing positions require business judgment and strong negotiation skills. Graduate programs are of­ fered in colleges or universities and usually last 1 to 2 years. Applicants must be R.N.’s, preferably with some experience in beginning management. For nurses who prefer close contact with patients, career advancement may mean be­ coming a clinical nurse specialist, nurse prac­ titioner, nurse clinician, or nurse anesthetist. Graduate level preparation is necessary to reach these positions, all of which are distinguished by the ability to exercise a high degree of in­ dependent judgment in assessing nursing prob­ lems and determining priorities of care. The required education is offered in hospitals and universities, normally lasts 1 to 2 years, and leads to a certificate or master’s degree. Ap­ plicants must be R.N.’s, and many programs require up to 2 years of nursing experience in a relevant specialty. Nurse anesthetists complete a certificate pro­ gram allowing them to administer anesthesia under the direction of a physician. Nurse prac­  152/Occupational Outlook Handbook  titioners and nurse midwives have graduate level training in diagnostic and health assessment skills that enables them to perform certain du­ ties normally performed by a physician. Clin­ ical nurse specialists and nurse clinicians have expertise in a clinical area such as pediatrics or gerontology/geriatrics which usually is ob­ tained through completion of a master’s degree program. A growing number of nurses are moving into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and preparation for work as members of a health care team equip them for manage­ ment positions in fields such as ambulatory, acute, and chronic care services. Some are em­ ployed by large health care corporations in areas like health planning and development, mar­ keting, and quality assurance. Others run their own businesses, such as home health care agencies. Job Outlook Employment of registered nurses is expected to rise much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the health care needs of a growing and aging population. Projected growth in demand for registered nurses owes much to the fact that they can work effectively in a wide variety of roles and employment settings. Over the years, staffing patterns in hospitals have shifted in the direc­ tion of greater reliance on registered nurses and less use of licensed practical nurses and nursing aides; some hospitals have gone so far as to adopt all-R.N. staffing. The growth of inten­ sive care and coronary care units in particular has spurred demand for registered nurses with strong clinical skills. An important reason for increased reliance on R.N.’s has to do with changes in hospital case mix—a large and growing proportion of the patients admitted to hospitals are very sick and in need of constant monitoring and highly skilled care. Partly because minor procedures are now performed on an outpatient basis, and partly because of incentives in the reimburse­ ment system, hospital patients today are likely to be gravely ill or scheduled for major surgery. Furthermore, many patients are hospitalized only for the most acute portion of their illness, the period when high-technology procedures are performed and sophisticated equipment is used. It takes not one, but several, highly skilled nurses to provide the care such patients require. The shift to outpatient care is certain to con­ tinue. Thanks largely to advances in technol­ ogy, the number of sophisticated procedures performed in physicians’ offices and clinics is expected to grow. An example is outpatient treatment of cataracts using laser surgery. Very rapid expansion is foreseen in the outpatient or “ambulatory” care sector, which comprises physicians’ offices, medical group practices, walk-in clinics, surgicenters, diagnostic im­ aging centers, cardiac rehabilitation clinics, and health maintenance organizations (HMO’s). Facilities such as these bear little resemblance to the conventional doctor’s office; they offer a wide range of sophisticated health care ser­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  vices, and provide new career opportunities for registered nurses and other health profession­ als. HMO’s, medical group practices, and other outpatient settings are expected to offer very attractive employment prospects for R.N.’s through the year 2000. The home is an increasingly important prac­ tice site, not only because of changes in the way treatment is provided in hospitals, but be­ cause of the prevalance of functional disabil­ ities among older persons and consumer pref­ erence for care in home or community-based settings. Technological advances are making it possible to bring increasingly complex treat­ ments into the home, but administering and monitoring these require a high level of skill. Projected expansion of the home health care field should provide excellent opportunities for R.N.’s in supervision and case management as well as in direct patient care. The nursing home sector—a major employer of registered nurses—is expected to experience exceptionally rapid growth because of the pro­ jected increase in the number of people in their 80’s and 90’s, many of whom will require long­ term care. In addition, the financial pressure on hospitals to release patients as soon as pos­ sible is expected to produce more nursing home admissions for post-hospital care. People re­ covering from surgery, stroke, or other major episodes will stay in nursing homes for a rel­ atively brief time, but they will often require intensive services such as intravenous therapy, feeding tubes, and respirator support that ne­ cessitate advanced nursing skills. Job opportunities for staff and supervisory R.N.’s in nursing homes will be excellent, es­ pecially in view of the chronic shortage of nurses experienced by many long-term care facilities. Opportunities are also expected to be good at the corporate or headquarters level in nursing home chains, which seek appropri­ ately qualified R.N.’s for planning, program development, and management positions. Currently, shortages of R.N.’s are being re­ ported by hospitals in many parts of the coun­ try. R.N. recruitment has long been a problem in rural areas, in some big city hospitals, and in specialty areas including intensive care, medical-surgical nursing, rehabilitation, ger­ iatrics, and long-term care. Whether the current shortage of nurses will persist through the year 2000 is difficult to say since future trends in supply are not clear. Re­ cent nursing school graduates are a major source of supply for the profession, and enrollments in nursing are not expected to rise much—if at all—despite anticipated job growth. Reasons for this include the impending decline in the college-age population, shifts in young wom­ en’s career aspirations, expanding opportuni­ ties for women in traditionally male-dominated occupations, and failure to attract more men to nursing. It is too soon to estimate the effect on nursing enrollments of proposed changes in educational and licensure requirements. Hospitals and other employers faced with a shortage of nurses are likely to respond with flexible work schedules, child care, educa­ tional benefits, bonuses, higher pay, shared  decisionmaking, and other incentives de­ signed, on the one hand, to retain existing staff and on the other, to attract licensed nurses who are not currently active in the field. Some of the latter are at home caring for families; others have transferred to other kinds of jobs. Supply might also be augmented by using nurses from temporary help agencies, recruiting foreign nurses, and providing refresher courses for R.N.’s who have been out of work for a while, as well as for those who need to reinstate their licenses in order to return to work. Earnings Median annual earnings of registered nurses who worked full time in 1986 were about $23,900. The middle 50 percent earned be­ tween $20,000 and $27,300. The lowest 10 percent earned about $16,000 or less. The top 10 percent, many of whom probably were head or supervisory nurses, earned more than $32,800. R.N. staff nurses in nursing homes had a median annual salary of approximately $19,900 in 1987, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service, Hawthorne, NJ. In 1987, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an associate degree a starting salary of $16,521 a year; those with a bachelor’s degree, $19,326. Nurses employed in all Federal Government agencies earned an average of about $26,100 in 1986. Starting salaries of staff nurses employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $20,400 a year in 1986, ac­ cording to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experi­ enced R.N.’s averaged about $27,800. This survey also showed that head nurses averaged starting salaries of about $25,700; salaries for experienced head nurses averaged $35,000. Beginning nurse anesthetists averaged $31,000; those with experience, $42,200. Most hospital and nursing home nurses re­ ceive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts. Nearly all receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year, at least 2 weeks of paid va­ cation after 1 year of employment, and health and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations with responsi­ bilities and duties related to those of registered nurses include: Occupational therapists, par­ amedics, physical therapists, physician assis­ tants, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) pub­ lishes a variety of materials about nursing and nursing education, including a list of approved schools of nursing and information on student financial aid. One brochure describes master’s degree programs to prepare nurse practitioners, clinical specialists, and nurse educators. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information brochure. Send your request to:  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/153 Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, NY 10019.  For a brochure entitled Is Nursing for You?, send $1 to: National Student Nurses’ Association, 555 West 57th St., New York, NY 10019.  Information on career opportunities as a reg­ istered nurse is available from: American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd., Kansas City, MO 64108.  Information about employment opportuni­ ties in Veterans Administration medical centers is available from local Veterans Administration medical centers and also from: Recruitment and Placement Service (054), Veterans Administration, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20420.  For information on nursing careers in hos­ pitals, contact: American Hospital Association, Division of Nurs­ ing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Respiratory Therapists (D.O.T. 079.361-010)  Nature of the Work A person may live without water for a few days and without food for a few weeks. But if some­ one stops breathing for more than a few min­ utes, there is serious brain damage. If oxygen is cut off for more than 9 minutes, death usually results. Respiratory therapists, also known as respiratory care personnel, specialize in the evaluation, treatment, and care of patients with breathing disorders. Whenever the breath of life is at risk, the respiratory therapist is called upon to intervene. Most respiratory therapists work with hos­ pital patients in three distinct phases of care: Diagnosis, treatment, and patient manage­ ment. In the area of diagnosis, therapists test the capacity of the lungs and analyze the ox­ ygen and carbon dioxide concentration and po­ tential of hydrogen (pH), a measure of the acidity or alkalinity level of the blood. To mea­ sure lung capacity, the therapist has the patient breathe into a tube connected to an instrument that measures the volume and flow of air during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, the respiratory ther­ apist can determine whether lung deficiencies exist. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, therapists need an arterial blood sample, which they generally draw themselves. The procedure for drawing arterial blood requires greater skill than is the case for routine tests, where blood is drawn from a vein. Inserting a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  needle into a patient’s artery and drawing blood must be done with great care; any slip can damage the artery and interrupt the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the tissues. Once the sample is drawn, it is placed in a blood gas analyzer, and the results are relayed to the physician. Treatment of patients, be they premature in­ fants whose lungs are not fully developed or elderly people whose lungs are diseased, is another important job duty. Treatment may range from giving temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema to emer­ gency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock. The three most common treatments, however, are chest physiotherapy, aerosol medications, and oxygen or oxygen mixtures. Chest physiotherapy is generally performed on patients who have undergone surgery. Anesthesia depresses respiration, so this treat­ ment may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to their level of function before surgery and prevent the lungs from becoming congested. Chest physiotherapy also is used on patients suffering from lung diseases that cause increased amounts of sticky mucus to collect in the lungs. Chest physiotherapy helps remove the mucus, making it easier for the patient to breathe. In chest physiotherapy, the patient is placed in a position to help drain mucus from the lungs. The therapist thumps and vibrates the patient’s rib cage, after which the patient is instructed to cough. This procedure not only stimulates the lungs to expand, but also helps clear lungs of congestion. This process helps prevent respiratory illnesses which could com­ plicate recovery. Respiratory therapists also administer aer­ osols—generally liquid medications sus­ pended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled. Therapists may either administer the medicine themselves or teach patients how to do so. In either case, the therapist must instruct the patient in how to inhale the aerosol prop­ erly. If the medicine is improperly inhaled, it will be ineffective. Respiratory therapists use various kinds of equipment to administer oxygen and oxygen mixtures. In one case, a patient may need an increased concentration of oxygen. The ther­ apist simply places an oxygen delivery device, such as a mask or a nasal cannola, on the patient, and sets the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by the physician. In the case of patients who cannot breathe on their own— someone who has undergone heart surgery, for example—the therapist would connect the pa­ tient to a ventilator, a machine which pumps air into the lungs. The therapist inserts a tube down the patient’s mouth into the trachea, or windpipe; connects the tube to the ventilator; and sets the rate, volume, and oxygen con­ centration of the air entering the patient’s lungs. Monitoring patients who are using oxygen and ventilators occupies a good portion of the therapist’s day. Patients and equipment must be checked regularly. If the patient appears to be having difficulty or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is unstable, the ventilator setting must be changed. The  therapist alerts the doctor and adjusts the ven­ tilator according to the physician’s order. In addition, therapists continually check equip­ ment to ensure that there are no mechanical complications and that the equipment is in working condition. Providing respiratory care at home is a rap­ idly expanding area of practice. Respiratory therapists have long administered oxygen to patients in their homes. Increasingly, however, mechanical ventilators and other sophisticated life support systems are being used in the home. Therapists teach patients and their families how to use the equipment. Many of the people who receive home respiratory care will need it for the rest of their lives. They are taught how to operate complex equipment themselves, with several visits a month from respiratory thera­ pists to inspect or clean the equipment and ensure its proper use. Respiratory care is moving into new areas, notably cardiopulmonary care and cardiopul­ monary rehabilitation. A growing number of respiratory therapists are being cross-trained in pulmonary and cardiac procedures. Others are specializing in the special needs of newborn and premature infants. Other duties include keeping records of the cost of materials and charges to patients, and maintaining and making minor repairs to equipment. Some therapists teach or supervise other respiratory therapy personnel. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work a 40-hour week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists may be required to work eve­ nings, nights, or weekends. Respiratory ther­ apists spend long periods standing and walking between patients’ rooms. In an emergency, they work under a great deal of stress. Gases used by respiratory therapists are potentially haz­ ardous because they are used and stored under pressure. However, adherence to safety pre­ cautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 56,000 jobs in 1986. About 9 out of 10 jobs were located in hospitals in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Ox­ ygen equipment rental companies, ambulance services, nursing homes, and home health agencies accounted for most of the remaining jobs. lYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Respiratory care equipment has become in­ creasingly complex, and formal training is im­ portant for entry to the field. Training for res­ piratory therapy is offered at the postsecondary level in hospitals, medical schools, colleges and universities, trade schools, vocationaltechnical institutes, and the Armed Forces. In 1986, about 260 programs for respiratory ther­ apists were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Associa-  154/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most respiratory therapy jobs are in hospitals. tion. Another 182 programs offered CAHEAaccredited preparation for respiratory therapy technicians. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. About 23 of the CAHEA-accredited therapist programs are 4-year programs that lead to a bachelor's degree; most of the others are somewhat shorter in length and lead to an associate degree. Tech­ nician courses usually last about 1 year, and graduates are awarded certificates. Areas of study for both types of programs include human anatomy and physiology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. People who want to enter this field should enjoy working with people and should be sen­ sitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. Respiratory therapy workers must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating complicated res­ piratory therapy equipment requires mechan­ ical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemistry, and physics, for a working knowl­ edge of science and mathematics is essential. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem-solving—an ability to use percent­ ages, fractions, logarithms, exponents, and al­ gebraic equations, and a knowledge of the Eng­ lish and metric systems of measuring. Calculus is not required but is helpful. An understanding of chemical and physical principles such as general gas laws, the states of matter, chemical reactions at the atomic level, and the periodic table is also important. Computing medication dosages and calculating gas concentrations are just two examples of the need for knowledge of science and mathematics. Respiratory therapy technicians and assis­ tants can advance to the therapist level by tak­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ing the appropriate courses or through on-thejob training. Some technicians work part time while studying to be therapists. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of “general” to “critical” patients. Additional knowledge and skills are needed to provide respiratory care for patients with significant problems in other organ systems such as the heart or kidneys. Sometimes such specialization means a new job title: Respiratory therapists may fill posi­ tions as cardiopulmonary technologists, forexample, after gaining experience in arterial blood pressure monitoring, electrocardiograph (EKG), and related procedures. Therapists may also advance to supervisory or managerial posi­ tions. With additional education or experience, promotion to the position of chief of the res­ piratory therapy department is a possibility. Credentials as a Registered Respiratory Ther­ apist (RRT) often are required for administra­ tive positions. The field of education also offers opportun­ ities for career development. Jobs for hospital in-service educators are available for therapists with teaching skills. Many therapists have found careers as instructors in respiratory therapy ed­ ucation programs; with additional academic preparation, they are eligible to advance up the line to professor or program director. Other therapists leave the field to work as sales rep­ resentatives for equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of respiratory therapists is ex­ pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Con­ flicting forces will shape demand for respira­ tory care in the years ahead. On the one hand, substantial growth of the middle-aged and el­ derly population is virtually certain to heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease, thereby spurring demand. Conversely, pres­ sures to curb the rising costs of hospital care  by more selective use of respiratory procedures are apt to constrain growth in this occupation. The elderly are the most common sufferers from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pnuemonia, chronic bronchi­ tis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers increase, the need for respiratory ther­ apists to care for them will increase as well. In addition, advances in treating victims of heart attacks, accident victims, and premature infants (many of whom may be dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will require the services of highly trained respira­ tory therapists. Growth in the occupation is likely to be con­ strained by hospitals’ efforts to control costs. Changes in the way hospitals are paid for the services they provide are altering financial in­ centives, so that services such as respiratory care are no longer as profitable to the hospital as they once were. This in turn is causing hos­ pital administrators and third-party payers (chiefly Medicare, Medicaid, and insurance companies) to try to be more selective about respiratory care, limiting its use to situations where it is clearly appropriate and beneficial. The outlook for respiratory therapists will also be affected by developments within the profession. As treatment methods have changed in response to the rapidly growing body of knowledge in medicine, respiratory care de­ partments have taken on new duties. For ex­ ample, a therapist may now perform EKG’s or monitor heart functions, duties previously per­ formed by other hospital personnel. If the trend toward multicompetent therapists takes hold, it could mean more jobs for respiratory ther­ apists than currently anticipated. At the same time, respiratory therapists are branching out into various specialties. A ther­ apist who develops expertise with cardiac pa­ tients may transfer to a position as a cardi­ opulmonary technologist, for example. Especially in academic medical centers and other hospitals that provide the most advanced specialty care, the emergence of new occu­ pational specialties such as this could slow growth in the number of respiratory care gen­ eralists. Home health care is a bright spot on the horizon, but it is important to bear in mind that this very rapidly growing field accounts for a relatively small share of respiratory therapy jobs. Opportunities in respiratory care should be highly favorable through the year 2000 in home health agencies, equipment rental com­ panies, and firms that provide respiratory care on a contract basis. Hospital-based home health programs will provide excellent job prospects, too. As in other occupations, however, most job openings will result from the need to re­ place workers who transfer to other jobs or stop working altogether.  Earnings The starting salary of respiratory therapists em­ ployed in hospitals averaged about $17,800 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Expert-  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/155  cnced respiratory therapists in hospitals earned an average salary of $22,300 a year in 1986. Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals re­ ceive the same benefits as other hospital per­ sonnel, including health insurance, retirement benefits, vacations, and sick leave. Some em­ ployers provide tuition assistance and other ed­ ucational benefits, uniforms, and parking. Related Occupations Respiratory therapy workers, under the super­ vision of a physician, administer respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include dialysis technicians, emer­ gency medical technicians, registered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and radiation therapy technologists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: American Association for Respiratory Care, 1720 Regal Row, Suite 112, Dallas, TX 75235.  Information on gaining credentials as a res­ piratory therapy worker can be obtained from: The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 11015 West 75th Terrace, Shawnee Mission, KS 66214.  For the current list of CAHEA-accredited educational programs for respiratory therapy occupations, write: Joint Review Committee for Respiratory Therapy Education, 1701 W. Euless Blvd., Suite 200, Euless, TX 76040.  Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists (D.O.T. 076.101, .104, and .107)  Nature of the Work Speech, language, and hearing impairments hinder communication and can cause problems throughout life. Children who have difficulty speaking, hearing, or understanding language, for instance, cannot participate fully with oth­ ers in play or classroom activities. Sometimes these children are thought to have mental or emotional problems, when in fact the problem is one of language or hearing. Adults with speech, language, or hearing impairments may have problems on the job, and withdraw so­ cially to avoid frustration and embarrassment. The aging process almost invariably brings some degree of hearing loss. Severe loss, if not treated, can result in diminished pleasure in everyday activities, social isolation, and—even worse—wrongful labeling of elderly people as demented or “confused.” While speech-language pathology and au­ diology are separate disciplines, they are so interrelated that, to be competent in one of these fields, one must be familiar with both.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Speech-language pathologists diagnose and treat persons experiencing speech or language problems resulting from such conditions as to­ tal or partial hearing loss, brain injury, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, faulty learning, emotional prob­ lems, or foreign dialect. In addition, they may counsel patients and families about disorders and about coping with the stress and potential for misunderstanding that so often accompany a communication disorder. Counseling may in­ volve little more than reassurance that the prob­ lem is not unique. In some cases, it may involve working with the entire family to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede treat­ ment. In others, the family may be instructed in therapeutic techniques to use at home. Pre­ vention of communication disorders is another important aspect of the speech-language pa­ thologist’s job. Speech-language pathologists use a variety of tools for treatment purposes including au­ diovisual equipment and computers as well as less complicated equipment. Tape recorders, for instance, are sometimes used to record a patient’s speech irregularities. Often, patients unable to hear their own speech problems can detect them when listening to a recording of their own voice. Microcomputers may be em­ ployed to analyze specific characteristics of the speech signal and provide visual cues for the patient, or to present stimuli and record re­ sponses during practice sessions. Mirrors are sometimes useful in helping patients learn how to form words. By using a mirror, patients can simultaneously see themselves and the pa­ thologist, which allows them to match mouth and tongue placement with that of the therapist. Audiologists identify, assess, and treat hear­ ing problems. They also play an important role in prevention of hearing problems and in hear­ ing conservation. In one of the basic tests they perform, an audiometer measures the loudness levels at which sound becomes audible at var­ ious frequencies. The person being tested is usually secluded in a soundproof room to elim­ inate background noise. The audiologist then sets the equipment to emit sounds at various intensities and pitch levels and instructs the person being tested to signal whenever a sound is heard. The audiologist’s assessment is used to render a diagnosis and determine a proper course of treatment, which may require the fitting and dispensing of hearing aids. Au­ diologists can also recommend telephone and television amplifiers for those who can profit from them. The duties of speech-language pathologists and audiologists vary with education, experi­ ence, and place of employment. Some super­ vise or administer speech or hearing programs while others engage in research or teaching. Most, however, provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication disorders. In speech and hearing clinics, they use a variety of diagnostic procedures to identify and eval­ uate communication disorders. Then they de­ velop and implement a treatment program. In rehabilitation centers and other facilities that use a team approach, the treatment plan is de­  veloped and carried out in cooperation with other health professionals. Speech-language and audiology personnel in schools generally have other duties as well. They work with admin­ istrators in developing programs, counsel par­ ents on prevention, and assist teachers with classroom activities to develop verbal com­ munication skills. Most speech-language pathologists and au­ diologists do some administrative work. How­ ever, directors of clinics and coordinators of speech, language, and hearing services in schools, health departments, or other govern­ ment agencies may be totally involved in administration. Speech-language pathologists and audiolo­ gists keep a variety of records and reports in­ cluding initial evaluations, progress notes, physician reports, interdisciplinary notes, and discharge notes. Documentation must be main­ tained to track patient progress and identify areas requiring more or less attention during subsequent visits. Finally, accurate records are needed to justify the cost of each treatment when applying for reimbursement. Working Conditions Work is generally performed in clean, com­ fortable surroundings. Speech-language pa­ thologists and audiologists spend most of their time at a desk or table, and although the job is not physically demanding, the attention to detail and intense concentration needed can be mentally exhausting. Speech-language pathologists and audiolo­ gists who work on a contract basis for nursing homes, home health agencies, or with large school systems can expect to travel a good deal and may deliver services in a variety of sur­ roundings. The occupation offers psychological re­ wards: a great amount of satisfaction can be gained from seeing a client improve. Lack of progress, on the other hand, can be very frus­ trating. Employment Speech-language pathologists and audiologists held about 45,000 jobs in 1986. Almost twothirds of these jobs were in elementary and secondary schools and colleges and univer­ sities. Speech, language, and hearing centers, hospitals, nursing homes, offices of physi­ cians, and outpatient care facilities provided the remainder. A relatively small but growing number of speech-language pathologists and audiologists are in private practice and see self-referred pa­ tients or those referred to them by physicians or other health practitioners. Some are solo practitioners who operate their own offices, while others are in multispecialty group prac­ tices. Experienced speech-language pathologists and audiologists sometimes become consult­ ants, either on a full-time basis or in addition to a primary job elsewhere. Consultants engage in a wide variety of activities. Some provide clinical services to nursing home residents or home health clients. Others conduct workshops  156/Occupational Outlook Handbook  a  :r*f ■ . |  ft s  Speech and hearing problems affect both young and old. and in-service training, test noise levels for compliance with industrial and environmental health standards, do research, testify in legal proceedings, or act as advisers to manufactur­ ers of telecommunications and other kinds of equipment used by individuals suffering from impaired communications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in speech-language pathol­ ogy or audiology is the standard credential in this field. Medicare, Medicaid, and other thirdparty payers, for example, pay for speech-lan­ guage pathology services only if they are pro­ vided by a licensed practitioner (licensure re­ quires a master’s degree). For reimbursement in States that do not have licensure laws, Med­ icare and Medicaid require a master’s degree and completion or participation in 300 hours of supervised clinical experience. Speech and hearing specialists in public schools must have a practice certificate issued by the State educational agency. While some States permit individuals with a bachelor’s de­ gree in speech-language pathology or audiol­ ogy to practice in public schools, they may be classified as special education teachers rather than speech-language pathologists or audiol­ ogists. In 36 States, licenses are required for those offering speech-language pathology and au­ diology services in private practice, clinics, or other settings outside of schools. Although li­ censure requirements vary somewhat, all States require graduation from a master’s degree pro­ gram in speech-language pathology or audiol­ ogy, 300 hours of supervised clinical experi­ ence, and an examination. About 235 colleges and universities offered master’s programs in speech-language pathol­ ogy and audiology in 1987. Approximately twothirds of the master’s degree programs were accredited by the American Speech-Language https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Hearing Association (ASHA). Courses include advanced anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hearing, speech, and language; acoustics; psychological aspects of commu­ nication; quantitative measurement; and anal­ ysis of speech production, language abilities, and auditory processes. Graduate students also take courses in the nature, evaluation, and treatment of speech, language, and hearing dis­ orders and receive supervised clinical training in communicative disorders. Most individuals with a master’s degree ac­ quire the Certificate of Clinical Competence (CCC), either in speech-language pathology (CCC-SLP) or in audiology (CCC-AUD), of­ fered by the American Speech-Language­ Hearing Association. To earn the CCC, a per­ son must have a master’s degree or its equiv­ alent, complete a 9-month internship, and pass a national written examination. Other than the necessary academic require­ ments, individuals interested in speech-lan­ guage pathology and audiology should possess normal speech and hearing. They should also have the communications skills necessary to explain test results, diagnoses, and modes of treatment in a manner easily understood by a wide variety of patients. Speech-language pathologists and audiolo­ gists should be able to approach problems ob­ jectively and have a concern for the needs of others. They also should have considerable pa­ tience and compassion, because a client’s prog­ ress may be slow. In addition, they should be able to work with detail, to accept responsi­ bility, to work independently, and to direct others. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Anticipated changes in the size and age structure of the population will mean a substantial increase in the number of people  with communicative disorders. Because hear­ ing loss is strongly associated with old age, very rapid growth in the population age 75 and above will cause the number of hearing-im­ paired persons to skyrocket by the year 2000. While the aging of the population is expected to spur job growth, it is important to understand that clinical need alone does not govern de­ mand. Other factors that will influence job growth through the year 2000 include the de­ gree to which the public seeks treatment for speech, language, and hearing disorders; the extent of referrals from family members, teach­ ers, nurses, physicians, and others; the price of speech and hearing services; ability to pay for them, whether out of pocket or through third-party reimbursement; legal mandates re­ quiring services for the handicapped; and the impact of health care cost containment mea­ sures. Speech and hearing clinics, physicians’ of­ fices, and outpatient care facilities are expected to provide nearly half the new jobs in this occupation through the year 2000, largely in response to greatly increased demand for re­ habilitation services. Contributing to growth in this area, for example, is the anticipated ex­ pansion of rehabilitation programs for stroke victims and patients with head injuries. Substantial growth in the number of speechlanguage pathologists and audiologists in school systems has already occurred in response to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Some additional openings may result from a 1986 amendment to the Act ex­ tending mandated services to handicapped chil­ dren 3 to 5 years of age. This provision, along with an impending upturn in elementary school enrollments, is expected to created more jobs for special education personnel. Demand for speech-language pathologists and audiologists is also expected to rise in nurs­ ing homes and home health agencies, although it appears that most of these jobs will be filled by private practitioners employed on a contract basis. The number of speech-language pa­ thologists and audiologists in private prac­ tice—though small—is likely to rise sharply by the year 2000. This reflects practice patterns as well as reimbursement policies. Evaluation and treatment of communicative disorders usu­ ally involve outpatient visits unless other con­ ditions are present. Thus, speech and hearing services can be brought into the home, or to a school, hospital, nursing home, or rehabilita­ tion facility on an as-needed basis. This flex­ ibility in treatment site is an important factor in the anticipated expansion of private practice opportunities. New opportunities for consultant audiolo­ gists are expected in the area of industrial and environmental noise, as manufacturing firms and others develop and implement noise con­ trol programs. Job prospects in speech-language pathology and audiology should be very good through the year 2000, since supply is expected to fall short of demand. Enrollments in master’s degree programs have remained relatively stable since the late 1970’s. If program completions remain  Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/157  at current levels while demand for rehabilita­ tion services increases, prospects for jobseek­ ers should become even more favorable than they are today. Earnings According to a 1986 survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the av­ erage starting salary for speech-language pa­ thologists and audiologists in hospitals and medical centers was approximately $22,500. Experienced workers averaged about $28,000. Most speech-language pathologists and au­ diologists working in public schools are clas­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  sified as teachers or special education teachers, and are paid accordingly. A survey of entry level teacher salaries in 170 metropolitan areas shows that beginning teachers holding a bach­ elor’s degree earned approximately $18,300, on the average, during the 1986-87 school year. Beginning teachers holding a master’s degree averaged $19,700. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists and audiologists specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems.  Workers in other rehabilitation occupations in­ clude occupational therapists, physical thera­ pists, recreational therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply in­ formation on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on speech-language pa­ thology and audiology is available from: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852.  Health Technologists and Technicians Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (DOT. 078.121-010, .161-010, .221-010, .261-010 and -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, .381-010 and -014; 079.364-022)  Nature of the Work Because changes in body fluids, tissues, and cells are often a sign that something is wrong, clinical laboratory testing has come to play a crucial role in the detection and diagnosis of disease. Physicians order laboratory work for a wide variety of reasons, however. Test results may be used to establish values against which future measurements can be compared; to mon­ itor treatment, as with tests for drug levels in the blood that can indicate whether a patient is adhering to a prescribed drug regimen; to reassure patients that a disease is absent or under control; or to assess the status of a pa­ tient’s health, as with cholesterol measure­ ments. Although physicians depend heavily on lab­ oratory results, they do not ordinarily perform the tests themselves. That is the job of clinical laboratory personnel. Many clinical laborato­ ries are highly automated, and job duties reflect this. Using computerized instruments that per­ form a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, centrifuges, and other kinds  Accuracy is of utmost importance when per­ forming laboratory tests. 158   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of sophisticated laboratory equipment, these workers perform tests, interpret the results, and relay them to the patient’s physician. Depending on the worker’s level of skill, he or she may run routine tests or perform complex analyses that require a number of steps to arrive at the information needed by the physician. The types of tests that clinical laboratory per­ sonnel perform and the amount of responsi­ bility they assume vary by employment setting, but depend to a large extent on the kind of educational preparation they have. This section of the Handbook discusses the work of two levels of laboratory personnel: Technologists and technicians. Medical technologists have a bachelor’s de­ gree in medical technology or in one of the sciences, as a rule. They perform complicated chemical, biological, hematological, immu­ nologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. These may include chemical tests to determine blood cholesterol levels or microscopic ex­ aminations of blood and other substances to detect the presence of diseases such as leu­ kemia. Technologists microscopically examine other body constituents; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the pres­ ence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other mi­ cro-organisms; and analyze samples for chem­ ical content or reaction. They also type and cross-match blood samples for transfusions. The exact procedure depends on the test being performed. Most blood chemistry tests, forexample, are highly automated. The technologist or technician calibrates an instrument known as a chemical analyzer, loads it with the spec­ imens to be tested, selects the appropriate test code, and monitors the instrument to make sure it does not malfunction. Once the results are ready, the technologist verifies them for ac­ curacy and sends them out or reports them to the attending physician. If a test requires the identification of cell types, such as in leukemia, the procedures are very different. In addition to identifying the cells on a stained blood film or from bone marrow, special stains may be required, cell markers performed, and chro­ mosome studies completed. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, while those in large lab­ oratories usually specialize. Among the areas in which they can specialize are clinical chem­ istry (the chemical analysis of body fluids), blood bank technology (the collection and preparation of blood products for transfusion), cytotechnology (the study of human body cells), hematology (the study of blood cells), histol­ ogy (the study of human tissue), microbiology (the study of bacteria and other micro-organ­ isms), and immunology (the study of the hu­ man immune system).  Most medical technologists perform tests or­ dered by physicians for their patients. Others conduct research, develop laboratory tech­ niques, teach, or assume laboratory manage­ ment and administrative duties. Some tech­ nologists work as independent consultants, advising physicians on how to set up and op­ erate office laboratories. Others work in prod­ uct development and sales. Medical laboratory technicians generally have an associate degree from a community or junior college, or a diploma or certificate from a trade or technical school. They are midlevel laboratory workers who function under the su­ pervision of a medical technologist or labo­ ratory supervisor. They perform a wide range of routine tests and laboratory procedures. Technicians may prepare specimens and op­ erate automatic analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests following detailed instructions. Like technologists, they may work in several different areas of the clinical labo­ ratory or specialize in just one. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions vary ac­ cording to the size and type of employment setting, In large hospitals or in commercial laboratories that operate continuously, workers are hired specifically for the day, evening, or night shift. Weekend or holiday work may be required since these laboratories operate 365 days a year. Some smaller laboratories also operate 24 hours a day. Laboratory personnel in small facilities are likely to work on rotating shifts rather than on a regular shift, however. That is, they may work the evening or weekend shift one week, and the day shift the following week. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are required to be on call (available in case of emergency) several nights a week. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. It is of the utmost importance that specimens be handled properly to ensure that neither staff nor other test specimens become contaminated by dis­ ease-causing organisms. When proper methods of control and sterilization are followed, few hazards of infection exist. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean. At times, unpleasant odors may be pres­ ent. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. The work can create emotional as well as physical stress, inasmuch as treatment options often depend on quick and accurate analysis of laboratory specimens. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and techni­ cians held about 239,000 jobs in 1986. About  Health Technologists and Technicians/159  3 out of 5 worked in hospitals. Others worked in independent laboratories, physicians’ of­ fices, clinics, health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), public health agencies, pharma­ ceutical firms, and research institutions. About 1 laboratory worker in 5 holds a part­ time job. In 1986, Veterans Administration hospitals and laboratories employed about 4,000 medical technologists and about 2,000 medical labo­ ratory technicians. Others employed by the Federal Government worked for the U.S. Pub­ lic Health Service. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for a beginning job as a medical technologist is a bachelor's degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences. It is also possible to qualify through on-the-job experience, specialized training, or a combination of these. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical tech­ nology include substantial course work in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, and mathematics, with the final component of course work devoted to acquiring the knowl­ edge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. In addition to basic science, many programs offer or require course work in management, business, and computer applications. Programs in medical technology are offered by colleges and universities as well as by hos­ pitals. Hospital programs generally are affili­ ated with colleges or universities and lead to a bachelor’s degree, although a few hospital programs require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Many universities offer advanced degrees in medical technology and related clinical labo­ ratory sciences for technologists who plan to specialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in teaching, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians acquire their training in a variety of ways, including com­ munity and junior colleges, hospitals, and vo­ cational and technical schools. Many programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Some medical laboratory technicians are trained in the Armed Forces. Persons interested in a clinical laboratory career should be careful about selecting an ed­ ucational program. Prospective employers— hospitals and independent laboratories—may have preferences as to program accreditation. (Accreditation indicates that an educational program meets established standards.) Edu­ cational programs should be able to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, educational costs, the length of time the educational program has been in op­ eration, instructional facilities, and faculty qualifications. Nationally recognized accrediting agencies in the allied health field include the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) in cooperation with the National Ac­ crediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sci­ ences (NAACLS), and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). CA­ HEA accredits programs that provide education  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  for 26 allied health occupations including med­ ical technologists, cytotechnologists, histo­ logic technicians, specialists in blood bank technology, and medical laboratory techni­ cians. ABHES accredits training programs for medical laboratory technicians and medical as­ sistants. Licensure and certification are well estab­ lished in the health field as methods of assuring the skill and competence of personnel. Licen­ sure refers to the process by which a govern­ ment agency authorizes individuals to engage in a given occupation and use a particular job title. California, Florida, Hawaii, Nevada, Tennessee, and New York City require medical technologists and technicians to be licensed. Some States, such as Georgia, require regis­ tration. More information is available from State departments of health, boards of occupational licensing, or occupational information coor­ dinating committees. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization such as a professional society grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certifi­ cation is a prerequisite for some jobs and often is necessary for career advancement. Agencies that certify medical laboratory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Patholo­ gists in conjunction with the American Asso­ ciation of Blood Banks, the American Medical Technologists, the National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the Interna­ tional Society of Clinical Laboratory Tech­ nology. These agencies have different require­ ments for certification and different organizational sponsors. Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for clinical laboratory person­ nel. Close attention to detail is essential be­ cause small differences or changes in tests sub­ stances or numerical readouts can be critically important for patient care. Manual dexterity and norma] color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of automated labo­ ratory equipment, mechanical, electronic, and computer skills are gaining in importance. In addition, technologists in particular are ex­ pected to be good at problem solving and to have strong interpersonal and communications skills. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work and, after several years’ experience, to posi­ tions such as chief medical technologist or lab­ oratory manager in a large hospital. Manufac­ turers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek ex­ perienced technologists to assist in product de­ velopment or to work in marketing and sales. Manufacturers value the knowledge and handson experience that medical technologists bring to the firm, and the shift out of the laboratory to product sales and development offers ex­ cellent opportunities for career advancement.  Graduate education in one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or educa­ tion usually speeds advancement. Technicians can advance to positions as technologists through additional education and experience. Job Outlook Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 be­ cause of the increased volume of testing. Con­ tinued expansion of the clinical laboratory field is foreseen for three fundamental reasons. First is the increase in disease and disability that will accompany rapid growth of the middle-aged and older population. Second is the probability of new, more powerful diagnostic tests. Ad­ vances in biotechnology have already changed testing methods through the use of monoclonal antibodies and other advanced technologies that permit rapid, simple, and accurate testing. As further advances occur, they are likely to spur more testing. And lastly, research laboratories that work to find the cause, treatment, and cure for diseases such as acquired immune defi­ ciency syndrome (AIDS) are expanding dra­ matically in response to increased funding from public and private sources. Employment would grow even faster were it not for advances in laboratory automation that are expected to make it possible for fewer people to perform more tests. Research and development efforts are targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures so that nonlabora­ tory personnel—physicians and patients in par­ ticular—can perform some of the basic tests that currently must be sent to a clinical labo­ ratory for analysis. Traditionally, most clinical testing has been done in hospitals. This is changing, however. Ongoing restructuring of the health services industry has led to a shift in testing from hos­ pitals to physicians’ offices and commercial laboratories. As hospitals examine the costeffectiveness of their laboratory operations, they are becoming more selective about the tests they perform in-house. Routine laboratory work is likely to be retained, while unusual, rarely performed tests may be sent for processing to a commercial laboratory. At the same time, some hospitals are expanding the scope of their operations through aggressive marketing, and others are setting up regional centers much like commercial laboratories. Hospital jobs are expected to provide about one-fifth of the new jobs for clinical laboratory personnel. Many additional openings will oc­ cur in the hospital sector, however, due to replacement needs. Turnover is an important source of openings in this occupation since career advancement often means leaving a job as a technologist in order to become a sales representative, consultant, or educator. The increased volume of testing in physi­ cians’ offices is likely to lead to more jobs for clinical laboratory personnel. Some practices will hire full-time technologists or technicians, while others will employ part-time personnel to run tests at the end of the day. Demand for clinical laboratory personnel, though strong, is  160/Occupational Outlook Handbook  not expected to keep pace with the increased volume of tests performed in physicians’ of­ fices, however. In the absence of regulatory changes, small medical practices will probably continue to have in-house laboratory work done by nurses or medical assistants, thereby avoid­ ing the expense of hiring laboratory personnel. Employers’ preferences vary so much that it is hard to generalize about future prospects for the different levels of clinical laboratory personnel. On the one hand, demand for tech­ nologists is likely to be sustained by the com­ plexity of much clinical testing; the need for in-depth knowledge and independent judgment to verify test results and advise physicians; expansion of research laboratory facilities; and technologists’ greater versatility. On the other hand, advances in laboratory automation will continue to routinize certain tests, which may be favorable for technicians. Already, com­ mercial laboratories and hospital laboratories that are large enough to support the investment in highly automated equipment employ more technicians than smaller facilities, where there is more custom work and greater use of meth­ ods requiring a technologist’s expertise. As user-friendly laboratory equipment becomes more widely available, technicians are likely to be hired by medical groups and clinics for on-site testing of specimens previously sent to a large laboratory. This would heighten de­ mand for technicians in such settings. Like other areas of health care, the clinical laboratory is undergoing change on a scale that makes it extremely difficult to project future trends. For both technologists and technicians, demand will vary among employment settings, and job prospects will be affected by diverse factors including economic conditions; struc­ ture of the clinical laboratory market; strategies by health care providers seeking to enter that market; third-party reimbursement policy and other profit considerations; and changes in lab­ oratory licensure and staffing regulations. Opportunities for jobseekers depend upon supply as well as demand, and the supply of qualified applicants may vary from one commmunity to another. Nonetheless, overall pros­ pects are very good, for enrollments in clinical laboratory training programs have leveled off in recent years, and little change in the supply of newly trained laboratory personnel is ex­ pected through the year 2000. Earnings Salaries of clinical laboratory personnel vary depending on the employer and geographic lo­ cation. In general, those in large cities receive the highest salaries. Starting salaries for medical technologists employed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $19,600 a year in 1986, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Be­ ginning salaries for cytotechnologists averaged about $18,500; for histology technicians, about $15,600; and for medical laboratory techni­ cians, about $14,700. According to the same survey, experienced medical technologists working in hospitals, medical schools, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  medical centers averaged about $26,100 a year in 1986; cytotechnologists, about $23,800; his­ tology technicians, about $20,000; and medical laboratory technicians, about $19,500. The Federal Government paid medical tech­ nologists a starting salary of about $15,500 a year in 1986. Those having experience, su­ perior academic achievement, or a year of graduate study entered at about $19,000. Start­ ing salaries for technicians began at $9,500 a year in 1986, depending on education and ex­ perience. Medical technologists in the Federal Government averaged about $25,000 in 1986, and medical laboratory technicians, about $18,200. Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and techni­ cians perform a wide variety of tests to help physicians diagnose and treat disease. Their principal activity is the analysis and identifi­ cation of substances. Other workers who per­ form laboratory tests include biology specimen technicians, criminalists, food testers, sample testers, veterinary laboratory technicians, and water purification chemists. Sources of Additional Information Career information is available from: American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12270, Chicago, IL 60612. American Society for Medical Technology, 2021 L St. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20036. American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. American Association of Blood Banks, Suite 600, 1117 N. 19th St., Arlington, VA 22209. American Association for Clinical Chemistry, 1725 K St. NW., Suite 1010, Washington, DC 20006. American Society of Cytology, 1015 Chestnut St., Suite 1518, Philadelphia, PA 19107. Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514.  Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010)  Nature of the Work Dental hygienists provide preventive dental care and encourage patients to develop good oral hygiene skills. In addition to carrying out clin­ ical responsibilities such as cleaning and scal­ ing teeth, hygienists help patients develop and maintain good oral health by explaining the relationship between diet or smoking and oral health, for example, and showing patients how to select toothbrushes and use floss threaders. Although most hygienists work with individual patients, some develop and promote commu­ nity dental health programs. Depending on legal requirements in the State where they work, dental hygienists provide a wide range of services. They evaluate the pa­ tient’s dental health; remove calculus, stain, and plaque from above and below the gumline; apply caries-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants; instruct patients on plaque control; expose and develop dental X-rays; place temporary fillings and periodon­ tal dressings; remove sutures; and polish and recontour amalgam restorations. In some States, hygienists who have the req­ uisite education provide additional services— administering local anesthetics and nitrous ox­ ide/oxygen analgesia, placing and carving fill­ ing materials, and providing additional per­ iodontal services. The nature of the work may vary by practice setting. In schools, for example, hygienists may assist the dentist in examining children’s teeth to determine the dental treatment required. Hy­ gienists having advanced training may teach or conduct research.  Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514.  Working Conditions Dental hygienists usually work in clean, welllighted offices. Important health safeguards for persons in this occupation include regular med­ ical checkups, strict adherence to proper radio­ logic procedures, compliance with recom­ mended aseptic technique, and utilization of appropriate protective devices when adminis­ tering nitrous oxide/oxygen analgesia. The oc­ cupation is one of several covered by the Con­ sumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which encourages the States to adopt uniform standards for the training and certifi­ cation of individuals who perform medical and dental radiologic procedures. Most hygienists average 35 hours per week in jobs that may include Saturday or evening hours.  For information about employment oppor­ tunities in a Veterans Administration medical center, contact the personnel office of that cen­ ter. Information about employment opportuni­ ties with the National Institutes of Health is available from the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.  Employment Dental hygienists held about 87,000 jobs in 1986. Because multiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs greatly exceeds the number of people at work in a given year. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists who want  National Certification Agency for Medical Labora­ tory Personnel, 1725 DeSales St. NW., Suite 403, Washington, DC 20036. International Society for Clinical Laboratory Tech­ nology, 818 Olive St., St. Louis, MO 63101.  For a list of CAHEA-accredited educational programs for clinical laboratory personnel, write: Committee on Allied Health Education and Accre­ ditation, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610.  For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Ac­ crediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write:  Health Technologists and Technicians/161  to work more hours often hold jobs in more than one practice setting. Most dental hygienists work in private dental offices. Other places of employment include public health agencies, school systems, busi­ ness firms, hospitals, clinics, and schools of dental hygiene.  9  *  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they plan to practice. To qualify for ESE3. State licensure, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass a national board written examination and a clin­ ical examination. The American Dental As­ sociation Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers a written examina­ tion that is accepted for licensure by 49 States and the District of Columbia. In addition, ex­ aminations on legal aspects of dental hygiene practice are required by most States. States participating in regional board testing recip­ rocate by accepting regional board examina­ Dental hygienists must be licensed. tion results from other States within their recommended for aspiring dental hygienists are region. In 1986, more than 200 schools of dental biology, health, chemistry, psychology, speech, hygiene in the United States were accredited and mathematics. by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Although some programs lead to a bachelor’s Job Outlook degree, most grant an associate degree. A few Employment of dental hygienists is expected institutions offer both types of programs. Sev­ to grow much faster than the average for all eral universities offer master’s degree pro­ occupations through the year 2000. Employ­ ment prospects should be favorable as the grams in dental hygiene. Completion of an associate degree program demand for dental care increases, stimulated is sufficient for the dental hygienist who wants by population growth, rising real incomes, to practice in a private dental office. A bach­ growing public awareness of the importance of elor’s or master’s degree is usually required oral health, and the fairly widespread avail­ for positions that involve research, teaching, ability of dental insurance. Additional job or clinical practice in public or school health openings for dental hygienists will result from programs. Dental hygienists with a master’s the need to replace workers who leave the oc­ degree are qualified for teaching or adminis­ cupation. trative positions in dental hygiene educational Job prospects for dental hygienists are af­ fected by practice patterns in dentistry as well programs. The minimum requirement for admission to as by the level of demand for dental care. At a school of dental hygiene varies from school present, the use of dental hygienists is prevalent to school. However, most dental hygiene pro­ in some places, but not in others. This is chang­ ing as greater numbers of recent dental school grams prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college, and several programs graduates set up practice. New dentists are dis­ require applicants to have completed 2 years. posed to hire hygienists because they are taught in dental school how to make effective use of The curriculum in a dental hygiene program consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental dental hygiene services. The trend toward group practice and retail dentistry—practice styles sciences, clinical sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and that stress appropriate utilization of dental aux­ classroom instruction in subjects such as anat­ iliaries—should also contribute to job growth omy, physiology, chemistry, pharmacology, for hygienists. nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of Practice patterns in dentistry are expected to tissue structure), periodontology (the study of sustain strong demand for dental hygienists. gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, Nonetheless, those patterns could change, in clinical dental hygiene, and social and behav­ view of the abundant supply of dentists and ioral sciences. improvements in dental health due to fluori­ People who want to become dental hygien­ dation and other forms of preventive dentistry. ists should enjoy working with others. The Should patient load fall sharply, dentists in ability to put patients at ease is helpful, for private practice might choose to perform more patients often are under stress. Personal neat­ functions themselves, thereby curtailing de­ ness, cleanliness, and good health are impor­ mand for dental hygienists in that setting. tant qualities. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use various den­ Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by tal instruments with little room for error within a patient's mouth. Among high school courses geographic location, employment setting, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the education and experience of the individual. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. According to a survey conducted for the American Dental Hygienists’ Association, earnings for most hygienists, a majority of whom were employed on a part-time basis, ranged between $12,500 and $22,500 a year in 1986. Fringe benefits vary substantially by practice setting, and may be contingent upon full-time employment. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies have the same benefits as other workers in these organizations. Related Occupations Other occupations supporting health practi­ tioners in an office setting include dental as­ sistants, ophthalmic medical assistants, podiatric assistants, office nurses, medical assistants, and physician assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists' Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611.  For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611.  The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State, or the American Association of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, can supply information on licensing requirements.  162/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.474-010)  Nature of Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses, and workers in a variety of occupations are involved in provid­ ing vision care. Among these are dispensing opticians, who fit eyeglasses and sometimes fit contact lenses as well. The health practitioners who examine eyes and prescribe corrective lenses are ophthal­ mologists and optometrists. (Sec the statement on physicians, which includes ophthalmolo­ gists, and the one on optometrists elsewhere in the Handbook.) After a checkup by an ophthalmologist, people who need corrective lenses ordinarily visit a dispensing optician (also called an ophthalmic dispenser) to have the prescription filled. Optometrists generally fill prescriptions in-house. They may do their own dispensing, or employ an optician to do it for them. Dispensing opticians order the necessary ophthalmic laboratory work, help the customer select appropriate frames, and adjust the fin­ ished eyeglasses. In some States, they fit con­ tact lenses under the supervision of an opto­ metrist or ophthalmologist. During the customer’s visit, the optician  m  measures the distance between the centers of the pupils of the eyes to determine where lenses should be placed in relation to them. In helping customers select from the various styles and colors of eyeglass frames, they may consider the customer's occupation and habits, hairstyle and facial features, and the weight and thick­ ness of the corrective lenses. The optician then prepares work orders that give the ophthalmic laboratory the information it needs to grind the lenses and insert them in a frame. The work orders include lens pre­ scriptions and information on lens size, ma­ terial, color, and style, among other things. Some dispensing opticians do their own lab­ oratory work, preparing the lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, the optician checks the power and surface quality of the lenses with special instruments, then adjusts the frame to the contours of the customer’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfortably. Ad­ justments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers. In fitting contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the corneas of customers’ eyes, and then prepare specifications for the contact lens manufacturer which include the doctor’s pre­ scription and information on lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than fitting eyeglasses. Dis­ pensing opticians instruct customers in how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses. At each visit, to be sure that the fit is correct, the  *  , 3  i  H$  Large retail optical chains will provide many new jobs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  dispensing optician observes the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instruments and microscopes. Ophthalmolo­ gists or optometrists recheck the fit, as needed. Opticians may make minor adjustments; for major changes, lenses are returned to the pre­ scription laboratory. The majority of dispensing opticians fit eye­ glasses, but some specialize in fitting cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. Still others— called ocularists—specialize in fitting artificial eyes (prostheses). In some shops, they may do lens grinding and finishing and sell other op­ tical goods such as binoculars, magnifying glasses, and nonprescription eyeglasses (sun­ glasses, for instance). Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in pleasant, quiet surroundings that are well lighted and well ventilated. Because they sell and service eye lenses, they deal with customers most of the time. They spend part of their time on their feet. If they work in a laboratory where eye­ glasses are made, they need to take precautions to guard against the hazards associated with cutting glass and handling various chemical solutions and machines with moving parts. Dispensing opticians generally work a 40-hour week, although a 45- or 50-hour week is not uncommon. Some, especially those employed in retail shops in large shopping centers, work in the evenings and on Saturdays. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 50,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked full time. Most dispensing opticians work for ophthal­ mologists or optometrists who sell glasses di­ rectly to patients. About one-third work for optical shops or for department stores, drug stores, and other retail outlets, including the so-called "superoptical stores.” Firms in this rapidly growing segment of the retail trade in­ dustry cater to consumers’ desire for fast and convenient service by offering one-stop shop­ ping: Customers may have their eyes exam­ ined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. These stores employ not only dis­ pensing opticians, but optometrists and ophthalmic laboratory personnel as well. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dispensing opticians learn their skills on the job. However, employers generally prefer applicants who are familiar with the trade, and an increasing number of trainees have some formal training in optical dispensing and fab­ ricating. On-the-job training in dispensing work may last several years and usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machinery and tools. Training programs vary from employer to em­ ployer. In large companies, on-the-job training is structured much like an apprenticeship pro­ gram, while training in small establishments is largely informal. Employers considering applicants for entry  Health Technologists and Technicians/163  level jobs in optical dispensing look for high school graduates who have had courses in sci­ ence and mathematics. Knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable. Previous experience in a related job is an asset. Because dispensing op­ ticians deal directly with the public, they should be tactful and have a pleasant personality. Communication skills are highly valued. Formal training in opticianry is offered by community colleges, vocational-technical in­ stitutes, trade schools, and manufacturers in programs that last from a few weeks to several years. In 1987, there were 45 such programs. The Commission on Opticianry Accredita­ tion—consisting of representatives from the American Board of Opticianry, the National Academy of Opticianry, the Opticians Asso­ ciation of America, the National Federation of Opticianry Schools, and the public—has ac­ credited 15 of them, 12 of which lead to an associate degree and 3 to a certificate. In ad­ dition, some medical schools, contact lens manufacturers, and professional societies offer short, nondegree courses in contact lens fitting. A small number of opticians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Some opticians acquire their skills through 2- to 4-year apprenticeship programs offered by optical dispensing companies. Apprentices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Individual States set the entrance requirements for these pro­ grams, with high school graduation ordinarily required. Apprentices receive training in op­ tical mathematics and optical physics and in the use of laboratory equipment. In addition to technical training, apprentices may work directly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Trainees also are taught the basics of office management and sales. In States requiring dispensing opticians to be licensed, information about apprenticeships is available from the State agency responsible for occu­ pational licensing. In the other States, infor­ mation is available from the Division of Ap­ prenticeship Training of the State Department of Labor. Credentials for dispensing opticians are gained through licensure—required by law in 22 States and Puerto Rico—and through vol­ untary certification or registration. In most States that require a license to dispense eyeglasses, continuing education is necessary for relicen­ sure. For specific information about licensing procedures, consult the State board of occu­ pational licensing. Certification is offered by the American Board of Opticianry and by the National Con­ tact Lens Examiners. Continuing education is required to maintain certification. Many experienced dispensing opticians go into business for themselves. Others become managers of retail optical stores or sales rep­ resentatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses.  occupations through the year 2000 in response to sharply rising demand for corrective lenses, a result of demographic trends. Not only is the population growing, but, over the next decade, the number of middle-aged and elderly persons is projected to increase substantially. Middle age is a time when many persons begin using corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Vision screening programs and other efforts to increase public awareness of eye care are likely to stimulate demand as well. Nowadays, thanks in part to advertising by optical com­ panies, less stigma is attached to wearing eye­ glasses than in the past. Industrial safety pre­ cautions may require more safety goggles and glasses. Increased participation in sports may require some people to use special lenses and frames. Fashion, too, influences demand. The growing variety of frame styles and colors— as well as the increasing popularity of contact lenses—encourages people to buy more than one pair of corrective lenses. Finally, demand is expected to grow in response to products such as photochromic lenses (glasses that be­ come sunglasses in sunlight), now available in plastic as well as glass; tinted lenses; bifocal contact lenses; and extended wear contact len­ ses. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, with employment falling somewhat during downturns and rising during periods of economic recovery. As is generally the case, however, most openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or stop working. Employment opportunities should be excel­ lent for dispensing opticians who have an as­ sociate degree in opticianry. Opportunities will be best in metropolitan areas. Not only are there more optical shops and chain stores in cities and suburban areas, but retail optical shops in small communities tend to be small establish­ ments with few employees. Often, the owners themselves are opticians and handle all the op­ tical dispensing without assistance.  Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase much faster than the average for all  National Federation of Opticianry Schools, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr.. Hwy., Suite 112, Bowie, MD 20715.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings According to the limited information available, dispensing opticians earned between $15,000 and $20,000 a year in 1987, not including bo­ nuses and commissions. Dispensing opticians who own and operate their own shops can ex­ pect to earn considerably more. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers deal with customers and perform delicate work include tailors, jewelers, calibrators, ophthalmic lab­ oratory technicians, orthodontic technicians, prosthetics technicians, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact:  Opticians Association of America, 10341 Democ­ racy Ln., P.O. Box 10110, Fairfax, VA 22030.  The National Federation of Opticianry Schools can also supply a list of all training programs in opticianry. For a list of accredited training programs, contact: Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr., Hwy., Suite 110, Bowie, MD 20715.  A list of homestudy programs and seminars is available from: National Academy of Opticianry. 10111 Martin Lu­ ther King, Jr., Hwy., Suite 112, Bowie, MD 20715.  EEG Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.362-022)  Nature of the Work Electroencephalography is a procedure that measures the electrical activity of the brain. An instrument called an electroencephalograph records this activity and produces a written tracing of the brain’s electrical impulses. This record of brain waves, an electroencephalo­ gram (EEG), can be taken while patients are at rest or asleep, while they are subjected to stimuli such as loud sounds and blinking lights, or during periods of exaggerated breathing. The so-called “resting” EEG is a basic di­ agnostic tool in the area of neurology. Neu­ rologists use electroencephalograms to help di­ agnose the extent of injury for patients suspected of having brain tumors, strokes, metabolic thoraxic disorders, or epilepsy; to measure the effects of infectious diseases on the brain; and to determine whether individuals with mental or behavioral problems have an organic im­ pairment such as Alzheimer’s disease. Sur­ geons use them to monitor the patient’s con­ dition during major surgery. EEG’s are standard in intensive care units as well, since absence of electrical activity in the brain is a basis for determining that a patient is “clinically” dead, or is used to assess the prospects for recovery of patients in a coma. More sophisticated equipment is used for special EEG procedures, including ambulatory monitoring, evoked potential studies, sleep studies, and brain wave mapping. Tests such as these improve the physician’s ability to de­ tect the underlying reasons for a wide variety of troubling conditions. Ambulatory monitor­ ing is used to check the activity of the brain over a 24-hour period. Sometimes, in cases where patients experience dizzy spells or sud­ den blackouts, brain waves may appear per­ fectly normal until the onset of symptoms. By monitoring such patients for an extended period of time, there is a better chance of detecting abnormal brain wave patterns. Evoked poten­ tial studies are used to aid in the evaluation of the visual, auditory, and other sensory systems of the body, and in the diagnosis of multiple  164/Occupational Outlook Handbook  sclerosis, for example. Sleep studies have proven valuable in the treatment of sleep dis­ orders, impotence, and some cases of hyper­ tension. Brain wave mapping involves the use of computer-generated images of brain func­ tion; it is simply an enhancement of the EEG, in which a color-coded picture or “map” shows the intensity of brain waves in different areas of the brain. The people who operate electroencephalo­ graphs are called EEG technologists or tech­ nicians. The titles are used interchangeably and do not necessarily denote different skill levels. With the introduction of additional tests and machines that measure the electrical activity of the brain, a new job title is coming into use: Electroneurodiagnostic or neurophysiologic technologist. It may take years, however, be­ fore another term replaces “EEG technologist” in standard usage. It is not just job titles that are changing with the development of new ways of monitoring and evaluating the functioning of the nervous system. Job duties and skill levels are changing as well. Proficiency in operating basic EEG equipment is becoming little more than the entry level skill for jobs in this field; additional training is necessary for personnel who perform special EEG procedures. Before EEG technologists produce electro­ encephalograms, they take a short medical his­ tory and help the patient relax. Then they apply electrodes to designated spots on the patient’s head and body and make sure that the instru­ ments are working correctly. The technologist chooses the most appropriate combination of instrument controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. Technologists must recognize and correct any artifacts that appear (an artifact is an electrical or mechanical event that comes from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or interference from electrical sources). Mechanical problems with the electroencephalograph are reported to the  EEG technologists must he able to recognize abnormal brain-wave patterns.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  supervisor, so that the machine can be repaired promptly. The first step in conducting a special pro­ cedures EEG is essentially the same as that for a resting EEG—attaching electrodes to the pa­ tient’s body. However, electrodes for a resting EEG are secured at various places on the scalp, whereas a special procedures EEG may require that electrodes be secured on the chest, arm, leg, or spinal column as well, to record activity from both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the procedure known as ambulatory mon­ itoring, activity of the heart as well as the brain may be monitored while the patient carries out normal activities over a 24-hour period. Once the monitoring time has elapsed, the technol­ ogist removes the small recorder fastened to the patient’s side and feeds the recorded in­ formation into a special machine which trans­ forms the digital recordings into hard copy (pa­ per) EEG tapes. The technologist reviews the tapes, a process which can take several hours, selecting sections for the physician to examine. In order to determine which sections merit at­ tention from the physician, the technologist must be able to distinguish between normal and abnormal brain wave patterns. Whereas ambulatory EEG’s measure general brain wave activity, evoked potential testing uses a special machine to measure sensory and physical response to specific stimuli. After the electrodes have been attached properly, the technologist sets the machine for the type and intensity of the stimulus. If there is no reaction, progressively stronger stimuli are applied until the patient reacts. Once there is a reaction, the sensation level is noted. Additional stimuli are applied until the technologist decides an ade­ quate reading has been taken. The technologist may spend anywhere from 1 to 4 hours with the patient when an evoked potential test is being run. Increasingly, technologists are called upon to set up and monitor EEG’s and evoked po­ tential tests in the operating room. Surgical monitoring requires that technologists be well versed in anesthesia and its effect on brain waves, so that they can alert the surgical team when readings from the EEG instrument sug­ gest an abnormal reaction. Sleep studies and brain wave mapping are examples of other diagnostic procedures ad­ ministered by specialized EEG personnel. Sleep studies require technologists to be competent in monitoring respiration and heart activity in addition to brain wave activity. Technologists must know the various stages of sleep, the average length of each stage, and the charac­ teristic functioning of the neurologic and car­ diopulmonary systems during each stage. When all the necessary readings have been taken, the technologist coordinates readings from the var­ ious organ systems, separating them according to the various stages of sleep, and relays them to the physician. Brain wave mapping requires the technologist to decide which sections of the EEG should be transformed into color-coded pictures of brain wave frequency and intensity, for examination by a physician.  Technologists must know how to recognize changes in the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respiratory status. To react properly in an emergency, they must understand the kinds of medical emergencies that can occur while they are taking the EEG. For example, if a patient suffers an epileptic seizure in the EEG labo­ ratory, the technologist must be prepared to take the proper action. Besides conducting EEG’s, technologists may have supervisory or administrative re­ sponsibilities. They may, for example, manage the EEG laboratory, arrange work schedules, keep records, schedule appointments, order supplies, establish correct treatment proce­ dures, and provide instruction in EEG tech­ niques. In some hospitals, job duties are not confined to electroencephalography. EEG technologists perform EKG's and other kinds of procedures as well. To acquire the requisite skills, tech­ nologists are “cross-trained" to handle several different machines. A new trend in hospital staffing, the cross-training of “multicompetent” technicians, is seen as a way of holding down labor costs. Working Conditions EEG technologists usually work in clean, welllighted surroundings, and spend about half of their time on their feet. A lot of bending is necessary, as they may work with patients who are unruly or very ill and require assistance. A 5-day, 40-hour workweek with some overtime is normal, although some hospitals require EEG technologists to be “on call” (ready to report to work at a moment’s notice) after hours and on weekends and holidays. These employees generally work during the day, but those involved in sleep studies may work eve­ nings and nights. Employment Electroencephalographic technologists held nearly 5,900 jobs in 1986. Most jobs are in hospitals, but other health care settings are gaining in importance. EEG technologists work in neurology laboratories, offices of neurolo­ gists and neurosurgeons, group medical prac­ tices, health maintenance organizations, urgent care centers and clinics, and psychiatric facil­ ities. Most technologists work full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EEG technologists generally learn their skills on the job, although some complete formal training programs. Applicants for trainee po­ sitions in hospitals need a high school diploma, as a rule. Often, EEG trainees transfer to the neurology department from other jobs in the hospital, such as laboratory aide or licensed practical nurse. Formal training is offered at the postsec­ ondary level by hospitals, medical centers, community colleges, vocational-technical in­ stitutes, and colleges and universities. In 1986, the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation had approved 16 formal training programs for EEG personnel. Programs usually  Health Technologists and Technicians/165  last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory experience as well as classroom instruction in neurology, anatomy, neuroanatomy, physiol­ ogy, neurophysiology, clinical and internal medicine, psychiatry, and electronics and in­ strumentation. Graduates receive associate de­ grees or certificates. Credentials for EEG personnel are available through the American Board of Registration of Electroencephalographic Technologists, which awards the title “Registered EEG Technolo­ gist” to qualified applicants. This board also accredits technologists in the subspecialty of evoked potential as “Registered Evoked Po­ tential Technologist.” Although not generally required for entry level jobs, registration in­ dicates professional competence, and may be necessary for supervisory or teaching jobs. Persons who want to enter this field should have manual dexterity, good vision, an aptitude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other health personnel. High school students considering a career in this occupation should take courses in health, biology, human anat­ omy, and mathematics. EEG personnel in large hospitals can ad­ vance to chief EEG technologist and take on increased responsibilities in laboratory man­ agement and in teaching basic techniques to new personnel or students from EEG training programs. Chief EEG technologists generally are supervised by a physician—an electroencephalographer, neurologist, or neurosurgeon. Job Outlook Employment of EEG technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, chiefly be­ cause of increasing application of the EEG and related neurodiagnostic tests, and the willing­ ness of health insurers and other third-party payers to cover such examinations. Nonethe­ less, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force entirely. Continued acceptance of the value of the EEG is expected to sustain demand for the workers who perform these tests. Moreover, further advances in clinical neurophysiology are a virtual certainty, and these are likely to spur demand by expanding the uses of neu­ rodiagnostic testing. The rate at which this field expands will also be governed by the willingness of third-party payers to pay for neurological testing. EEG laboratories, which offer outpatient as well as inpatient testing, have become revenue centers for hospitals inasmuch as outpatient services are fully reimbursed at present. Some hospitals have expanded their EEG laboratories, adding space and hiring additional personnel. Non­ hospital providers have responded to incentives in the reimbursement system as well, expand­ ing the range of EEG procedures they offer and creating more jobs for EEG technologists. Because job growth through the year 2000 is expected to be very rapid in outpatient set­ tings, including offices of neurologists, med­ ical group practices, and health maintenance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  organizations, opportunities are likely to be especially favorable in those settings. Oppor­ tunities for individuals who have a background in EEG technology will be excellent. Hospitals and other employers prefer to hire individuals with some formal preparation. Earnings Starting salaries of EEG technologists em­ ployed by hospitals, medical schools, and med­ ical centers averaged 514,664 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Starting salaries for registered EEG technologists were $1,000 to $2,000 higher. Salaries of experienced EEG technol­ ogists ranged as high as $20,000 a year in 1986. Positions such as EEG laboratory supervisor, special procedures instructor, or EEG training program director generally command higher salaries. EEG technologists in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, in­ cluding paid vacations, sick leave, health in­ surance, and pensions. Some institutions pro­ vide tuition assistance, uniforms, parking, child care, and other employee benefits. Related Occupations Related occupations in supervised health care activities are audiometrist, electrocardiograph technician, clinical laboratory technician, oc­ cupational therapy assistant, surgical techni­ cian, physical therapy aide, and psychiatric aide. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. For general information about a career in electroencephalography as well as a list of ac­ credited training programs, contact: Executive Office, American Society of Electroneu­ rodiagnostic Technologists Inc., Sixth at Quint, Car­ roll, IA 51401.  Information about specific accredited train­ ing programs is also available from: Joint Review Committee for the Accreditation of EEG Technology Training Programs, 19 Silver Mine Rd., New Canaan, CT 06840.  Information on becoming a registered EEG technologist is available from: The American Board of Registry for EEG Technol­ ogy, do Betty Rasor, University of California, Davis Medical Center EEG Lab, 2315 Stockton Blvd., Sac­ ramento, CA 95817.  EKG Technicians (D.O.T. 078.362-018)  Nature of the Work Electrocardiograms (EKG’s) are graphic trac­ ings of heartbeats recorded by an instrument called an electrocardiograph. These tracings indicate the electrical impulses transmitted by the heart muscle during and between heart­ beats. EKG technicians operate the electro­  cardiograph to produce the tracings for review by a physician. Physicians order electrocardiograms to help diagnose certain forms of heart disease, mon­ itor the effect of drug therapy, and analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. The test is done before most kinds of surgery, including outpatient sur­ gical procedures. Some physicians use elec­ trocardiograms as a routine diagnostic proce­ dure for persons who have reached a certain age. In many fields, electrocardiograms are required as part of preemployment physical examinations. Since the equipment is mobile, EKG tech­ nicians can record electrocardiograms in a doc­ tor’s office, in a hospital heart station (car­ diology department), or at the patient’s bedside. After explaining the procedure to the patient, the technician attaches 10 electrodes to the chest, arms, and legs of the patient. Normally the technician applies a gel between the electrodes and the patient’s skin to facilitate the passage of the electrical impulses. By manipulating switches on the electrocardiograph and posi­ tioning the electrodes across the chest, the tech­ nician obtains a recording of the heart's elec­ trical action. A stylus or inkpen records the tracings on graph paper. The test is usually performed while the patient is resting or while exercising. The technician must know the anat­ omy of the chest and heart to select the exact locations for the chest electrodes. Electrodes placed in the wrong location result in an in­ accurate reading. After the recording is completed, the tech­ nician prepares the electrocardiogram for anal­ ysis by a physician, usually a heart specialist. The most advanced EKG equipment employs a computer to analyze the tracing, and the tech­ nician may need to enter information into the console using a keyboard. Technicians must be able to recognize and correct any technical errors, such as crossed leads, incorrect lead placement, or electrical interference, that pre­ vent an accurate reading. They also must call the doctor’s attention to any significant devia­ tions from the average normally recorded by the technique used. Physicians then review the recordings and study these and other deviations identified. Some EKG technicians schedule appoint­ ments, type doctors’ interpretations, maintain patients’ EKG files, care for equipment, and perform or assist in more specialized cardiac testing. Cardiology is one of the most rapidly de­ veloping fields in medicine today, and new procedures for diagnosing and treating heart and circulatory problems are being introduced all the time. These have raised skill require­ ments and created new occupations in the areas of cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary tech­ nology. For example, recognition of the value of monitoring heart action while the patient is normally active has led to widespread use of 24-hour ambulatory monitoring (also called Holter monitoring, after the physician who de­ veloped the equipment) and exercise stress test­ ing—a test that records the EKG during phys-  166/Occupational Outlook Handbook  physiology and by studying a medical diction­ ary. Applicants for EKG training must be re­ liable, have mechanical aptitude, ability to fol­ low detailed instructions, and presence of mind in emergencies. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at their ease is an asset. There are no licensing requirements for EKG technicians; acquiring credentials—available through the National Board of Cardiovascular Testing—is voluntary. Opportunities for advancement are good for technicians who become proficient in more complex procedures. Increasingly, experi­ enced EKG technicians are being trained to perform or assist with a wide range of cardiac tests, enabling them to advance to positions as monitor technicians, Holter monitor techni­ cians, stress testing technicians, or echocar­ diography technicians. Individuals with the requisite experience and training may even­ tually be upgraded to jobs as noninvasive or invasive cardiovascular technicians. Promo­ tion to supervisory positions is possible, too. Employers generally encourage and may pro­ vide training to technicians to help them be­ come competent in various procedures.  iBiaSia  EKG technicians usually are trained on the job. ical activity. Technicians who perform these tests need special training. EKG technicians perform a relatively simple task and do not have the skills to assist in the newer cardiac procedures unless they complete additional training. Working Conditions Technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those in hospitals and private clinics also may work evening hours. A lot of time is spent walking and standing. The work can become hectic. Employment Electrocardiograph technicians held about 18,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in cardiology departments of large hospitals. Others worked part time in small hospitals where workloads are not great enough to require full https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  __ time technicians. Some EKG technicians had jobs in cardiologists’ offices, cardiac rehabil­ itation centers, health maintenance organiza­ tions, or clinics.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EKG technicians are trained on the job, as a rule. Training usually is conducted by an EKG : supervisor or a cardiologist and lasts no more ithan 4 to 6 weeks for the basic “resting” EKG. ’ Training for specialized EKG testing is much imore extensive—usually 12 to 24 months— and involves in-depth study of cardiovascular anatomy and physiology. Applicants for trainee positions generally i must be high school graduates. High school i courses recommended for students interested iin this field include health, biology, and typing. 1Familiarity with medical terminology can be iacquired in classes on human anatomy and  Job Outlook Employment of EKG technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to an­ ticipated growth in cardiology. Demand for EKG technicians is not likely to keep pace with growth in the number of cardiac tests and pro­ cedures performed, however. Nor will job growth be as rapid as in the more highly skilled cardiology occupations—a consequence of productivity gains associated with newer EKG equipment and efforts to streamline hospital staffing. Most job openings, therefore, will re­ sult from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force altogether. Use of the EKG as a standard test in the diagnosis and treatment of heart disease is ex­ pected to continue, but advances in technology and computerization of hospital departments will substantially raise EKG technicians’ pro­ ductivity. An EKG which used to take 15 min­ utes can now be performed in 5 minutes, thanks to new EKG equipment that records readings more quickly and relieves the technician from having to mount three separate graphs on a backboard for the physician to read. In addi­ tion, computerization has cut back dramatically on paperwork. Rather than spending time on clerical duties, technicians can use their time administering EKG’s. Employment of EKG technicians will be fur­ ther constrained by hospitals’ efforts to cut labor costs. The equipment used for a resting EKG is so simple that the necessary skills can be mastered fairly quickly. Many hospitals are cutting back on EKG personnel by training registered nurses, respiratory therapists, and others to perform EKG procedures during off hours. Thus, some hospitals whose EKG de­ partments formerly operated on a 24-hour basis have cut back to 8- or 12-hour coverage; emer­ gency EKG’s are handled by other hospital  Health Technologists and Technicians/167  personnel. If this trend persists, it will dampen demand for EKG technicians in hospitals. An increasing number of jobs will be in offices of cardiologists, cardiology clinics, health maintenance organizations, and other outpatient settings. Facilities such as these are expected to experience very rapid growth through the year 2000. Nonetheless, hospitals are likely to remain the dominant employer of EKG technicians. Because entry requirements are minimal, the pool of prospective jobseekers is very large. In some communities, individuals seeking po­ sitions as EKG technicians may find that em­ ployers prefer applicants with previous EKG experience or formal training, including Armed Forces training. Individuals with training in Holter monitoring or stress testing in addition to basic EKG's may enjoy more favorable job prospects than those without these additional skills. Earnings EKG technicians employed in hospitals, med­ ical schools, and medical centers earned start­ ing salaries of about $12,900 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. EKG technicians who per­ form more sophisticated tests are paid more than those who perform only basic ones. Some experienced EKG technicians earned as much as $24,800 a year. EKG technicians in hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital personnel, in­ cluding health insurance, pension benefits, va­ cations, and sick leave. Some institutions pro­ vide tuition assistance, uniforms, and other benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations requiring oper­ ation of diagnostic or therapeutic equipment include audiometrists, electroencephalographic (EEG) technologists and technicians, radiologic technologists, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, cardiovascular technologists, cardiopulmonary technologists, and electroneurodiagnostic technicians. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. For a list of training programs in cardio­ vascular technology, contact: American Cardiology Technologists Association, Inc., 1980 Isaac Newton Square South, Reston, VA 22090. National Alliance of Cardiovascular Technologists, 5 West Hargett St., Suite 1100. Raleigh, NC 27601.  For a list of training programs in cardi­ opulmonary technology, contact: National Society for Cardiovascular and Cardiopul­ monary Technology, 1133 15th St. NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20005.  For information about acquiring credentials in cardiovascular technology, contact: National Board of Cardiovascular Testing, Inc., 5 Cold Hill Rd. South, Suite A-2, Box 158, Mendham, NJ 07945.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  For information about acquiring credentials in cardiopulmonary technology, contact: CardiovascularCredentialing International, 2801 Far Hills, #309. Dayton, OH 45419.  Emergency Medical Technicians (DOT. 079.374-010)  Nature of the Work An automobile accident, a heart attack, a near drowning, an unscheduled childbirth, a poi­ soning, a gunshot wound—all of these situa­ tions demand urgent medical attention. Seeing medical emergencies like these handled on television has made millions of Americans aware of the crucial role played by emergency medical technicians (EMT’s), formerly called ambulance attendants. A call from a dispatcher sends EMT's—who usually work in teams of two—to the scene of the emergency. Although speed is essential, EMT's obey the traffic laws governing the op­ eration of emergency vehicles. They also must know the best route to take in the face of traffic, road construction, and weather conditions. Upon arriving at the scene, the driver parks the ambulance in a safe place to avoid acci­ dents. If no police are present, bystanders may be enlisted to lend a hand. In the case of an automobile accident, for instance, bystanders can help control traffic by placing road flares, removing debris, and redirecting traffic. EMT's first determine the nature and extent of the patient's illnesses or injuries and estab­ lish priorities for emergency treatment. They also determine whether the patient has epi­ lepsy, diabetes, or other preexisting medical conditions, so they can provide the correct treatment. Operating under strict guidelines, EMT’s give appropriate emergency care, in­ cluding opening airways, restoring breathing, controlling bleeding, treating for shock, im­ mobilizing fractures, bandaging, assisting in childbirth, managing emotionally disturbed pa­ tients, treating and resuscitating heart attack victims, and giving initial care to poison and burn victims. Some procedures may only be carried out under the step-by-step direction of medical staff with whom the EMT’s arc in radio contact. EMT’s are trained to distinguish one kind of emergency from another. Often, the situa­ tion is serious enough to require a radio report directly to the hospital about the nature and the extent of injuries or illness. EMT’s may then be instructed by the hospital emergency staff to transmit vital signs and other information so that they can determine what treatment the EMT’s should provide. When patients are trapped, as sometimes is the case in an automobile or truck accident, EMT’s face a double problem. First, they must assess the patients’ injuries and supply all pos­ sible emergency medical care while protecting them from such dangers as chemicals or the  possibility of fire. Then they must use the cor­ rect equipment and techniques to safely remove the patients. EMT’s may use the radio or tele­ phone to contact the dispatcher to request ad­ ditional help or special rescue or utility ser­ vices. In case of death, EMT’s notify the proper authorities and arrange for the protection of the deceased’s property. When patients must be transported to a hos­ pital, EMT’s place them on stretchers or other patient-handling devices, carry them to the am­ bulance and lift them in, and then secure both patient and stretcher for the trip. EMT’s then drive to the hospital specified by their instruc­ tions, or, if none has been stipulated in ad­ vance, choose the nearest appropriately equipped hospital. On the way to the hospital, EMT’s monitor the patient’s vital signs and give additional care as needed or as directed by a physician with whom they have remained in radio contact. Some EMT’s work in large hospital trauma centers which use helicopters to transport crit­ ically ill or injured patients. Experience has shown that critically injured patients have a much better chance of survival if they can be transported to a trauma center within an hour of being injured. For this reason, and because operating costs are so high, helicopters are usu­ ally reserved only for patients who require the immediate or specialized attention available at a trauma center. Upon arrival at the hospital, EMT’s help transfer patients from the ambulance to the emergency department. They report their ob­ servations and care of the patients to the emer­ gency department staff for diagnostic purposes and as a matter of record. EMT’s may help the emergency department staff. One of the duties of EMT’s is to maintain a clean, well-equipped ambulance. After each run, EMT’s replace the used linen, blankets, and other supplies, send reuseable items to be sterilized, and carefully check all equipment so that the ambulance is ready for the next trip. If they have carried patients who have a con­ tagious disease, they decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report such calls to the proper authorities. In cases of radiation con­ tamination. they seek special experts to remove the radiation. EMT’s make sure that the am­ bulance is in good operating condition by checking the gasoline, oil, tire pressure, lights, siren, heater, brakes, and communications equipment before their shift begins. In addition to the EMT-Ambulance or EMTA, the entry level worker whose duties have just been described, there are two other levels of EMT's, known in most places as EMTIntermediates and EMT-Paramedics. These have more training than EMT-A's and can ac­ cordingly perform additional procedures, as specified by State law. In most States, EMTIntermediates may assess trauma patients, ad­ minister intravenous therapy, and use anti­ shock garments and esophageal airways. EMTIntermediates are widely used in rural areas, where the number and type of services called for require an individual with more training  168/Occupational Outlook Handbook  than an EMT-A but less than an EMT-Par­ amedic. EMT-Paramedics are trained in advanced life support skills. Working with radio communi­ cation under the direction of a physician, EMTParamedics in most States may administer drugs both orally and intravenously, interpret EKG’s, perform endotracheal intubation, and use com­ plex equipment such as a defibrillator. Working Conditions Because EMT’s must treat patients indoors and out, they are exposed to all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bending, and lifting. The work is not only physically strenuous, but emotionally drain­ ing—not surprising in a job that involves life and death situations. Individuals in this oc­ cupation are likely to experience considerable job-related stress. EMT’s employed by fire departments often have a 56-hour workweek. Those employed by hospitals and police departments often work 40 hours a week. Those in private firms often work more. Some EMT's, especially those in police and fire departments, have to be on call for extended periods. Volunteer EMT’s have varied work schedules, but many put in from 8 to 12 hours a week. Because many ambulance services function 24 hours a day, EMT’s often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Irregular working hours add to the stress of the job. Employment In 1986, there were 65,000 paid EMT’s; an estimated 10 percent of them were EMT-Par­ amedics. Most paid EMT’s work full time, while most volunteers work part time. Nearly all EMT jobs are found in private ambulance services, in hospitals, or in munic­ ipal police, fire, or rescue squad departments. Not surprisingly, volunteers are generally basic EMT’s. Those with more education and training, such as EMT-Intermediates, are more likely to hold a paid position. At the highest  EMTs often work in teams of two.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  level, EMT-Paramedic. relatively few are vol­ unteers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Few EMT’s received formal training until re­ cent years. Now, instruction in emergency medical care techniques is mandatory. A na­ tional standard training course is the 110-hour program designed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. This program or its equivalent is available in all 50 States, the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands. It is offered by police, fire, and health departments; in hos­ pitals; and as a nondegree course in medical schools, colleges, and universities. The 110-hour program provides instruction and practice in dealing with emergencies such as bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, car­ diac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and care for common emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction de­ vices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Physicians, nurses, and experienced EMT's usually give the lectures and demon­ strations. After completing basic EMT training, stu­ dents may take a 2-day course dealing with the removal of trapped victims and a 5-day course on driving emergency vehicles. EMT-Intermediates have basic EMT train­ ing plus some of the EMT-Paramedic course material. Training requirements for EMT-In­ termediates vary from State to State, but typ­ ically include further instruction in patient as­ sessment as well as the use of esophageal airways, intravenous fluids, and antishock gar­ ments. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics, of which there were about 450 in 1987, generally last an average of 9 months. The American Medical Association’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation accredits EMT-Paramedic programs that meet its stan­  dards. In many places, refresher courses and continuing education are available to EMT’s. Although requirements vary, applicants to an EMT training course generally must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or the equivalent, and have a valid driver’s license. Among high school subjects recom­ mended for persons interested in the field are driver education and health and science courses. Training in the Armed Forces as a “medic” is good preparation for prospective EMT’s. Graduates of approved EMT training pro­ grams who meet certain experience require­ ments and pass a written and practical exam­ ination administered by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians earn the title of Registered EMT-Ambulance. To main­ tain their proficiency, all EMT’s must reregis­ ter every 2 years. To reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT, meet a continuing education requirement, and pay a fee. The level of registration for EMT-Intermediate is above that for basic EMT’s, but below that for EMT-Paramedics. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination in­ clude registration as an EMT-A, 35 to 55 ad­ ditional hours of classroom work, and a spec­ ified amount of clinical experience and field internship. The examination covers the first part of the EMT-Paramedic training curriculum and builds upon the basic EMT skill levels. Registration for EMT-Paramedics by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians requires current registration or State certification as an EMT-Ambulance, success­ ful completion of an EMT-Paramedic training program, 6 months of field experience as an EMT-Paramedic, and passing a written and practical examination. Although not a general requirement for em­ ployment, registration is acknowledgment of an EMT's qualifications and makes higher pay­ ing jobs easier to obtain. In 1987. about 46,000 basic EMT’s were registered. In addition, all 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 24 States, the Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia, regis­ tration with the National Registry is required at some or all levels of certification. Seventeen other States require their own certification ex­ amination or provide the option of taking the National Registry examination. EMT’s should have good dexterity and phys­ ical coordination. They must be able to lift and carry up to 100 pounds. EMT’s need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Because EMT’s often work under trying conditions, they must exercise good judgment under stress and have leadership ability. Emo­ tional stability and the ability to adapt to many different situations help them handle difficul­ ties. They should have a neat and clean ap­ pearance and a pleasant personality. Job Outlook Employment of EMT’s is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Conflicting forces will shape demand for these workers. On the one  Health Technologists and Technicians/169  hand, population growth—very rapid growth in the number of older people in particular— is expected to lead to more jobs for EMT’s. Developments in the field of emergency med­ icine may heighten demand as well. As more physicians and nurses specialize in emergency medicine, appropriately trained EMT’s are likely to be used more effectively. Upgrading of the profession is expected to stimulate job growth for paid EMT’s. Other factors are likely to constrain job growth, however. Of foremost importance is the rising cost of training and equipping EMT’s. Cost containment will doubtless remain a preoccupation of emergency medical service providers for some time to come. The clinical benefits of providing emergency medical ser­ vices will accordingly be weighed against the cost to a greater extent than was true in the past. Other factors that may adversely affect demand for EMT’s include the termination of Federal startup funds for community emer­ gency medical services, taxpayer resistance to increased local government expenditures, and the availability of unpaid volunteers. Opportunities for paid EMT’s are expected to be best in municipal governments and private ambulance services. In many localities, tax­ payers have come to regard emergency medical services as a basic municipal service—as es­ sential as police and fire protection, for ex­ ample. However, a growing number of mu­ nicipalities are contracting with private ambulance services to furnish emergency med­ ical services instead of setting up a new mu­ nicipal program or hiring additional city or county EMT’s. If this trend persists, employ­ ment prospects in private ambulance services should be especially favorable. Demand for EMT’s in hospitals probably will be constrained by the continued slowdown in hospital industry growth, together with ad­ ministrators’ efforts to phase out unprofitable programs and services. While some hospitals are likely to expand their emergency and trauma services—initiating helicopter services, forexample—others will find that running an am­ bulance service is too expensive. Such hos­ pitals may decide to leave the provision of emergency medical services to others in the community. In addition to job openings created by ex­ pansion of emergency medical services, many additional openings will occur because of re­ placement needs, which are substantial in this occupation. Turnover is reported to be quite high, reflecting the stress and heavy respon­ sibility the work entails, and the modest pay. Prospects for qualified applicants should be excellent in the years ahead. Indeed, with the impending decline in the young adult popu­ lation—the traditional source of supply for en­ try level EMT’s, employers may have to de­ velop recruitment and retention programs. Earnings Earnings of EMT’s depend on the employment setting and geographic location as well as the individual’s training and experience. Accord­ ing to a survey conducted by the Journal of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Emergency Medical Services (JEMS), average earnings in 1987 were $18,700 for an EMTAmbulance (basic); $18,800 for an EMT-Intermediate; and $24,300 for an EMT-Paraniedic. EMT’s working for police and fire depart­ ments usually are paid the same salaries as police officers and firefighters. (See statements on police officers and firefighters elsewhere in the Handbook.) The fringe benefits offered by private am­ bulance companies vary widely. EMT’s em­ ployed by hospitals and police and fire de­ partments receive the same benefits as other employees. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life or death sit­ uations are policeofficers, firefighters, and reg­ istered nurses. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training courses, reg­ istration, and job opportunities for prospective EMT's can be obtained by writing to the Emer­ gency Medical Service Director of your State. Information about the registration of EMT’s also is available from: National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni­ cians, P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229.  General information about EMT’s is avail­ able from: National Association of Emergency Medical Tech­ nicians, 9140 Ward Parkway, Kansas City, MO 64114.  Licensed Practical Nurses (D.O.T. 079.374-014)  Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (L.P.N.’s) help care for the sick. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care that requires technical knowledge but not the professional education and training of a reg­ istered nurse. (The work of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses are called licensed vocational nurses. In hospitals, L.P.N.’s provide bedside care. They take and record temperatures and blood pressures, change dressings, and help patients with bathing and personal hygiene. Depending on State law and institutional practice, they may administer prescribed medicines and—in some places—start intravenous fluids. Some L.P.N.’s who work in hospitals assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants. Others help registered nurses (R.N.’s) monitor the condition of seriously ill patients in intensive care units or postoperative recovery rooms. In some instances, experienced L.P.N.’s super­ vise nursing assistants and aides.  L.P.N.’s in nursing homes handle a broad range of duties. In addition to providing routine bedside care, they may help assess residents' nursing needs, develop and implement treat­ ment plans, and supervise nursing aides. L.P.N.'s also perform such complex nursing procedures as treating bedsores, administering cardiopulmonary resuscitation, preparing and giving injections, applying dressings, and in­ serting catheters. In doctors’ offices, walk-in clinics, health maintenance organizations, and other outpa­ tient settings. L.P.N.’s perform a variety of clinical and clerical tasks. Specific duties de­ pend on the size and nature of the practice. L.P.N.’s may. for example, prepare patients for examination and treatment, administer medications, apply dressings, assist with pro­ cedures, do laboratory work, and instruct pa­ tients about prescribed health care regimens. They also may make appointments and keep records. L. P.N. ’s who work in private homes provide day-to-day patient care that may involve nurs­ ing treatments and use of technical equipment. In addition to providing nursing care, they may prepare meals, see that patients are comfort­ able, and help keep up their morale. They may teach family members how to perform simple nursing tasks. Working Conditions Licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nurs­ ing homes generally work 40 hours a week, but often this includes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. They often must stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. They must be able to handle the emotional stress involved in work­ ing with sick patients and their families. Hospital nurses face the occupational haz­ ards associated with being around caustic chemicals, infectious diseases, and radiation. L.P.N.’s must also be careful to avoid back injuries, shocks from electrical equipment, and the dangers associated with compressed gases such as those used for anesthesia. Many nursing homes are understaffed, re­ sulting in a heavy workload for nursing home nurses. The difficulty of fulfilling many dif­ ferent roles adds to the strain inherent in pro­ viding suitable care for people who may be frail and mentally confused. Many nursing home residents suffer from illnesses that make them irrational, highly agitated, or given to abrupt shifts in mood. In private homes, L.P.N.’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nursing affords a great deal of freedom in setting work hours and the length and fre­ quency of work assignments. Employment Licensed practical nurses held 631,000 jobs in 1986. About half of all L.P.N.’s worked in hospitals, and one-fifth worked in nursing homes (see chart). The rest worked in a variety of settings, including doctors’ offices, clinics, and temporary nursing pools. Some L.P.N. jobs are held by private duty  170/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Almost half of all L.P.N.’s work in hospi­ tals. nurses. These L.P.N.’s are either self-em­ ployed, in which case they are hired directly by patients or their families, or they are em­ ployees of a nurses' registry or temporary help agency. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require practical nurses to have a license. To become licensed, applicants must complete a State-ap­ proved program in practical nursing and pass the national written examination. Educational requirements for enrollment in State-approved training programs range from completion of ninth grade to high school graduation, but a high school diploma is usually preferred. In 1985, 1,128 State-approved programs provided practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or vocational schools offered more  than half of these programs. Other programs were available in high schools, community and junior colleges, hospitals, and health agencies. Several programs operated by the Armed Forces for military personnel were State-approved for practical nurse training. Graduates of approved programs can apply for licensure. Practical nurse training programs include both classroom study and clinical practice. Class­ room instruction covers basic nursing concepts and principles and related basic subjects, in­ cluding anatomy, physiology, medical-sur­ gical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychi­ atric nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. In addition, students receive su­ pervised clinical experience—usually in a hos­ pital, but sometimes in other settings as well. Currently, most L.P.N. programs last I year, but serious consideration is being given to ex­ tending this to 18 to 24 months. Sentiment is growing for setting entry requirements at the associate degree level, and one State—North Dakota—has already done so. Proposals to raise educational requirements for L.P.N. licensure arise from concern about the ability of practical nurses to keep up with the rapidly expanding knowledge base in health care. The severity of the illnesses encountered in hospitals and nurs­ ing homes today, the complexity of health care technology, and employers’ concern with risk management all suggest a need for strength­ ening the L.P.N. curriculum. Changes in L.P.N. training are most likely to come about, however, as part of an overall restructuring of educational and licensure re­ quirements for both registered nurses and prac­ tical nurses. Although proposals to upgrade entry requirements and create new job titles for nurses have been around for years, interest has intensified of late. Changes currently under consideration in many States could have a pro­ found impact on practical nursing, but it is still too soon to predict the outcome. L.P.N.’s should have a deep regard for hu­ man welfare and be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be upsetting.  More than half of all licensed practical nurses work in hospitals. Distribution of employment, 1986  Nursing homes  Temporary help agencies and private duty nursing  Hospitals  Offices of physicians  Other Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Job Outlook Employment of L.P.N.’s is expected to in­ crease much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the long-term care needs of a growing and aging population. The emphasis on specialty medicine and hightechnology hospital care has restrained em­ ployment growth in practical nursing for a dec­ ade or more. Because L.P.N.'s lack the train­ ing to handle highly sophisticated medical equipment, demand for these nurses is declin­ ing in academic medical centers, teaching hos­ pitals, and other institutions where the most advanced technology is in place. By the year 2000, hospitals are expected to employ fewer L.P.N.’s than they do today. Demand will come instead from nursing and personal care homes, psychiatric hospitals, private duty nursing, and home care settings, where treatment is less technologically oriented. The number of elderly and disabled persons in need of long-term care is rising rapidly. This is expected to lead to expansion of the nursing home sector and job growth for L.P.N. ’s. State and Federal regulations that set standards for nursing home staffing, the economics of the industry, and the scarcity of R.N.’s interested in geriatrics and long-term care—these and other factors encourage the employment of L.P.N.’s in nursing homes. Taken together, industry growth and facility staffing patterns are expected to generate many new jobs. Very rapid growth also is expected in the number of personal care facilities—residences such as board and care homes, old age homes, and group homes for the mentally retarded. This expansion should produce additional op­ portunities for L.P.N.’s, who may own and operate small facilities or serve on the staff of large ones. A growing number of licensed practical nurses provide home care, although they do not necessarily work for home health agencies. L.P.N. ’s in home care often work on a private duty basis, contracting directly with patients (or their families) or getting referrals through a nursing registry or temporary help agency. Overall, the years ahead will see long-term care emerge as the dominant area of employment for L.P.N.’s. Nursing shortages in some communities have contributed to a recent surge in demand for L.P.N.'s from temporary help agencies. Such jobs appeal to nurses who wish to work on a part-time or intermittent basis. Over the long run, prospects in the temporary help sector are likely to vary with general economic condi­ tions, since orders for agency nurses reflect employers’ fluctuating needs, on the one hand, and local labor market conditions, on the other. Additional opportunities for L.P.N.’s are expected in physicians’ offices, walk-in clin­ ics, and health maintenance organizations— all fast-growing segments of the health services industry. Employers in practice settings such  Health Technologists and Technicians/171  as these reportedly find L.P.N.’s (as well as R.N.’s and medical assistants) well suited for “generalist” roles that involve both clinical and clerical support duties. As in most other occupations, replacement needs will be the main source of jobs for L.P.N.’s. Hospitals, currently the dominant employer of L.P.N.’s, will probably replace many (but not all) of the practical nurses who leave their jobs for one reason or another. This will create a substantial number of job openings simply because hospitals employ so many L.P.N.’s to begin with. Staff turnover in many nursing homes is very high, and replacement needs in this sector will create additional open­ ings. Job prospects for L.P.N.’s depend on supply as well as demand. Enrollments in practical nurse training programs have been relatively stable for a decade or more and may decline through the year 2000, which should assure excellent job opportunities for new graduates. Future trends in L.P.N. supply are extremely uncertain, however, given the possibility of major changes in educational preparation and licensure requirements for the nursing profes­ sion. Earnings Median annual earnings of L.P.N.’s who worked full time in 1986 were about $15,600. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 13,000 and $18,000. The lowest 10 percent earned $11,000 or less. The top 10 percent earned more than $21,000. L.P.N.’s in nursing homes had a median annual salary of $15,000 in 1987, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Ser­ vice, Hawthorne, NJ. Starting salaries of L.P.N.’s employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $14,700 a year in 1986, ac­ cording to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experi­ enced L.P.N.’s averaged about $19,900. In 1987, the Veterans Administration paid L.P.N.’s with no experience annual salaries of $11,801. L.P.N.’s with 6 months of experience received $13,248 and those with 1 year, $14,821. L.P.N.’s employed by the Federal Government earned an average of about $ 16,200 in 1986. Many hospitals give pay increases after spe­ cific periods of satisfactory service. Paid hol­ idays and vacations, health insurance, and pen­ sion plans are typical benefits provided by hospitals. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve working closely with people while helping them include emergency medical technician, social service aide, and teacher aide. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing are avail­ able from: Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, NY 10019.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 10801 Pear Tree Ln., Suite 151, St. Ann, MO 63074.  For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., P.O. Box 11038, Durham, NC 27703.  Information about employment opportuni­ ties in Veterans Administration medical centers is available from local VA medical centers and also from: Recruitment and Placement Service (054), Veterans Administration, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20420.  For information on nursing careers in hos­ pitals, contact: American Hospital Association, Division of Nurs­ ing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago. IL 60611.  For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: American Health Care Association. 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Medical Record Technicians (D.O.T. 079.367-014)  Nature of the Work Just as schools and colleges keep transcripts of grades and employers maintain personnel records, doctors and hospitals set up a per­ manent file for every patient they treat. This file is known as the medical record or chart. It includes the patient’s medical history, results of physical examinations, reports of X-ray and laboratory tests, diagnosis and treatment plans, doctors’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. The medical record shows what the patient’s symptoms were, what tests were ordered, and how the patient responded to treatment. Ac­ curate and orderly records are essential for clin­ ical purposes. However, medical records have other important uses as well. They provide background and documentation for insurance claims and Medicare reimbursement, legal ac­ tions, professional review of treatment and medications prescribed, and training of health professions personnel. Medical records are used for research and planning purposes as well. They provide data for clinical studies, evalu­ ations of the benefits and cost of various med­ ical and surgical procedures, and assessments of community health needs. Managing an information system that meets medical, administrative, ethical, and legal re­ quirements involves the teamwork of medical record administrators, medical record tech­ nicians, and medical record clerks, known col­ lectively as medical record personnel. Direct­ ing the activities of the medical record department is the medical record administrator, whose job it is to develop systems for docu­ menting, storing, and retrieving medical in­ formation. Administrators train and supervise  the medical record staff. They are responsible for compiling statistics required by Federal and State agencies, assist the medical staff in eval­ uations of patient care or research studies, and may be required to testify in court about records and record procedures. Recent changes in the way hospitals are paid for the care they provide have thrust medical records into the limelight in most hospitals. Increasingly, medical record administrators are viewed as key members of the management team, and they work closely with the finance department to monitor hospital spending pat­ terns. Medical record technicians are the people who actually handle the records, organizing and evaluating them for completeness and ac­ curacy. When assembling a patient’s medical record, technicians first make sure that the medical chart is complete. With a paper med­ ical record, this means ensuring that all forms are present and properly identified and signed. In a growing number of hospitals, the medical and nursing staff use computers rather than the traditional paper record to note symptoms and record blood pressure readings, medication dosages, test results, and other patient care information. In these hospitals, technicians use their own computer terminals to retrieve in­ formation from the patient’s “chart” in the hos­ pital’s central computer. Once they have all the necessary information (a process that may require them to track down physicians or nurses to fill in incomplete en­ tries), technicians assign a code to each di­ agnosis and procedure documented in the re­ cord. In assigning codes, technicians consult a classification manual and rely, too, on their knowledge of disease processes. After the en­ tries on the chart have been coded, technicians may use a packaged computer program to as­ sign the patient to one of several hundred “di­ agnosis-related groupings” or DRG’s. The DRG determines the amount the hospital will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Med­ icare or other insurance programs that use the DRG system. Because information in the medical record is used for reimbursement purposes as well as clinical decisionmaking, it is doubly important that entries be complete and accurate. This has always been important for patient care; now it is important for the hospital as well. A coding error could mean a financial loss for the hospital since the amount of reimbursment may depend on the diagnostic group to which the patient is assigned. Technicians have other duties as well. For example, they assist the administrative staff of the hospital by tabulating and analyzing data from the medical records. Technicians might be asked to tabulate statistics that show dif­ ferences in the average length of a hospital stay according to diagnosis, admitting physician, and procedures performed. Some technicians, known as registrars, maintain special registries showing occurrences of disease by type, such as cancer, injury, or stroke. Technicians also maintain health record indexes and compile administrative and health statistics for public  172/Occupational Outlook Handbook  trmsn.  Computerized record systems are increas­ ingly common. health officials, administrators, planners, and others. In response to inquiries from law firms, in­ surance companies, government agencies, re­ searchers, and patients, medical record tech­ nicians may assemble medical records. They may present these records during legal pro­ ceedings, for example, or provide documen­ tation for meetings of oversight groups such as utilization review committees and medical review boards. The day-to-day tasks of medical record per­ sonnel vary with the size of the facility. In a small facility, for example, a technician may have full responsibility for managing the record department, whereas in a large facility, tech­ nicians are likely to specialize in just one aspect of the work. If the department is large enough to employ medical record clerks, a technician would be responsible for supervising and train­ ing them. In many nursing homes, a record clerk—working under a consultant who is a Registered Record Administrator (RRA) or an Accredited Record Technician (ART)—is re­ sponsible for maintaining the medical record system. Working Conditions Medical record personnel generally work a standard 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals where medical record departments are open 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a week, medical record personnel work on day, evening, and night shifts. Part-time work is generally available. The work environment is usually pleasant and comfortable, but some aspects of the job can be stressful. The utmost accuracy is es­ sential, and this demands concentration and close attention to detail. The emphasis on ac­ curacy can cause fatigue and mental strain. Medical record technicians who work at video display terminals for prolonged periods may experience eyestrain and musculoskeletal pain.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Medical record technicians held about 40,000 jobs in 1986. Three out of five jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remainder were in med­ ical group practices, health maintenance or­ ganizations, nursing homes, clinics, and other facilities that deliver health care. In addition, insurance firms, accounting firms, and law firms that specialize in health matters employ medical record technicians to tabulate and analyze data from medical rec­ ords. Public health departments hire techni­ cians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Man­ ufacturers of medical record systems, services, and equipment employ them to develop and market their products. Some medical record technicians provide services to nursing homes and physicians’ offices on a consultant basis. Other selfemployed record technicians may specialize in coding, record copy services, or medical transcription—the typing of physicians’ rec­ ords and notes from dictating or recording equipment or, occasionally, from written notes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire a credentialed medical record technician. Gaining the cre­ dential as an Accredited Record Technician is voluntary and is obtained by passing a written examination offered by the American Medical Record Association (AMRA). To be eligible to take the examination, a person must be a graduate of a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association in collaboration with AMRA, or a graduate of the Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology who has also obtained 30 semester hours of aca­ demic credit in prescribed areas. In 1986, com­ munity and junior colleges offered about 88 accredited programs for medical record tech­ nicians. Medical record technology programs include courses in biological sciences, medical terminology, medical record science, business management, legal aspects, and introduction to computer data processing. Hospitals sometimes advance promising medical record clerks to jobs as medical record technicians, although this practice is becoming less common. Advancement generally requires 2-4 years of job experience and successful completion of the hospital’s in-house training program. Job Outlook Employment of medical record technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 be­ cause of the pivotal role of medical records in managing health care costs. Management’s need for accurate clinical data for purposes of fi­ nancial control is the overriding reason for anticipated job growth. Nevertheless, most openings will occur because of replacement needs. ■  Most job openings will be in hospitals, where employment of medical record personnel is ex­ pected to rise sharply due to the greatly in­ creased need by management for complete, accurate, and timely clinical data. Office hours are expected to expand. Also contributing to projected growth are the likelihood of more detailed record analysis, shortened billing time, additional quality control and management ef­ ficiency measures, and increased contact with physicians and other hospital staff to clarify entries on the medical record and assure that the record is complete. Greater need for accurate and up-to-date medical records is not confined to the hospital sector. Health maintenance organizations, surgicenters, medical group practices, nursing homes, and home health agencies share the need for complete and timely data for reim­ bursement purposes, professional review of the quality of care, and financial management. The value of well-maintained medical records in financial management is likely to be an espe­ cially important consideration, given the forprofit orientation of many newly emerging health care facilities. This should fuel demand for medical record personnel in a variety of health care settings. The outlook for experienced technicians who have completed a formal training program will be excellent through the year 2000. Demand for experienced or credentialed technicians is expected to be very strong due to the emphasis on accuracy in coding and abstracting data. New graduates, too, are expected to encounter an extremely favorable job market. Graduates are reported to be in great demand, and the number of people completing training pro­ grams is expected to fall short of that needed to fill job openings. Jobseekers without formal training in med­ ical record technology will probably not be hired as medical record technicians since highly accurate coding and abstracting skills are es­ sential. Such individuals may be hired as med­ ical record clerks, however, with the prospect of promotion to positions as medical record technicians once they master the requisite skills.  Earnings Earnings of medical record technicians vary according to locality. Beginning technicians in hospitals and medical schools averaged $13,300 in 1986, according to a national survey con­ ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced technicians in hospital record departments averaged about $19,100. Some earned over $25,000 a year. In 1986, medical record technicians em­ ployed by the Federal Government averaged about $16,100 a year. Outstanding record tech­ nicians may work up to higher supervisory po­ sitions with corresponding pay increases, al­ though Registered Record Administrators fill most positions. Like other hospital employees, medical re­ cord personnel generally receive paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits.  Health Technologists and Technicians/173  Related Occupations Medical record technicians perform a variety of technical and clerical duties, including ver­ ification, transcription, and filing. Workers with similar duties include information clerks, in­ surance clerks, library technical assistants, medical secretaries, and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information A list of CAHEA-approved programs for med­ ical record technicians, information about the Independent Study Program, and general in­ formation on careers in medical record admin­ istration are available from: American Medical Record Association, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 1850, Chicago, IL 60611.  Nuclear Medicine Technologists (D.O.T. 078.161-018 and .361-018)  Nature of the Work Nuclear medicine is the branch of radiology that uses radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radiation spontaneously—in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Just as the field of radiology had its beginnings when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the X-ray, the seed for nuclear medicine was planted almost a century ago, when Marie Curie discovered radium. However, it was not until after World War II and the discovery of ways to produce arti­ ficial radionuclides that doctors began to rec­ ognize the medical uses of these elements. When a radionuclide is injected into a patient or taken orally, radioactivity can be detected and mon­ itored from outside to assess the characteristics or functioning of those tissues or organs in which it settles. Abnormal areas show up as higher or lower concentrations of radioactivity than normal. Nuclides capable of producing useful infor­ mation about thyroid function were among the first medical uses discovered. Since then, di­ agnostic applications of nuclear medicine have expanded dramatically, with images of bones, brain, liver, or heart function emerging as par­ ticularly important. Nuclear medicine today commands a place alongside other highly val­ ued diagnostic disciplines. As is generally the case in medical diagnostics, specially trained technologists perform the tests and procedures ordered by physicians, who in turn interpret the results. Nuclear medicine technologists are trained to assume responsibility for the proper use of radiopharmaceuticals (radioactive drugs) in a variety of functional areas. They may conduct laboratory studies, do research, or develop and administer procedures for purchasing, using, and disposing of radioactive nuclides. Imple­ menting safety procedures required by the Nu­ clear Regulatory Commission is another im­ portant role. Most of the time, however, technologists work directly with patients, per­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  forming nuclear medicine procedures that are used to diagnose or treat disease. Nuclear medicine technologists, like radio­ logic technologists, operate diagnostic imaging equipment. However, the equipment used in these two specialties relies on different prin­ ciples, and job duties reflect this. Radiologic technologists create an image by shooting a beam of radiation through the patient. (See the statement on radiologic technologists else­ where in the Handbook.) In nuclear medicine, the technologist prepares a radioactive sub­ stance (radiopharmaceutical) for the patient to take, administers it, and then operates a camera that uses the radiation given off by the patient to create an image. Preparing the radioactive substance that the patient takes before the image is taken is a task that requires laboratory skills as well as strict adherence to safety precautions, inasmuch as the technologist is handling potentially dan­ gerous radioactive materials. The amount and type of radiopharmaceutical that is used depends on the particular test being performed. The nuclear medicine technologist first calculates and prepares the correct dosage and then administers it to the patient by mouth, injection, or other means. Afterwards, the technologist observes the patient carefully to make sure there is no unanticipated reaction. Prior to the examination, the technologist ex­ plains the test procedure and tries to relieve any anxiety the patient may be experiencing. Once the nuclide has had time to enter the system, the technologist is ready to perform the imaging procedure. The technologist po­ sitions the patient and then starts the gamma scintillation camera, or scanner, as these in­ struments are popularly called, which takes pictures of the radioisotopes as they pass through or localize in different parts of the patient’s body. Once the scan has been completed, the technologist views these images on a computer screen or on film. The technologist carefully examines the quality of the image for any ad­ ditional information to give the physician. Some studies, such as cardiac function studies, are then processed by the technologist with the aid of a computer. Information obtained through the nuclear medicine procedure is used by the patient’s doctor in helping arrive at a diagnosis. In some facilities, nuclear medicine tech­ nologists perform imaging procedures in other subspecialties of radiology. Technologists may spend part of the day in the ultrasound or di­ agnostic radiology departments, performing ultrasound scans, fluoroscopy, or routine Xrays. The amount of time spent on non-nuclear medicine procedures depends on the size of the facility, the amount of specialization, and or­ ganizational policy within the institution. The job of the nuclear medicine technologist encompasses more than diagnostic imaging. Because nuclear medicine is effective in certain laboratory tests, for example, technologists must be proficient in clinical laboratory procedures. In one type of test, a small quantity of a ra­ diopharmaceutical is administered to a patient and then body specimens such as blood or urine are collected and measured for radioactivity  level. In other words, laboratory testing re­ places the image as the means of assessing the behavior of the radioactive substance inside the body. In another kind of test, radioactive sub­ stances are added to blood or serum in a test tube to determine levels of hormones or ther­ apeutic drug content. Other job responsibilities include insuring that radiation safety procedures are carefully followed by all workers in the nuclear medicine laboratory and that complete and accurate rec­ ords are kept. This includes patient medical records, patient procedures performed, and amounts and types of radionuclides received, used, and disposed of. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. This may include evening or weekend hours in hospital departments which operate on an extended schedule. In addition, technologists in hospitals are required to per­ form on-call duty on a rotation basis. De­ pending on the size of the nuclear medicine department and number of technologists em­ ployed, the frequency of required on-call duty varies. The number of times a technologist is actually called into the hospital while on call also depends on the size and case mix of the hospital. Technologists in large teaching hos­ pitals, for example, may expect to report to the hospital several nights a week to perform emergency procedures, while those in small community hospitals may only be called in once or twice a month. Opportunities for weekend, part-time, and shift work are also available. Technologists are on their feet much of the day, and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. Physical stamina therefore is impor­ tant. There are potential radiation hazards in this field; however, these hazards have been re­ duced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices. Because of the presence of radiation and radioactive materials, technologists wear special badges that measure radiation levels while they are in the radiation area. The badge measurement rarely approaches or exceeds es­ tablished safety levels because of safety pro­ grams and built-in safety devices. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held 9,700 jobs in 1986. About 9 out of 10 were hospital jobs. The rest were located in medical laboratories, physicians’ offices, and outpatient clinics and imaging centers. About 300 nuclear medicine technologists were employed by the Federal Government in 1986. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technologists used to be trained on the job, but this is no longer the case. Most employers prefer to hire individuals who have completed formal training programs. Such programs are available at the postsecondary level in hospi-  174/Occupational Outlook Handbook  manufacturing firms, positions which build upon their background and experience.  Safety precautions are of the utmost importance in nuclear medicine. tals, medical centers, colleges and universities, and the Armed Forces. Programs vary in a number of respects: Length of training, pre­ requisites, class size, and cost. Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a cer­ tificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. One-year certificate and 2-year associate de­ gree programs are most prevalent, however. Certificate programs in nuclear medicine technology enroll individuals from a variety of backgrounds. These programs are designed for individuals who already have some postsec­ ondary education—whether in radiologic tech­ nology, another allied health profession, or an­ other health- or science-related area. Among those attracted to certificate programs are radiologic technologists and ultrasound tech­ nologists who seek to enhance their skills, as well as medical technologists, registered nurses, respiratory therapists, and other health profes­ sionals who wish to change fields or specialize. Individuals with 3 to 4 years of college edu­ cation may also choose certificate training as a means of preparing for a career in nuclear medicine technology. The second major route of entry into nuclear medicine technology is through completion of a 2-year associate degree program. These pro­ grams accept high school graduates and are generally found in community colleges or uni­ versities. Among the topics covered in programs that prepare nuclear medicine technologists are physical sciences, the biological effects of ra­ diation exposure and protection, radiophar­ maceuticals and their use on patients, and im­ aging techniques. Programs that grant academic degrees (associate or bachelor’s) have addi­ tional requirements. The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs in this field. In 1986, there were 128 CAHEA-accredited programs in nuclear medicine technology. Nuclear medicine technologists are among  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the occupations covered by the Consumer Pa­ tient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the haz­ ards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by making sure that personnel involved in administering radioactive drugs or operating radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Federal Govern­ ment to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs or certifying individuals who use radioactive elements or radiation in medicine or den­ tistry. Procedures for acquiring professional cre­ dentials in nuclear medicine technology in­ clude licensure—required by law in seven States and Puerto Rico—and certification or regis­ tration, which is voluntary. Registration or cer­ tification is available from the American Re­ gistry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Cer­ tification Board (NMTCB). Credentials from either of these accrediting bodies qualify ap­ plicants for employment in the hospital setting. Many jobs are open only to registered or registry-eligible technologists. Hospitals, for example, generally require CAHEA-accredited training plus credentials in nuclear medicine technology. Medical group practices and out­ patient clinics are more likely to hire technol­ ogists without formal credentials. Career lines in this field are short. Advance­ ment usually involves promotion to a super­ visory position, such as chief technologist or department administrator or manager. Spe­ cialization in a clinical area such as cardiology diagnostics, or in computer analysis, offers an­ other route for advancement. Some technolo­ gists progress by becoming instructors or di­ rectors in nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires an as­ sociate or bachelor’s degree in nuclear medi­ cine technology. Some technologists leave the occupation to take jobs as sales or training representatives with health industry equipment  Job Outlook Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will come from the need to replace experienced technologists who leave the field. Conflicting forces will shape the job outlook. On the one hand, employment growth is likely to be constrained by competition from less in­ vasive imaging methods—computed tomog­ raphy (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging in particular. Developments in diagnostic im­ aging technology are occurring at a dramatic pace, and it is likely that some of the tests that emerge by the year 2000 will replace proce­ dures currently performed by nuclear medicine technologists. At the same time, advances in medical di­ agnostics could spur use of nuclear medicine procedures. The use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies is just one illustration of the enormous diagnostic potential of nuclear medicine. Monoclonal an­ tibodies have an affinity for tumors. When ra­ dioactively marked, they are easily followed by scanning equipment as they gather around otherwise invisible parts of the body. They can be used to detect cancer, for example, at far earlier stages than is customary today, and without resort to surgery. Another illustration is the use of nuclear medicine diagnostics in cardiology. Using radionuclides injected into the bloodstream, nuclear medicine technolo­ gists can measure the percentage of the pa­ tient’s blood pumped by each contraction of the heart. This procedure performed at rest, and during stress, examines the heart’s ability to meet the body’s needs. In some patients, such a test eliminates the need for cardiac cath­ eterization, a costly and at times risky proce­ dure. In the years ahead, job opportunities for nu­ clear medicine technologists in offices of phy­ sicians, medical laboratories, and outpatient imaging centers are expected to expand sub­ stantially. Hospitals, however, will continue to be the major employer of these workers through the year 2000. Hospitals, under con­ siderable pressure to keep costs under control, are trying to reduce the number of tests per patient and to discourage procedures that mean revenue losses. Together with competition from other imaging methods, this thrust could curtail expansion of nuclear medicine testing, al­ though it is not at all certain that this will be the case. • In any event, the dominance of the hospital sector in the employment of technologists means that job prospects will be better in some lo­ calities than in others, depending on conditions in the hospital industry. In communities that experience hospital closures or mergers, for example, the number of openings for trained nuclear medicine technologists could decline precipitously. Employment opportunities for trained nu­ clear medicine technologists vary regionally.  Health Technologists and Technicians/175  Competition appears to be fairly keen in large metropolitan areas, while hospitals and other employers are actively recruiting technologists in rural areas. Earnings Starting salaries for nuclear medicine technol­ ogists employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $19,300 a year in 1986, according to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced technologists averaged about $24,600. According to a survey by the Society of Nuclear Medicine, staff technologists averaged $22,000 a year in 1984. Chief technologists earned average salaries of $30,000 a year. The average salary of nuclear medicine tech­ nologists employed by the Federal Government was $22,000 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophis­ ticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include radio­ logic technologists, ultrasound technologists, cardiology technologists, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technol­ ogists, clinical laboratory technologists, per­ fusionists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technologist is available from: The Society of Nuclear Medicine, Technologists Section, 136 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016­ 6760.  Information on certification is available from: Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board,  P.O. Box 806, Tucker, GA 30084. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, MN 55405.  For the current list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technology, write: Division of Allied Health Education and Accredi­ tation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dear­ born St., Chicago, IL 60610.  Radiologic Technologists (D.O.T. 078.162-010, .361-034, .362-026 and .364-010)  Nature of the Work Perhaps the most familiar use of the X-ray is the diagnosis of broken bones. Although this remains a major use, medical uses of radiation go far beyond that. Today, radiation is used not only to produce images of the interior of the body, but to treat disease as well. At the same time, the rapidly growing use of imaging techniques that do not involve X-rays is trans­ forming the field, and the term “diagnostic im­ aging” embraces procedures such as ultrasound  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and magnetic resonance scans as well as the familiar X-ray. With the application of computer technology to radiology, the field has been revolutionized. Computer-enhanced equipment produces amazingly clear and sharp images. Thanks in part to the speed with which computerized scanners can read and organize the millions of messages involved in a single test, it is now possible to view soft tissues and organs such as the heart and brain, parts of the body that until quite recently could only be examined through invasive techniques such as explora­ tory surgery. Remarkable strides have occurred in the de­ velopment of imaging equipment that does not involve the use of radiation, thereby reducing the risks of adverse side effects. Examples in­ clude ultrasound machines (which use sound waves), magnetic resonance scanners (radio waves), and positron emission scanners (elec­ trons). Although discovered many years ago, some of these imaging techniques have become clinically practical only during the last decade, as a result of improvements in electronic cir­ cuitry that enable computers to handle the vast amount of data involved. Future generations of imaging equipment are certain to be even more sophisticated than ma­ chines in use today. Physicians seeking to con­ firm a diagnosis or monitor a patient’s con­ dition will get better information, and patients will be subjected to less risk or discomfort. There is ample reason to believe that techno­ logical advances in this field will continue to occur very rapidly, and that the clinical benefits will spur even more extensive use of diagnostic imaging procedures. There are no hard and fast rules about job titles in this field. However, operators of radio­ logic equipment should not be confused with radiologists—physicians who specialize in the interpretation of radiographs. Radiologic per­ sonnel may be called radiologic technologists in one hospital, radiographers in another, and X-ray technicians in yet a third. The size of the facility, amount of specialization, and or­ ganizational policy are among the factors that determine which job titles are used. Another reason for inconsistency in job titles is the rap­ idity with which new medical technologies have emerged and practice patterns have changed. When new equipment is introduced, existing staff are taught to operate it, and it may be some time before job titles are changed. Radiographers take X-ray films (radi­ ographs) of all parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations, assuring that they remove any articles, such as belt buc­ kles or jewelry, through which X-rays cannot pass. Then they position the patients, who either lie on a table, sit, or stand, so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed, always taking care not to aggravate injuries or make the patients uncomfortable. To prevent unnec­ essary radiation exposure, the technologist sur­ rounds the exposed area with radiation protec­ tion devices, such as lead shields, or in some way limits the size of the X-ray beam.  After the necessary preparations, the tech­ nologist positions the radiation equipment at the correct angle and height over the appro­ priate area of a patient’s body. Using instru­ ments similar to a measuring tape, the tech­ nologist measures the thickness of the section to be radiographed and then sets the controls on the machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. The technologist then places a properly identified X-ray film of the correct size under the part of the patient’s body to be examined, and makes the exposure. Afterward, the technologist re­ moves the film and develops it. Throughout the procedure, the technologist is careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diagnostic examination. Before a radiologist examines a patient by fluoroscopy (watching a patient’s internal or­ gans on a monitor or screen), the radiologic technologist may, for example, prepare a so­ lution of contrast medium for the patient to drink. As this solution passes through the pa­ tient’s digestive tract, the radiologist looks for diseases, injuries, or defects in the patient’s digestive system. When fluoroscopic exami­ nations are performed, whether on the digestive tract or on other parts of the body such as chest, heart, or blood vessels, the technologist assists the physician by preparing and positioning the patient, adjusting the machine, applying the correct exposure, and making any necessary followup radiographs. With the successful use of radiation as a cancer treatment, radiation therapy technology has developed into a separate specialty. Ra­ diation therapy technologists (D.O.T. 078.361­ 034) prepare cancer patients for treatment and administer prescribed doses of ionizing radia­ tion to specific body parts. Technologists op­ erate many kinds of equipment, including var­ ious high-energy linear accelerators with electron capabilities. They must position pa­ tients under the equipment with absolute ac­ curacy in order to expose affected body parts to treatment while protecting the rest of the body from radiation. Radiation therapy may produce side effects such as nausea and vomiting. Hair loss and redness of skin can also occur in treated areas, so the technologist must observe the patient’s reactions and keep the physician informed. A sympathetic and understanding manner is es­ sential, for technologists need to give clear instructions and explanations to patients who are likely to be very ill and may be dying. Radiation therapy technologists have the oppportunity to develop a close and compas­ sionate relationship with patients and their fam­ ilies, for, in contrast to other areas in radiology, these technologists are likely to see the same patient repeatedly. Other responsibilities include quality assur­ ance duties such as maintaining the proper op­ eration of accessory devices and radiation equipment, observing departmental safety measures, keeping patient records, and assist­ ing in the preparation and handling of radio­ active materials. With additional education, available at ma-  176/Occupational Outlook Handbook  jor cancer centers, radiation therapy technol­ ogists can specialize and become medical ra­ diation dosimetrists. In this specialty, the dosimetrist works with health physicists and oncologists (physicians who specialize in the study and treatment of tumors) to develop op­ timal treatment plans. Many of the new, extremely powerful forms of diagnostic imaging do not involve the use of radiologic equipment at all. The ability to "see” inside the human body without exposing patients (or technologists) to radiation hazards is one reason the new procedures have taken hold so quickly. Sonographers (D.O.T. 078.364-010), also known as ultrasound technologists, use non­ ionizing equipment to transmit sound waves at high frequencies into the patient’s body, then collect reflected echoes to form an image. The image, which results from the “bounce-back” of sound from the areas being scanned, is viewed on a screen and may be automatically recorded on a printout strip or photographed from the screen for permanent records and for use in interpretation and diagnosis by physicians. Magnetic resonance imaging works in much the same way but uses magnetic fields in place of sound waves. Ultrasound and magnetic res­ onance images can be displayed as moving pictures—an important feature for cardiovas­ cular and prenatal studies. In the area of ob­ stetrics and gynecology, the use of ultrasound is widespread, and it is coming into use in other clinical areas as well. Sonographers select equipment appropriate for use in ultrasound tests ordered by physi­ cians. They also check the patient’s other di­ agnostic studies for information. Sonographers explain the procedure, record any additional medical history considered necessary, and then position the patient for testing. Viewing the screen as the scan takes place, the sonographer must be able to recognize subtle differences between healthy and pathological areas; to check for factors such as position, obstruction, or  ■so  siliiP  change of shape; and to judge if the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. A high degree of technical skill and knowledge of anatomy and physiology are essential to rec­ ognize the significance of all body structures present in the ultrasound image. Technologists carry out doctors' orders. Be­ fore a radiologic technologist can perform any examination or procedure on a patient, a phy­ sician must issue a requisition for the study or treatment. Similar to prescriptions for drugs, these requisitions assure that technologists ex­ amine or treat only people certified by physi­ cians as needing such studies or treatment. At all times, technologists must follow precisely not only physicians' instructions but also reg­ ulations concerning use of radiation to insure that they, patients, and coworkers are protected from its dangers. Because technologists may work with pa­ tients who cannot help themselves, good health, moderate strength, and stamina are important. The possibility always exists that patients will have breathing difficulties or go into shock or cardiac arrest; should this happen, the tech­ nologist must be ready to assist until other medical personnel can be called in. In addition to the duties involved in pre­ paring patients and operating equipment, tech­ nologists may have administrative tasks. They may prepare work schedules, evaluate equip­ ment, and, in general, manage their department or unit. Working Conditions Radiologic technologists generally work a 40hour week that may include evening and week­ end or on-call hours. Some hospitals offer ex­ tremely flexible work schedules. A technolo­ gist may choose to work 3 13-hour days'a week, for example. Part-time work is widely avail­ able. Technologists are on their feet a lot and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. There are potential radiation hazards in this  I,  MB  Many ultrasound technologists work with maternity patients.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  field; however, these hazards have been re­ duced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding. Be­ cause of the presence of radiation and radio­ active materials, technologists wear special badges that measure radiation levels while they are in the radiation area, as well as the cu­ mulative lifetime dose. The badge measure­ ment rarely approaches or exceeds established safety levels because of safety programs and built-in safety devices. Employment Radiologic technologists held about 115,000 jobs in 1986. Most of these involved the op­ eration of diagnostic radiologic equipment. Ra­ diation therapy technologists and sonographers hold a very small proportion of the jobs in this field. About 3 out of every 4 jobs are in hospitals. The rest are located in physicians’ offices, health maintenance organizations, clinics, and diag­ nostic imaging centers. About 2,900 radiologic technologists worked for the Federal Govern­ ment in 1986; these included 2,800 diagnostic radiographers and approximately 100 radiation therapy technologists. Many technologists work part time. IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this field is offered at the post­ secondary level in hospitals, medical centers, colleges and universities, trade schools, vo­ cational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radio­ logic technologists, prefer to hire individuals who have completed a formal training pro­ gram. Those employed in physicians' offices may be trained on the job, however. Formal training programs are offered in ra­ diography, radiation therapy technology, and diagnostic medical sonography (ultrasound). These programs vary in a number of respects: Length of training, prerequisites, class size, and cost. Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate de­ gree, or bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent, however. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a new field, and no formal programs have yet been developed to prepare technologists to operate MRI scanners. Most training is provided by hospitals and equipment manufacturers. Radiologic technologists are among those most often chosen to train on the equipment. Some of the 1-year certificate programs are designed for individuals from other health professions who wish to change fields—med­ ical technologists, registered nurses, and res­ piratory therapists, for example. Certificate programs also attract experienced radiologic technologists who want to specialize in radia­ tion therapy technology or ultrasound tech­ nology. A bachelor's or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching posi­ tions. The Committee on Allied Health Education  Health Technologists and Technicians/177  and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs for this field. Nearly 840 CAHEA-accredited programs graduated about 7,180 persons in 1986: 6,400 in radiog­ raphy, 570 in radiation therapy technology, and 210 in diagnostic medical sonography. Radiography programs require, at a mini­ mum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The pro­ grams provide both classroom and clinical in­ struction in anatomy, physiology, patient care procedures, physics, radiation protection, prin­ ciples of imaging, medical terminology, po­ sitioning, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. It is difficult to generalize about prerequisites for training programs in radiation therapy and diagnostic medical sonography, but applicants with a background in science, or experience in one of the health professions, generally are preferred. Most programs consider applica­ tions from applicants with liberal arts back­ grounds; However, high school graduates with a strong math/science background are eligible to apply to many programs. Radiologic technologists and radiation ther­ apy technologists are covered by provisions of the Consumer Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary ex­ posure to medical and dental radiation by mak­ ing sure that operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Fed­ eral Government to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training pro­ grams and certifying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. Procedures for acquiring professional cre­ dentials in radiologic occupations include li­ censure—required by law in some States—and certification or registration, which is voluntary. Many jobs are open only to registered or re­ gistry-eligible technologists. Hospitals, forexample, generally require CAHEA-accredited training plus credentials in the appropriate radiologic technology. Public health depart­ ments and private physicians are more likely to hire workers without such credentials. The number of States that regulate the prac­ tice of radiologic technology is growing. By 1987, 16 States required radiographers to be licensed, and 11 required radiation therapy technologists to be licensed. (Puerto Rico re­ quires a license for the practice of either spe­ cialty.) Registration is offered by the American Re­ gistry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) in both radiography and radiation therapy tech­ nology. The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS) certifies the competence of ultrasound technologists. With experience and additional training, staff technologists in large radiography departments may be promoted to clinical jobs that require advanced skills in special procedures including CT scanning, ultrasound, angiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Another route to career advancement is supervisory; experi­ enced technologists may be promoted to su­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pervisory positions such as quality assurance technologist, chief technologist, and—ulti­ mately—department administrator or man­ ager. Some technologists progress by becom­ ing instructors or directors in radiologic technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers.  Job Outlook Employment in the field of radiologic tech­ nology is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, reflecting the importance of these tech­ nologies in the diagnosis and treatment of dis­ ease. Nonetheless, most openings will come from the need to replace experienced technol­ ogists who leave the profession. Supply/demand conditions in radiologic technology have been characterized by regional imbalances for some time. The ample supply of trained radiographers in suburban areas and big cities stands in contrast to chronic shortages in rural areas and small towns. Current im­ balances could intensify as a result of far-reach­ ing changes now taking place in the health care system. In the years ahead, a growing number of radiologic technologists will find jobs in offices of physicians, health maintenance organiza­ tions, diagnostic imaging centers, and free­ standing cancer clinics. Facilities such as these are expected to experience exceptionally rapid growth. This trend reflects increased compe­ tition for patients, a shift toward outpatient care, and technological advances (remote transmission of X-rays, for example) that per­ mit procedures to be performed outside the hospital setting. Technologist employment is not expected to grow as rapidly as these in­ dustries as a whole, however, because radio­ logic procedures in nonhospital settings some­ times are performed by physicians, nurses, medical assistants, and other personnel. Hospitals will continue to be the major em­ ployer of radiologic technologists through the year 2000. Although hospitals are experiencing unprecedented pressure to keep costs under control, and some departments are being cut back or eliminated altogether, that is not gen­ erally the case in radiology and ultrasound. Instead, more imaging is being done on an outpatient basis, and evening and weekend hours are increasingly common, which in some hos­ pitals means additional part-time positions for radiologic personnel. The dominance of the hospital sector means that prospects for radiologic technologists will be better in some localities than in others, de­ pending on conditions in the hospital industry'. In communities that experience hospital clos­ ings or mergers, for example, the number of openings for trained radiographers could de­ cline precipitously. In addition, hospitals are expected to make greater use of staff "crosstrained” to perform more than one job. This could reduce the number of openings for ra­ diographers in an already well-supplied mar­ ket. At the same time, hospitals in rural com­ munities are likely to continue to have trouble  recruiting and retaining qualified radiogra­ phers, especially in specialty areas such as ra­ diation therapy and ultrasound. Opportunities in radiography vary by spe­ cialty. For example, prospects for radiation therapy technologists should continue to be ex­ cellent, although it is important to bear in mind that this specialty is very small. Currently, ra­ diation therapy technologists are in great de­ mand, and reports of a shortage are wide­ spread. Trends in the incidence of cancer and other malignancies will continue to be the prin­ cipal factor affecting demand for these work­ ers. Not only has there been an increase in the number of cancer cases detected, but more cases are being treated by radiation—either alone or in combination with surgery or chemotherapy. Applications of diagnostic ultrasound are ex­ pected to grow very rapidly, in cardiology and obstetrics/gynecology in particular. In the area of cardiology, the echocardiograph will con­ tinue to play a major role in the diagnosis of heart disease. Using this ultrasound test, doc­ tors can see the size of the heart and its valves, the thickness of the heart walls, and the actual motion of the heart. By observing the heart’s motion, doctors can diagnose where and what type of functional problems the heart is ex­ periencing. In the area of obstetrics and gynecology, ultrasound will continue to be the only safe way to test fetal progress. In addition, new methods for diagnosing and treating infertility depend heavily on ultrasound. Before an ovum (egg) can be taken from a woman, it must be ripe. Using ultrasound, doctors can determine the optimal time for extracting the egg, fertil­ izing it in the laboratory, and reimplanting it in the woman’s uterus. More widespread use of ultrasound tests will spur demand for diagnostic medical sonogra­ phers. They are likely to find jobs in a wide range of health care settings, including offices of physicians, clinics, diagnostic imaging cen­ ters, health maintenance organizations, and hospitals. Long-term prospects for radiologic technol­ ogists will be influenced by future trends in enrollments in formal training programs, which will level off or possibly decline if current trends persist through the year 2000. A stable or somewhat smaller supply of newly qualified technologists would create a favorable situation for jobseekers, provided the number of qual­ ified workers seeking to reenter the occupation remains about the same. Earnings Starting salaries of radiologic technologists employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $17,200 a year in 1986, according to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experi­ enced radiologic technologists averaged about $22,800 a year. Workers with specialized skills earn more. Radiation therapy technologists started at about $19,800, according to the University of Texas survey. Experienced radiation therapy technolgists averaged $25,000.  178/Occupational Outlook Handbook  In 1986, the Federal Government offered salaries of about $14,700 a year to radiologic technologists in entry level positions. Average Federal salaries in 1986 were about $19,500 a year for diagnostic radiologic technologists and $21,400 for radiation therapy technologists. Sick leave, vacations, health insurance, and other benefits are comparable to those covering other workers in the same organization. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include nuclear medicine technologists, cardiology technolo­ gists, cardiopulmonary technologists, cardio­ vascular technologist, perfusionists, respira­ tory therapists, clinical laboratory technologists, electrocardiograph technicians, and electroencephalographic technologists. Sources of Additional Information For career information, enclose a stamped, selfaddressed business-size envelope with your re­ quest to: American Registry of Clinical Radiography Tech­ nologists, 1616 South Blvd., Edmond, OK 73013. American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123. Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 10300 N. Central Expressway, Building I, Suite 276, Dal­ las, TX 75231.  Information about a career in radiation ther­ apy technology is also available from: Vice President for Professional Education, American Cancer Society, 90 Park Ave., New York, NY 10016.  For the current list of accredited education programs in radiography, radiation therapy technology, or diagnostic medical sonography, write: Division of Allied Health Education and Accredi­ tation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dear­ born St., Chicago, IL 60610.  For information on certification in radiologic technology, contact: American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, MI 55405. American Registry of Clinical Radiography Tech­ nologists, 1616 South Blvd., Edmond, OK 73013.  For information on certification in ultra­ sound technology, contact: American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonog­ raphers, 32 E. Hollister St., Cincinnati, OH 45219.  Surgical Technicians (D O T. 079.374-022)  Nature of the Work The term “operating room” conjures up the image of two principal characters: The surgeon and the patient. Most operations involve more people than this, however, and during a major procedure such as open heart surgery, the op­ erating room may be crowded with as many  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  as 20 doctors, nurses, and technicians. Among these are surgical technicians, also called sur­ gical technologists or operating room techni­ cians. Surgical technicians work with, and under the supervision of, surgeons or registered nurses. They help set up the operating room with surgical instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and fluids such as saline, a salt solution, or glucose, a sugar solution. Surgical techni­ cians also may prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting body areas where the surgeon will operate. They may transport patients to the operating room and help drape them and position them on the op­ erating table. During surgery, they pass instruments and other sterile supplies to the surgeons and the surgeons’ assistants. They may hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count the sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments used during the op­ eration. Surgical technicians help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for lab­ oratory analysis during the operation and may help apply dressings. At times surgical tech­ nicians may operate sterilizers, lights, or suc­ tion machines, and assist with the operation of diagnostic equipment. After the operation, surgical technicians may help transfer patients to the recovery room and assist nurses in cleaning and stocking the op­ erating room for the next operation.  Employment Surgical technicians held about 37,000 jobs in 1986. In some regions of the country, tech­ nicians known as private scrubs are employed directly by surgeons. Most, however, are em­ ployed by hospitals and other places that have operating room, delivery room, and emergency room facilities.  munity college programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Accredited programs provide classroom training as well as supervised clinical experi­ ence. Required courses include anatomy, phys­ iology, and microbiology. Other courses cover such topics as the care and safety of patients during surgery, proper use of anesthesia, and surgical care procedures. Students also learn how to sterilize instruments; prevent and con­ trol infection; and handle special drugs, so­ lutions, supplies, and equipment. Some surgical technicians receive their training in hospital-based programs that last from 6 months to 1 year, depending on the program’s admission requirements. The shorter programs are designed for licensed practical nurses, who already have some background in anatomy, physiology, and clinical practice. The longer programs, from 9 months to a year, are for individuals with no background in health care. Some surgical technicians are trained in the Armed Forces. Regardless of where they are educated and trained, surgical technicians are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. With additional training, they can work with new equipment such as lasers and assist in complex procedures such as open heart surgery. Obtaining professional credentials for this occupation is voluntary; the Liaison Council on Certification certifies technicians who dem­ onstrate entry level knowledge by successfully passing a national certification examination. Continuing education or reexamination is re­ quired to maintain certification, which must be renewed every 6 years. Manual dexterity is a necessity for surgical technicians because they must handle instru­ ments quickly, often having to anticipate which instrument is needed. They must be consci­ entious, orderly, and emotionally stable. In surgery, there is little margin for error. High school students interested in careers in this oc­ cupation are advised to take courses in health and biology. Career advancement for surgical technicians often involves leaving the occupation in order to take sales, consumer relations, or manage­ ment positions with insurance companies, ster­ ile supply services, or operating equipment firms. Some technicians advance by becoming instructors in surgical technology training pro­ grams.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all technicians receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational and technical schools, or hospitals. In 1987, there were ap­ proximately 450 training programs for surgical technicians, of which 99 were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical As­ sociation. High school graduation normally is required for admission. Although most pro­ grams last from 9 to 10 months, some com­  Job Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. Future prospects for surgical technicians will be affected by the volume of surgery, surgical practice patterns, and the availability of op­ erating room nurses. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise due to projected changes in the size and age structure of the  Working Conditions Surgical technicians work in clean, well-lighted, cool environments. They need stamina to be on their feet the whole time they are on duty and to pay close attention to detail during op­ erations. Most surgery is performed during the day, but some workplaces, such as emergency sur­ gical units, require 24-hour coverage. A 40hour, 5-day workweek is normal for surgical technicians, although many are required at times to be “on call” (available to work on short notice for emergencies).  Health Technologists and Technicians/179  lUBat  mmm  mil  The rising volume of surgery' in hospitals will spur job growth. population, technological advances that permit surgical intervention for more conditions than ever before, and widespread insurance cov­ erage for surgical care. The rate of surgery has climbed steadily among persons 65 years of age and above. Elderly patients typically undergo surgery for cataracts, hip replacements, hernia repair, or prostate removal, for example. As new pro­ cedures and improvements in technology con­ tinue to make surgery less risky and more suc­ cessful , the potential benefits to elderly patients increasingly outweigh the risks. Rapid growth of the 65-and-over population in the years ahead is almost certain to sustain a high level of de­ mand for surgery. Surgical practice patterns are changing, however; the dominant trend is a shift to out­ patient or ambulatory surgery. Advances in anesthesia, fiber optics, and laser technology have made it possible for many procedures to be performed on an outpatient basis, and cost control considerations furnish a powerful stim­ ulus for choosing outpatient rather than inpa­ tient surgery. Some health insurance plans, for example, cover the full cost of outpatient sur­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  gery but pay only part of the cost if the same procedure entails a hospital stay. The growing popularity of outpatient surgery is especially evident in the hospital sector. Ex­ plosive growth is occurring in the number of surgical procedures performed in hospital out­ patient departments, which employ surgical technicians as assistants. If hospitals continue to dominate the rapidly expanding outpatient surgery market, demand for surgical techni­ cians is likely to remain strong. If, on the other hand, a significant volume of ambulatory sur­ gery shifts to physicians’ offices, clinics, and freestanding “surgicenters,” job growth could be curtailed, for relatively few surgical tech­ nicians are employed in these settings. It is possible that demand for surgical tech­ nicians will be constrained by changes in staff­ ing patterns as hospitals experiment with dif­ ferent methods of holding down labor costs. For example, hospitals may try to make greater use of “multicompctenf staff, who have the training to perform a wide variety of tasks. In the operating room, this could mean more jobs for nurses (provided that surgical nurses are readily available) and fewer positions for sur­  gical technicians. Whether such staffing pat­ terns will take hold on a wide scale is difficult to predict. Shortages or surpluses in the supply of op­ erating room nurses are quite likely to affect demand for surgical technicians, however. Hospitals unable to locate sufficient numbers of suitably trained surgical nurses may alter operating room staffing patterns, increasing their utilization of surgical technicians. Thus, in areas experiencing a nursing shortage, opportunities for surgical technicians should be even more favorable. Because so many factors are at work, the job market for surgical technicians will vary from one community to another, depending on local hiring needs and the supply of qualified applicants. Employment prospects for top graduates of accredited programs in surgical technology are expected to be very good, overall. Employers tend to view graduates of accredited training programs more favorably than those without such preparation—with the important excep­ tion of applicants with very strong clinical backgrounds; for example, foreign medical school graduates who have not yet passed the licensing examination that is necessary to enter residency training. Earnings The average starting salary for surgical tech­ nicians was about $13,860 a year in 1986, according to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced tech­ nicians earned an average salary of approxi­ mately $18,540 annually. Surgical technicians employed by the Federal Government are clas­ sified as nursing assistants. Their starting sal­ aries ranged from about $10,885 to $19,740 in 1986, depending on education and experi­ ence. Salaries vary widely by geographic location, with those on the east and west coasts generally higher. Surgical technicians employed by sur­ geons tend to earn more than those employed by hospitals and similar institutions. Related Occupations Other workers who perform medical activities under supervision are chiropractor assistants, dental assistants, electrocardiograph techni­ cians, electroencephalographic technologists, licensed practical nurses, medical assistants, nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants, orderlies, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a surgical technician, on training programs for the oc­ cupation, and on certification is available from: Association of Surgical Technologists, 8307 Shaffer Parkway, Littleton, CO 80127.  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers Communications occupations Public Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 165.017-010, .067-010, and .167-010)  Nature of the Work An organization’s public reputation, profit­ ability, and even its continued existence can depend on how successfully it presents its goals and policies to the public. Public relations spe­ cialists help businesses, government, univer­ sities, hospitals, schools, and other organiza­ tions build and maintain positive relationships with the public. Public relations specialists apply their talents and skills in many different areas. They may handle such functions as press, community, or consumer relations; political campaigns; inter­ est-group representation; fundraising; or em­ ployee recruitment. Public relations is not only “telling the employer’s story,” however. Un­ derstanding the attitudes and concerns of cus­ tomers, employees, and various other “pub­ lics”—and communicating this information to management to help formulate sound policy— is also an important part of the job. In im­ proving communications, public relations workers try to promote understanding and co­ operation among the diverse groups that make up our society.  A wide variety of organizations have public relations departments, and workers must tailor their programs to an employer’s particular needs. A public relations director of a college or university, for example, may spend much of the time developing fundraising strategies, while one in a large corporation may work with stockholders or government relations. Public relations workers put together infor­ mation that keeps the public aware of their organization’s policies, activities, and accom­ plishments, and that keeps management aware of public attitudes. After preparing this infor­ mation, they may contact people in the media who might be interested in printing, televising, or broadcasting their material. Many radio or television announcements, special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations workers. Some­ times the subject is a company and its policies towards its employees or its role in the com­ munity. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, energy, or the en­ vironment. Arranging and conducting programs in which company representatives will have direct con­ tact with the public are important features of public relations work. Such work includes set­ ting up speaking engagements and helping pre­ pare speeches for company officials. These workers also represent employers at commu­ nity projects; make film, slide, or other visual  presentations at school assemblies; plan con­ ventions; and manage fundraising campaigns. The United States Government is perhaps the largest single employer of public relations specialists. Sometimes called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communications specialists, these workers keep the public informed about the activities of government agencies. For example, public affairs specialists in the Department of Energy might keep the public informed about the pro­ posed lease of offshore land for oil exploration. Information officers at an Army installation regularly inform the local community about personnel changes and other news of interest. Public relations staff members in very large firms may number 200 or more, but, in most firms, the number is much smaller. The director of public relations, who is often a vice-presi­ dent of the company, may develop overall plans and policies with a top management executive. In addition, large public relations departments sometimes employ writers, research workers, and other specialists who prepare material for the different groups the company wishes to reach. People who handle publicity for an individ­ ual or who direct public relations for a uni­ versity, small business, or nonprofit organi­ zation may handle all aspects of the job. They contact people outside the organization, do the necessary planning and research, and prepare material for distribution. In small firms, these workers may combine public relations duties with advertising or sales promotion work; they may be top level officials or in more junior positions. The most skilled public relations work, making overall plans and maintaining contacts, usually is done by the department director and highly experienced staff members. Working Conditions Although public relations staffs generally work 35 to 40 hours a week, schedules may be rear­ ranged because public relations programs op­ erate against deadlines. Preparing and deliv­ ering speeches, attending meetings and community activities, and out-of-town travel may all be a part of the public relations spe­ cialist’s routine. Thus, workers occasionally may have to be at the job or on call around the clock.  Public relations specialists apply their talents and skills in many different areas. 180   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Public relations workers held about 87,000 jobs in 1986. Manufacturing firms, public utilities, transportation companies, insurance compa­  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/181  nies, and trade and professional associations employed many of them. A sizable number worked for government agencies (the Federal Government alone employs several thousand public information specialists), or for schools, colleges, museums, and other educational, re­ ligious, and human service organizations. The rapidly expanding health field also offers op­ portunities for public relations work, in hos­ pitals, pharmaceutical companies, and medical associations, for example. Many workers are employed by public relations consulting firms that serve clients for a fee. Some work for advertising agencies. Public relations workers are concentrated in large cities where press services and other com­ munications facilities are readily available, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, arc in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation, including smaller towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education combined with public re­ lations experience is excellent preparation for public relations work. Although most begin­ ners have a college major in journalism, com­ munications, or public relations, some em­ ployers prefer training in a field related to the firm’s business—science, finance, or engi­ neering, for example. Regardless of academic background, most entrants transfer from other occupations where they obtained valuable work experience. Many firms seek college graduates who have worked in electronic or print jour­ nalism. Others prefer workers with sales, en­ gineering, or other experience that prepares them to deal knowledgeably with the organi­ zation’s products or services. In 1986, more than 150 colleges and 35 graduate schools offered degree programs or special curriculums in public relations, usually administered by the journalism or communi­ cations department. In addition, about 300 col­ leges offered at least one course in this field. Typical courses include public relations theory and techniques, organizational communica­ tion, public relations management and admin­ istration, and other courses in public relations. Specialties are offered in public relations in business, government, and nonprofit organi­ zations. Courses in advertising, journalism, business administration, political science, communications, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also help in preparing for a career in public relations. Familiarity with word processing and other computer applications also is helpful. Persons who have a bachelor’s de­ gree in public relations or a related field gen­ erally enter staff positions, whereas those with a graduate degree in public relations are more qualified for administrative and managerial jobs. Extracurricular activities such as writing for a school publication or television or radio sta­ tion provide valuable experience. Many schools help students gain part-time or summer intern­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ships in public relations that provide training that can help in competing for entry positions. The military also can be an excellent place to gain training and experience. Membership in the Public Relations Student Society of Amer­ ica provides an opportunity for students to ex­ change views with public relations workers and to make professional contacts that may help later in securing a full-time job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work samples usually is an asset in finding a job. Public relations workers spend much time gathering information. Creativity, initiative, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are important to the public relations worker. Fresh ideas are so vital in public re­ lations that some experts spend all their time developing new ideas. People who choose public relations as a ca­ reer need an outgoing personality, self-confi­ dence, an understanding of human psychology, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. The ability to be competitive and yet function as part of a team are important qualifications. Some companies—particularly those with large public relations staffs—have formal training programs for new employees. In other firms, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of material about company ac­ tivities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble in­ formation for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experience, they work on more difficult assignments, such as writing press releases, speeches, and articles for publication. In some firms, workers get all-round experience whereas in other firms they specialize. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public relations workers who have at least 5 years’ experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6-hour examination (4 hours written, 2 hours oral). Employers con­ sider professional recognition through such ac­ creditation a sign of competence in this field. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as workers show they can handle more demanding and creative assignments. Some experienced public relations workers start their own con­ sulting firms.  Job Outlook Employment of public relations workers is ex­ pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. New jobs will result from growth in demand for these workers from corporations, associations, health facilities, and other large organizations. The trend toward the use of public relations specialists by smaller organizations and profes­ sional groups also should stimulate employ­ ment growth. The vast majority of job openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Experience in public relations is good preparation for management and other closely related jobs, and there is a  lot of movement into and out of this occupa­ tion. Opportunities should be good for applicants with sound academic preparation and some me­ dia experience. Competition is expected to re­ main keen for persons without the appropriate educational background or for those who do not have relevant work experience. Earnings Median annual earnings for public relation spe­ cialists who were not self-employed were $26,900 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,700 and $41,200 annually; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,400; and the top 10 percent earned more than $51,500. Salaries of experienced workers generally are highest in large organizations with exten­ sive public relations programs. According to a 1986 survey, the median annual salary of top level public relations workers was $42,000. Median annual salaries ranged from about $31,700 in nonprofit organizations to $59,100 in consumer product companies. In the Federal Government, persons with a bachelor’s degree generally started at $18,400 a year in 1987; those with a master’s degree generally started at $22,500 a year. Additional education or experience could qualify appli­ cants for a higher salary. Public information specialists in the Federal Government averaged about $32,600 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Public relations workers develop and distribute persuasive material in order to create favorable public attitudes. Other workers with similar jobs include fundraisers, account executives, lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising managers, and police officers involved in com­ munity relations. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering degree programs or a sequence of study in public relations is avail­ able for $1 from: Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.  Current information on the public relations field, salaries, and other items is available from: PR Reporter, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, NH 03833.  Additional information on job opportunities and the public relations field in general may be obtained for $1 from: Service Department, Public Relations News, 127 East 80th St., New York, NY 10021.  Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters (D.O.T 131.067-010, and -018. .267-010, 159.147-010, and -014)  Nature of the Work Announcers and newscasters are the most fa­ miliar of the many occupations in radio and  182/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment Radio and television announcers and news­ casters held about 61,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly all were staff announcers, but some were free­ lance announcers who sold their services for individual assignments to networks and sta­ tions, or to advertising agencies and other in­ dependent producers.  'tgmm  Announcers spend many hours preparing for broadcasts. television broadcasting. At small radio sta­ Some announcers become well-known and tions, most announcers also are disc jockeys. ?They introduce recorded music; present news, f sports, weather, and commercials; interview guests; and report on community activities and 4ghcr matters of interest to the audience. They often "ad-lib" much of the commentary. They also may operate the control board, sell com­ mercial time to advertisers, and write com­ mercial and news copy. Announcers at large television and radio sta­ tions usually specialize in a particular kind of programming such as sports events, general news broadcasts, or weather reports. They must be thoroughly familiar with these areas and, if a written script is required, may do the research and writing. Television news broadcasting requires spe­ cialized "on-camera" personnel—anchor per­ sons, television news reporters, and broadcast news analysts. In large news operations, such as those of stations in major cities or national networks, all three often take part in the news broadcast. The news anchor, or a pair of co-anchors, presents the day’s important news stories. Throughout the broadcast, the anchors, some­ times called newscasters, introduce videotaped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters that provide in-depth information on the event being covered. Broadcast news analysts, called commen­ tators, also present current news stories, but normally interpret them or discuss how specific events may affect the Nation or us personally. Frequently, a smaller television station em­ ploys only a news anchor who reads accounts of the day's stories and introduces background reports provided by the networks or by a tele­ vision news service. Announcers frequently participate in com­ munity activities. A sports announcer, forexample, might be the master of ceremonies at a touchdown club banquet or greet customers at the opening of a new sporting goods store.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  L  highly paid personalities. Beginning jobs in TV and radio broadcasting in major markets such as New York or Los Angeles generally involve behind-the-scenes writing, editing, or production-related assign­ ments. Newcomers to TV broadcasting also may begin as news camera operators. (See the statment on photographers and camera oper­ ators elsewhere in the Handbook.) A begin­ ners’ chance of landing an on-air newscasting job is remote, except possibly for a small radio station. In radio, newcomers generally start out taping interviews and operating various news audio equipment.  Working Conditions Announcers and newscasters usually work in well-lighted, air-conditioned, soundproof stu­ dios. However, when broadcasting from the scene of the news event, particularly in emer­ gency situations, they may be exposed to bad weather and long hours and may risk injury. Radio and TV stations broadcast for many hours a day—a growing number are on the air 24 hours a day—and the beginning announcer can expect to work the least desirable shifts— weekends, nights, and holidays. Working hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in preparing for broadcasts. Most announcers in large stations work a 40-hour week and receive overtime pay for additional hours. Many announcers in smal stations work a considerable amount of over-’ time. Working within a tight schedule requires splitsecond timing, and the resulting stress can be physically and mentally tiring. Those who en­ joy the work, however, feel that the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal con­ tacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disadvantages of ir­ regular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives.  TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry to this profession is highly competitive. While formal training in a college or technical school is valuable, station officials pay partic­ ular attention to taped auditions that present samples of an applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style on commer­ cials, news, interviews, and other copy. Col­ lege graduates and others hired by television stations usually start out as production secre­ taries, production assistants, researchers, or re­ porters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for “on,air” work. 1 Announcers must have a pleasant and wellcontrolled voice, good timing, and excellent pronunciation. Correct English usage and a knowledge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events improve chances for success. Good judgment and the ability to react quickly in emergencies are important because announ­ cers may be required to "ad-lib” all or part of a show. The ability to work under tight dead­ lines is also important. A neat, pleasing ap­ pearance is essential, of course, for television announcers and news broadcasters. The most successful announcers attract a large viewing or listening audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. ' High school courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and elec­ tronics, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable background for prospective announ­ cers. A liberal arts education provides an ex­ cellent background for an announcer, and many universities offer courses of study in the broad­ casting field. Students at these institutions also may gain valuable experience by supplement­ ing their courses with part-time work at the campus radio station and summer work at local stations, filling in for vacationing staff mem­ bers. A number of private broadcasting schools offer training in announcing. Persons considering enrolling in any school, whether public or private, that offers training for a broadcasting career should contact the personnel managers of radio and television sta­ tions as well as broadcasting trade organiza­ tions to determine the school’s reputation for producing suitably trained candidates. Some radio stations, cable systems, and TV stations offer students financial assistance and on-the-job training. These opportunities may be in the form of internships, apprentice pro­ grams, co-op work programs, scholarships, or fellowships. Announcers generally get their first broad­ casting jobs in a small station. Because an­ nouncers in small radio stations sometimes op­  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/183  erate transmitters, prospective announcers often obtain a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricted radiotelephone operator per­ mit. This qualifies them to become involved in the routine operation of radio transmitters and makes them much more useful to these stations. (For additional information on FCC requirements, see the statement on broadcast technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Announcers usually work in several different stations in the course of their career. After acquiring experience at a station in a small community, an ambitious and talented an­ nouncer may move to a better paying job in a large city. An announcer also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for jobs is particularly intense, and announcers often must be college graduates and have several years of successful announcing experience before they are given an audition.  Job Outlook Employment of announcers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000 as new radio and television stations are licensed and the number of cable television systems continues to grow. Employment of radio announcers may not keep pace with the increase in the number of stations, however, because of the increased use of automatic programming equipment. Al­ though announcers are rather strongly attached to their occupation, most openings in this rel­ atively small field will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Competition for beginning jobs as announ­ cers will be very keen because the broadcasting field typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. It will be easier to get a job in radio than in television because more radio stations hire beginners. Many of these jobs will be in small stations, however, where the pay is relatively low. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large radio and television stations will continue to seek highly experienced announ­ cers and newscasters who have proven that they can attract and retain a large audience. Newscasters who are specialized in such areas as business, consumer, and health news may have an advantage over other job applicants. Specialization is more pronounced at larger stations and the networks, but even many smaller radio and TV stations are now en­ couraging qualified newscasters to develop specialties. Over the years, employment in this occu­ pation has not been significantly affected by downturns in the economy. When poor busi­ ness conditions and decreasing advertising rev­ enues necessitate employment reductions, ra­ dio and television stations tend to cut back the number of production and “behind-the-scenes” workers rather than reduce the number of an­ nouncers and broadcasters.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely with the type of station, the size of the market it serves, and with the announcer’s qualifications. According to a survey conducted by the Na­ tional Association of Broadcasters, average starting salaries of radio announcers ranged from $12,200 to $14,400 a year in 1986. Sal­ aries for experienced announcers averaged be­ tween $15,700 and $17,500. Average starting salaries of TV announcers ranged from $16,400 to $26,000 annually. Ex­ perienced announcers earned average annual salaries of $22,500 to $44,200. For both radio and television, salaries are higher in the larger markets. Some announcers earn many times the average salary. For example, network an­ chors may earn $1 million or more a year. Related Occupations The success of radio and television announcers and news broadcasters is largely dependent upon their ability to speak effectively to their au­ diences. Others for whom oral communication skills are vital are interpreters, narrators, sales workers, public relations specialists, and ac­ tors. Sources of Additional Information For a list of schools that offer programs and courses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on FCC licensure, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20552.  General information on the broadcasting in­ dustry is available from: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For information on careers in broadcast news, contact: Radio-Television News Directors Association, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006.  For information on careers in the cable in­ dustry, write to: Cable Television Association, 1724 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Reporters and Correspondents (D.O.T. 131.267-018)  Nature of the Work Reporters and correspondents play a key role in our society by disseminating information and news on a timely basis. They gather infor­ mation and prepare stories that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present differing points of view on current is­ sues; and monitor the actions of public officials and others who exercise power. In covering a story, they may do background research, re­ view public records, and interview a variety  of people. As a rule, reporters take notes or use a tape recorder while collecting facts and write their stories upon returning to the office. In order to meet deadlines, however, many now use small, easy-to-carry, lightweight com­ puters to enter the story, which is then sent by telephone modem to rewriters who write or transcribe the stories for them. Reporters who write their stories back at the newsroom in­ creasingly do so using personal computers. They are now expected to do much more editing and layout work on their stories. Reporters in radio and television broadcast­ ing often report “live” from the scene of a newsworthy event, where they have to com­ pose their story on the spot. Later, they may do commentary for a film report in the studio and appear on camera to introduce the story. Large newspapers and radio and television stations frequently assign reporters to inves­ tigate specific locations or “beats,” such as police stations or the courts, on a regular basis to gather news originating in these places. Gen­ eral assignment reporters write up local news as assigned, such as a story about a political rally or about a local company going out of business. Many newspaper, magazine, and wire service reporters with a background or interest in a particular subject analyze and interpret the news in specialized fields such as medicine, politics, foreign affairs, sports, fashion, art, theater, consumer affairs, travel, finance, so­ cial events, science, education, business, la­ bor, and religion. Critics review restaurants and movies as well as literary, artistic, and musical works and live performances, while editorial writers present viewpoints on topics of public interest. Newspapers, magazines, wire services, and radio and television networks frequently station reporters, known as correspondents, in large cities as well as in other countries to prepare stories on major news events occurring in these locations. Reporters on small newspapers cover all aspects of local news, and also may take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire service copy, and write editorials. On some small weeklies, they also may solicit ad­ vertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Working Conditions The work of reporters and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines, and many work under trying conditions. In the office, for example, they often must contend with loud conversations and the confusion of people constantly on the go. When reporting from the scene, radio and tele­ vision reporters may be distracted by curious onlookers, police, or other emergency work­ ers. Some assignments covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and other events may be dangerous. Working hours vary by type of employer. Reporters working for morning papers usually work from late afternoon until midnight. Those on afternoon or evening papers generally work from early morning until early or midafter­ noon. Radio and television reporters generally  184/Occupational Outlook Handbook  are assigned to a day or evening shift so that the news can be covered whenever it happens. Although magazine reporters often can sched­ ule their work during the day, all reporters may have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to update an earlier report because of late-breaking developments. Their work may demand long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Foreign correspondents often work late at night to send news to their papers in time for printing deadlines. Employment Reporters and correspondents held about 75,000 jobs in 1986. About 7 of every 10 worked for newspapers, either large city daily papers or daily or weekly papers in suburban commu­ nities and small towns. Others worked in radio and television broadcasting and for magazines and wire services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most editors prefer college graduates who have a degree in journalism, which includes training in the liberal arts along with professional train­ ing in journalism. A few prefer applicants who have a bachelor's degree in one of the liberal arts and a master’s degree in journalism. High school courses in English, journalism, social studies, and typing provide a good foundation. Some large city newspapers prefer a candidate to have a degree in a subject-matter specialty helpful to specific beats such as economics, political science, finance, or business, and a second degree in journalism. In 1986, the vast majority of journalism graduates who landed jobs on newspapers, magazines, or with news wire services pre­ pared specifically for news work by majoring in news-editorial journalism. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available in over 300 colleges. About threefourths of the courses in a typical undergrad­  uate journalism curriculum are in liberal arts; the remainder are required journalism courses. These journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. In addition, students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and televi­ sion newscasting and production. Other jour­ nalism courses are selected in the student’s specific area of interest. Over 350 community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs. Credit earned at some of these schools may be trans­ ferable to 4-year college programs in journal­ ism, but students who intend to pursue a bac­ calaureate degree should check with 4-year colleges to determine which journalism courses they will accept. Some junior colleges also offer programs especially designed to prepare the student directly for employment as a gen­ eral assignment reporter. However, such grad­ uates find it increasingly difficult to compete with graduates of 4-year programs. A master’s degree in journalism was offered by over 100 schools in 1986; about 20 schools offered the Ph.D. degree. Some graduate pro­ grams are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others concentrate on pre­ paring journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. Liberal arts courses useful to persons pre­ paring for a reporting career include English courses with an emphasis on writing, sociol­ ogy, political science, economics, history, psychology, computer science, business, and speech. The ability to read and speak a foreign language also is desirable. Those who aspire to reporting in a specialized field—science or business, for example—should concentrate on coursework in those subject areas. Typing skill is essential because reporters type their own news stories. Virtually all re­ porters now use computerized word processing equipment to write and edit stories, so job­  Iwwidi .4 Vi  Experience acquired through internships helps in job placement.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  seekers should be familiar with this type of equipment. The ability to take shorthand also is useful. A knowledge of news photography is valuable, because many entry level positions are combination reporter/camera operator jobs. Practical experience, such as part-time work or a summer job for a news organization, has become extremely important in competing for scarce reporting jobs. The Dow Jones News­ paper Fund and individual newspapers and magazines as well as many radio and TV news organizations offer summer internships that provide college students with an opportunity to perform a variety of basic reporting or ed­ iting duties. Experience acquired through such internships helps immeasurably in job place­ ment after graduation. In addition, more than 3,000 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships were awarded to college jour­ nalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations in 1986. Many who compete for these jobs find it especially helpful to have had experience as a “stringer”—a part-time reporter who covers the news in a particular area of the community and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. Working on high school and college newspa­ pers. church or community newsletters, and Armed Forces publications also provides writ­ ing and editing experience that may be helpful in getting that first job. News reporting involves a great deal of re­ sponsibility, because what a reporter writes frequently influences the opinion of the reading public. Reporters should be dedicated to serv­ ing the public’s need for accurate and impartial news. Although reporters work as part of a team, they have an opportunity for self-expres­ sion. The ability to present facts and opinions clearly and succinctly is essential for success in this field. Accuracy and objectivity are equally important, because, among other rea­ sons, untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. Important personal characteristics include a "nose for news,” curiosity, persistence, initia­ tive, poise, resourcefulness, an accurate mem­ ory, and the physical stamina and emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irreg­ ular hours, and sometimes dangerous assign­ ments. Being at ease on camera or in front of a microphone is essential for broadcast re­ porters. Because some assignments lead re­ porters to unfamiliar places, they must be able to adapt to strange surroundings and feel at ease with a variety of people. Most beginners start with small publications as general assignment reporters or copy editors. A few outstanding journalism graduates are hired by large city papers and national mag­ azines, but this is the exception rather than the rule. Large employers generally require several years of reporting experience. Beginning reporters are assigned duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, sum­ marizing speeches, writing obituaries, inter­ viewing important visitors to the community, and covering police court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may report more im­  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/185  portant events, cover an assigned “beat,” or specialize in a particular field. Reporters may advance to reporting for larger papers or press services. However, competition for such positions is keen, and news executives receive many applications from highly quali­ fied reporters every year. Some experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, editorial writers, editors, or top executives; these positions represent the top of the field, and competition for them is extremely keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields such as public relations or preparing copy for radio and tele­ vision news programs. Job Outlook Employment of reporters and correspondents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. This growth will come about primarily because of an anticipated increase in the number of small­ town and suburban daily and weekly news­ papers. For the most part, little or no increase is expected in the number of big city dailies, although some of them may increase the size of their reporting staffs. Magazines and radio and television broadcasting should continue to provide a significant number of jobs, but major news magazines and large radio and television stations primarily seek only experienced re­ porters. The need to replace experienced re­ porters and correspondents who leave the oc­ cupation will account for the vast majority of all job openings. Turnover is relatively high in this occupation—reflecting the somewhat stressful and hectic nature of the job. Some people decide they don’t like the lifestyle and transfer to other occupations where their skills are valuable, especially public relations and advertising work. In recent years, many highly qualified journalism graduates have rejected newspaper careers in favor of higher paying jobs in other areas that require communication skills. Overall, graduates who have majored in news-editorial journalism, have completed an internship while in school, and have work ex­ perience should have the best prospects for reporting jobs. Most editors prefer to hire the top graduates of accredited programs. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized sci­ entific or technical subjects will be at an ad­ vantage in the job market. Small newspapers often look for beginning reporters who are ac­ quainted with the community and who can help with photography and other aspects of news­ paper production. Persons without at least a bachelor’s degree in journalism will face in­ creasingly stiff competition for entry level po­ sitions. Newspapers and magazines located in small towns and suburban areas are expected to con­ tinue to offer the best opportunities for begin­ ning reporters. Journalism graduates who are willing to relocate and start at relatively low salaries are likely to find reporting jobs on these newspapers. Openings arise on small publi­ cations as reporters gain experience and move up to editorial positions, or transfer to reporting jobs on larger newspapers and magazines.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Competition for reporting jobs on large met­ ropolitan newspapers and national magazines will be keen. Most of these employers require experience and do not ordinarily hire new grad­ uates. Sometimes, however, new graduates find jobs on major publications because they have credentials in an area for which the paper has a pressing need. Occasionally, the experience and contacts gained through an internship pro­ gram or summer job lead to a reporting job directly after graduation. Because enrollments in journalism education programs are expected to continue rising mod­ erately through the year 2000, college teaching opportunities are expected to be good for qual­ ified applicants—generally, Ph.D.’s with practical reporting experience. Some highly qualified reporters with a master’s degree will find teaching positions in journalism depart­ ments of colleges and junior colleges. This favorable outlook for journalism educators contrasts with the generally bleak prospect for college faculty in many other academic dis­ ciplines, because the student-teacher ratio in journalism courses is much lower than for many other college courses. Employment of reporters and correspond­ ents generally is not cut back sharply during slack economic periods, but when business conditions force publishers and broadcasters to reduce spending, new hiring may be tempo­ rarily slowed or even halted. College graduates who have majored in jour­ nalism also have the background for work in such closely related fields as advertising and public relations. Every year, a substantial num­ ber of journalism graduates take media jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, man­ agerial, and other nonmedia positions, while still others continue their training and then find jobs in fields such as law, business, public administration, and political science.  Earnings Annual salaries of radio reporters ranged from about $12,200 to $28,000 in 1986, according to a survey conducted by the National Asso­ ciation of Broadcasters. Salaries of TV re­ porters ranged from about $16,500 to more than $53,000. Reporters working for daily newspapers having contracts negotiated by The Newspaper Guild had starting salaries ranging from about $9,400 to nearly $47,000 a year in 1986. The majority started at between $15,600 and $23,400 a year. Experienced reporters averaged about $31,200 annually in 1986, according to figures provided by The Newspaper Guild. Virtually all experienced reporters earned over $20,800 a year, while the top contractual salary was $48,300 a year. A number of top reporters on big city dailies earned even more, on the basis of merit. Most reporters generally work a 5-day, 35or 40-hour week and receive extra pay for over­ time work. Benefits may vary widely according to length of service and the size and location of the employer. Most reporters, however, re­  ceive benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pension plans. Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essential include technical writers, advertising copy writers, public relations workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biographers, screen writers, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information, including pamphlets en­ titled Your Future in Newspapers and Facts about Newspapers, is available from: American Newspaper Publishers Association Foun­ dation, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, DC 20041.  Information on careers in journalism, col­ leges and universities that offer degree pro­ grams in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained without charge from: The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc.. P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543-0300.  For a list of junior and community colleges offering programs in journalism, contact: Community College Journalism Association. County College of Morris, Rome 10 and Center Grove Rd., Randolph, NJ 07869.  Information on union wage rates for news­ paper and magazine reporters is available from: The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department. 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005.  For a list of schools with accredited pro­ grams in their journalism departments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Kansas School of Journalism, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045.  For general information about careers in journalism, contact: Association For Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, University of South Carolina Col­ lege of Journalism, 1621 College St., Columbia. SC 29208.  Careers in Communications, a booklet pro­ viding information on opportunities for women in newspaper reporting and other communi­ cations fields is available from: Women In Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, TX 78766. A pamphlet titled A Career in Newspapers, can be obtained from: National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW.. Suite 400 Washington. DC 20006.  Names and locations of newspapers and tsa list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher In­ ternational Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices.  186/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Writers and Editors (D.O.T. 131 except .267-010 and -018; and 132 except .067-030)  Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writers develop original fiction and nonfiction prose for books, magazines, trade journals, newspapers, technical studies and re­ ports, company newsletters, radio and televi­ sion broadcasts, and advertisements. Editors supervise writers and select and prepare ma­ terial for publication or broadcasting. Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor. They then gather information on the topic through personal ob­ servation, library research, and interviews. Sometimes, the information gathered may cause writers to change the focus to a related topic that is more interesting. From the information gathered, they select and organize the material to be used, and finally put it into words that will convey it to the reader with the desired effect. Writers often revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization of the ma­ terial or just the right phrasing. Newswriters— writers employed by newspapers and radio and television news departments—write news items for inclusion in newspapers or news broad­ casts. Starting with information supplied by reporters or wire services, they write news sto­ ries or scripts for newscasters. Reporters and correspondents are described elsewhere in this section of the Handbook. Technical writers put scientific and technical information into readily understandable lan­ guage. They prepare manuals, catalogs, parts lists, and instructional materials used by sales representatives to sell a wide variety of ma­ chinery and equipment and by technicians to install, maintain, and service it. Copy writers write advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media to promote the sale of goods and services. Established writers may work on a freelance basis where they sell their work to publishers or publication units, manufacturing linns, and public relations and advertising departments or agencies. They sometimes are hired to com­ plete specific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors frequently do some writing and al­ most always do much rewriting and editing, but their primary duties are to plan the contents of the publication and to supervise its prepa­ ration. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to writers, and oversee the pro­ duction of the book, magazine, or newspaper. In small organizations, a single editor may have full responsibility for the entire publication. In larger ones, an executive editor oversees the activities of associate or assistant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as fiction, international news, or sports. Ad­ ministrative duties of editors include hiring and firing writers and other employees, planning budgets, negotiating contracts with freelance writers, and general managerial duties. In  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  broadcasting companies, program directors have responsibilities comparable to those of editors. Editors and program directors often are helped by assistants, who may have the title of assistant editor, editorial assistant, copy ed­ itor, or production assistant. Many of these assistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They check manuscripts for reada­ bility, style, and agreement with editorial pol­ icy. They add and rearrange sentences to im­ prove clarity or delete incorrect and unnecessary material. Researchers, research assistants, and some editorial assistants do research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Assis­ tants also may help prepare material for pub­ lication or broadcast by arranging page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising or by planning the use of films. They also may com­ pose headlines, prepare copy for typesetters, and proofread the printer’s galleys. Some ed­ itorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers or answer letters about published or broadcast material. Pro­ duction assistants clip stories that come over the wire services’ printers, answer phones, and make copies of material for newswriters, ed­ itors, and program directors. Working Conditions Working conditions for writers and editors vary with the kind of publication they work on and the kind of articles they produce. Some work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of typewriters and computer printers as well as other writers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, laboratories, the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours. Night and weekend work is required of those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts. Some workers also must put in overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a late-developing story. The more frequently the publication is issued, the more frequent the deadlines and the greater the pressure to meet them. The need to understand complex tech­ nical data also may be a source of stress or pressure. Employment Writers and editors held about 214,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly 40 percent of writers and editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers also work on journals and newsletters published by business and nonprofit organizations, such as profes­ sional associations, labor unions, and religious organizations. Others write and edit advertising and public relations materials for advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large cor­ porations. Some also work in radio and tele­ vision broadcasting; others develop publica­ tions for government agencies. Many technical writers work for firms man­ ufacturing aircraft, chemicals, pharmaceuti­  cals, and computer and other electronic equip­ ment. Firms in the communications and computer software fields also employ many technical writers. Persons who write and edit for major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting compa­ nies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Federal Government tend to be concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los An­ geles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed throughout the country, on the other hand, are those who work for newspapers; corporations; and professional, religious, business, techni­ cal, and trade union magazines or journals. Technical writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentrations are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Thousands of other persons work as free­ lancers—earning some income from their ar­ ticles, books, and, less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves primarily with income from other sources. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal educational requirements for writing and editing jobs vary. A college degree gen­ erally is required. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts background or a major in literature, history, philosophy, or one of the social sciences, most prefer to hire peo­ ple with degrees in communications or jour­ nalism. Some jobs, such as technical writing, require a degree in or some knowledge about a spe­ cialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences. Relatively few technical writ­ ers enter the occupation directly from college. The majority work initially in other jobs, usu­ ally as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assistants, editorial as­ sistants, or trainees in a company's technical information or advertising department. In time, these people may assume writing duties and develop technical communication skills. Whatever their educational background, writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically. Creativity, intellectual curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self­ motivation, and perseverance are also valuable assets. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to produce under pressure is essential. Familiarity with word processing, electronic publishing, and video production equipment is useful, because a growing number of organizations are using this equipment for writing and editing. Because writing requires research, writers must be familiar with research techniques. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what material to accept and what to reject. They also must be tactful and have the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. All prospective writers need practical writ­ ing experience. High school and college news­ papers, literary magazines, and small com­ munity newspapers and radio stations all provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid—experi­ ence. Many magazines, newspapers, and radio  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/187  i»*i *it****!  . W-g.  »N#*  *  / i  Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor. and TV stations have summer internships in which students can learn about the publishing and broadcasting business. Interns might run errands, answer phones, conduct some re­ search and interviews, or even write short pieces. Advancement for writers and editors de­ pends. in part, on the size of the organization for which they work. In small firms, beginning writers and editors may do a little bit of ev­ erything, not only working as editorial or pro­ duction assistants but also writing or editing material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms, so turnover among be­ ginning writers and editors is high. In larger firms, jobs usually are structured more for­ mally. Persons in entry level positions gen­ erally do research, fact checking, or copy ed­ iting. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employees of small companies. Advancement comes as they are assigned more important articles to write or edit.  Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. Employment of salaried writers and editors by newspapers, periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit or­ ganizations— including research agencies and religious, business, professional, and civic as­ sociations—is expected to increase with grow­ ing demand for their publications. Growth of advertising and public relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Demand for   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  technical writers is expected to increase be­ cause of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communicate it to researchers, cor­ porate managers, sales representatives, and technicians. With the increasing complexity of industrial and scientific equipment, more users will depend on the technical writer’s ability to prepare precise but simple explanations and instructions. Besides jobs created by increased demand for writers and editors, many job open­ ings will occur as experienced workers in this field transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, thousands of young people with college degrees in English, journalism, com­ munications, and the liberal arts seek writing and editing jobs. Many end up in other oc­ cupations because the number of people qual­ ified to work as writers and editors greatly exceeds the number of positions available, de­ spite the high turnover in these occupations. Through the year 2000, the outlook for writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly competitive. Opportunities will be best in firms that prepare business and trade pub­ lications and in technical writing. In addition, opportunities for beginners should be better on small dailies and weekly newspapers and in small radio and TV stations. Persons consid­ ering a career in writing and editing should keep their options open. Academic preparation in a field unrelated to writing may prove useful to some people, either to qualify them as writ­ ers specializing in that field, or to qualify them for a job in the field itself in the event that they are unable to get a salaried writing job.  Earnings In 1986, beginning salaries for writers and ed­ itorial assistants ranged from $18,400 to $29,300 annually, according to surveys by the Executive Compensation Service. Salaries for experienced writers and researchers generally ranged between $20,500 and $36,500 a year, depending on their qualifications and the size of the publication on which they worked. Tech­ nical writers had salaries ranging from $ 19,300 to $37,800. Experienced editors generally earned between $20,900 and $39,000 a year; supervisory editors, $28,600 to $42,600 a year. Starting salaries for copy editors on daily papers in towns with a population of less than 20,000 averaged $9,700 in 1986; copy editors in cities of 500,000 or more earned $13,000, according to a survey by the Dow Jones News­ paper Fund. Senior editors on large circulation newspapers and magazines, however, aver­ aged over $60,000 per year. In addition, many writers and editors supplement their salaried income by doing freelance work. Writers and editors employed by the Federal Government earned an average of $28,000 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and in­ formation to individuals for their education and entertainment. Other communications occu­ pations include newspaper reporters and cor­ respondents, radio and television announcers, advertising and public relations workers, and teachers of journalism. Sources of Additional Information For information on writing and editing careers in the field of communications, contact: Women in Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, TX 78766.  For a guide to journalism careers and schol­ arships, contact: The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08540.  For information on college internships in magazine editing, contact: American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lex­ ington Ave., New York, NY 10022.  For information on careers in technical writ­ ing, contact: Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 815 15th St. NW., Suite 516, Washington, DC 20005.  For information on careers in business com­ munication, contact: The Association for Business Communications, 100 English Building, 608 South Wright St., Urbana, IL 61801.  Visual arts occupations Designers (D.O-T. 141,051, .067; and 142 except .061-030)  Nature of Work Designers arrange and design articles, prod­ ucts, and materials in such a way that they not only serve the purpose for which they were intended but are visually pleasing as well. Pleasant surroundings, beautiful clothes, and floral arrangements can boost our spirits, and products and packaging that are eye catching are more likely to attract buyers than those that are not. Designers usually specialize in one type of product or activity, for example, automobiles, clothing, furniture, home appliances, industrial equipment, movie and theater sets, packaging, or floral arrangements. In developing a new design or altering an existing one, they first determine the needs of their clients and poten­ tial users. Then they consider the size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and the way the product functions, as well as case of mainte­ nance, safety, and cost of the design. Designers may compare similar or competitive products. They take into account and often set style and fashion trends. Designers usually develop sketches of several designs which they present for final selection to an art or design director; a product development team; a play, film, or television producer; or a client. The designer then makes a model, a sample, or detailed plans drawn to scale. Designers may supervise craft workers who carry out their designs. Those who run their own businesses may devote a considerable amount of time to developing business contacts and to administrative tasks such as checking catalogs and ordering samples.  Design is not one but a number of different fields. Industrial designers develop and design countless manufactured products like cars, home appliances, computers, stethoscopes, filing cabinets, fishing rods, pens, and piggy banks. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, marketing, materials, and pro­ duction methods to create the best and most appealing design and to make the product com­ petitive with others in the marketplace. Interior designers plan and furnish the in­ teriors of private homes, public buildings, and commercial establishments such as offices, res­ taurants, hotels, and theaters. They coordinate colors; select furniture, floor coverings, and curtains; and design lighting and architectural details such as crown molding. They also plan additions and renovations, drawing up designs for the use of interior and exterior space that fit the client’s taste and meet his or her needs. Package designers create product containers that are not only attractive but easy to handle and store. Set designers design movie, tele­ vision, and theater sets. They study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to determine appropriate architectural styles. Fashion designers design coats, suits, dresses, hats, handbags, shoes, gloves, jew­ elry, underwear, and other apparel. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. They make fashion news by establishing the "line.” colors, and kinds of materials that will be worn each season. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. They design original garments as well as follow the estab­ lished fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, adapting fashions for the mass market. Textile designers design fabrics for gar­ ments, upholstery, rugs, and other products,  f /  To meet production deadlines, designers may have to work overtime. 188   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  using their knowledge of textile materials and fashion trends. Floral designers cut and arrange fresh, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into a design to express the sentiments of the sender. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gardens, and terrariums. They usually work from a written order indicating the occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the arrangement or plant is to be deliv­ ered. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer depends on the size of the shop and the number of designers employed. In a small operation, the floral designer may own the shop and do almost everything from growing flowers to keeping books. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Self-employed designers tend to work longer hours—especially at first, when they are trying to establish themselves and cannot afford to hire assistants or clerical help. Designers frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients, meeting with them evenings or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in clients’ homes or offices, in their own offices, or in other locations such as decorator showrooms. Industrial designers usually work regular hours but occasionally work overtime to meet deadlines. In contrast, set designers, especially those in television broadcasting, often work long and irregular hours. Television production tempo is very fast, and set designers are often under pressure to make rapid changes in the sets. Fashion designers who work in the apparel industry usually have regular hours. During production deadlines or before fashion shows, however, they may be required to put in over­ time. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites overseas and across the United States. Floral designers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, except during the holidays when overtime may be required. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are rejected or when they cannot be as creative as they would like. Independent consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain their incomes. Employment Designers held about 259,000 jobs in 1986. About two-fifths were self-employed, a much higher proportion than in most occupations. Salaried designers are found in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Most industrial designers, for ex­ ample, work for consulting firms or for large manufacturing companies. Interior designers  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/189  usually work for department stores and home furnishing stores; hotel, restaurant, and other hospitality chains; or architectural or design firms. Many do freelance work—full time, part time, or in addition to a salaried job. Set designers work for theater companies, the film industry, and television broadcasting companies. Fashion designers generally work for textile, apparel, and pattern manufacturers, or for fashion salons, high-fashion department stores, and specialty shops. Some work in the entertainment industry, designing costumes for theater, dance, television, and movies. Nearly all floral designers work for retail flower shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field also need a strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a per­ son’s best work—is often the deciding factor in landing a job. However, formal preparation in design is important in all fields with the exception of floral design. Educational requirements for entry level po­ sitions vary. Some design occupations, notably industrial design, require a bachelor’s or mas­ ter’s degree. Computer-aided design is widely used in this area, and most employers expect new employees to be familiar with the use of the computer as a design tool. . Interior designers generally need some col­ lege education, preferably a degree in interior design. Few clients—especially commercial clients—are willing to entrust responsibility for designing living and working space to a designer with no formal credentials. - In fashion design, too, some formal career preparation is almost always needed to land a job. Employers seek individuals who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, and or­ namentation as well as about trends in the fash­ ion world. In contrast to the other design occupations, educational requirements for floral design jobs are minimal—a high school diploma ordinarily suffices. Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When they hire trainees, employers generally look for high school graduates who have a flair for color and a desire to learn. Formal training for designers is available in 2- and 3-year professional schools which award certificates or associate degrees in design. Fouryear colleges and universities grant the degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, prin­ ciples of design, fashion designing and sketch­ ing, garment construction, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized de­ sign, sculpture, architecture, and basic engi­ neering. A liberal arts education with courses in merchandising and business administration along with training in art is also a good back­ ground. Persons with training or experience in architecture also qualify for some design oc­ cupations. In 1987, the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited 143 postsecond­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in art, industrial design, interior design, textile de­ sign, graphic design, or fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bach­ elor’s degree program until a student has suc­ cessfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Some colleges and universities offer degrees in floriculture and floristry and provide training in flower marketing and shop man­ agement. Floral design is taught in private trade and technical schools. People in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persistent, and able to commu­ nicate their ideas visually. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be open to new ideas and influences. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, and to budget their time in order to meet deadlines. Business sense and sales ability are important for those who are free­ lancers or run their own businesses. Beginning designers usually receive on-thejob training. Beginners usually need 1 to 3 years of training before they advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory posi­ tions. Some experienced designers open their own firms. Interior design is the only design field subject to government regulation: the District of Co­ lumbia licenses interior designers, and three States regulate use of the title. While licensing is the exception rather than the rule, member­ ship in a professional association is universally recognized as a mark of achievement for de­ signers. Membership usually requires the com­ pletion of 3 or 4 years of postsecondary edu­ cation in design and at least 2 years of practical experience in the field.  aration in design may find it very difficult to get established. While most areas of design are highly com­ petitive, this is not the case in floral design. Relatively low pay and limited opportunities for advancement restrict the supply of suitable applicants. As a result, finding a job as a floral designer should be relatively easy.  Job Outlook Employment in design occupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000. However, most openings will result from the need to replace those who leave the field. Continued emphasis on product quality and safety, on design of new products for busi­ nesses and offices, and on high-technology products in medicine and transportation should expand the demand for industrial designers. Growth in population and in personal incomes is expected to spur demand for interior de­ signers, fashion designers, floral designers, and set designers. Despite rapid growth in the number of jobs, beginners in most design fields—with the ex­ ception of floral design—will face stiff com­ petition. Many talented individuals are at­ tracted to a career as a designer, among them, graduates of prestigious design schools. In light of the abundant supply, individuals with unex­ ceptional talent and those with no formal prep­  Industrial Designers Society of America, 1142-E Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066.  Earnings Median annual earnings of experienced full­ time designers were almost $25,500 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned betwen $16,800 and $34,400 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $15,200, and the top 10 per­ cent earned more than $46,500. Floral designers earned less than this. Ac­ cording to a survey conducted by Floral Fi­ nance Inc., beginning floral designers had av­ erage earnings of approximately $8,700 a year in 1986, while experienced designers averaged $13,000 in the same year. Some floral design­ ers reported average earnings of more than $25,000. Earnings of self-employed designers vary greatly, depending on their talent and business ability, but generally are higher than those of salaried designers. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, materials, or interiors to im­ prove their appearance and function include visual artists, architects, landscape architects, engineers, photographers merchandise dis­ played, and fur designers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited schools of art and de­ sign, contact: National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090.  A brochure that describes careers in indus­ trial design and lists academic programs in the field is available from the Industrial Designers Society of America. For price and ordering information, write:  For information about careers in interior de­ sign, contact: American Society for Interior Designers, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018.  For information about careers in floral ar­ rangement, contact: Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Al­ exandria, VA 22314. Florist Transworld Delivery, Education Division, 29200 Northwest Hwy., Southfield, MI 48036.  Photographers and Camera Operators (D.O.T. 143)  Nature of the Work Photographers and camera operators use cam­ eras and film to portray people, places, and  190/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Almost half of all photographers and camera operators are self-employed. Distribution of employment, 1986  Selfemployed  and H Wage salary workers  SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics  events much as writers use words. Those who are skillful can capture the personality of in­ dividuals or the mood of scenes on film. Pho­ tographers specializing in scientific, medical, or engineering photography expose worlds nor­ mally hidden from our view. Camera operators film news events, television shows, movies, commercials, and even cartoons. The skills required of still photographers are quite different from those needed by camera operators. Workers generally specialize in one area or the other. Nonetheless, photographers and camera operators all use the same basic equipment, a camera. Camera operators gen­ erally use 35-millimeter cameras to film motion pictures, 16-millimeter cameras to film docu­ mentary and industrial films, and videotape cameras to record news events for later show­ ing on television. Most photographers use a wide variety of still cameras to record impor­ tant or memorable events or to create works of art. Unlike snapshot cameras, which have a lens permanently attached to the camera body, professional cameras can be used with a variety of lenses designed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photography. In addition, profes­ sional photographers and camera operators use a vast array of mechanical equipment—from the simple tripod and flash attachments to spe­ cially constructed motorized vehicles and spe­ cial lighting. Besides cameras and lenses, photographers and camera operators employ a variety of film and filters to obtain the desired effect under different lighting conditions. When taking pic­ tures indoors or after dark, they may use elec­ tronic flash units, floodlights, reflectors, and other special lighting equipment and back­ drops. Some photographers develop and print their own photographs in the darkroom and may enlarge or otherwise alter the basic image. Many photographers send their work to laboratories for processing. (See the statement on photo­ graphic process workers elsewhere in the Handbook.)  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Taking quality pictures is a technical process as well as a creative one. Photographers and camera operators must be familiar with all the characteristics of light, film, and cameras, and how they must be combined to take profes­ sional quality pictures. Years of training and experience are needed to develop the skills and abilities needed to coordinate all these varia­ bles. Creativity is often called for when photog­ raphers compose their pictures. Composing a photograph means choosing a subject and de­ ciding how to present it to achieve a particular effect. The photographer may wish to change or enhance the normal appearance of the sub­ ject, for example, or draw attention to a par­ ticular aspect. It is through creative application of the principles of composition, and judicious use of light, lens, film, filters, and camera settings, that photographers produce pictures that capture a mood or tell a story. Still photographers may specialize in a par­ ticular type of photography, such as portrait, fashion, or advertising. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of per­ sons and often work in their own studios. For special events, such as weddings or christen­ ings, however, they take photographs in churches and homes. Portrait photographers in small studios, like other small-business own­ ers, frequently handle all aspects of their busi­ ness. They arrange for advertising and schedule appointments; set and adjust equipment before taking the pictures; develop and retouch neg­ atives; develop proofs; and mount and frame pictures. They also purchase supplies and take care of billing and recordkeeping. Advertising or industrial photographers take pictures of a wide range of subjects including livestock, manufactured articles, buildings, and groups of people. They frequently do photog­ raphy for catalogs. Companies use their work in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. To create attractive, eye-catching promotional pictures, advertising photographers must com­  mand a broad array of photographic tech­ niques. Industrial photographers also photo­ graph groups of people for employee news magazines or take motion pictures of workers operating equipment and machinery for man­ agement’s use in analyzing production or work methods. Scientific photographers and biological pho­ tographers provide illustrations and documen­ tation for scientific publications and research reports. The photographs and slides they pro­ duce are also used for educational purposes. These photographers usually specialize in a particular field, such as engineering, aerody­ namics, medicine, biology, orchemistfy. Some design photographic equipment for use as a research tool. For example, medical research­ ers often use ultraviolet and infrared photog­ raphy, fluorescence, and X-rays to obtain in­ formation not visible under normal conditions. Time-lapse photography (where time is stretched or condensed), photomicrography (where the subject of the photography may be magnified 50 or 70 times or more), and photogrammetry (surveying an area using aerial photography) are other special techniques. Photojournalists photograph newsworthy events, places, people, and things for publi­ cations such as newspapers and magazines. They may also prepare educational slides, film­ strips, and movies. Photography also constitutes an art medium. As in other forms of artistic endeavor, self­ expression and creativity are central while technical proficiency—which is often consid­ erable—provides the vehicle for conveying the artist’s message. Very few photographers, however, are successful enough to support themselves through artistic photography alone. Some camera operators work for television networks and individual stations, covering news events as part of a team that includes a reporter and other technicians. These camera operators use special photographic equipment—called electronic news gathering cameras—to capture events on videotape. Images from these cam­ eras can be transmitted via satellite from the scene back to the newsroom in time for the telecast. Camera operators also are employed in the entertainment field. They use 35- and 16-mil­ limeter motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Ani­ mation camera operators film cartoons; opticaleffects camera operators create illusions for television and movies. Camera operators in the entertainment business are usually supervised by directors of photography. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers and camera operators vary considerably. Photog­ raphers in government, commercial studios, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Freelancers, newspaper photographers, and camera operators work longer or more irregular hours. Many photog­ raphers work part time. Freelance, press, and commercial photog­ raphers may travel frequently and may work  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/191  in uncomfortable surroundings. Sometimes the work can be dangerous, especially for photo­ journalists assigned to cover stories on natural disasters or military conflicts. When working on assignment or on location, photographers and camera operators may be away from home for long periods. Most photographers and camera operators work under pressure. Deadlines and demand­ ing customers must be satisfied. Freelance pho­ tographers may find soliciting new clients frus­ trating and tedious. Employment Photographers and camera operators held about 109,000 jobs in 1986. About half of all pho­ tographers and camera operators are self-em­ ployed, a much higher proportion than the av­ erage for all occupations. Some or these are freelance photographers who do individual projects on a one-time-only or occasional basis. Salaried jobs for photographers are found, for the most part, in photographic or com­ mercial art studios. Other major employers in­ clude newspapers, magazines, advertising agencies, radio and television broadcasters, motion picture companies, and government agencies. Camera operators are employed pri­ marily in television broadcasting and motion picture studios. Photographers work in all parts of the coun­ try—small towns as well as large cities—but most are in the more populated areas. Almost all camera operators work in metropolitan areas, but assignments may take them far away from home. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a high school diploma is desirable, many of the entry level jobs for photographers do not require formal career preparation. In­ stead, employers seek applicants who have a technical understanding of photography as well as requisite personal traits—principally imag­ ination, creativity, and a good sense of timing. Technical expertise can be obtained through practical experience, postsecondary education, or some combination of the two. For some jobs in scientific or technical pho­ tography, knowledge of a subject area is nec­ essary. For instance, in the field of photogrammetry, which uses photography to help produce maps, a basic knowledge of scientific and technical subjects related to mapmaking is important. Photographic training is available in ap­ proximately 1,000 colleges, universities, com­ munity and junior colleges, vocational-tech­ nical institutes, and private trade and technical schools. All of these institutions offer one or more courses in photography, often as part of a communications or journalism program. Some offer courses in cinematography. Many fewer offer degree programs in photography or cin­ ematography, however. In 1985, 103 com­ munity and junior colleges offered associate degrees in photography; over 160 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees; and 38 institutions offered master’s degrees.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Coursework in photography provides a background in equipment, processes, and tech­ nique. Bachelor’s and master's degree pro­ grams provide the additional advantage of a well-rounded education and the opportunity to take potentially valuable courses such as mar­ keting and business. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition, but not always the technical training needed for professional photographic work. The Armed Forces also train people in photographic skills. On-the-job training is an important source of training for both camera operators and pho­ tographers. Trainees begin as first and second assistants to camera operators, helping set up equipment and learning the craft by observing experienced workers. Relatively few academic programs are oriented toward motion picture photography. As a result, camera operators generally acquire their skills through informal job training. On-the-job training offers the ad­ ditional advantage of allowing trainees to earn while they learn. People may prepare for work as photogra­ phers in a commercial studio through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training as a photographer’s assistant. Trainees generally start in the dark­ room where they learn to mix chemicals, de­ velop film, and do photoprinting and enlarging. Later they may set up lights and cameras or help an experienced photographer take pic­ tures. Photographers and camera operators must have good eyesight and color vision, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, accurate, and enjoy working with de­ tail. Some knowledge of mathematics, phys­ ics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the workings of various lenses, films, light sources, and development processes and why particular adjustments are required for certain conditions. Some photographic specialties require ad­ ditional qualities. Commercial photographers  must be imaginative and original in their think­ ing. Those who specialize in photographing news stories must recognize a potentially good photograph and act quickly; otherwise, an op­ portunity to capture an important event on film may be lost. Writing ability sometimes is im­ portant for photojoumalists, who may write captions and accompanying articles for their photographs. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in the presence of the camera. Newly hired workers arc given relatively routine assignments that do not require splitsecond camera adjustments or decisions on what subject matter to photograph. News photog­ raphers, for example, may be assigned to cover events such as civic meetings or snowstorms. After gaining experience, they advance to more demanding assignments, and may move to larger newspapers or magazines. A few gain national recognition for their work and exhibit their photographs in art and photographic gal­ leries, or publish them in books. Camera op­ erators—like news photographers—advance in their profession as their work circulates and as they develop a reputation. The best known camera operators may become directors of pho­ tography on movies and TV programs. A few industrial or scientific photographers may be promoted to supervisory positions. Magazine and news photographers may eventually be­ come heads of graphic arts departments, or photography editors. Photographers and cam­ era operators may become teachers and provide instruction in their own area of expertise. Job Outlook Employment of photographers and camera op­ erators is expected to grow faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000. Many additional job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or stop working. Demand for photographers will be stimu­ lated by the steadily growing importance of  Employment of camera operators is expected to grow rapidly.  192/Occupational Outlook Handbook  visual images in many aspects of American life—in education, communication, entertain­ ment, marketing, and research and develop­ ment. Business firms, for example, are ex­ pected to make greater use of photographs, videocassettes, training films, and other visual aids in meetings, stockholders’ reports, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Pho­ tography is vitally important in scientific and medical research, areas that are projected to experience solid growth in the years ahead. Employment in photojournalism is expected to grow slowly. Many new jobs will be found in portrait studios, an industry likely to grow as a result of increased demand from a larger and more affluent population and from the desire of baby boomers, who have started to become parents, to have pictures of their children. Employment of camera operators is expected to grow rapidly as the entertainment industries expand, but competition for jobs in this field is expected to remain keen. Generally regarded as an exciting and glamorous field, cinema­ tography traditionally attracts many more ap­ plicants than there are jobs. Earnings Photographers and camera operators in private industry who did relatively routine work av­ eraged $16,600 a year in early 1986; those at midlevel averaged between $22,900 and $31,600; and those doing difficult work, $35,100. In general, camera operators earned more than photographers. The median weekly contract wage for be­ ginning photographers who worked for news­ papers with contracts with The Newspaper Guild was about $363 in 1987. The middle 50 per­ cent of contracts fell between $316 and $432. The lowest 10 percent of contracts were for $268 or less. The top 10 percent of contracts were for $509 or more. The median weekly contract for photographers with some experi­ ence (usually 4 or 5 years) was about $590 in 1987. The middle 50 percent of contracts fell between $505 and $687. The lowest 10 percent of contracts were for $407 or less. The top 10 percent of contracts were for $748 or more. Photographers in the Federal Government earned an average of $23,900 a year in 1986. Some self-employed and freelance photog­ raphers earn more than salaried workers. Many do not. Earnings of self-employed and freel­ ance photographers are affected largely by the number of hours they work, the quality of their product, their marketing ability, general busi­ ness conditions, and the type and size of their community and clientele.  American Society of Magazine Photographers, 205 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10016.  Visual Artists (D.O.T. 102.261-014; 141.061 except-034, .081; 144; and 149.041 and .261)  Nature of the Work Visual artists use an almost limitless variety of methods and materials to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings. They may use oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, silkscreen, plaster, or any of a number of other media, including computers, to create abstract works or images of objects, people, nature, or events. Visual artists generally fall into one of two categories—“fine artists” and “graphic art­ ists"—depending not so much on the medium, but on the artist’s purpose in creating a work of art. Fine artists such as painters, sculptors, and printmakers create art to satisfy their own inner need for self-expression. They are chiefly motivated by the need to depict a feeling or mood, or by a desire to experiment with new art forms and techniques. Graphic artists, how­ ever, put their skills and artistic vision at the service of a client. Fine artists usually work independently, choosing the subject matter and medium they deem fit. Usually they specialize in one or two forms of art. Painters generally work with two­ dimensional art forms. Using techniques of shading, perception, and color-mixing, paint­ ers produce lifelike and abstract works that may evoke or depict different moods and emotions depending on the artist’s goals at the time the painting was done. Sculptors design three-dimensional art works—either molding materials such as clay, wire, or metal, or cutting forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials such as concrete, metal, wood, plastic, and paper. Printmakers  Almost two-thirds of all visual artists are self-employed. Distribution of employment, 1986  Selfemployed  Related Occupations Other workers who rely on their visual arts talents in their jobs include visual artists, il­ lustrators, designers, painters, and sculptors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 1L 60018.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  create printed images from designs cut into wood, stone, or metal. The designs may be engraved, as in the case of woodblocking, or etched in, as in producing etchings. Fine artists may sell their works to stores, art galleries, and museums, or sell directly to collectors. Only the most successful are able to support themselves solely through sale of their works, however. Most fine artists hold other jobs as well. They may teach art in sec­ ondary schools, colleges, or universities; give private art lessons; or work part time in a totally unrelated field in order to support their careers as artists. Graphic artists, whether freelancers or em­ ployed by a firm, use a variety of print and film media to create and execute art that meets a client’s needs. Graphic designers, for ex­ ample, may design special packaging and pro­ motional displays for a new product, or a dis­ tinctive logo for company stationery and products. The field of graphic arts is not limited to advertising, however. Illustrators, for exam­ ple, paint or draw pictures for books, maga­ zines, and films. Many do a variety of illus­ trations, while others specialize in a particular field. For example, editorial artists specialize in illustrations for magazines, record album covers, theater posters, and other publications. This specialty is perhaps the most glamorous graphic art specialty. Medical and scientific illustrators combine an interest in art with knowledge of the biological and physical sci­ ences. They draw illustrations of parts of the human body, or animals and plants. These il­ lustrations are used in medical textbooks and in slide presentations for teaching purposes. Fashion illustrators draw stylish illustrations of the latest fashions in women's and men’s clothing. Some illustrators draw “story boards” for TV commercials. Story boards present TV com­ mercials in a series of scenes in much the same way as a newspaper comic strip tells a story, so that the advertising agency and the client  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  __| Wage and I salary workers  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/193  (the company doing the advertising) can eval­ uate the effectiveness of proposed commer­ cials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the production of commercials. Cartoonists form another illustration spe­ cialty. They draw political cartoons, newspa­ per comic strips, and comic books. Some car­ toonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoon­ ists, however, must have humorous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Animators draw the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film, form the an­ imated cartoons seen in movies and on TV. Animators are employed almost exclusively in the motion picture industry.  m  Working Conditions Graphic and fine artists generally work in art studios located either in offices or in their own homes. While their general surroundings are usually well lighted and ventilated, odors from glues, paint, ink, or other materials may be present. Graphic artists employed by businesses and art studios generally work 40 hours a week, 5 days a week. Some graphic artists, especially illustrators, are freelancers who do individual projects for those wishing to use their services. While freelancers can set their own hours, much time and effort must be expended on recruiting potential customers and building a reputation for high quality and dependable work. Employment Visual artists held about 176,000 jobs in 1986. About 3 out of 5 were self-employed. Selfemployed artists are either graphic artists who freelance, offering their services to advertising agencies, publishing firms, and businesses, or fine artists who earn income when they sell a painting or art work. Of the artists who were not self-employed, most were graphic artists who worked for ad­ vertising agencies, commercial art and repro­ duction firms, or publishing firms. Others were employed by manufacturing firms, department stores, the motion picture industry, and gov­ ernment agencies. Visual artists are concentrated in large cities. New York City has by far the largest concen­ tration because it is the center of both adver­ tising and publishing. Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco also have many artists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability and appropriate training or other qualifications are needed for success. The device used by almost all in the graphic arts field to gain em­ ployment or freelance work is the “portfolio,” a collection of examples of the artist’s best work. Evidence of appropriate talent and flair shown in the portfolio is the most important factor used by art directors and others in de­ ciding whether to hire or contract out work to an artist. In theory, a person with a good port https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ■  '  -*v I■  1:4> *:  Sculptors work with a variety of media. folio but no training or experience could suc­ ceed in graphic arts. In reality, assembling a successful portfolio requires skills generally developed in a postsecondary art school—usu­ ally in a 4-year program. Generally, an artist is better prepared for a successful career if he or she has such specialized training. For some fields such as scientific and medical illustra­ tion, highly specialized training is absolutely essential. A bachelor's degree in fine arts is less useful because it is focused more on art for its own sake than on art for marketing and other purposes. There are many kinds of art schools, some with 2-year associate degree programs, as well as vocational education pro­ grams. Some of these provide the technical skills necessary to get an entry level job but may not give the background necessary for advancement. Persons hired in advertising agencies or graphic arts studios often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Those with talent may advance to assistant art director and then to art director. Others may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in an area such as calligraphy. Many freelancers get started by working part time as a freelancer while continuing to hold a full-time job. Others have enough talent and confidence in their ability to start out as a freelancer immediately after they graduate from art school. Many freelance part  time while still in school, an excellent way to develop experience and a portfolio of published work. The freelancer develops a set of clients who regularly contract for work at good rates. Some successful freelancers are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as children’s book illustration or editorial illustration. These freelancers earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they do. Fine artists and illustrators advance as their work circulates and as they establish a repu­ tation for a particular style. The best artists and illustrators continue to grow in ideas, and their work constantly evolves over time.  Job Outlook The graphic and fine arts fields have a glam­ orous and exciting image. Because formal en­ try qualifications are few, many people with a love for drawing and creative ability qualify for entry. As a result, competition for both salaried jobs and freelance work is keen. Freel­ ance work may be hard to come by, especially at first, and many freelancers earn very little until they acquire experience and establish a good reputation. Employment of visual artists, overall, is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Demand for graphic artists will be strong as producers of information, goods, and services put even  194/Occupational Outlook Handbook  more emphasis on visual appeal in product de­ sign, advertising, and marketing. Many new jobs will be created in advertising agencies and graphic art studios. Opportunities for fine art­ ists are expected to increase as well, reflecting population growth, rising incomes, and support for the arts on the part of a small but highly educated and affluent segment of the popula­ tion. Competition in both areas is fierce, however. The supply of those seeking entry to this field will continue to exceed requirements in both the graphic and fine arts fields. Nonetheless, graphic arts studios and clients alike are always on the lookout for artists who display outstand­ ing talent, creativity, and style. Talented artists who have developed a mastery of artistic tech­ niques and skills should continue to be in great demand.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Median earnings for salaried graphic artists who usually work full time were about $20,000 a year in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,200 and $26,000 a year. Earnings for self-employed visual artists vary widely. Those struggling to gain experience and a reputation may be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Well-established freelancers and fine artists are able to make a very comfortable living. Self-employed artists do not receive fringe benefits such as paid holidays, sick leave, health insurance, or pension benefits. Related Occupations Many occupations in the advertising industry, such as account executive or creative director, are closely related to commercial and graphic  art and design. Workers in other occupations which apply visual art skills are architects, dis­ play workers, floral designers, industrial de­ signers, interior designers, landscape archi­ tects, and photographers. The various printing occupations are related to graphic art, as is the work of art and design teachers. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in the graphic arts, write to: The Graphic Artists Guild, 11 West 20th St., New York, NY 10011.  For information on careers in illustration, contact: The Society of Illustrators, 128 East 63rd St.. New York, NY 10021.  Performing arts occupations Actors, Directors, and Producers (D.O.T. 150 except .027-014; 159.067-010, 014, .117­ 010, .167-014, -018, .267-010, and .647-014; 184.117­ 010, .167-014, -022, -030, -034, and -074; 187.167-174, -178, -182; 961.364-010; 962.167-014)  Nature of the Work Actors, directors, and producers work in thea­ ter, film, television, and radio. Actors play parts to entertain, inform, or instruct audi­ ences. Directors and producers plan and su­ pervise shows and performances. Actors entertain and communicate with peo­ ple through their interpretation of dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal expression as well as body motion for creative effect. Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great psychic rewards. Acting requires persistence, practice, and hard work as well as a special talent. Only a few actors achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number are well-known, experienced performers, who frequently are cast in sup­ porting roles .Most actors struggle for a toehold in the profession and pick up parts wherever they can. Employment for actors is character­ istically unsteady. Most actors experience fre­ quent periods of unemployment, and many take temporary jobs, often as waiters or sales work­ ers, while waiting for their next acting parts to come along. Beginning stage actors generally start in “bit” parts where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, sup­ porting roles. They frequently serve as under­ studies for the principals. Film and television actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or move into programs from working in com­ mercials. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in almost all motion pictures, in many tele­ vision shows, and in some theater productions. Some actors move into acting-related jobs as drama coaches or directors and producers of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach drama in colleges and universities. Some professional actors em­ ployed by theater companies also teach acting in courses offered to the public. Directors interpret plays or scripts and usu­ ally choose cast members for stage, movie, television, and radio productions. They con­ duct auditions and rehearsals and direct the work of the cast and crew. They use their knowledge of acting, voice, and movement to achieve the best possible performance and usu­ ally approve the scenery, costumes, choreog­ raphy, and music. Producers select plays or scripts and hire directors, principal members of the cast, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  key production staff members. They coordinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and other personnel, arrange financing, and decide on the size of the production and its budget. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commit­ ment, since actors must wait for parts or filming schedules, work long hours, and travel often. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless performances require the tedious memorizing of lines and repetitive rehearsals. Performances on television programs often al­ low little time for rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good performance with very little preparation. An actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, the long irregular hours, and the adverse weather conditions that may exist “on location.” When plays are ”on the road," traveling is necessary. Actors often face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Directors and producers often work under stress as they try to meet schedules, stay within budgets, and resolve personnel problems. Employment At any one time in 1986, actors, directors, and producers held an average of about 73,000 jobs in motion pictures, stage plays, and commer­ cials. Many others were between jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors, directors, and producers over the course of the year was higher. In the winter, most employment opportunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer, stock companies in suburban and re­ sort areas provide employment. In addition, many cities have nonprofit professional com­ panies such as “little theaters,” repertory com­ panies, and dinner theaters, which provide op­ portunities for local amateur talent as well as for professional entertainers. Normally, casts are selected in New York City for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and films for television is centered in Hollywood and New York City. However, studios are also located in Florida, Texas, and other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location and employ local professionals and nonprofessionals as day players and extras. A number of American-produced films are shot in foreign countries. In television, most op­ portunities are at the headquarters of the major networks in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. Sometimes employ­ ment opportunities are available with a few local television stations. Training and Other Qualifications Aspiring actors and directors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with  little theaters and other acting groups for ex­ perience. Formal dramatic training or acting experi­ ence is generally necessary, although some people enter the field without it. Many expe­ rienced actors and actresses get formal training to learn new skills and improve old ones. Train­ ing can be obtained at dramatic arts schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at 534 col­ leges and universities throughout the country offering bachelor’s or higher degrees in dra­ matic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, directing, play­ writing, play production, design, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appreciation of the great plays and the roles he or she may play or direct. The best way to start is to use local oppor­ tunities and to build on them. Local and re­ gional theater experience may help in obtaining work in New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experience may also be helpful. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Training in singing and dancing is especially useful. Actors must have poise, stage presence, and the ability to affect an audience, plus the ability to follow directions. Physical appear­ ance is often a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find them performing engage­ ments, negotiate contracts, and plan their ca­ reers. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Ap­ plicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list— for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small pro­ portion of the applicants have succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for directors and producers. Talent, experi­ ence, and business acumen are very important. Directors and producers come from different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers often enter these fields. For­ mal training in directing and producing is avail­ able at some colleges and universities. Indi­ viduals with a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of experience may qualify for an assistant direc­ tors training program offered by the Directors Guild of America. To qualify, individuals must take an 8-hour written test and then an oral exam. However, of more than 1,000 applicants who take the exam every year, only a dozen or so qualify for the program. The length of a performer’s working life depends largely on training, skill, versatility, 195  196/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Acting demands patience and total commitment. and perseverance. Some actors, directors, and producers never retire. Many leave the occu­ pation, however, because they cannot find enough work to make a living.  Job Outlook The large number of people desiring acting careers, the lack of formal entry requirements, and the relatively small number of job openings cause keen competition for acting and directing jobs. Only the most talented find regular em­ ployment. Through the year 2000, many openings will occur as actors leave the occupation. Faster than average growth in employment is expected as theatrical and motion picture productions increase. Nevertheless, there probably will not be openings for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for acting jobs is expected to con­ tinue.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Actors who appear on the stage belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and films, to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc.; and in television or radio, to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA). Stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers; film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. These unions and the producers of the shows sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. Each actor, direc­ tor, or producer may also negotiate a separate contract, which may provide for a higher salary than that specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was $700 in 1986. Those in small “off-Broadway” theaters received  minimums ranging from $240 to $465 a week, depending on the seating capacity of the thea­ ter. For shows on the road, the actors receive an additional $70 per day. In 1986, motion picture and television actors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of $379, or $1,319 for a 5-day week. For extras, the minimum rate was $91 a day. Television actors also receive additional compensation for reruns. Eamings of most actors from acting are low because their employment is so irregular. Ac­ cording to data from Actors Equity Associa­ tion, which represents about 36,000 paid-up stage actors, about 23,000 of their members had no eamings from acting in 1986; 4,300 members made less than $2,500; 6,100 mem­ bers earned $5,000 or more; and only 782 members earned more than $35,000. The Screen Actors Guild reports that over 80 percent of all performers who worked under SAG con­ tracts in 1986 earned less than $5,000 from acting jobs; less than 6 percent earned $25,000 or more. Therefore, many actors must supple­ ment their incomes from acting by holding other jobs. Of course, some well-known actors have salary rates well above the minimums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited, creating a false impression that all actors are highly paid. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the stage, and any additional performances are paid for as overtime. Actors usually work long hours during rehearsals; once the show opens, they have more regular hours, working about 24 hours a week. Many actors who earn more than a set min­ imum per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospi­ talization insurance, to which employers con­ tribute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA members have paid va­ cations and sick leave. The average salary for stage directors was $28,600 a year in 1986, but salaries vary widely. The minimum weekly salary for movie direc­ tors ranged between $4,400 and $7,000 in 1986, depending on the film’s budget. In 1986, min­ imum weekly eamings for television directors ranged between $3,600 and $7,500 for a half­ hour program, depending on the type of pro­ gram. Producers usually do not get salaries; in­ stead, they get a percentage of a show’s eam­ ings. Sometimes producers receive a set fee for their services. Theater directors work for a set fee and receive a percentage of the show. Related Occupations People who work in occupations requiring act­ ing skills include dancers, choreographers, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, and radio and television announcers. Others working in occupations related to acting are playwrights, script writers, stage managers, and set design­ ers. Workers in occupations involved with the business aspects of theater productions include company managers, booking managers, and actors’, directors’, and playwrights’ agents.  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/197  Sources of Additional Information Information about nonprofit regional theaters may be obtained from: Theater Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lexing­ ton Ave., New York, NY 10017.  Information about grants and fellowships in the performing arts is available from: Public Information Office, National Endowment for the Arts, 1100 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20506.  Information on training institutions may be obtained from: League of Professional Theatre Training Programs, Suite 714, 721 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.  For information on the training program of­ fered by the Directors Guild of America, con­ tact: Assistant Directors Training Program, 14144 Ven­ tura Blvd., Sherman Oaks, CA 91423.  Dancers and Choreographers (D.O.T. 151.027-010, and .047-010)  Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art used to interpret an idea or a story, or simply to express rhythm and sound physically. Many professional dancers perform in classical bal­ let, which includes the stylized, traditional rep­ ertory, or modem dance, which allows more free movement and self-expression. Others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic, and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to being an art form for its own sake, dance also is used to complement opera, musical comedy, and television performances. In dance productions, performers most often work as a group, although a few top artists dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching. Choreographers often create original dances, teach them to performers, and sometimes direct and stage the presentations of their work.  total number of people employed as dancers over the course of the year was greater. In addition, there were several times as many dance instructors in secondary schools, colleges and universities, dance schools, and private stu­ dios. Many teachers also performed from time to time. New York City is the home of about onehalf of the major dance companies. Other cities with full-time dance companies are San Fran­ cisco, Seattle, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Salt Lake City, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Milwaukee, Boston, Philadelphia. Pittsburgh, Atlanta, Washington, DC, and Miami. Training and Other Qualifications Serious training for a career in dancing tradi­ tionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Early ballet training begins at age 7 or 8 and is usually given by private teachers and in­ dependent ballet schools. Students who dem­ onstrate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and advanced professional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet com­ panies. Leading dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training program. Early and intensive training also is important for the mod­ em dancer, but modem dance generally does not require as many years of training as ballet. Most dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18, but training and practice never end. For example, professional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months of the year, and must spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Because of the strenuous and time-consum­ ing training required, a dancer’s general edu­ cation may be minimal. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings.  About 240 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance, gener­ ally through the departments of physical ed­ ucation, music, theater, or fine arts. Most pro­ grams concentrate on modem dance but also offer courses in ballet/classical techniques. A college education is not essential to ob­ taining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can be helpful for the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. A college education is an advantage for col­ lege or university teaching. However, it is not necessary for teaching dance or choreography in a studio. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experience as performers; col­ leges and conservatories generally require graduate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore, patience, per­ severance, and a devotion to dance are essen­ tial . Good health and physical stamina are nec­ essary in order to practice and perform and to follow the rugged schedule often required. Seldom does a dancer perform unaccom­ panied. Therefore, ability to function as part of a team is important. Dancers also should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent em­ ployment and rejections when auditioning for work. Body height and build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and normal arches also are required. Above all, one must have agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to express oneself through movement. Job Outlook Although employment of dancers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu-  Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very long hours and usually take place daily, in­ cluding weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, and dancers must become accustomed to working late hours. Therefore, many dancers, by their thirties, transfer to related occupations such as choreographer or dance teacher or find work in other occupations. Certain celebrated dan­ cers, however, continue performing beyond the age of 50.  Employment Professional dancers held an average of about 10,000 jobs at any one time in 1986. Many others were between engagements so that the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Many dancers combine stage work with teaching.  198/Occupational Outlook Handbook  pations through the year 2000, the number of dancers seeking professional careers will con­ tinue to exceed the number of job openings, causing keen competition. Only the most tal­ ented will find regular employment. Some job openings will occur as dancers leave the oc­ cupation. Best job opportunities are expected to be with regional ballet companies. Opera com­ panies will also provide some employment op­ portunities. Dance groups affiliated with col­ leges and universities will be another source of employment. Television will also offer some opportunities. The general popularity of dance in recent years has also resulted in increased employment opportunities in teaching dance. Earnings Earnings of most professional dancers are gov­ erned by union contracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modem dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those on live or videotaped tele­ vision belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who per­ form in films and TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies join Actors’ Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. However, the separate contract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. In 1987, the minimum salary for dancers in opera and other stage productions was $72 per performance. The single performance rate for ballet dancers was $183. Dancers on tour re­ ceived an additional allowance of between $52 and $62 a day in 1987 for room and board, depending on whether they were paid on a weekly basis or a single performance basis. Minimum performance rates for dancers on television ranged from $520 to $573 for a 1hour show. The performance rate covers 18 hours of rehearsal over a 3-day period, in ad­ dition to the performance. The normal work­ week is 30 hours spent in rehearsals and mat­ inee and evening performances. Extra compensation is paid for additional hours worked. Earnings of most dancers from dancing are low because their employment is irregular. They often must supplement their incomes by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union contracts are en­ titled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any fringe benefits. Related Occupations Dancers express concepts and emotions through their body movements. They need grace, rhythm, and body control. Some related oc­ cupations that use actual training in dance or specialized knowledge of dance forms include acrobat, athlete, ice skater, dance critic, dance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  instructor, dance notator, dance therapist, and recreation worker. Sources of Additional Information Information about colleges and universities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, is available from: National Dance Association, a Division of the Amer­ ican Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Rec­ reation, and Dance, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  For information on all aspects of dance, in­ cluding job listings, contact; American Dance Guild, 33 West 21st St., Third Floor, New York, NY 10010. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope.  Information about wages and working con­ ditions in classical ballet and modern dance is available from: The American Guild of Musical Artists, 1841 Broad­ way, Room 911, New York, NY 10023.  Information about the related field of dance therapy, along with a list of schools that offer degrees in the field, is available from: American Dance Therapy Association, Suite 108, 2000 Century Plaza, Columbia, MD 21044.  Musicians (D.O.T. 152 except .021-010)  Nature of the Work Professional musicians—those whose liveli­ hoods depend upon performing for others— may play musical instruments, sing, write mu­ sical compositions, or conduct instrumental or vocal performances. They usually specialize in either classical or popular music. They may perform alone or as part of a group on stage, radio, or in TV or movie productions. Instrumental musicians (D.O.T. 152.041­ 010) play a musical instrument in an orchestra, band, rock group, or jazz “combo.” Classical musicians play string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments. Popular music per­ formers usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, flute, saxophone, organ, one of the "rhythm” instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, and guitar—or one of the many elec­ tronic synthesizers. Singers (D.O.T. 152.047-022) interpret mu­ sic using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Sing­ ers are classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, folk, or country and western. Composers (D.O.T. 152.067-014) create original music such as symphonies, operas, sonatas, or popular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Orchestra conductors (D.O.T. 152.047-014) lead orchestras and bands. They audition and select musicians and direct rehearsals and per­  formances. They apply conducting techniques, music theory, and harmony to achieve desired musical effects. Choral directors (D.O.T. 152.047-010) conduct choirs and glee clubs. They audition and select singers and direct them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical ef­ fects. Working Conditions Musicians generally perform at night and on weekends, and also spend time in practice and rehearsal. Performances often require travel. Many musicians find only part-time work or experience unemployment between engage­ ments. They often supplement their income with other types of jobs. Employment Musicians held an average of about 189,000 jobs at any one time in 1986. Others were between engagements, so that the total number of people employed as musicians during the course of the year was greater. Many work in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nash­ ville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans. Many classical musicians perform with one of the 30 major symphony groups, the 39 regional or­ chestras, the 96 metropolitan orchestras, or the hundreds of other orchestras. Musicians also work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Many are organists who play in churches and synagogues. Some play in small chamber music groups like quartets or trios. Musicians also perform in clubs and restau­ rants, and for weddings and other events. Wellknown musicians and groups give their own concerts, appear on “live” radio and television, make recordings, or go on concert tours. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their mu­ sical organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Many people who become professional mu­ sicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience play­ ing in a band or orchestra. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participa­ tion in school musicals or in a choir often pro­ vides good early training. Musicians need ex­ tensive and prolonged training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to in­ terpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music pro­ gram, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in an insti­ tution, an audition frequently is necessary. For­ mal courses include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and instrumental and voice instruction. Compos­ ers, conductors, and arrangers need advanced training in these subjects. Many colleges, universities, and music con­ servatories grant bachelor’s or higher degrees in music. Many also grant degrees in music education to qualify graduates for a State cer-  Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/199  about as fast as the average through the year 2000. However musicians’ employment is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average in thea­ ters, bands, and restaurants, as the proportion of incomes spent on recreational activities con­ tinues to increase. Employment of musicians in churches and synagogues is expected to grow more slowly than the average, paralleling the overall slow growth in religious organizations. However, many job openings will occur as musicians leave the occupation, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings Earnings often depend on a performer’s profes­ sional reputation as well as on geographic lo­ cation—and on the number of hours worked. Minimum salaries for musicians in major symphony orchestras in 1985 ranged from $440 to $840 a week, according to the American Symphony Orchestra League. Minimums in the regional symphony orchestras ranged from about $162 to $565 a week. Minimum wages for musicians in metropolitan symphony or­ Many musicians find only part-time work. chestras were generally between $23 and $77 tificate to teach music in an elementary or sec­ per concert and between $ 10 and $52 per re­ hearsal. Some musicians earned substantially ondary school. Those who perform popular music must have more than the minimums, however. an understanding of and feeling for that style The 30 major symphony orchestras have sea­ sons ranging from 38 to 52 weeks, with an of music, but classical training may expand their employment opportunities. Although voice average of 48 weeks. Metropolitan and re­ training is an asset for singers of popular music, gional orchestras generally have shorter sea­ many with untrained voices have successful sons. Musicians employed in motion picture re­ careers. As a rule, musicians take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every cording earned a minimum of about $173 for opportunity to make amateur or professional a 3-hour session in 1988. Those employed by appearances. As musicians gain experience and recording companies were paid a minimum of become known, they perform with better known about $204 for a 3-hour session in 1988. The union minimum rate for concert singers bands and orchestras. Young persons who consider careers in mu­ who were part of a chorus was $70 per per­ sic should have musical talent, versatility, cre­ formance in 1987. A featured soloist received ative ability, and poise and stage presence to a minimum of $234 for each single perfor­ face large audiences. Since quality perfor­ mance. A few opera soloists and popular sing­ mance requires constant study and practice, ers, however, earned thousands of dollars per self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musicians performance. Minimum wage rates for group who play concert and nightclub engagements singers on network or syndicated television must have physical stamina because frequent ranged between $248 and $265 per singer for travel and night performances are required. They a 1-hour show. Solo or duo singers received must also be prepared to face the anxiety of minimums of about $536 each for a 1 -hour TV intermittent employment and rejections when show. The minimum for phonograph recording artists is $110 per side. auditioning for work. Musicians employed by some symphony or­ Many musicians rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, nego­ chestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 tiate contracts, and plan their careers. weeks. Many other musicians may face rela­ tively long periods of unemployment between Job Outlook The large number of people desiring to be jobs. Even when employed, however, many professional musicians, the lack of formal entry work part time. Thus, their earnings generally requirements for many types of jobs, and the are lower than those in many other occupations. relatively small number of job openings cause Moreover, since they may not work steadily keen competition for jobs. Only the most tal­ for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and ented find regular employment. Employment of musicians is expected to grow few have either sick leave or vacations with   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pay. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a branch of the American Federation of Musicians, affiliated with the AFL-CIO. Professional singers usu­ ally belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artistes of America, also an AFL-CIO affiliate. Related Occupations There are many music-related occupations. These include librettists, songwriters, arran­ gers, and music therapists. A large number of music teachers work in elementary and sec­ ondary schools, music conservatories and col­ leges and universities, or are self-employed. Many who teach music also perform. A technical knowledge of musical instru­ ments is required by instrument repairers, tu­ ners, and copyists. In addition, there are a number of occupations in the business side of music such as booking agents, concert man­ agers, music store owners and managers; sales­ persons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments; and music publishers. Others whose work involves music are disc jockeys, music critics, sound and audio technicians, music librarians, and radio and TV announcers. Sources of Additional Information For answers to specific questions about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians, contact: American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO) ,1500 Broadway, New York, NY 10036.  For information about wages and working conditions for singers, contact: American Guild of Musical Artists (AFL-CIO), 1841 Broadway, New York, NY 10023.  The requirements for professional certifi­ cation of organists and choirmasters are avail­ able from: American Guild of Organists, 815 Second Ave., Suite 318, New York, NY 10017.  For programs in music teacher education, contact: Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso­ ciation Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, OH 45202.  A brochure entitled Careers in Music, pro­ duced jointly by the three organizations listed above, is available from any of the three. Information about careers in orchestra man­ agement is available from: American Symphony Orchestra League, 633 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20004.  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Air Traffic Controllers (D.Q.T. 193.162 except -022; .167-010)  Nature of the Work Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. They keep track of planes flying within their assigned area and make certain that they are safe distances apart. Their immediate con­ cern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal control­ lers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsibility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying on radar and/or visual ob­ servation, they closely monitor each plane to maintain a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. During arrival or departure, each plane is handled by several controllers. As a plane ap­ proaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The con­ troller in the radar room just beneath the control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the controller directs the pilot to  a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any depar­ tures that would interfere with the plane's land­ ing. Once the plane has landed, a ground con­ troller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller works almost entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. A similar procedure is used for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then in­ forms the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as the weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure con­ troller. After each plane departs, airport tower con­ trollers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 24 enroute control cen­ ters located around the country. Airplanes gen­ erally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team.  Air traffic controllers use radar to monitor planes closely. 200   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller orga­ nizes flight plans coming from printing ma­ chines. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at a similar time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight plans. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an ad­ jacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar controller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next con­ trolling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s air­ space on radar and communicates with the pi­ lots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather con­ ditions, and other possible hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the con­ troller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at one time and often have to make quick decisions about com­ pletely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its land­ ing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with in­ formation about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permis­ sion to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic controllers also work in flight service stations operated at over 300 locations. These controllers provide pilots with infor­ mation on the station’s particular area, in­ cluding terrain, preflight and inflight weath­ er information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight.  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/201  Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; how­ ever, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers op­ erate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This requires total con­ centration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instructions. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 23,500 Fed­ eral Government jobs in 1986, at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA); a small number of ci­ vilian controllers worked for the Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the Federal Government, some work for private air traffic control companies providing service to non-FAA towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to leant the controller’s duties. Applicants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military controller can improve their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowledge portion of the examination. Ab­ stract reasoning and three-dimensional spatial visualization are among the aptitudes measured by the examination. In addition, applicants generally must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combi­ nation of both. Applicants must pass physical and psychological examinations. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Potential controllers must be articulate, since directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. A good memory also is important be­ cause controllers constantly receive informa­ tion which they must immediately grasp, in­ terpret, and remember. Decisiveness is also required since controllers often have to make quick decisions. Successful applicants receive a combination of on-the-job and formal training to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA reg­ ulations, controller equipment, and aircraft performance characteristics. They receive 11 to 17 weeks of intensive screening and training at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City. It then takes several years of progressively more re­ sponsible work experience, interspersed with considerable classroom instruction and inde­ pendent study, to become a fully qualified con­ troller. At airports, new controllers begin in the tower, where they first serve as ground con­ troller, then local controller, departure con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  troller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, grad­ ually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time may result in dismissal. Con­ trollers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training are dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. Job Outlook Competition for air traffic controller jobs is expected to remain keen through the year 2000 because the occupation’s relatively high pay and liberal retirement program attract many more qualified applicants than the number of job openings. Employment of air traffic controllers is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Em­ ployment growth is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the expected introduction of labor­ saving air traffic control equipment during the 1990’s. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced controllers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The de­ mand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in 1987 earned about $18,400 (grade 7) a year. Controllers at the grade 9 level and above earn 5 percent more than other Federal workers in an equivalent grade. A controller’s pay is de­ termined by both the worker’s job responsi­ bilities and the complexity of the particular facility. Earnings are higher at facilities where traffic patterns are more complex. In 1986, controllers averaged $37,400 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, controllers can re­ tire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve the direction and control of traffic in air transportation are airline-radio operator and airplane dispatcher. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general information about controllers and instructions for submitting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Government, Office  of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number, and call for a copy of the Air Traffic Controller Announcement. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location.  Broadcast Technicians (DOT. 193.167-014, 262-018, and -038; 194.062-010, 262-010. .282-010, .362-010 and -018)  Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians operate and maintain the electronic equipment used to record and trans­ mit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound and video tape re­ corders, light and sound effects, television cameras, transmitters, and other equipment. In the control room of the radio or television broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors in the material being recorded or broadcast. They also operate control panels that select the source of the material being broadcast. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from net­ work to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets, they give technical directions to per­ sonnel in the studio. When events outside the studio are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site and set up, test, and operate the remote equipment. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equip­ ment and return it to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and at the networks, on the other hand, technicians are more specialized, although spe­ cific job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe the jobs in this field. Transmitter op­ erators monitor and log outgoing signals and are responsible for operating the transmitter. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, serv­ ice, and repair electronic broadcasting equip­ ment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching, and video control engineers regulate the quality, bright­ ness, and contrast of television pictures. Re­ cording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equipment. Some tech­ nicians operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or the sound of a police siren. When programs originate outside the studio, field technicians set up and operate broad­ casting equipment. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment that a growing number of stations now assign technicians to work exclu­ sively in news operations. Keeping up with developments in this area is difficult because  202/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ordinated hand movements—is necessary for success in this occupation. Technicians who demonstrate above-aver­ age ability may move into top level technical positions such as supervisory technician or chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becoming increasingly important for advance­ ment to supervisory and executive positions.  HIM ®  ^  -H  Technicians select the source of the material being broadcast. of changes in technology and the constant up­ grading of equipment. Supervisory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer or transmission engineer di­ rect activities concerned with the operation and maintenance of studio broadcasting equipment. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Stations are air-con­ ditioned because transmitters and other elec­ tronic equipment must be operated at cool tem­ peratures. Broadcasts outside the studio, however, may require technicians to work out of doors under less favorable conditions. Tech­ nicians doing maintenance work may climb poles or antenna towers. Setting up equipment requires some heavy lifting. Most technicians work a 40-hour week, al­ though those in large stations and the networks may occasionally have to work long hours un­ der great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines. Technicians in small stations routinely work a considerable amount of overtime. Evening, weekend, and holiday work may be necessary because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employment Broadcast technicians held about 27,000 jobs in radio and television stations in 1986. Tele­ vision stations employ, on the average, many more technicians than radio stations. Although broadcast technicians are employed in every State, most are located in large metropolitan areas. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C.—the origi­ nating centers for most of the network pro­ grams. , Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast tech­ nician job—particularly for those who hope to  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the networks—is to obtain technical school, com­ munity college, or college training in engi­ neering or electronics. Knowing how to operate a computer is essential because use of com­ puters and microprocessors is so widespread throughout the radio and TV broadcasting in­ dustry. Anyone who operates broadcast transmitters in radio and television stations must have a restricted radiotelephone operator permit, ac­ cording to Federal law. No examination is re­ quired to get one. Persons who work with mi­ crowave or other internal radio communications equipment, however, must have a general ra­ diotelephone operator license, issued by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) after the applicant passes a series of written examinations. The tests cover communications law and regulations, radio operating practices, and basic communications electronics. Entry level workers are instructed and su­ pervised by the chief engineer, or by other experienced technicians, concerning the work procedures of the station. They generally begin their careers in small stations, operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruction period. Many broad­ casting companies pay tuition and expenses for selected personnel to take special courses or attend seminars and conferences to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Prospective technicians are advised to take high school courses in algebra, trigonometry, physics, electronics, and other sciences. Build­ ing electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham” or amateur radio are good introductions to broadcasting technology. Ex­ perience in college campus radio and television stations also is very helpful. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and mechanical sys­ tems and equipment. Manual dexterity—the ability to perform tasks requiring precise, co­  Job Outlook People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast technicians are expected to face strong com­ petition in major metropolitan areas, where the number of qualified jobseekers greatly exceeds the number of openings. As is the case with other occupations in radio and television broad­ casting, stations in major metropolitan areas seek highly experienced personnel to fill broad­ cast technician jobs. Prospects for entry level positions generally are good in small cities for people with appropriate training in electronics. Employment of broadcast technicians is ex­ pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. New job opportunities for technicians will arise as new commercial radio and television stations go on the air, established stations increase their broadcasting hours, and the number of cable television systems continues to increase. Ac­ tivities associated with the gathering of news also should contribute to the demand for broad­ cast technicians. However, employment of technicians is not expected to keep pace with the increase in broadcasting industry employ­ ment because of laborsaving technical ad­ vances such as computer-controlled program­ ming and remote control of transmitters. Technological developments such as these have shifted the emphasis from operations to main­ tenance work, which frequently is performed by service personnel employed by broadcasting equipment manufacturers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave the occupation. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Na­ tional Association of Broadcasters, average earnings for technicians at radio stations were $20,000 a year in 1986; in television, about $22,000. Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations because television work is generally more complex. Technicians employed by educational broadcasting stations generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. As a rule, technician wages are highest in large cities and large stations. Technicians in the largest stations earned, on the average, about twice as much as those in the smallest stations. Earnings of experienced technicians were much higher, and technicians who can perform the full range of tasks are, of course, the highest paid. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the electronics training and hand coordination necessary to operate technical equipment; they generally complete specialized postsecondary programs.  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/203  including courses in electronics and engineer­ ing. Others whose jobs have similar require­ ments include drafters, engineering and science technicians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technologists, respiratory therapy workers, EKG technicians, EEG technicians, and medical laboratory technicians.  fiigli  Sources of Additional Information For information about the licensing procedure, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW„ Washington, DC 20554.  ■  For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: National Association of Broadcasters Employment Clearinghouse, 1771 N St. NW., Washington. DC 20036. National Cable Television Association, 1724 Mas­ sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, National Associ­ ation of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW.. Washington, DC 20036.  Computer Programmers (D OT. 020.162-014, .167-018, -022, .187-010, and .262-010; and 219.367-026)  Nature of the Work Computers can process vast quantities of in­ formation rapidly and accurately, but only if they are correctly programmed. Computer pro­ grammers write the detailed instructions (called programs or software) that list in a logical order the steps the machine must follow to organize data, solve a problem, or do some other task. Programmers often work from descriptions prepared by systems analysts who have care­ fully studied the task that the computer system is going to perform—perhaps organizing data collected in a survey or estimating the stress on a rocket engine during a test firing. These descriptions contain a detailed list of the steps the computer must follow, such as retrieving data stored on a tape or disk, organizing it in a certain way, and performing the necessary calculations. (A more detailed description of the work of systems analysts is presented else­ where in the Handbook.) Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. Instead, workers called programmer-analysts are re­ sponsible for both systems analysis and pro­ gramming. A programmer writes the specific program for the problem by breaking down each step into a series of instructions coded in one of the languages, such as BASIC or COBOL, developed especially for computers. Programmers developing instructions for billing customers, for example, would first take the appropriate company records and then specify a solution by showing the steps the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Computer programmers must "debug" all the programs that they write. computer must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, deduct payments, and cal­ culate finance charges and the new amount due. Programmers then code the actual instructions the computer will follow in a programming language, such as COBOL, which is com­ monly used for business applications. They also insert comments in the coded instructions so other programmers can understand the pro­ gram. Next, programmers test the operation of the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. Pro­ grammers prepare sample data that will test every part of the program and review the results to see if any errors were made. If errors did occur, the program must be changed and re­ checked until it produces the correct results. This is called “debugging” the program. Finally, programmers prepare an instruction sheet for the computer operator who will run the program. (The work of computer operators is described in the statement on computer and peripheral equipment operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Programs vary with the type of problem to be solved. For example, the arithmetical cal­ culations involved in payroll accounting pro­ cedures are different from the mathematical calculations required to determine the trajec­ tory of a communications satellite. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical for­ mulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In some cases, several pro­ grammers may work together in teams under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types: Applications programmers and systems programmers. Applications program­ mers usually are oriented toward business, en­ gineering, or science. They write software to handle specific jobs, such as a program used in an inventory control system or one to control the temperature in an entire office building.  Systems programmers, on the other hand, maintain the software that controls the oper­ ation of the entire computer system. These workers make changes in the sets of instruc­ tions that determine how the central processing unit of the computer handles the various jobs it has been given and communicates with pe­ ripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of entire computer systems, systems program­ mers often help applications programmers de­ termine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Programmers may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work on weekends to meet deadlines. Employment Computer programmers held about 479,000 jobs in 1986. Most were employed by data pro­ cessing service organizations, including firms that write and sell software; manufacturing firms; government agencies; insurance com­ panies; banks; and colleges and universities. Jobs for programmers are found throughout the country. Compared to the total labor force, a larger proportion of programmers work in the Northeast and West, reflecting the concen­ tration of computer manufacturers and data processing service firms. Applications programmers work for all types of firms that use computer systems. Systems programmers, on the other hand, usually work for organizations with large computer centers and for firms that manufacture computers or develop software. A small but growing number of program­ mers are employed on a temporary basis. A bank offering a new financial service, for ex-  204/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ample, may need the services of several extra programmers to write and “debug” the nec­ essary software. Once the software is func­ tioning, however, their services are no longer needed. Rather than hiring these programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after the job is done, employers increasingly are contracting with temporary help agencies or directly with programmers themselves. Such temporary jobs usually last several months at least, and some last a year or longer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training requirements for programmers because employers' needs vary. Computer programming is taught at pub­ lic and private vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and universities. High schools in many parts of the country also offer introductory courses in data processing. Many programmers are college graduates; others have taken special courses in computer program­ ming to supplement their experience in fields such as accounting, inventory control, or other business areas. The level of education and quality of training that employers seek, how­ ever, has generally been rising due to the growth in the number of qualified applicants and the increasing complexity of some programming tasks. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications prefer college grad­ uates who have degrees in computer or infor­ mation science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Graduate degrees are required for some jobs. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in programming and business; however, a bachelor’s degree is not required by all employers. Also, experience in account­ ing, inventory control, and other business skills generally is preferred by employers. Some em­ ployers promote workers such as computer op­  erators who have taken courses in program­ ming to programmer jobs because of their work experience. An indication of experience and professional competence at the senior programmer level is the Certificate in Computer Programming. This designation is conferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have passed a basic five-part examination. In addition, individuals may take another section of the exam in order to spec­ ialize in business, scientific, or systems ap­ plications. In hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think logically and who are capable of exacting analytical work. The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers because they work with the soft­ ware that controls the computer's operation. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy even under pressure. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly important when programmers must find new ways to solve a problem. Beginning programmers may spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes. After this initial instruction, they work on sim­ ple assignments, such as maintaining existing programs. Programmers generally must spend at least several months working under close supervision. Because of rapidly changing tech­ nology, programmers must continue their training by taking courses offered by their em­ ployer and software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for ad­ vancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmers and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers become systems programmers after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. Both appli­ cations programmers and systems program­ mers may become systems analysts or be pro­ moted to managerial positions.  The number of college graduates in computer and information science has risen sharply. Bachelor’s degrees (thousands)  - 50 40 -  1970-  1975-  1980-  Source: Center for Education Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1981-  1982-  1983-  1984-  1985-  Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000 as computer usage expands. Although the proportion of pro­ grammers leaving the occupation each year is smaller than in most occupations, most of the job openings for programmers will result from replacement needs. Most of the programmers who leave the occupation transfer to other oc­ cupations , such as manager or systems analyst. The need for programmers will increase as businesses, government, schools, and scien­ tific organizations seek new applications for computers and improve the software already in use. Opportunities for both systems and ap­ plications programmers should be particularly plentiful in data processing service firms, soft­ ware houses (companies that specialize in writ­ ing computer programs), and computer con­ sulting businesses. The field of data communications—the effort to link computers so they can communicate with each other— also will provide many openings. Employ­ ment, however, is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past as improved software and programming techniques simplify or eliminate some programming tasks. The greater use of packaged software that can meet the needs of many users also may moderate the growth in demand for applications programmers. The rapid growth of employment opportun­ ities in this occupation has led to substantial increases in the number of courses in program­ ming being offered by postsecondary schools, junior colleges, and 4-year colleges and, con­ sequently, in the number of trained people seeking jobs. As the number and quality of applicants have increased, employers have be­ come more selective. Competition has in­ creased for entry level positions, affecting even applicants with a bachelor's degree. Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing and peo­ ple with less than a 2-year degree or its equiv­ alent in work experience are facing especially strong competition. Because shorter curriculums generally are not as thorough and offer limited training in applied fields, graduates of these programs are expected to have even more difficulty finding jobs than in the recent past. Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are familiar with a variety of programming languages, particularly newer languages that apply to computer networking and data base management. Applicants who know both programming and operating lan­ guages, especially if the languages are closely related, have significantly improved chances of landing the job of their choice. Employers are looking for ways to cut costs, and minimizing in-house training is one way. As a result, many employers prefer to hire applicants with previous experience in the field. Therefore, people who want to become pro­ grammers could enhance their chances by com­ bining work experience with the appropriate formal training. Students have various options. One is to hold a summer or part-time job in a data processing department. Participation in a college work-study program or in an internship  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/205  program are others. Students can also improve their employment prospects by taking courses such as accounting, management, engineering, or science—allied fields in which applications programmers are in demand. Earnings Median earnings of programmers who worked full time in 1986 were about $27,000 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,700 and $33,900 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,700, and the highest 10 percent more than $43,100. In the Federal Government, the entrance sal­ ary for programmers with a college degree was about $14,800 a year in 1987. Programmers working in the West and Northeast earned somewhat more than those working in the South and Midwest. Salaries tend to be highest in mining and public utilities and lowest in finance, insurance, and real es­ tate. On average, systems programmers earn more than applications programmers. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who solve detailed problems include systems analysts, mathematical statisticians, engineers, financial analysts, actuaries, math­ ematical technicians, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers.  Drafters (D.O.T. 001.261: 002.261; 003.281; 005.281; 007.161­ 010, -014, and -018, .261, and .281: 010.281-010, -014, -018; 014.281; 017 except .261-010; 019.161-010, and .261-014)  Nature of the Work When building a satellite, television set, or bridge, workers follow drawings prepared by drafters that show the exact dimensions and specifications of the entire design and each of its parts. Drafters prepare detailed drawings based on rough sketches, specifications, and calcula­ tions made by scientists, engineers, architects, and designers. Final drawings contain a de­ tailed view of the object from all sides as well as specifications for materials to be used, pro­ cedures to be followed, and other information needed to carry out the job. There are two methods by which these draw­ ings are prepared. In the traditional method, drafters sit at drawing boards and use com­ passes, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare the drawing man­ ually. In the new method, drafters use com­ puter-aided drafting (CAD) systems. They sit at computer work stations and may make the drawing on a videoscreen. In some cases, the design may never be placed on paper. It may  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Many drafters now use computer-aided design equipment. be stored electronically and, in some factories, may be used to guide automatic machinery. These systems free drafters from much routine drafting work and permit many variations of a design to be prepared easily. CAD systems allow a design to be viewed from various angles and perspectives not usually available with more traditional drafting methods so that design work can be better, faster, and more thorough. When CAD systems were first introduced, it was thought by some that CAD operator would be a separate occupation. It is now ap­ parent that a person who produces a technical drawing using CAD is a drafter, and needs all the knowledge of traditional drafters as well as the additional skills involved in operating the CAD systems. Despite the advantages offered by CAD sys­ tems, most drafting is still being done by tra­ ditional methods, partly because of the cost of CAD systems, but also because of the problems involved in shifting office procedures to using and storing CAD-generated drawings. How­ ever, the cost of CAD systems is dropping rapidly, and. by the year 2000, it is likely that almost all drafters will use CAD systems. In addition to drafting equipment and CAD systems, drafters use technical handbooks, ta­ bles, and calculators in preparing drawings and related specifications. Drafters usually specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electrical, aeronautical, civil, or architectural drafting. Working Conditions Although drafters usually work in well-lighted and well-ventilated rooms, they often must sit at drawing boards or computer terminals and do very detailed work for long periods of time. This work may cause eyestrain and back dis­ comfort. Employment Drafters held over 348,000 jobs in 1986. About one-third of all drafters worked for engineering  and architectural firms, and about one-third worked in durable goods manufacturing in­ dustries, such as machinery, electrical equip­ ment, and fabricated metals. Drafters also were employed in the construction, transportation, communications, and utilities industries. Over 13,000 drafters worked in government in 1986, primarily at the State and local level. Most drafters in the Federal Government worked for the Department of Defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for drafting po­ sitions who have 2 years of post-high school training in technical institutes, junior and com­ munity colleges, or extension divisions of uni­ versities. Some persons receive training and experience in the Armed Forces. Over 40 per­ cent of those who obtained jobs as drafters recently had some college or technical institute training. In addition, many had other postsec­ ondary training. Training for a career in drafting should in­ clude courses in mathematics, physical sci­ ences, mechanical drawing, and drafting. Courses in shop practices and shop skills also are helpful since most higher level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or con­ struction methods. Many technical schools of­ fer courses in structural design, architectural drawing, and engineering or industrial tech­ nology. An exposure to computer-aided design tech­ niques is helpful, but employers mainly look for applicants with a thorough knowledge of drafting fundamentals, knowledge of design theory, and neatness. Because there are many different kinds of CAD systems in use, training in one particular system may be of limited usefulness. Many employers provide on-thejob training in their CAD system, but some employers, especially small ones, look for drafters with experience with their particular type of system.  206/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Those planning careers in drafting should be able to do freehand drawings of three-dimen­ sional objects and also detailed work requiring a high degree of accuracy. Neatness and the ability to pay close attention to details are im­ portant qualities for drafters. They should also have good eyesight and manual dexterity. In addition, they should be able to function as part of a team since they work directly with engineers, architects, designers, and other workers. Artistic ability is helpful in some spe­ cialized fields. Beginners usually start as junior drafters doing routine work under close supervision. After gaining experience, they do more diffi­ cult work with less supervision and may ad­ vance to senior drafter or supervisor. With ap­ propriate college courses, they may become engineers, designers, or architects. Job Outlook Little change in employment of drafters is ex­ pected through the year 2000. Industrial growth and the increasingly complex design problems associated with new products and processes will greatly increase the demand for drafting services. However, widespread use of CAD equipment—which increases drafters’ produc­ tivity—is expected to offset this growth in de­ mand. Although some experts in the field had expected that greater productivity with CAD systems would decrease drafters' employment, in most situations where CAD systems have been installed, this has not occurred. Instead, CAD systems have been used to produce more and better variations of a design. As with com­ puter applications in other areas, the ease of obtaining computer-generated information stimulates a demand for more information. Even though little or no growth is expected, a large number of openings will result each year from the need to replace drafters who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Drafters are highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the econ­ omy, such as engineering and architectural ser­ vices and durable goods manufacturing. Dur­ ing an economic recession, drafters may be laid off as fewer buildings and manufactured products are designed and fewer drafting ser­ vices are needed. Earnings Median annual earnings of drafters who worked year round, full time were about $21,400 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,500 and $29,000 annually. Ten percent earned less than $13,600 and 10 percent, more than $38,500. In private industry, beginning drafters av­ eraged about $13,054 a year in 1986, while more experienced drafters averaged between $15,854 and $24,652 a year. Senior drafters averaged about $31,004 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who are required to prepare or understand detailed drawings, make accurate and precise calculations and measurements, and use various measuring devices include archi­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tects, engineering technicians, engineers, land­ scape architects, photogrammetrists, and sur­ veyors. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering programs in drafting and other areas is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006.  Engineering Technicians (D.O.T. 002.280, .281; 003.161; .261; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030, .167-010 and -022, .181; 008.261; 010.261-010 and -026; 011.261-010 and -014, .281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013.161; 017.261­ 010; 019.161-014, .261-022. .267. .281. .381; 194.262­ 014, -018. .362-014. .381, .382; 199.261-014; 726.261; .281-010; 761.281-014; 828.261-018; 962.167-010 and .382)  Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathe­ matics to solve problems in research and de­ velopment, manufacturing, sales, and cus­ tomer service. Their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, es­ pecially in research and development. Some technicians work on their own, servicing equipment at customers' worksites. Others work in production or inspection jobs. Engineering technicians who work in re­ search and development build or set up equip­ ment, prepare experiments, calculate or record the results, and assist engineers in other ways. Some make prototype versions of newly de­ signed equipment. They also assist in routine design work, often using computer-aided de­ sign equipment. Engineering technicians who work in man­ ufacturing follow the general directions of en­ gineers. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise and run tests to ensure prod­ uct quality, or study ways to improve manu­ facturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures. Engineering technicians also work as field representatives of manufacturers, wholesalers, or retailers. They help customers install, op­ erate, and maintain complex technical equip­ ment, and may write repair or operating man­ uals. Civil engineering technicians help civil en­ gineers plan, design, and construct highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treat­ ment systems, and other structures and do re­ lated surveys and studies. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met. Others estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used. Electrical and electronics technicians de­ velop, manufacture, and service equipment and  Engineering technicians sometimes set up or build experimental equipment. systems such as radios, radar, sonar, televi­ sion. industrial and medical measuring or con­ trol devices, navigational equipment, and com­ puters, often using measuring and diagnostic devices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. Workers who only repair electronic equipment are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook under electrical and electronic equipment repairers. These repairers are often incorrectly called electronics technicians. Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of personnel, materials, and ma­ chines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make sta­ tistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians work with engineers in design and development by making sketches and rough layouts of proposed machinery and other equipment and parts. In planning and testing experimental machines, they record data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze results, and write reports. When planning production, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be man­ ufactured. They estimate labor costs, equip­ ment life, and plant space. Some test and in­ spect machines and equipment in manufacturing departments or work with engineers to elimi­ nate production problems. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work regular hours in laboratories, offices, electronics shops, or industrial plants. Service representatives usually spend much of their time working in customers' establishments. Some may be ex­ posed to electrical shock hazards from equip­ ment. Employment Engineering technicians held about 689,000 jobs in 1986. Over two-fifths worked in man­  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/207  ufacturing. mainly in the electrical and elec­ tronic machinery and equipment, transporta­ tion equipment, and machinery industries. Over one-fifth worked in service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies who do engineering work on contract for gov­ ernment, manufacturing, or other organiza­ tions. In 1986, the Federal Government employed about 64,000 engineering technicians. Almost two-fifths worked for the Department of De­ fense; others worked for the Departments of Transportation. Agriculture, and Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National Aeronautics and Space Agency. State govern­ ments employed about 35,000 and local gov­ ernments about 22,000.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons can qualify for engineering technician jobs through many combinations of work experience and education, most employ­ ers prefer applicants with technical training. This training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension di­ visions of colleges and universities, and public and private vocational-technical schools. Per­ sons with college courses in science, engi­ neering, and mathematics may also qualify for some positions but may need additional spe­ cialized training and experience. Training can also be obtained on the job or through apprenticeship programs or corre­ spondence schools. Some types of Armed Forces training and experience also may qual­ ify one for some engineering technician jobs. Many types of publicly and privately op­ erated schools provide technical training. The kind and quality of programs can vary consid­ erably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide infor­ mation about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equip­ ment, and faculty qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less theory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many of­ fer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or are part of a community college or are part of State university systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary con­ siderably in length and types of courses of­ fered. Some are 2-year associate degree pro­ grams. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference be­ tween technical institute and community col­ lege programs. However, courses taken at jun­ ior or community colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4-year colleges than those at technical institutes. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates qualify for  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  jobs as engineering technicians while others continue their education at 4-year colleges. Four-year colleges usually do not offer en­ gineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathe­ matics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Area vocational-technical schools are post­ secondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by lo­ cal employers. Most require a high school di­ ploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training may be obtained in the Armed Forces in technical areas which can be applied in civilian engineering technician jobs. Some additional training may be needed, depending on the military skills acquired arid the kind of job, but often this is gained on the job. Some correspondence schools also offer training for engineering technicians. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Engineering technicians need an aptitude for mathematics and science. For design work, creativity also is desirable. They should be able to work well with others since they are often part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Those in sales and serv­ ice should be able to work independently and deal effectively with customers. Engineering technicians usually begin doing routine work under the close supervision of an experienced technician, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general super­ vision. Some engineering technicians eventu­ ally become supervisors, and a few, engineers. Job Outlook Employment-of engineering technicians is ex­ pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated increases in research and devel­ opment expenditures and expected continued rapid growth in the output of technical prod­ ucts. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update manufacturing facilities and prod­ uct designs more rapidly than in the past. Despite the projected much faster than av­ erage growth, most job openings will be to replace technicians who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Many technician jobs are defense related; cutbacks in defense spending could result in layoffs. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time engineer­ ing technicians were about $24,400 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $18,000 and $30,400. Ten percent earned less than $14,000, and 10 percent earned over $36,600. In the Federal Government, engineering technicians could start at $11,802, $13,248, or $14,822 in 1987, depending on their education and experience. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in post­  secondary programs below the baccalaureate level. Occupations of a similar nature include science technicians, drafters, surveyors, broadcast technicians, and health technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an engineering technician, contact: The National Engineering Council for Guidance. 1420 King St.. Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on engineering technicians specializing in electronics, contact: International Society of Certified Electronics Tech­ nicians, 2708 W. Berry, Suite 3, Fort Worth. TX 76109. Electronics Technicians Association, International. 604 North Jackson St., Greencastle, IN 46135.  Legal Assistants (DOT 119.267-022 and-026)  Nature of the Work Not all legal work requires a law degree. In recent years, lawyers have increasingly used legal assistants—also called “paralegals” or “legal technicians"—to provide legal services to more persons at less cost. Legal assistants work directly under the su­ pervision of a lawyer. While the lawyer as­ sumes responsibility for the legal assistant’s work, a legal assistant is often allowed to per­ form all the functions of a lawyer other than accepting clients, setting legal fees, giving le­ gal advice, or presenting a case in court. Legal assistants generally do background work for the lawyer. To help a lawyer prepare litigation for trial, a legal assistant investigates the facts of the case to make sure that all rel­ evant information is uncovered. The legal as­ sistant may conduct research to identify the appropriate laws, judicial decisions, legal ar­ ticles, and other material that will be used to determine whether or not the client has a good case. After analyzing all the information, the legal assistant may prepare a written report that is used by the attorney to decide how the case should be handled. If the attorney decides to file a lawsuit on behalf of the client, the legal assistant may prepare legal arguments, draft pleadings to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorney during the trial. The legal assistant also may keep files of all documents and correspondence important to the case. Besides litigation, legal assistants may also work in areas of the law such as bankruptcy, criminal law, employee benefits, patent and copyright law, and real estate. They help draft documents such as contracts, mortgages, sep­ aration agreements, and trust instruments. They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some legal assistants coordinate the activities of law office employees and keep the financial records for the office. Legal assistants who work for corporations  208/Occupational Outlook Handbook  help attorneys handle corporate matters such as employee contracts, shareholder agree­ ments, stock option plans, and employee ben­ efit plans. They may help prepare and file an­ nual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and resolutions, and secure loans for the corporation. Legal assistants may also review government regulations to make sure that the corporation operates within the law. The duties of legal assistants who work in government vary depending on the type of agency that employs them. Generally, legal assistants in government analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, con­ duct research for attorneys, collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings, and prepare in­ formative or explanatory material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for gen­ eral use by the agency and the public. Legal assistants employed in community le­ gal service projects help the poor, the aged, and other persons in need of legal aid. They file forms, conduct research, and prepare doc­ uments. When authorized by law, they may represent clients at administrative hearings. Some legal assistants, usually those in small and medium-sized law firms, have varied du­ ties. One day the legal assistant may do re­ search on judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may help prepare a mortgage contract. This requires a general knowledge of many areas of the law. Some legal assistants work for large, de­ partmentalized law firms, government agen­ cies, and corporations and specialize in one area of the law. Some specialties are real estate, estate planning, family law, labor law, liti­ gation, and corporate law. Even within spe­ cialties, functions often are broken down fur­ ther so that a legal assistant deals with one narrow area of the specialty. For example, legal assistants who specialize in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits.  1l i  ,1L - —...-....  To help lawyers prepare a case, legal assist­ ants do research on relevant laws and judi­ cial decisions.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A growing number of legal assistants are using computers in their work. Computer soft­ ware packages are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in the computer and iden­ tify legal texts relevant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting doc­ uments, legal assistants may use computers to organize and index the material. Legal assis­ tants may also use computer software packages to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strategies for clients.  1986, nearly 100 programs had been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA); al­ though approval by the ABA is neither required nor sought by many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to formal training programs vary widely. Some require some college courses or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools require standardized tests and per­ sonal interviews. Most legal assistant programs are completed Working Conditions in 2 years, although some take as long as 4 Legal assistants do most of their work at desks years and others only a few months. Some in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they schools offer general legal assistant training travel to gather information and perform other with courses in many different areas of the law, duties. They may work alone or with others. including legal research techniques. Others Most legal assistants work a standard 40- provide training in specialized areas of the law, hour week. Sometimes, they work very long such as real estate, estate planning and probate, hours and are under pressure to meet deadlines. litigation, family law, contracts, criminal law, At some law firms they do not get paid for and income taxation. Many employers prefer overtime work, although they may receive applicants with training in a specialized area compensatory time off. of the law. Some legal assistant training pro­ Legal assistants handle many routine as­ grams include an internship in which students signments. Some find that these assignments gain practical experience by working in a law offer little challenge and become frustrated with office, corporate legal department, or govern­ their duties. On the other hand, legal assistants ment agency. Depending on the program, grad­ usually assume more responsible tasks as they uates may receive a certificate, an associate gain experience. Furthermore, as new laws and degree, or, in some cases, a bachelor’s degree. judicial interpretations emerge, legal assistants The quality of legal assistant training pro­ are exposed to many new legal problems that grams varies; the better programs generally make their work more interesting and chal­ emphasize job placement. Prospective students lenging. should examine the experiences of recent grad­ uates of programs in which they are considering Employment enrolling. Legal assistants held about 61,000 jobs in 1986. Currently, legal assistants need not be cer­ Private law firms employed the vast majority; tified. The National Association of Legal As­ most of the remainder worked for various levels sistants. however, has established standards for of government. Legal assistants are found in voluntary certification which require various nearly every Federal Government agency; the combinations of education and experience. Le­ Departments of Justice, Treasury, Interior, and gal assistants who meet these standards are Health and Human Services and the General eligible to take a 2-day examination given by Services Administration are the largest em­ the Certifying Board of Legal Assistants of the ployers. State and local governments and pub­ National Association of Legal Assistants each licly funded legal service projects employed year at several regional testing centers. Persons legal assistants as well. Banks, real estate de­ who pass this examination may use the des­ velopment companies, and insurance compa­ ignation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). This nies also employed small numbers of legal as­ designation is a sign of competence in the field sistants. and may enhance one’s employment and ad­ vancement opportunties. IVaining, Other Qualifications, Legal assistants must be able to handle legal and Advancement problems logically and effectively communi­ There are several ways to enter the legal as­ cate (both orally and in writing) their findings sistant profession. Increasingly, employers re­ and opinions to their supervising attorney. They quire formal legal assistant training. However, must understand legal terminology and have some employers prefer to train their legal as­ good research and investigative skills. Famil­ sistants on the job. Entrants to this occupation iarity with the operation and applications of include legal secretaries and high school and computers in legal research is increasingly im­ college graduates with no legal experience. portant. Legal assistants must always stay Other entrants have experience in a technical abreast of new developments in the law that field that is useful to law firms, such as a back­ affect their area of practice. ground in tax preparation for tax and estate Because legal assistants often deal with the practice or nursing or health administration for public and other employees, they must be cour­ personal injury practice. teous and uphold the high ethical standards of Several hundred formal legal assistant train­ the legal profession. A few States have estab­ ing programs are offered at 4-year colleges and lished ethical guidelines that legal assistants in universities, law schools, community and jun­ the State must follow. ior colleges, business schools, proprietary Experienced legal assistants usually are given schools, and legal assistant associations. In progressively more responsible duties and less  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/209  supervision. In large law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies, ex­ perienced legal assistants may supervise other legal assistants and delegate work assigned by the attorneys. Advancement opportunities in­ clude promotion to managerial and other lawrelated positions within the firm or corporate legal department. Job Outlook The number of job openings for legal assistants is expected to increase significantly through the year 2000, but so will the number of persons pursuing this career. Thus, competition for jobs should increase as the number of graduates from legal assistant training programs rises. Still, job prospects are expected to be good for graduates of highly regarded formal programs. Employment of legal assistants has grown tremendously since the emergence of this oc­ cupation in the late 1960’s. Employment is expected to continue to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The emphasis on hiring legal assistants should continue in both legal and law-related fields so that the cost, availability, and effi­ ciency of legal services can be improved. Be­ sides jobs arising from growth in demand for legal assistants, numerous job openings are ex­ pected to arise as persons leave the occupation for various reasons. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of legal assistants as a grow­ ing population sustains the need for legal ser­ vices. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for the services of law firms. Other organizations, such as cor­ porate legal departments, insurance compa­ nies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will continue to hire legal assistants. Job opportunities are expected to expand through­ out the private sector as companies become aware of the value of legal assistants. Job opportunities for legal assistants will ex­ pand even in the public sector. Community legal service programs—which provide assis­ tance to the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-income families—operate on limited budgets and will need more legal assistants to keep expenses down without having to limit services. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire legal assis­ tants in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, legal assistant jobs are affected by the business cycle. During reces­ sions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions, declines. Corporations are less inclined to initiate liti­ gation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. As a result, legal assis­ tants employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals face other legal problems, such as bankrupt­ cies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal solutions. Furthermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpre­ tations creates new business for lawyers and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  legal assistants without regard to the business cycle. Earnings Earnings of legal assistants vary greatly. Sal­ aries depend on the training and experience the legal assistant brings to the job, the type of employer, and the geographic location of the job. Generally, legal assistants who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. Legal assistants had an average annual salary of about $22,200 in 1986, according to a uti­ lization and compensation survey by the Na­ tional Association of Legal Assistants. Starting salaries of legal assistants averaged $17,200, while legal assistants with from 3 to 5 years of experience averaged $21,400 a year. Sal­ aries of legal assistants with over 10 years of experience averaged $25,200 annually, ac­ cording to the same survey. Legal assistants hired by the Federal Gov­ ernment in 1987 started at $14,800 or $18,400 a year, depending on their training and expe­ rience. The average annual salary of legal as­ sistants who worked for the Federal Govern­ ment in 1986 was about $28,600. Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a spe­ cialized understanding of the law and the legal system but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim examiners, compliance and enforcement inspectors, occupational safety and health workers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a legal as­ sistant and a list of legal assistant schools ap­ proved by the American Bar Association are available from: Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chi­ cago, IL 60611.  For information on certification of legal as­ sistants, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for legal assistants, contact: National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1420 South Utica, Tulsa, OK 74104.  Information on a career as a legal assistant, training programs, and local legal assistant as­ sociations can be obtained from: National Federation of Paralegal Associations, Suite 201, 104 Wilmot Rd., Deerfield, IL 60015-5195.  General information about job opportunities for legal assistants is available from: Legal Assistant Management Association. P.O. Box 40129. Overland Park, KS 66204.  For information on legal assistant careers, training programs, and job opportunities, con­ tact: National Paralegal Association, P.O. Box 629, Doylestown, PA 18901.  Library Technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018)  Nature of the Work Library technicians perform many support ac­ tivities needed for the smooth operation of a library. They help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material, and help users find ma­ terials and information. Technicians in small libraries handle a wide range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. Library technicians are also known as li­ brary technical assistants. They answer ques­ tions about use of the card catalog, direct li­ brary users to standard references, organize and maintain periodicals, perform routine catalog­ ing of library materials, file cards, verify in­ formation on order requests, and sometimes supervise other support staff. Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equipment such as projectors and tape re­ corders. They may also assist library users with microfilm or microfiche readers, or retrieve information from a computer data base. Tech­ nicians sometimes work on special projects such as the design of posters that promote library services or displays on topics of current inter­ est. Those in school libraries teach students to use the school library/media center and en­ courage them to do so. They also help teachers get instructional materials and help students with special assignments. Some work ih special libraries maintained by government agencies and corporations, as well as by law firms, ad­ vertising agencies, museums, professional so­ cieties, medical centers, and research labora­ tories. They conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the orga­ nization. Working Conditions The job requires standing, stooping, bending, lifting, and reaching. Some duties like calcu­ lating circulation statistics can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as computer searches us­ ing local and regional library networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challeng­ ing. Library technicians in schools work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and col­ lege and university (academic) libraries may work weekends and evenings. Library tech­ nicians in special libraries—in government agencies, businesses, law firms, and medical and research centers—usually work a regular 40-hour week. Employment Library technicians held about 51,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. The Federal Government employed about 3,600 library technicians. Most worked in De­ partment of Defense libraries or in the Library of Congress.  210/Occupational Outlook Handbook  wm  A library technician uses microfiche to retrieve information. TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire people with a 2-year associate of arts degree in library tech­ nology. Some employers hire people with other college backgrounds. Fewer and fewer em­ ployers hire individuals without some postsec­ ondary training. Individuals who learn on the job are encouraged to take courses in library technology. About 75 2-year colleges offer an associate of arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library organization and operation and how to order, process, cat­ alog, locate, and circulate library materials and work with library automation. Credits earned for an associate degree in library technology do not apply toward a professional degree in library science. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, many library technicians will be needed an­ nually to replace those who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Continued employment growth is expected in business, law, and other special libraries. Employment opportunities arc also expanding in school libraries as enrollment increases. Some growth also may result as technicians increas­ ingly perform routine tasks formerly done by librarians. Employment is expected to decline in academic libraries because of declining col­ lege enrollments. Employment in public li­ braries is likely to grow slowly, as is govern­ ment employment in general. Opportunities will continue to be better for those with knowledge of scientific and tech­ nical fields, including medicine, law, business, engineering, and the physical and life sciences. They also will be better for those with good computer skills.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Salaries for library technicians vary widely, depending on the size of the library or library system as well as the geographic location and size of the community. Salaries of library tech­ nicians in the Federal Government averaged $17,792 in 1986. Related Occupations Library technicians keep records; catalog, sort, and shelve materials; and assist people seeking information. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include record management tech­ nicians, data processing control clerks, medical record technicians, title searchers, insurance record custodians, and teacher aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library tech­ nician and a directory of schools offering train­ ing programs in this field can be obtained from: Council on Library/Media Technicians, Cuyahoga Community College, Attention Margaret R. Barron, 2900 Community College Ave., Cleveland, OH 44115.  For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write: American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources. 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.  Science Technicians (List of DOT. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and the­ ories of science and mathematics to solve prob­ lems in research and development, production, oil and gas exploration, sales, and customer service. Their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of  scientists. Most science technicians specialize in agriculture, biology, chemistry, the nuclear field, or a particular industry such as petro­ leum. Science technicians who work in research and development construct or maintain exper­ imental equipment, set up and monitor exper­ iments, calculate and record results, and help scientists in other ways. In production, they test products for proper proportions of ingre­ dients or for strength and durability. Agricultural technicians work with agricul­ tural scientists in food and fiber research, pro­ duction, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and qual­ ity of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do an­ imal breeding and nutrition work. Biological technicians work with biologists, studying living organisms. Microbiological technicians study microscopic organisms and may do medical research. Biological techni­ cians also analyze organic substances such as blood, food, and drugs; some examine evi­ dence in criminal investigations. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Most do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They set up and conduct tests and experiments and collect and analyze data. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and as­ sist nuclear engineers and physicists in re­ search. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells using instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, they collect and examine geo­ logical data or test geological samples to de­ termine petroleum and mineral content. Some petroleum technicians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drilling op­ erations, geological and geophysical pros­ pecting, and land or lease contracts. Other science technicians collect weather in­ formation or assist oceanographers.  Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Many work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some oc­ casionally work irregular hours to monitor ex­ periments that can’t be completed during reg­ ular working hours. Others, such as agricultural and petroleum technicians, perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote lo­ cations, and some may be exposed to hazardous conditions. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals, nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-caus-  Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/211  technician should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. They should be able to work well with others since technicians often are part of a team. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a scientist or experienced technician. As they gain experience, they take on more responsi­ bility and carry out a particular assignment under only general supervision. Some even­ tually become supervisors.  Most employers prefer science technicians with at least 2 years of specialized training. ing organisms. However, there is little risk if proper safety procedures are followed. Employment Science technicians held about 227,000 jobs in 1986. About 40 percent worked in manu­ facturing, especially in the chemical, petro­ leum refining, and food processing industries. Almost 40 percent worked in service indus­ tries, mainly in colleges and universities and in independent research and development lab­ oratories. In 1986, the Federal Government employed about 18,000 science technicians, mostly in the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, Commerce, and Interior. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for jobs as a science technician. Most employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of spe­ cialized training. Many junior and community colleges offer associate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in sci­ ence and mathematics. Technical institutes generally offer technician training but provide less theory and general education than junior or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 2-year associate degree programs are common. Many science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in science or mathematics, or have had science and math courses in 4-year colleges. Some with bachelor’s degrees become science technicians because they can’t find or don't want a job as a scientist. In some cases, they may be able to move into jobs as scientists, managers, or technical sales workers. Some companies offer formal or on-the-job training for science technician jobs. Techni­ cians also may qualify for their jobs with some types of Armed Forces training. Persons interested in a career as a science  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to an expected growth in scientific research and de­ velopment and production of technical prod­ ucts. Because of the growth of biotechnology, employment of biological technicians is ex­ pected to grow faster. Employment of chem­ ical, nuclear, and petroleum technicians is ex­ pected to grow more slowly. Despite the projected growth, most job openings will be to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of science technicians were about $22,000 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,200 and $29,400. Ten percent earned less than $12,000, and 10 percent earned over $36,000. Life science technicians generally earned less, on average; physical science technicians, more. In the Federal Government in 1987, science technicians could start at $11,802, $13,248, or $14,822, depending on their education and ex­ perience. The average salary for science tech­ nicians employed by the Federal Government was $21,055 in 1986. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific prin­ ciples at a level usually taught in 2-year as­ sociate degree programs include engineering technicians, electrical and electronics techni­ cians, broadcast technicians, drafters, and health technologists and technicians. Some of the work of agricultural and biological technicians is re­ lated to that of agriculture and forestry occu­ pations Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington DC 20036. Ms. Naomi Williams, President, National Confer­ ence of Chemical Technician Affiliates of the Amer­ ican Chemical Society, Monsanto Co., Q3D, 800 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63167.  For information about a career as a biological technician and other biology-related careers, contact: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 730 11th St. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Tool Programmers, Numerical Control (D.O.T 007.167-018 and 609.262-010)  Nature of the Work Aircraft, industrial machinery, medical and scientific instruments, and many other durable goods require precision-machined metal parts. Most of these parts are made with machine tools —drill presses, lathes, milling machines, and others. Many of these machine tools are nu­ merically controlled; that is, one of their com­ ponents is an electronic controller. The con­ troller “reads” a program—a coded list of the steps necessary to perform a specific machining job—and runs the machine tool’s mechanisms through the steps. The quality of the products these machines produce depends largely on the coded instructions, known as programs, that are written by tool programmers. Tool programmers must have a broad knowl­ edge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading. They must know how various machine tools operate and the working properties of the metals and plastics used to make parts. Although machinery manufactur­ ers are trying to standardize programming lan­ guages, currently there are numerous lan­ guages in use. Because of this, tool programmers must know the languages for each of the machines with which they work. Programmers often use previous machine shop experience when planning and writing a program. They begin the task of writing a pro­ gram by analyzing the blueprints of the item to be made by the machine. They then deter­ mine the sequence of machine operations and select the proper cutting tools needed to ma­ chine the workpiece into the desired shape. For simple jobs, they manually compute the size and position of the cuts that must be made on the workpiece, and also calculate the machine speed and feed rate needed for the type of material being machined. They then write the program in the language of the machine's con­ troller and put it on a storage medium such as punch tape, magnetic tape, or disc. For most jobs, programmers use computers to write the program for the machine controller. Using computer languages called general pro­ cessors, programmers can write the program for a controller as a series of simple commands. The computer does the mathematics and uses programs called post processors to translate the general processor program into the language of the controller and store it on tape or disc. A growing number of firms have computeraided design (CAD) systems that programmers can use to write the program for the controller. When a part is designed using a CAD system, data about its dimensions are calculated. In a CAD system with the proper software, the tool programmer can use these data to develop the controller’s program. Tool programmers do not write or maintain the general or post processors and CAD software; they only use them as aids in their work.  212/Occupational Outlook Handbook  operators on the shop floor. When working with or around machine tools, safety precau­ tions must be taken—such as wearing protec­ tive glasses and earplugs. Most tool programmers work a 40-hour week; however, overtime is common during periods of increased manufacturing activity.  ,#  Employment Tool programmers held about 8,800 jobs in 1986. Almost all worked for manufacturing firms or small machining shops that produce durable goods such as aircraft parts, industrial machinery, and instruments. Most jobs for tool programmers are in large metropolitan areas, where many factories and machine shops are located.  .  44 ■Greater use of numerically controlled machine tools is increasing demand for tool programmers. Programmers also write an instruction list to help the machine operator set up and tend the machine. In addition, they may assist the op­ erator in the initial setup and operation of the machine. Finally, programmers may watch a trial run of the machine to insure that it is functioning properly and check the output to be sure the specifications are met. Computer simulations may be used instead of a trial run to check the program. Working Conditions Tool programmers work in comfortable sur­ roundings. The rooms in which they work gen­ erally are separated from the areas where the machine tools are in use, so they are not ex­ posed to machine noise. Their work generally is not as active as that of the workers who operate the machine tools. Occasionally they may assist the numerical control machine tool  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When hiring tool programmers, employers pre­ fer skilled machinists or tool-and-die makers or those with technical school training in tool programming. Those hired with previous ex­ perience in the metal trades must take courses in tool programming at vocational schools or junior colleges. Although practice varies from shop to shop, many employers will pay for this training. For those with a technical school tool programming background, but no metalwork­ ing or plastic-working machining experience, employers usually provide on-the-job training in machine shop operations. High school courses in mathematics, blue­ print reading, metalworking, data processing, physics, and drafting provide a valuable back­ ground for those interested in pursuing a career as a tool programmer. Because programming methods are different for different brands of numerically controlled machine tools, programmers receive additional training when new machinery is introduced. This often is conducted at the plant by a rep­ resentative of the machinery manufacturer. Tool programmers can advance to supervi­ sory jobs or may transfer to skilled machining jobs such as tool designer.  Increased use of automated machine tools is expected to make tool programmers the fastest growing machining occupation.  Projected percent change in employment, 1986-2000 -5  Tool programmers, numerical control Numerical-control machine-tool operators Tool-and-die makers  0  5  10  15  20  Job Outlook Employment of tool programmers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to openings arising from growth in demand for these workers, many openings are expected to occur each year as programmers transfer to other fields of work or retire. Because this is a relatively small occupation, however, the to­ tal number of job openings will be much smaller than in other machining occupations, such as metalworking and plastic-working machine operator, machinist, and tool-and-die maker. As the economy grows, the demand for in­ dustrial machinery, aircraft, motor vehicles, and other products that use machined parts or tooling for molded parts will increase. In order to better compete with foreign manufacturers of these goods, American firms will increas­ ingly use numerical control and other types of automated machining equipment that enables them to lower their labor costs by increasing productivity as well as increase product quality by machining and tooling to more exact spec­ ifications. As more firms install numerically controlled machine tools, the demand for tool programmers also will rise. However, this ris­ ing demand will be offset somewhat by antic­ ipated further increases in the level of imports and by the standardization of programming lan­ guages. As imports of manufactured products increase, domestic production falls, thus re­ ducing demand for tool programmers. In ad­ dition. the standardization of programming languages should simplify the work of tool programmers and increase their productivity. Earnings In 1986, tool programmers earned about $13 an hour, according to a survey by the National Tooling and Machining Association. In com­ parison. the hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75. In addition to their hourly wage, most tool programmers receive health and life insurance and paid vacations and sick leave. Related Occupations Tool programmers apply their knowledge of machining operations, blueprints, and machine programming to write programs that run ma­ chine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed instructions for a machine—in this case a computer. Other highly skilled workers involved in metal machining work are tooland-die designers, tool planners, tool-and-die makers, and machinists. Sources of Additional Information For more information about this occupation, contact:  Machinists  The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102.  Metalworking and plastic-working machine-tool operators  The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744.  SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The National Screw Machine Products Association. 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, OH 44141. The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, 1L 60068.  Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers (D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482; 249.467; and 294.567)  Nature of the Work Cashiers handle payments from customers in supermarkets, department stores, movie thea­ ters, restaurants, and many other businesses. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. The related occupation of bank teller is dis­ cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Cashiers may do other things as well, de­ pending on where they work. Those employed in theaters, for example, often called box office cashiers or ticket sellers, operate ticket-dis­ pensing machines and answer telephone in­ quiries. Some order clerks are employed by fast-food restaurants to take orders over the telephone or intercom systems. Other restau­ rant cashiers, sometimes called cashier check­ ers, may handle reservations for meals and special parties, type menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette counter. In supermarkets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks, checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag purchases. They also may restock shelves and mark prices, rearrange displays of merchandise, and take inventory. Some cash­ iers act as clerks for auctioneers, keeping track of bids and accepting payment for sales items. Cashiers operate several types of machines. Scanners are increasingly being used in grocery stores. An optical or magnetic scanner trans­ mits the code number (Universal Product Code) of each item to a computer. The computer reads the code which identifies the item and price, totals the items purchased, computes the sales tax, and prints out a receipt. The use of sophisticated cash registers is not restricted to grocery stores, however. Cashiers in many establishments use cash registers that print a description of the item and the amount of the transaction on a paper tape. A rapidly growing number of cashiers operate electronic or computerized point-of-sale registers. Such registers are replacing less versatile, conven­ tional models in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels and hospitals use machines that record charges for telephone, medical, and other services and prepare itemized bills. Cashiers may also operate adding and change-dispen­ sing machines. Working Conditions Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters located near store entrances. They may have to stand for long periods of time. In a few cases, they are ex­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  svrtSj  * m Cashiers may stand for long periods of time. posed to cold drafts in the winter and consid­ erable heat during the summer. Hours of work may vary depending on the needs of the employer. Cashiers in theaters, restaurants, and food stores often work during rush periods such as holidays, weekends, late afternoons, and evenings; many work part time or on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in super­ markets and other large retail stores usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week; however, they may work on weekends and have time off dur­ ing the week. Employment Cashiers held about 2,165,000 jobs in 1986. Supermarkets and other food stores employed the largest number. Other retail establishments providing large numbers of jobs are department stores, drug stores, shoe stores, hardware stores, furniture stores, and gasoline service stations. Restaurants, hotels, theaters, schools, and hos­ pitals also employ a large number of cashiers. Since cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, jobs are  distributed much like the general population. The Federal Government employs a relatively small number, primarily in the Department of Defense, in clubs, cafeterias, and exchanges on military installations. Opportunities for part-time work are excel­ lent—especially during peak business periods such as the Christmas shopping season or dur­ ing the summer months. More than one-half of all cashiers work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no work experience. Al­ though there are no specific educational re­ quirements, employers filling full-time jobs prefer applicants with a high school diploma. Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good preparation for cashier jobs. Training is offered as part of many public school vocational pro­ grams. Cashier jobs attract individuals who want to 213  214/Occupational Outlook Handbook  gain work experience or to earn extra money. About 1 in 4 cashiers is a student. In recent years, the majority of job openings have been filled by people under 25 years of age. Many employers offer on-the-job training. In a small firm, the beginner is trained on the job by an experienced worker. In large firms, training programs often include classroom in­ struction in the use of electronic or comput­ erized registers and in other phases of the work. Sometimes employers seek persons who have special skills or business experience, such as typing or selling. Many openings, especially full-time positions, are filled by promoting qualified part-time workers. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eyehand coordination, and an aptitude for working with figures. Because they deal constantly with the public, cashiers should be neat in appear­ ance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. Promotion opportunities for cashiers tend to be limited. However, the job affords a good opportunity to learn an employer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible job. Cashiers working in chain stores and other large retail businesses, for ex­ ample, may advance to a supervisory position. Job Outlook Employment of cashiers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated growth in retail sales. Job prospects are excellent for applicants with basic math and communica­ tions skills. Many cashier jobs pay poorly, and competition is keen for higher paying jobs in unionized department and grocery stores. Over the past decade, employment of cash­ iers grew rapidly as retailers introduced cen­ tralized cashier stations and increased the num­ ber of part-time jobs. The continued popularity of the self-service retail format and growth in discount retailing, coupled with a strong em­ ployer preference for part-time workers, should lead to increased employment growth for cash­ iers. Moreover, replacement needs alone will continue to generate a large number of job openings each year. As is the case for other sales occupations, the proportion of cashiers who leave the occupation each year is very high. Hundreds of thousands of cashiers trans­ fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities for part-time employment are expected to continue to be very good. Earnings Beginning cashiers often earn only the mini­ mum wage. The minimum in establishments covered by Federal law was $3.35 an hour in 1986. In addition, minimum wages in many establishments are governed by State law. Where State minimums are higher, the estab­ lishment pays at least that rate. Cashiers earn wages ranging from the minimum to several times that amount. Median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were about $180 in 1986.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The middle 50 percent earned between $150 and $260; 10 percent earned below $130; and 10 percent earned above $380. Wages for union cashiers are generally higher than those for nonunion cashiers. Cashiers gen­ erally receive health insurance, annual and sick leave, pension benefits, and similar benefits available to other workers. Related Occupations Cashiers receive and pay money and keep ac­ count of such exchanges. Other workers with similar duties include bank tellers, ticket sell­ ers, postal service clerks, toll collectors, and sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local businesses and the local office of the State employment service.  Counter and Rental Clerks (D.O.T. 216.482-030; 249.362-010; .366-010; 295.357­ 010, -014 and -018; .367-010, -014. and -026; .467-010, -014, -018. and -022; .477-010; 299.367-018; 369.367­ 010 and -014; .467-010; .477-014; and .677-010.)  Nature of the Work Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for services such as auto­ mobile rentals, laundry and drycleaning, video tape rentals, and machinery and furniture rent­ als. They act as intermediaries between the general public and service providers and may do some selling when sales workers are un­ available. The nature of the work varies by industry. In drycleaning establishments, for example, counter and rental clerks may receive articles of clothing from customers, note specific  cleaning instructions, accept payment for dry­ cleaning services, and finally deliver the clothes. In a laundromat, the counter clerk or attendant assists customers, provides change for laundry machines, and may even do the laundry in an establishment offering drop-off service. Counter and rental clerks in a car rental agency receive reservations over the phone, enter customer information into a computer or write it on a rental contract, and inform customers about the agency’s policies and pro­ cedures. Counter clerks in a video tape rental firm greet customers, check out tapes, place tapes on shelves, and accept rental payments. In grocery stores, counter clerks perform many tasks ranging from packaging food products for delicatessen customers to stocking shelves. Working Conditions Although most clerks work indoors, they may have to stand for long periods of time. Most counter and rental clerks work a 40-hour week. However, since the establishments that employ them operate at the convenience of the cus­ tomer, many must work night and weekend hours. Employment Counter and rental clerks held about 178,000 jobs in 1986. About 1 clerk in 3 worked for a laundry or drycleaning establishment. Other large employers included automobile rental firms, equipment rental firms and leasing ser­ vices, and grocery stores. A small number of workers are self-employed—primarily propri­ etors of service establishments. Opportunities for part-time work are quite good—especially during rush periods such as weekends, late afternoon hours, evenings, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counter and rental clerk jobs are primarily en­ try level ones requiring little or no experience  .V  Counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people.  Marketing and Sales Occupations/215  and little formal education. However, em­ ployers generally prefer high school graduates for such positions. Persons who want to become counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with dif­ ficult customers. Other desirable characteris­ tics include a neat appearance, a pleasant per­ sonality, and good oral and written communication skills. Training for this occupation is mostly in­ formal. Generally, experienced clerks teach new employees how to operate office equipment, and closely supervise new workers until they feel comfortable with the job. Opportunities for advancement are strictly limited.  Insurance Agents and Brokers (D.O.T. 239.267 and 250.257)  Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and re­ ceive payment for services rendered. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers, retail sales workers, postal service clerks, bank tellers, and toll collectors.  Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent or broker. These professionals help in­ dividuals or companies select the right policy for their needs. Insurance agents and brokers sell policies that provide individuals and busi­ nesses with financial protection against loss. They plan for the financial security of individ­ uals, families, and businesses; advise about insurance protection for automobiles, homes, businesses, or other properties; prepare reports and maintain records; and help policyholders settle insurance claims. Specialists in group policies may help an employer provide em­ ployees the opportunity to buy insurance through payroll deductions. Insurance agents may work for one company or as independent agents sell­ ing for several companies. Insurance brokers do not sell for a particular company but place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Insurance agents sell one or more of the three basic types of insurance: Life, property-liabil­ ity (casualty), and health. Life insurance agents offer policies that pay survivors when a poli­ cyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder's circumstances, a whole-life policy also can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. (Life insurance agents and brokers are some­ times called life underwriters; see the statement on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Casualty insurance agents and brokers sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss as a result of automobile accidents, fireortheft, or other losses. Casualty insurance can also cover workers' compensa­ tion, product liability, or medical malpractice. Many life and casualty insurance agents also sell health insurance policies covering the costs ot hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury. An increasing number of insurance agents and brokers offer comprehensive financial planning services to their clients. As a result, many insurance agents and brokers are also licensed to sell securities, such as mutual fund shares or annuities. Since insurance sales agents obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure their satisfaction. Developing a satisfied clientele who will recommend an agent's services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field.  Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local businesses and local of­ fices of the State employment service.  Working Conditions Insurance agents and brokers do a considerable amount of local travel to meet with clients. They generally arrange their own hours of work, and often schedule evening and weekend ap­  Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated em­ ployment growth in the industries that employ them. However, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or stop work­ ing. In recent years, employment growth in rental and leasing services has skyrocketed—creating many new jobs for counter and rental clerks. Many of these jobs are in video rental ser­ vices—a new industry—and growth in all rental services is expected to continue. Job prospects are excellent in this occupation due to high turnover. Each year thousands of workers transfer into other occupations that offer better pay and advancement possibilities. Opportunities for part-time work should con­ tinue to be favorable.  Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments cov­ ered by Federal law, was $3.35 an hour in 1987. Wages for counter and rental clerks range from the minimum to two to three times that amount. Retail counter clerks earned a median weekly income of $ 190 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $150 and $270 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $130; the top 10 percent earned more than $430. The small number of clerks employed in supermarkets with union affiliation may earn considerably more.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pointments for the convenience of clients. Many work more than 40 hours a week. Employment Insurance agents and brokers held about 463,000 jobs in 1986. Many work part time, especially beginners who have other jobs while they at­ tempt to build up a clientele. Over one-fourth of all agents and brorkers are self-employed. While most agents specialize in life insurance, a growing number (called multiline agents) of­ fer both life and property/casualty policies. The following tabulation presents the percent dis­ tribution of wage and salary jobs by category of insurance. Percent Total................................................. 100 Insurance carriers ......................................... 61 Life insurance........................................... 45 Fire, marine, and casualty insurance .11 Accident and health insurance and medical service plans ............................4 Other insurance carriers .......................... 1 Insurance agents, brokers, and services .. 36 Real estate ..................................................... l Combined real estate, insurance, loan, and law offices ......................................... l Other .............................................................. i Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Some insurance agents and brokers are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but most work out of local company offices or independent agencies. TTaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many companies prefer college grad­ uates for jobs selling insurance, most hire high school graduates with potential or proven sales ability or those who have been successful in other types of work. In fact, most entrants have transferred from other occupations. Under­ standably, they tend to be older, on average, than entrants to other occupations. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a bach­ elor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, government, and business administration enable the insurance agent or broker to relate insurance to other personal finance problems and to economic conditions. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. Knowledge of computer science is increasingly important as insurance agents and brokers make greater use of computers, in­ cluding computer software packages that pro­ vide instantaneous information on a wide va­ riety of financial products. College training may help the agent or broker grasp the fundamentals and procedures of insurance selling more quickly. All insurance agents and brokers must obtain a license in the State where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued  216/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Insurance sales workers help their clients select the best policy for their needs. only to applicants who pass written examina­ tions covering insurance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Agents and brokers who plan to sell mutual fund shares and other se­ curities also must be licensed by the State. New agents usually receive training at the agencies where they work and frequently also at the insurance company’s home office. Beginners sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experienced agents when they call on prospective clients. As the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents and brokers increases, em­ ployers are placing greater emphasis on profes­ sional education. Agents and brokers can broaden their knowledge of the insurance busi­ ness by taking courses at colleges and univer­ sities and attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organiza­ tions. The Life Underwriter Training Council (LUTC) awards a diploma in life insurance marketing to agents and brokers who success­ fully complete the Council’s 2-year program. This program emphasizes practical selling skills. There also are courses in health insurance and advanced sales techniques. The National As­ sociation of Health Underwriters awards the Registered Health Underwriter (RHU) desig­ nation to those individuals who successfully complete a series of courses. Life insurance agents and brokers can qualify for the Char­ tered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the American College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. Insur­ ance agents and brokers who are interested in financial planning can earn the Certified Fi­ nancial Planning (CFP) designation from the College of Certified Financial Planning in Den­ ver, Colo., or the Chartered Financial Con­ sultant (ChFC) designation from the American College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. Both designations reflect knowledge of tax laws, estate planning, investments, and other subjects. Casualty in­ surance agents and brokers can qualify for the  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) designation by passing a series of ex­ aminations given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters. Casualty and property insurance agents and brokers can earn the Certified Insurance Counselor (CIC) designation from the Society of Certified In­ surance Counselors in Austin, Tex., and the Certified Professional Insurance Agent (CPIA) designation from the Society of Certified Professional Insurance Agents in Alexandria, Va. These designations, LUTC, RHU, CLU, CFP, ChFC, CPCU, CIC, and CPIA, are rec­ ognized marks of achievement in their respec­ tive fields. Agents and brokers can qualify for another designation, Accredited Advisors in Insurance, by passing a series of three 1-se­ mester courses covering principles of insurance production, multiline sales, and agency oper­ ation and marketing. A growing number of States are making con­ tinuing education mandatory. Insurance agents and brokers should be en­ thusiastic, self-confident, disciplined, hard working, and able to communicate effectively. They should be able to inspire customer con­ fidence. Some companies give personality tests to prospective employees because personality attributes are important in sales work. Since they usually work without supervision, agents and brokers must be able to plan their time well and have initiative to locate new clients. An insurance agent who shows sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. How­ ever, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, partic­ ularly in the casualty field, establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most  job openings are expected to result from the need to replace agents and brokers who leave the occupation. Turnover is high because many beginners are unable to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly competitive busi­ ness. Opportunities should be best for ambi­ tious people who enjoy sales work and who develop expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Future demand for agents and brokers de­ pends on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. Shifts in the age dis­ tribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, and for protection for homes, automobiles, and other valuables. Working women’s growing need for life insurance and disability protection should increase insurance sales. Rising incomes as well as a concern for financial security also may stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable annuities, and other fi­ nancial products and services, including re­ tirement planning. Sales of casualty insurance should rise as more people seek coverage not only for their homes and cars but also for ex­ pensive, advanced technology products such as home computers and video recorders, and as complex types of commercial coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, and legal, kidnap, and pollution liability in­ surance are expanded. Employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales because more policies will be sold to groups and by mail and telephone. In addition, each agent should be able to handle more busi­ ness as computers take over more routine cler­ ical tasks. The trend toward multiline agents also will cause employment to rise more slowly than the volume of insurance sales. In addition, large firms may increasingly hire risk managers to analyze their insurance needs and select the best policies. Most individuals and businesses consider in­ surance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings Beginners in this occupation often are guar­ anteed a moderate salary while they learn the business and build a clientele. In 1986, many large companies paid new agents a median sal­ ary of about $ 1,400 a month during this training period, which usually lasts about 6 months. They usually subsidize their agents at the train­ ing-period level for about 30 months, providing they meet established goals. Thereafter, most agents are paid on a commission basis. The size of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Life insurance agents with 5 to 9 years of experience had a median income of about $47,000 in 1986; those with 10 or more years of experience had a median income of $70,000, and about 1 out of every 5 earned more than $100,000. Cas­ ualty insurance agents usually earned higher  Marketing and Sales Occupations/217  incomes. Some agents involved with financial planning receive an hourly fee for their services rather than a commission. Insurance agents generally pay their own automobile and travel expenses. Independent agents and brokers must also pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating expenses out of their earnings. Most agents and brokers have group life and health insurance plans and retirement pensions. The size of most pensions depends on sales volume. Related Occupations Other workers who sell complex or expensive products or services include real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and manufacturers’ sales workers. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insur­ ance agents and brokers is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance companies. Information on State licensing re­ quirements may be obtained from the depart­ ment of insurance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance agent or broker also is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 10001 Penn­ sylvania Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20004. The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For career information on casualty insurance agents and brokers, contact: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Independent Insurance Agents of America, 100 Church St., New York, NY 10007. Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173. National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Manufacturers’ Sales Workers (List of D O T, codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Most manufacturers employ sales workers to market their products to other businesses, mainly to other producers, wholesalers, and retailers. Manufacturers also sell directly to institutions such as hospitals, schools, and li­ braries. The sales workers who represent a manufacturer to prospective buyers are usually called manufacturers’ representatives, al­ though the job title may vary by product line. Regardless of the title, manufacturers’ repre­ sentatives usually perform similar job duties. Manufacturers’ sales workers visit prospec­ tive buyers to inform them about the products they sell, analyze the buyers’ needs, suggest  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  how their products can meet these needs, and take orders. Sales workers visit firms in their territory, using an approach adapted to their line of merchandise. Those who handle bakery items, for example, may emphasize whole­ someness, packaging, and variety. Sometimes sales workers promote their firm’s products at trade shows and conferences. Sales workers who deal in technical prod­ ucts, such as electronic equipment, often are called industrial sales workers. Sales engi­ neers, who generally have engineering de­ grees, are among the most highly trained in­ dustrial sales workers. Sales engineers typically sell products whose installation and optimal use require a great deal of technical expertise and support—equipment such as industrial ro­ bots, numerical-control machinery, and main­ frame computers. In addition to providing in­ formation on their firm's products, these workers help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, they may recommend improved materials and machinery for a firm's manufacturing process, draw up plans of pro­ posed machinery layout, and estimate cost sav­ ings from buying their equipment. They pres­ ent this information to company officials and negotiate a sale, a process which may take many months. They may work with engineers in their own companies, adapting products to a customer’s special needs. Technical sales workers sometimes train customers' employees to operate and maintain new equipment, and make frequent visits to insure that it is func­ tioning properly. Manufacturers’ sales workers spend most of their time visiting prospective customers. They also prepare reports on sales prospects or cus­ tomers’ credit ratings, plan their work sched­ ules, draw up lists of prospects, contact the firm to schedule appointments, handle corre­ spondence, and study literature about their products. Working Conditions Some manufacturers’ sales workers have large territories and do considerable traveling. Be­ cause a sales region may cover four or five States, they may be away from home for sev­ eral days or weeks at a time. Others usually work near their “home base.” Manufacturers’ sales workers call at the time most convenient to customers and may have to travel at night or on weekends. Frequently, they spend eve­ nings writing reports. However, some are able to plan their schedules for time off when they want it. Employment Manufacturers’ sales workers held over 543,000 jobs in 1986. Some worked out of their com­ pany's home office, often located at a manu­ facturing plant ..The majority, however, worked out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective customers. Large numbers of sales workers are em­ ployed in printing and publishing, chemical, fabricated metal products, and electrical and other machinery industries. In addition, there are many self-employed sales representatives  who work for a straight commission based on the dollar amount of their sales. These workers, called independent sales representatives, may represent more than one manufacturer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a college degree is increasingly de­ sirable for a job as a manufacturer’s sales worker, many employers hire individuals with­ out a degree who have previous sales experi­ ence. Most entrants to this occupation, even those with college degrees, transfer from other occupations, but some are recent graduates. Entrants are older, on average, than entrants to other occupations. Manufacturers of nontechnical products usu­ ally seek persons with degrees in liberal arts or business administration. Manufacturers of technical products usually prefer applicants with degrees in science or engineering. Drug sales workers, also known as pharmaceutical detailers, usually need a background in biology and chemistry. Manufacturers of electrical equipment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire people who have studied engineering, physics, or chemistry. (Information on chemists, engineers, and oth­ ers with the technical training suitable for work as manufacturers’ sales workers is given else­ where in the Handbook.) Many companies, especially those that man­ ufacture technical products, have formal train­ ing programs for beginning sales workers that last 2 years or longer. In some programs, train­ ees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervision of a field sales manager. A pleasant personality and appearance and the ability to get along well with people are important. Because sales workers may have to walk, stand for long periods, or carry product samples, some physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor, branch manager, or district manager. Those with managerial ability even­ tually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executives in industry started as sales workers. Frequent contact with business people in other firms helps sales workers transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for themselves as in­ dependent representatives. Others find oppor­ tunities in advertising and marketing research. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment is expected in the occupation through the year 2000. In­ creased reliance on electronic ordering systems and a trend toward increased utilization of wholesale distribution channels will limit fu­ ture employment growth.  Moreover, employment prospects will flue-  t 218/Occupational Outlook Handbook —  percent earned less than $13,200; the top 10 percent earned more than $50,900 a year. Related Occupations Manufacturers’ sales workers must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require the same skills are wholesale and retail buyers, field-contact technicians, wholesale trade sales workers, real estate sales workers, insurance sales workers, and securities sales workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about job opportunities for manu­ facturers’ sales workers, contact manufacturers in your area.  mm 5 fflEP-St '$ PRQDU  Real Estate Agents and Brokers (D.O.T. 250.157, .357 except -022)  ---- -  . .. •  a  A sales worker demonstrates his product to a prospective customer. tuate with the business cycle since demand for all manufacturing employees, including sales workers, declines during economic downturns. The outlook for manufacturers' sales workers will also vary from industry to industry and firm to firm. Generally, it will be harder to find a sales job with a firm in a declining industry, such as textiles or steel. However, firms re­ spond to increased competition and changing market conditions in a wide variety of ways. Some manufacturers will boost employment of sales personnel to stimulate demand; others may delegate the marketing function to whole­ salers and independent sales representatives and concentrate on manufacturing. Despite little or no change in the number of jobs, many openings will occur each year be­ cause of the need to replace workers who trans­ fer to other occupations or stop working al­ together. As is the case for other sales jobs, this is a large occupation and turnover is fairly  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  high. Each year, a number of new manufac­ turers' sales workers discover that they are not cut out for selling and leave the occupation. Earnings Manufacturers’ sales workers may be paid un­ der different types of compensation plans. Some manufacturers pay experienced sales workers a straight commission, based on the dollar amount of their sales (as in the case of inde­ pendent representatives); others pay a fixed salary. Most use a combination of salary and commission; salary and bonus; or salary, com­ mission, and bonus. Bonus payments may de­ pend on individual performance, on the per­ formance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of full-time man­ ufacturers’ sales workers were about $25,600 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,300 and $36,200 a year. The bottom 10  Nature of the Work A house or an apartment, whether purchased as a residence or an investment property to be rented out, is the single most expensive item in most people's budgets. Thus, people gen­ erally seek the help of a real estate agent or broker when buying or selling a home. These workers have a thorough knowledge of the housing market in their community. They know which neighborhoods will best fit their clients’ budgets, local zoning and tax laws, and where to obtain financing for the purchase. Agents and brokers also act as a medium for price negotiations between buyer and seller. Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real estate owned by others, but also rent and manage properties, make ap­ praisals, and develop new building projects. In closing sales, brokers often provide buyers with information on loans to finance the purchases. They also arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers when de­ tails of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker’s knowledge, resourcefulness, and creativity in arranging financing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibil­ ities in closing sales, but, in many areas, this is done by lawyers or lenders. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some com­ bine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed broker on a contract basis. Today, relatively few agents work as employees of a broker or realty firm. In selling or renting real estate, brokers and agents generally first meet with potential buy­ ers to get a feeling for the type of home they would like and can afford. Then, they may  Marketing and Sales Occupations/219  take the client to see a number of homes that appear to meet the needs and income of the client. Because real estate is so expensive, agents may have to meet several times with a prospective buyer to discuss properties. In an­ swering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are likely to be most im­ portant to the buyer. To a young family looking at a house, for example, they may point out the convenient floor plan and the fact that schools and shopping centers are close by. To a potential investor seeking the tax advantages of owning a rental property, they may point out the proximity to the city and the ease of finding a renter. Whenever bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents carefully follow the seller’s instructions and may present counter­ offers in order to get the best possible price. There is more to agents’ and brokers’ jobs, however, than just selling. Since they must have properties to sell, they spend a significant amount of time obtaining “listings” (owner agreements to place properties for sale with the firm). Much time is spent on the telephone exploring leads gathered from advertisements and personal contacts. When listing property for sale, agents and brokers make comparisons with similar property being sold to determine its fair market value. Most real estate agents and brokers sell res­ idential property. A few, usually in large firms or specialized small firms, sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each specialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property, for ex­ ample, requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, re­ ligious institutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be familiar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Agents and bro­ kers use computers to locate and list properties or identify available sources of financing. Working Conditions Although real estate agents and brokers gen­ erally base their operations in offices, most of their time is spent outside the office—showing properties to clients, evaluating properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, and per­ forming a wide range of other duties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally fur­ nish their own automobiles. Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. In addition, they often work evenings and weekends to suit the con­ venience of their clients.  offices. Many brokers have franchise agree­ ments with national or regional real estate or­ ganizations. Under this type of arrangement, similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the priv­ ilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales­ people and in running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employ­ ment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination— more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete at least 30 hours of classroom instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal training in addition to a spec­ ified amount of experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. A small, but increasing number of States require that agents have 60 hours of college credit—roughly the equivalent of an associate degree. State licenses generally must be renewed every year or two, usually without reexamination. Some States, however, require continuing education for license re­ newal . Persons who take real estate sales positions are older, on average, than entrants to most other occupations. Many homemakers and re­  tired persons are attracted by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of this field and may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, family responsibilities, and other personal factors. In addition to those who are entering or reentering the labor force, some transfer into real estate sales jobs from a wide range of occupations, including clerical and other sales jobs. As real estate transactions have become more complex, many of the large firms have turned to college graduates to fill sales positions. A large number of agents have some college training, and the number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substantially in re­ cent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess such charac­ teristics as a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, and enthu­ siasm for the job are required in order to mo­ tivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use laws. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often apply in their own com­ munities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties or identify available sources of financing, under the direction of an expe­ rienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. Over 1,000 uni­ versities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are  mm  Employment Real estate agents and brokers held about 376,000 jobs in 1986. Many worked part time, and a significant number were self-employed. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some brokers operate a one-person business. Some large firms have several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch Real estate agents take potential buyers to see homes that meet their needs and income.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  220/Occupational Outlook Handbook  members of the National Association of Real­ tors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property de­ velopment and management, and other subjects also are available through various National As­ sociation affiliates. Trained and experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s li­ cense may open their own offices. Training and experience in estimating property value can lead to work as a real estate appraiser, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may specialize in property management. Those who gain general expe­ rience in real estate and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Job Outlook Real estate sales positions should continue to be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field, however; well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Employment of real estate agents and bro­ kers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as a result of the growing volume of sales of residential and commercial properties. How­ ever, most job openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many beginners become dis­ couraged by their inability to close a sufficient number of sales and subsequently leave the occupation. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade will result in a larger number of persons in the prime working ages (25-54 years old) with careers and family responsibilities. This is the most geographically mobile group in our society and the one that traditionally makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, these people also may be expected to in­ vest in additional real estate. Employment of real estate agents and bro­ kers is sensitive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may de­ cline. During these periods, the earnings of agents and brokers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings—very few real estate agents work for a salary. The rate of commission varies ac­ cording to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  agents and brokers. The broker and agent in the firm that obtained the listing generally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and agent in the firm that made the sale also generally share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. According to a National Association of Real­ tors survey, the median income of full-time real estate agents was about $19,000 a year in 1986. Real estate brokers earned an estimated median gross personal income (after expenses) of $35,000 a year. The most successful agents and brokers earn considerably more. Some firms, especially the large ones, furnish group life, health, and accident insurance. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their con­ tacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a draw­ ing account against future earnings, this prac­ tice is not usual with new employees. The be­ ginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on until commissions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include auto­ motive sales workers, securities and financial services sales workers, insurance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and man­ ufacturers’ representatives. Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents and brokers are available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate work, as well as a list of colleges and universities offering courses in this field, contact: National Association of Realtors, 430 North Mich­ igan Ave., Chicago, 1L 60611.  Retail Sales Workers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425).  Nature of the Work The success of any retail establishment depends largely on its sales workers. Courteous and efficient service from behind the counter or on the sales floor does much to satisfy customers and build a store’s reputation. Whether selling furniture, electrical appli­ ances, or clothing, a sales worker’s primary  job is to interest customers in the merchandise. This may be done by describing the product’s construction, demonstrating its use, and show­ ing various models and colors. For some jobs, particularly those selling expensive and com­ plex items, special knowledge or skills are needed. Personal computer sales workers, for example, must have sufficient knowledge of electronics to explain to customers the features of various brands and models and the meaning of manufacturers’ specifications. In addition to selling, most retail sales work­ ers make out sales checks, receive cash pay­ ments, and give change and receipts. More stores are installing point-of-sale terminals that register sales, adjust inventory figures, and per­ form simple calculations. This equipment in­ creases workers’ productivity—enabling them to provide better customer service. Sales work­ ers also handle returns and exchanges of mer­ chandise and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. However, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, linens, and housewares, sales workers often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. (Cash­ iers, who have similar job duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, well-lighted stores. Some, how­ ever, work outside the store. Garden equipment salespersons, for example, often work in booths outside the store, and used-car sales workers may spend much time at an outdoor lot. Many sales workers must stand for long periods. The 5-day, 40-hour week is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Many retail sales jobs are only part time, and employees are on duty during peak selling hours, including evenings and weekends. Because weekends are busy days in retailing, almost all employees work at least one of these days and have a weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled before Christmas and during other peak periods. Some sales workers, especially those employed by stores in suburban shopping centers, regularly work one evening or more a week. Employment Retail sales workers held about 4.3 million jobs in 1986. They worked in stores ranging from the small drug or grocery store employing one part-time salesperson to the giant department store with hundreds of sales workers. In ad­ dition, some were self-employed representa­ tives of direct sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail sales workers are department and other general merchandise stores, apparel and accessories stores, food, drug, and furniture stores, and car dealers. Most sales workers who sell “big ticket” items such as stereos, cars, and household ap­ pliances work full time; three-fifths of all other sales workers work part time. Retail sales jobs are distributed geographi-  Marketing and Sales Occupations/221  cally much the same way as the population; most sales workers are employed in cities and their nearby suburbs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hiring policies vary from firm to firm, but on the whole, retail selling is open to inexperi­ enced workers with a high school education or less. Many people get their first job in retail sales—so many, in fact, that in recent years, workers in their teens or early twenties have accounted for the vast majority of job entrants. Among these entrants are high school distrib­ utive education students, who work part time at local stores while taking courses in mer­ chandising, accounting, and other aspects of retailing. The experience and education gained can improve their prospects for permanent em­ ployment. Persons interested in sales jobs should apply to the personnel offices of large retail stores, where they are likely to be interviewed and, in some cases, given an aptitude test. Em­ ployers prefer persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable character­ istics are an interest in sales work, a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. In most small stores, an experienced em­ ployee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In many larger stores, training programs are more formal and include specialized training in selling certain products. Inexperienced sales workers in department stores typically begin in housewares, notions, and other departments where a customer needs little assistance. As they gain experience and seniority, they move to positions of greater responsibility. The most experienced—and the highest paid—sales workers sell “big-ticket" items such as large appliances, furniture, and rugs. This work requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for per­ suasion. Traditionally, capable sales workers without a college degree could advance to management positions. However, a college education is be­ coming increasingly important for manage­ ment jobs. Large retail businesses generally prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees. Despite this trend, capable employees without a college degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervisory work in large stores. Opportunities for advancement are limited in small stores, where one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. Re­ tail selling experience may be an asset in qual­ ifying for sales work with wholesalers or man­ ufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of retail sales workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all workers through the year 2000 due to anticipated growth in retail sales. The retail market is becoming  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mi  Many retail sales jobs are in department stores. more dichotomous with service-intensive bou­ tiques on one end of the continuum and self­ service discount retailers on the other end. Sales workers will benefit from growth in the num­ ber of stores that stress service rather than price. Retail sales will continue to provide more job openings than almost any other occupation through the year 2000. Prospects for sales jobs are excellent because retail selling is a large occupation and turnover is high. However, competition may be intense for the higher pay­ ing “big-ticket" sales jobs. There will continue to be many opportunities for part-time workers, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling pe­ riods such as the Christmas season. During recessions, sales volume and the re­ sulting demand for sales workers generally de­ cline. Purchases of costly items such as cars, appliances, and furniture tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. Layoffs, however, are unlikely. Since sales worker turnover is usually very high, employers often can cut employment simply by not replacing all those who leave.  Earnings In 1986, the starting wage for most retail sales positions (including part time and temporary) not covered by union contracts was the Federal minimum wage, $3.35 an hour. Some stores doing less than $362,500 in business per year paid less, since they are not required to pay the minimum wage. Median weekly earnings of full-time retail sales workers were about $215 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $160 and $340 a week; 10 percent earned less than $130 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $510. Eamings vary widely by type of goods sold, as the following tabulation shows:  All retail sales workers ...................... $215 Motor vehicles and boats ..........................424 Radio, television, hi-fi, and appliances . 304 Door-to-door sales ..................................... 343 Furniture and home furnishings ...............302 Hardware and building supplies ...............267 Apparel .........................................................192 Other commodities.................................. 199 Some sales workers receive salary plus com­ missions—that is, a percentage of the sales they make. Others are paid only on a com­ mission or salary basis. Those paid by com­ mission may find their eamings greatly affected by ups and downs in the economy. Sales workers in many retail stores may buy merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 25 percent below regular prices. This privilege sometimes is extended to the employee's fam­ ily. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay part or all of the cost of a pension plan, life insurance, and health insurance. Related Occupations Sales workers apply a general knowledge of sales techniques and specific knowledge of the products they sell. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, in­ cluding demonstrators, wholesale trade sales workers, real estate sales agents, telephone sol­ icitors, wholesale and retail buyers, insurance agents and brokers, manufacturers’ sales work­ ers, and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Com­ mercial Workers International Union (AFLCIO). Information on distributive education pro­ grams may be obtained from your State em­ ployment service.  222/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Securities and Financial Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 162.157-014. -042; 251.157, .257-010)  Nature of the Work Securities sales representatives. Most inves­ tors—whether they arc individuals with a few hundred dollars or large institutions with mil­ lions to invest—use securities sales represen­ tatives when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, or other financial prod­ ucts. Securities sales representatives often are called registered representatives, account ex­ ecutives, or brokers. When an investor wishes to buy or sell se­ curities, sales representatives may relay the order through their firms' offices to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities sales rep­ resentatives known as brokers’ floor repre­ sentatives buy and sell securities. If a security is not traded on an exchange, the sales represenative sends the order to the firm’s trading department, which trades it directly with a dealer in the over-the-counter market. After the transaction has been completed, the sales re­ presentative notifies the customer of the final price. Securities sales representatives also provide many related services for their customers. De­ pending on a customer’s knowledge of the mar­ ket, they may explain the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices; offer fi­ nancial counseling; devise an individual finan­ cial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities.  Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individuals may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to invest in short-term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Se­ curities sales representatives furnish informa­ tion about the advantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person’s objec­ tives. They also supply the latest price quo­ tations on any security in which the investor is interested, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the cor­ porations issuing these securities. Securities sales representatives may serve all types of customers or they may specialize in one type only, such as institutional investors. In institutional investing, most sales represen­ tatives specialize in a specific financial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate securities issued to finance plant expansion. Beginning securities sales representatives spend much of their time searching for cus­ tomers—relying heavily on telephone solici­ tation. They may meet some clients through business and social contacts. Many sales rep­ resentatives find it useful to get additional ex­ posure by teaching adult education investment courses or giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales repre­ sentatives lists of people with whom the firm has dealt in the past. Sometimes sales repre­ sentatives may inherit the clients of represen­ tatives who have retired.  the customer’s banking needs. At most small and medium-size banks, branch managers and commercial loan officers are responsible for marketing the bank’s financial services. As banks offer more and increasingly complex fi­ nancial services —for example, securities bro­ kerage and financial planning—the job of fi­ nancial services sales representatives will assume greater importance.  Financial services sales representatives. Fi­ nancial services sales representatives call on various businesses to solicit applications for loans and new deposit accounts for banks or savings and loan associations. They also locate and contact prospective customers to present their bank’s financial services and to ascertain  Employment Securities and financial services sales repre­ sentatives held about 197,000 jobs in 1986. In addition, a substantial number of people in other occupations sold securities. These in­ clude partners and branch office managers in securities firms as well as insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers. Securities sales representatives are em­ ployed by brokerage and investment firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most sales representatives, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in New York) and approximately 18,000 branch offices in other areas. Financial services sales representatives are employed by banks, savings and loan associ­ ations, and other credit institutions.  ■Sgi  -  Securities and financial sevices sales workers review their clients' portfolios on a periodic basis.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Securities sales representatives usually work in offices where there is much activity. They have access to “quote boards” or computer terminals that continually provide information on the prices of securities. When sales activity in­ creases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the economy, the pace may become very hectic. Established securities sales representatives usually work the same hours as others in the business community. Beginners who are seek­ ing customers may work much longer hours, however. Most securities sales representatives accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. Financial services sales representatives gen­ erally work in a comfortable, less stressful of­ fice environment. They generally work 40 hours a week. They may spend considerable time outside the office meeting with present and prospective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales representatives work exclusively inside banks, providing ser­ vice to “walk-in” customers.  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities sales representatives must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of entrants to this occupation are college gradu­ ates. Although employers seldom require spe­ cialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities  Marketing and Sales Occupations/223  and skills more important than academic train­ ing. Employers seek applicants who have sales ability and good communication skills, are well groomed, and have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to handle fre­ quent rejections also are important ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many em­ ployers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer can­ didates with sales experience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Understandably, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securities sales representatives following retirement from other fields. Securities sales representatives must meet State licensing requirements, which generally include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales representatives must register as represen­ tatives of their firm according to regulations of the securities exchanges where they do busi­ ness or the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Rep­ resentative Examination, administered by the securities exchanges or the NASD. Large na­ tional brokerage firms may require a second examination—the Uniform Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business, customer protection, and recordkeeping procedures. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales representatives meet the requirements for registration. In most firms, the training period generally takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, ef­ fective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by business schools and other institutions and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. In small firms, sales representatives gen­ erally receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Many trainees take correspond­ ence courses in preparation for the securities examinations. Securities sales representatives periodically take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as they are introduced on the market and to improve their sales techniques. Training in the use of computers is important, as the securities sales business is highly automated. The principal form of advancement for se­ curities sales representatives is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they han­ dle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventually they may handle very large institutional accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experienced sales representatives become branch office managers and supervise other sales representatives while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few rep­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  resentatives advance to top management po­ sitions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Financial services sales representatives learn through on-the-job training under the super­ vision of bank officers. Outstanding perfor­ mance can lead to promotion to managerial positions. Job Outlook The demand for securities sales representatives fluctuates as the economy expands and con­ tracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the number of persons seeking jobs usually ex­ ceeds the number of openings—sometimes by a great deal. Even during periods of rapid eco­ nomic expansion, however, competition for se­ curities sales training positions—particularly in larger firms—is keen because of potentially high earnings. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals with successful work experience. Opportunities for inexperienced sales representatives should be best in smaller firms. The number of securities sales representa­ tives is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, are ex­ pected to be created by representatives who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Due to the highly competitive nature of se­ curities sales work, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a sufficient clientele. Once established, how­ ever, securities sales representatives have a rel­ atively strong attachment to their occupation because of high earnings and the considerable investment in training. Employment of securities sales representa­ tives is expected to expand as economic growth, rising personal incomes, and greater inherited wealth increase the funds available for invest­ ment. More individual investors are expected to purchase common stocks, mutual funds, and other financial products after seeking advice from securities sales representatives regarding the increasing array of investment alternatives. Growth in the number and size of institutional investors will be strong as more people enroll in pension plans, set up individual retirement accounts, establish trust funds, and contribute to the endowment funds of colleges and other nonprofit institutions. In addition, more rep­ resentatives will be needed to sell securities issued by new and expanding corporations and by State and local governments financing pub­ lic improvements. Employment of financial services sales rep­ resentatives is also expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as banks and credit institutions expand the financial services they offer, and issue more loans for personal and commercial use.  Earnings According to the Securities Industry Associ­ ation, average annual earnings of beginning securities sales representatives were $37,000 in 1986. Earnings of full-time, experienced securities sales representatives who served in­ dividual investors averaged about $91,000 a year, while the relatively small number of sales representatives who handled institutional ac­ counts averaged about $227,000. Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and registration requirements. After registration, a few firms continue to pay a salary until the new representative’s com­ missions increase to a stated amount. The sal­ aries paid during training usually range from $1,000 to $1,400 a month. After candidates are licensed and registered, their earnings depend on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life in­ surance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling and lower when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales representatives with a steady income by paying a “draw against commis­ sion”—that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions which they can be expected to earn. Securities sales representatives who can provide their clients with the most complete financial services should enjoy the greatest in­ come stability. Financial services sales representatives are paid a salary; some receive bonuses if they meet certain established goals. Average earnings of financial services sales representatives are con­ siderably less than those of securities sales rep­ resentatives. Related Occupations Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowl­ edge include insurance agents and real estate agents. Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning a career as a securities sales representative is available for $1 from: Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271.  Career information also may be obtained from the personnel departments of individual se­ curities firms. For information about job opportunities for financial services sales representatives in var­ ious States, contact State bankers’ associa­ tions. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga.,  McFadden Business Publications). Polk’s World Bank Directors (Nashville, R.L. Polk  & Co.). The US. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand  McNally & Co.).  224/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 165.157; 236.252; 250.357-022; 251.157-014, .257-014 and -018, .357; 252.257, .357; 253, 254; 259 except .257-014 and .357-026; 269.357-018; 273.357­ 014; 279.357-042; 293 except .357-018; 299.357-014 and -018)  Nature of the Work Services sales representatives sell a wide va­ riety of services, from linen supplies and cable television to educational services and telephone communications systems. Sales representa­ tives for data processing services firms sell complex services such as inventory control, payroll processing, sales analysis, and financial reporting. An educational services sales rep­ resentative might persuade States to use a par­ ticular licensing examination on insurance laws and regulations. Hotel sales representatives contact government, business, and social groups to solicit convention and conference business for the hotel. They contact prospective clients and determine their needs, outline the types and prices of services offered by the hotel, and prepare contracts when clients reserve space at the hotel. Fundraisers plan programs to raise money for charities or other causes such as the Special Olympics for handicapped children and mentally retarded adults. They write, tele­ phone, or visit potential contributors and per­ suade them to donate money by explaining the purpose and benefits of various sports pro­ grams. They also may organize volunteers and plan special events to raise money. Sales rep­ resentatives for temporary help services firms locate and acquire clients who will hire the firm's employees. Telephone services sales representatives contact and visit commercial customers to review their telephone systems, analyze their communications needs, and rec­ ommend services such as installation of ad­ ditional telephone instruments, lines, and switchboard systems. Other representatives sell advertising, automotive leasing, public utility, exterminating, burial, printing, shipping, pro­ tective, and management consulting services. (Information on other sales workers, including insurance agents and brokers, real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, and travel agents, ap­ pears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Despite the diversity of services being sold, the jobs of virtually all services sales repre­ sentatives have much in common. First, all sales representatives must fully understand and be able to discuss the services their company offers. Second, the procedures they follow are similar. They develop lists of prospective clients through selected use of telephone and business directories, asking business associates and cus­ tomers for leads, and looking for new clients as they cover their assigned territory. Some­ times they acquire clients through persons who call to inquire about the company’s services. Then, they meet with clients and explain how the services being offered can meet their needs, sometimes using literature or demonstrations  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  to describe their company's services. They an­ swer questions about the nature and cost of the services and try to persuade potential customers to purchase the services. If they fail to make a sale on the first visit, they may follow up with more visits, letters, and phone calls. After making a sale, representatives call on their cus­ tomers to see that the services have met their needs, to determine if additional services are needed, and to obtain referrals. Since services sales representatives obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is im­ portant that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that they are satisfied with the services. Developing a satisfied clien­ tele who will continue to use the services and will recommend the services to other potential customers is an important key to success in this field. Like other types of sales jobs, a services sales representative’s reputation is very important to his or her success. Some aspects of service sales work vary with the kind of service sold. Selling highly tech­ nical services such as communications systems or computer consulting services usually in­ volves more complex and lengthy sales pro­ cesses. In these situations, sales representatives usually operate according to policies outlined in the company’s marketing and business plans. Such work plans identify prospective clients, establish marketing strategies, and set forth staff responsibilities and timetables to achieve set goals. In selling technical services, sales representatives must become familiar with the intricacies of their customers’ operations in or­ der to best serve their needs. Sales represen­ tatives often work as part of a team and receive technical assistance from support personnel. For example, those who sell data processing services might work with a systems engineer, and those who sell telephone services might receive technical assistance from a commu­ nications consultant. Because of the length of time between the initial contact with a customer and the actual sale, representatives who sell technical services generally work with several customers at one time. Since prospective sales might be at different stages of the process, sales representatives must be well organized and ef­ ficient in scheduling their time. On the other hand, some sales representatives deal exclu­ sively with one large client. Selling less com­ plex services such as linen supply, detective, or exterminating services generally involves simpler and shorter sales processes. A sales representative’s job can also vary with the size of the company. Those working for relatively large companies generally are more specialized and are assigned territorial boundaries and specific services and accounts. Those in smaller companies generally have more independence. Representatives in smaller com­ panies may have administrative and public re­ lations responsibilities in addition to their sales duties. A sales representative’s job also depends on the size of his or her territory. A representative for a pest control company may sell primarily by telephone from an office. A linen supply sales representative may serve a small territory  in a large city, but a sales representative for a national educational services organization may be responsible for serving several States. Working Conditions Working conditions for sales representatives vary. Those responsible for a large territory may spend a great deal of time traveling, some­ times for weeks at a time. Representatives who cover a small territory may spend a certain amount of time in the office each day keeping records, preparing various documents, and set­ ting up appointments with customers. Appoint­ ments must be scheduled for a time most con­ venient to customers. Representatives who sell exclusively by telephone spend all their time in the office. Many representatives have the flexibility to set their own schedules so long as they meet their company’s goals. Selling is stressful work. Sales representa­ tives face competition not only from represen­ tatives of other companies but also from fellow workers. Companies may set goals or quotas and hold contests with prizes for those who make the most sales. Employment Services sales representatives held 419,000 sa­ laried jobs in 1986. Over half were in business services industries, including management, consulting, public relations, protective, ad­ vertising, personnel supply, and computer and data processing services. Significant numbers of sales representatives work for firms that offer a wide range of other services. The following tabulation shows the distribution of services sales representative jobs by industry. Percent Total............................................... 100 Business services ......................................... 52 Advertising ................................................. 7 Personnel supply services .........................4 Computer and data processing services ............................................... 24 Other business services ........................ 17 Automotive repair ....................................... 11 Personal services ............................................8 Hotels and other lodging places ................... 5 Membership organizations ............................ 5 Amusement and recreation, except motion pictures .............................. 4 Other .............................................................. 15  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers require that services sales rep­ resentatives have a college degree, but specific requirements vary depending on the services that a particular company sells. Employers who market advertising services seek individuals with a college degree in advertising or a master of business administration degree; companies that market educational services prefer indi­ viduals with an advanced degree in marketing or related fields. Many hotels seek graduates from college hotel administration programs, and companies that sell computer services and  Marketing and Sales Occupations/225  telephone systems prefer sales representatives with a background in computer science or en­ gineering. Courses in business, economics, and marketing are helpful in obtaining most jobs as services sales representatives. Some employers hire sales representatives with a high school diploma if they have a proven sales record. This is particularly true for those who sell nontechnical services such as linen supply, exterminating, laundry, and funeral services. Many firms conduct formal intensive train­ ing programs for their sales representatives. Individuals learn about the company’s opera­ tions and services. They also receive instruc­ tion in various sales techniques such as pros­ pecting for clients, probing customer needs, interviewing, sales presentations, and closing a sale. They may also receive motivational and sensitivity training to help them understand different personality types and make them more effective in dealing with people. Sales representatives may also attend seminars on a wide range of subjects given by outside training institutions such as technical schools and colleges and universities. Many receive training when their company introduces new services and to maintain and update their sales techniques. They may also receive training in the use of computers to increase their produc­ tivity. Many large companies prefer to hire sales representatives directly out of school, while smaller companies prefer to hire individuals who have a proven sales record. Smaller com­ panies generally lack the resources to provide training programs for their sales representa­ tives. Sales representatives must have a pleasant, outgoing personality and good rapport with people. They must be highly motivated, well organized, and efficient. Good grooming and a neat appearance are essential. Self­ confidence, reliability, and the ability to communicate are also vital characteristics. Sales representatives should have the ability to work under pressure to meet sales goals. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor, branch manager, or district manager. Those with managerial ability even­ tually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executives in industry started as sales workers. Frequent contact with business people in other firms can provide sales workers with leads about job openings, thus facilitating advancement possibilities. Some go into business for them­ selves as independent representatives. Others find opportunities in advertising and market research.  Job Outlook Employment of services sales representatives, as a group, is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the continued rapid increase in demand for services in general. However, growth of services sales jobs is di­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Ever}m  «waaWi  • m  WMita),  1Ya' "v  m  ~7 1st Services sales agents maintain regular contact with their customers. rectly related to employment growth in the par­ ticular industries where they are found. For example, the burgeoning growth in temporary help firms should prompt the fastest growth for personnel supply services sales representatives; the continued growth in factory and office au­ tomation should lead to equally rapid employ­ ment growth for data processing services sales representatives; and growth in the advertising industry should also spur much faster than av­ erage growth in employment of this industry’s sales force. Employment of those who sell ho­ tel services and personal services such as laun­ dry and drycleaning is expected to increase at a somewhat slower pace but still faster than the average for all workers due to the continued increase in demand for their services. On the other hand, employment of educational ser­ vices sales representatives is expected to grow only about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations in line with the growth of the schoolage population. In addition, many openings will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in other sales occupations, turn­ over is relatively high—particularly among representatives who sell nontechnical services. Each year, many new services sales represen­ tatives discover that they are unable to earn enough money at selling and leave the occu­ pation. Prospective services sales representatives  with a college background or a proven sales record should have the best job opportunities. Earnings In 1986, median annual earnings of full-time advertising sales representatives were about $23,600. Representatives selling other busi­ ness services had median annual earnings of $20,600. Earnings of representatives who sell technical services such as computer or com­ munication services are generally higher than for those who sell nontechnical services. Earnings of experienced sales representa­ tives depend on performance. Successful sales representatives can quickly establish a clientele and build up their income. Experienced sales representatives often earn more than managers in their firm; some sales representatives earn over $100,000 a year. Sales representatives work on different types of compensation plans. Some get a straight salary; others are paid solely on commissions based on the dollar value of their sales. Most firms use a combination of salary and com­ missions. Many sales representatives have expense accounts to cover meals and travel, and some drive a company car. Some em­ ployers offer bonuses, extra vacation time, trips, and prizes for sales that exceed company quotas. Because sales are affected by changing eco­ nomic conditions and consumer and business  226/Occupational Outlook Handbook  in suburban areas; and about 10 percent, in small towns and rural areas. Some travel agents are self-employed. Gen­ erally, these persons gained experience and recognition in an established travel agency be­ fore going into business for themselves.  Travel agents try to make the best possible travel arrangements. preferences, earnings may fluctuate from year to year. Related Occupations Services sales representatives must have sales ability and a knowledge of the service they sell. Workers in other occupations that require these skills include buyers, real estate agents, insurance agents, securities sales representa­ tives, wholesale and retail trade sales repre­ sentatives, telephone solicitors, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information For details about employment opportunities for services sales representatives, contact employ­ ers who sell services in your area.  Travel Agents (D.O.T. 252.157)  Nature of the Work Planning a vacation or a business trip can be frustrating and time consuming. Many trav­ elers, therefore, turn to a travel agent for guid­ ance. Travel agents try to make the best pos­ sible travel arrangements, with their clients’ tastes, budgets, and other requirements in mind. Constantly changing air fares and schedules, a proliferation of vacation packages, and busi­ ness/pleasure trip combinations are making the services of a travel agent more important than ever. Travel agents’ services vary, depending on. the needs of the client. They may give advice on destinations, make arrangements for trans­ portation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, tours, and recreation, or plan the right vacation package or business/pleasure trip combination. They may also advise clients on weather con­ ditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  recreation. For international travel, the agent might also provide information on customs reg­ ulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and the most recent currency exchange rates. When making travel arrangements, travel agents consult a variety of sources for infor­ mation on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. Most travel agents rely on computers for up-to-the minute information on fares and schedules. They often use their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients as a basis for making recommendations. Travel agents may devote some of their time to visiting hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate, firsthand, their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service. Travel agents also do considerable promo­ tional work. They may give slide or movie presentations to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and meet with business managers to suggest companysponsored trips. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing pa­ perwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. They may be under a great deal of pressure during busy vacation seasons. Many agents, espe­ cially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. When they do travel, agents usually get substantially reduced rates for air, cruise, and rail transportation. Sometimes ho­ tels or resorts offer travel agents trips at a dis­ count for promotional purposes. Employment Travel agents held 105,000 jobs in 1986. Though travel agents work in every part of the country, they are concentrated in major pop­ ulation centers, where the best business op­ portunities exist. About 40 percent of all travel agencies are in large cities; almost 47 percent,  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal or specialized training is becoming in­ creasingly important for travel agents. A large number of vocational schools offer basic train­ ing lasting 6 to 12 weeks. Travel courses are also offered in adult education programs in public high schools, community colleges, and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer a bach­ elor's and a master’s degree in travel and tour­ ism. Although few college courses relate di­ rectly to the travel industry, a college education is sometimes desired by employers. Courses in computer science, geography, foreign lan­ guages, and history are most useful. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Several home-study courses provide a basic understanding of the travel industry. The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) offers a travel correspondence course. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees. Employers increasingly pre­ fer applicants with computer skills—a signif­ icant part of the training consists of computer instruction. * Persons can prepare for careers as travel agents by attending one of the above-men­ tioned schools and by working as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. After they gain training and experience they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually as­ sume the full workload of a travel agent. In large travel agencies with offices in many cit­ ies, travel agents may advance to office man­ ager or to other managerial positions. Expe­ rience as an airline reservation agent also is a good background for a travel agent. Broad ex­ perience as a national or international traveler can be an asset, since the ability to speak with some personal knowledge about a city or for­ eign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans. As a sales representative, the travel agent must be pleasant and patient, especially with to hard-to-please clients. Gaining the confi­ dence of clients is very important to an agent’s success. Experienced travel agents can take an ad­ vanced course, leading to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the In­ stitute of Certified Travel Agents (ICTA). An­ other recognized mark of achievement in this field is a certificate of proficiency from the American Society of Travel Agents. It is awarded to those who pass a 3-hour test cov­ ering the duties of travel agents. Travel agents who start their own agencies must generally gain formal supplier or cor­ poration approval before they can receive com­ missions. Suppliers or corporation are organ­ izations of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines. The  Marketing and Sales Occupations/227  Airlines Reporting Corporation, for example, is the approving body for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be in operation, be financially sound, and employ at least one ex­ perienced manager/travel agent.There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. However, Rhode Island has licensing requirements. Ohio, Hawaii, and California have registration requirements. In California, travel agents not approved by a corporation are required to have a license. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Many job openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agncies expand, but most will occur as experienced agents transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the year 2000. As busi­ ness activity expands, so will business-related travel. Also, with rising incomes and increas­ ing emphasis on leisure-time activities, more people are expected to travel—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. In fact, many people take more than one vacation a year now. The use of charter flights and larger, more efficient planes, especially for trips to other countries, has brought air transportation within the budget of many people. The easing of Gov­ ernment regulation of air fares and routes has helped increase traveling by fostering greater competition among airlines to offer better and more affordable service. In addition, American travel agents often organize tours for the grow­ ing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agencies now have automated reserva­ tion systems, this has not weakened demand for travel agents. Since the industry generally is sensitive to the fluctuations of the economy, opportunities at any given time depend heavily upon whether or not people or businesses can afford travel. Long-distance travel plans are likely to be de­ ferred during economic downturns. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and lo­ cation of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. According to a survey conducted by the Travel Education Center, salaries of travel agents generally ranged from $12,000 for beginners to $21,000 a year for experienced agents in 1986. Managers earned about $30,000 a year. Salaried agents usually have standard benefits—insurance coverage, paid vaca­ tions—that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel arrangements, cruises, ho­ tels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are about 10 percent; and for international travel, about 11 percent of the total sale. When travel agents arrange complex individual plans that require several connections on different kinds of trans­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  portation, they may charge the customer a ser­ vice fee for the time and expense involved. An increasing number of travel agencies have started to charge a set fee for their services. During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation approval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings. Their income is generally limited to commissions from hotels, cruises, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated arrange­ ments. For those starting their own agency, working capital of more than $50,000 generally will be needed to carry the agency through a profitless first year. Even established agents experience less profitable years during periods of economic downturn. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recreational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities in­ clude secretaries, tour guides, airline reser­ vation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportun­ ities, contact: American Society of'Travel Agents, 4400 MacArthur Blvd. NW., Washington, DC 20007.  Wholesale TVade Sales Workers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Wholesale trade sales workers facilitate the movement of goods from the producer to the consumer. They are employed by whole­ salers—firms that purchase products from manufacturers and sell directly to retail stores  or to institutional buyers such as school systems and hospitals. Wholesalers employ two types of sales workers—those who work in an office, who are known as “inside” sales workers, and oth­ ers, known as “field” sales workers, whose jobs keep them on the road. Inside sales workers take and solicit orders by phone, monitor in­ ventory levels, and process customer orders. Field sales workers act as intermediaries be­ tween the wholesaler and customers. Typically they promote product lines, solicit new busi­ ness, provide technical information and assis­ tance, and resolve customers’ problems. Wholesale trade sales workers visit buyers for retail, industrial, and commercial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. They show samples, pictures, and catalogs which describe items that their company stocks. They may also show customers how the company's products can save money and improve pro­ ductivity. Wholesale trade sales workers in­ form customers about special sales promotions and may encourage them to order certain types of merchandise. They also offer prompt, de­ pendable service so buyers will become regular customers. Wholesale trade sales workers perform many services for retailers, such as checking the store’s stock and ordering items that will be needed before the next visit. Often the whole­ saler and retailer are linked by computer, and orders can be processed electronically. Some wholesale sales workers help retailers improve and update ordering and inventory systems and advise them about advertising, pricing, and window and counter displays. They may even counsel them on shelf placement of products. Sales workers who handle machinery may give technical assistance on installation and main­ tenance. Sales workers keep records of sales, forward orders to their wholesale firms, prepare reports and expense accounts, plan work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appointments,  Wholesale trade sales workers help move goods from the manufacturer to the customer.  228/Occupational Outlook Handbook  and study literature describing their products. Some collect payments for their companies when overdue. Working Conditions Working conditions vary. Inside sales workers usually work the standard 5-day, 40-hour week. Field sales workers, on the other hand, often have long, irregular working hours. Although they call on customers during business hours, they may travel at night or on weekends in order to meet their schedules. They may spend evenings writing reports and orders, carry heavy catalogs and sample cases, and be on their feet for long periods. Employment Wholesale trade sales workers held about 1.2 million jobs in 1986. Firms that sell machinery to industrial and business users emplcfy more sales workers than any other kind of whole­ saler. Among other leading employers are wholesale distribution firms that specialize in food products, motor vehicles and parts, hard­ ware and plumbing, and electrical goods. Most wholesale trade sales workers operate out of their firm’s headquarters, which usually is located in a large city. Sales workers may cover a territory in a small section of a city with many retail stores and industrial users, or, in less populated regions, they may cover half a State or more. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Some products require a technical background. For nontech­ nical products such as food, however, sales ability and familiarity with manufacturers and brands are more important than technical knowledge. Most wholesale trade sales workers get their jobs by working up the ladder or, if they have the appropriate background, by transferring into the firm. Some employers hire high school graduates for nonselling jobs or as sales train­ ees. These beginners usually work in several   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  kinds of nonselling jobs before being assigned to sales. They may start in the stockroom or shipping department to become familiar with the thousands of items the wholesaler carries or in the bookkeeping department to learn about prices and recordkeeping. They are likely to work on “inside” sales, writing telephone or­ ders, before they actually observe and work with experienced sales workers on visits to customers. Usually, it takes 2 years or longer to prepare trainees for outside selling. In very large wholesale firms, sales trainees participate in formal training programs that combine classroom instruction with short ro­ tations in nonselling jobs. In most firms, how­ ever, trainees learn informally by observing experienced workers and trying the different aspects of the work. As they become familiar with customers and procedures, they gradually take on the full responsibility of the job. Experienced sales workers also transfer from manufacturing and retail trade sales positions. Their experience with a particular product line gives them an advantage over newcomers to the field because they don’t require as much on-the-job training. Sales workers sometimes can augment their on-the-job training with college courses rele­ vant to wholesale distribution; courses in mar­ keting and business administration are espe­ cially useful. Trade associations also sponsor training programs. Experienced sales workers with leadership and sales ability may advance to wholesale buyer, supervisor, sales manager, or other ex­ ecutive positions. Job Outlook The number of wholesale trade sales workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the volume and kinds of goods produced in the economy expand. Most businesses and insti­ tutions that require a wide variety of products for their own use and for eventual resale will continue to purchase these products from wholesaler-distributors. Also, instead of ex­ panding their own sales forces, manufacturers  are finding it more cost effective to rely on wholesalers and on independent sales repre­ sentatives, who sell manufacturers’ products solely on a commission basis. As wholesalers expand their product lines and the number of sales districts, the demand for capable sales workers will rise. In addition to new positions created by in­ creased demand, many openings will result each year as experienced sales workers transfer to other jobs, retire, or stop working for other reasons. The number of replacements will be quite large because the occupation is large and turnover is very high. Earnings Compensation plans differ among firms. One plan is salary plus a commission based on sales; other types are straight commission or straight salary. Some include a bonus. Although most wholesale trade sales workers have steady, yearround work, sales and commissions on prod­ ucts like air-conditioners fluctuate through the year. To provide sales workers with a steady income, many companies pay them a weekly or monthly “draw” against annual commis­ sions. Median weekly eamings of full-time whole­ sale trade sales workers were about $490 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $350 and $700 a week; 10 percent earned less than $250; and 10 percent earned more than $980 a week. Related Occupations In addition to sales ability, wholesale trade sales workers often have a knowledge of hundreds of similar products. Workers in other occupations requiring the same skills are wholesale and retail buyers, sales-service pro­ moters, manufacturers’ sales workers, field contact technicians, and demonstrators. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs in wholesale selling may be obtained directly from local wholesale houses or from associations of wholesalers in many of the larger cities.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Bank Tellers (DOT. 211.362, except -010; 216.362-018; and 219.462-010)  Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with the teller, the individual who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two “all-purpose” tellers; larger banks employ tellers in more specialized func­ tions. One specialized teller, for example, sells savings bonds; another accepts payment for customers’ utility bills; a third receives deposits for Christmas club accounts; and a fourth keeps records and performs the necessary paperwork for customer loans. Others process the prolif­ erating variety of certificates of deposit and money market accounts. Still other tellers han­ dle foreign currencies, sell travelers’ checks, or compute interest on savings accounts. Commercial tellers, the most common kind of teller, cash customers’ checks and handle deposits and withdrawals from checking and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and numerical amounts agree, verify the identity of the person to receive payment, and be certain that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Often a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller types up and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use ma­ chines to make change and total deposits. In most banks, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. In some banks, they type, or write deposit receipts and pass­ book entries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate han­ dling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s ac­ counts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. Many tellers process the large number of transactions conducted by bank customers us­ ing the growing number of automatic teller   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  machines (ATM’s). During certain periods when ATM’s are not available for customers’ use, tellers replenish cash withdrawals, cor­ roborate deposits, and update customers’ ac­ counts. When not balancing and settling ATM’s, highly experienced tellers sometimes assume the duties of customer service repre­ sentatives, explaining the various types of ac­ counts and financial services offered by their banks. As banks offer more and increasingly complex financial services, customer service duties will become an increasingly important part of many tellers’ jobs. Working Conditions Most tellers work during the day, Monday through Friday; some work evenings or week­ ends. The job offers ample opportunity to work part time and flexible hours. Continual com­ munication with customers, repetitive tasks, and prolonged standing within a fairly small area also characterize the job. Employment Bank tellers held about 539,000 jobs in 1986; about one-fourth worked part time. The fol­ lowing tabulation indicates the distribution of wage and salary jobs by type of banking or credit institution. 388,000 Banking ............. Commercial, stock, and mutual savings banks ............... 384,000 Establishments closely related to banks ...................................... 4,000 Credit agencies other than banks ... 149,000 Savings and loan associations ... 114,000 Personal credit institutions ......... 34,000 Other credit agencies ................... 1,000 Holding and other investment offices and security and commodity brokers and dealers .......................  1,000  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people who have good numerical and clerical skills, enjoy public contact, and feel comfortable handling large amounts of money. Although tellers work in­ dependently, their recordkeeping is closely su­ pervised. Tellers should be courteous, atten­ tive, and patient in their dealing with the public. Maturity, tact, and the ability to quickly ex­ plain bank procedures and services are impor­  tant in helping customers complete transactions or make financial decisions. Most entrants transfer from other occupa­ tions; virtually all have at least a high school education. New tellers usually learn their duties through on-the-job and formal training. They observe experienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer and, as experience is gained, includes instruc­ tion on equipment such as ATM's or on-line video terminals. Beginners usually start as commercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “cage,” they may start as savings tellers. Often banks simulta­ neously train tellers for other clerical duties. Experienced tellers may advance to head teller or customer service representative. Banks encourage this upward mobility by providing access to education and other sources of ad­ ditional training. Outstanding tellers who have had some college or specialized training of­ fered by the banking industry may be promoted to a managerial position. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses accredited by the American Institute of Banking, an educational affiliate of the American Bankers Association; the Bank Administration Institute; and the Institute of Financial Education, an educational affiliate of the United States League of Savings Institu­ tions. These institutes have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and nu­ merous study groups in small communities. Most banks use the facilities of these institutes, which assist local banks in conducting coop­ erative training programs or developing inde­ pendent training programs. Some banks have their own training programs which result in teller certification—a sign of competence in this field. Experienced tellers qualify for cer­ tification by taking required courses and pass­ ing examinations. Job Outlook The number of bank tellers is expected to in­ crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employ­ ment growth among bank tellers is not expected to keep pace with overall employment growth in banks and other savings and credit institu­ tions because of the increasing use of automatic teller machines and other electronic equipment. Nevertheless, qualified applicants should have good prospects for both full-time and part-time employment, since this occupation provides a relatively large number of job openings. The overwhelming majority of job openings 229  230/Occupational Outlook Handbook  fiiSiK  Bank tellers must process transactions quickly and correctly. for tellers are expected to be created by re­ Personnel Division, Washington, DC 20551, or from placement needs—characteristic of occupa­ the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank tions that generally require limited formal ed­ serving each geographic area. ucation and offer relatively low pay. Most tellers State bankers’ associations can furnish spe­ who leave transfer to other occupations. Others cific information about job opportunities in their stop working—primarily to assume household State. Or write directly to a particular bank to duties. inquire about job openings. For the names and Cyclical swings in the economy seem to have addresses of banks and savings and related in­ little immediate effect on bank activities. Con­ stitutions, as well as the names of their prin­ sequently, tellers are generally immune to lay­ cipal officers, consult one of the following di­ offs. rectories. Earnings In 1986, median annual earnings of full-time tellers were $12,000. The lowest 10 percent earned about $8,500, while the top 10 percent earned around $18,700. In general, a greater range of responsibilities results in a higher sal­ ary. However, experience, length of service, and, especially, the location and size of the bank are also important. Related Occupations Tellers combine a knowledge of bank proce­ dures with quickness and accuracy to process money, checks, and other financial items for customers. Other workers with similar duties include new accounts tellers, cashiers, toll col­ lectors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupa­ tions, training opportunities, and the banking industry is available from: American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Center, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601.  Information on careers with the Federal Re­ serve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga.,  McFadden Business Publications). Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk  & Co.). Rand McNally International Bankers Directory (Chi­  cago. Rand McNally & Co.). The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand  McNally & Co.).  Bookkeepers and Accounting Clerks (D.O.T. 209.687-010: 210.362, .367, .382 except -022 and -026; 214.362-018; 216.362 except -018 and -030, .367-010, .382 except -034, -042, -046, -050, -054, -062, and -066, .387, .482-010 and -026, and .587; 219.362-062 and -066, .367-042, .387-018, .487, and .587; and 249.367-038)  Nature of the Work Every organization needs systematic and upto-date records of accounts and business trans­ actions. Bookkeepers and accounting clerks maintain these records in journals and ledgers or on a computer. They also prepare periodic financial statements showing all money re­ ceived and paid out. The specific duties of bookkeepers vary with the size of the estab­ lishment. However, virtually all of these work­ ers use calculating machines, and many work with computers.  In many small operations, a general book­ keeper handles all the bookkeeping—analyz­ ing and recording all financial transactions, such as orders and cash sales. General bookkeepers also check money taken in against money paid out to be sure accounts balance, calculate the firm’s payroll, and make up employees’ pay­ checks. General bookkeepers also prepare and mail customers’ bills and answer telephone re­ quests for information about orders and bills. In large organizations, several bookkeepers and accounting clerks work under the direction of a head bookkeeper or accountant. In these organizations, bookkeeping workers often specialize in certain types of work. Some, for example, prepare statements of a company's income from sales or its daily operating ex­ penses. Others record business transactions, including payroll deductions and bills paid and due, and compute interest, rental, and freight charges. They also may type vouchers, in­ voices, and other financial records. In automated offices, clerks may enter data on accounts receivable and accounts payable into the computer, review computer printouts for accuracy and completeness, and prepare special financial reports. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for book­ keepers and accounting clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Bookkeeping requires sitting for long periods and involves examining detailed nu­ merical information. Workers who operate older bookkeeping machines may be exposed to high noise levels. Newer equipment is relatively quiet, however. Bookkeepers and accounting clerks who spend a lot of time working on video display terminals may encounter problems of eyestrain, musculoskeletal strain, and stress. This type of work lends itself to flexible working arrangements, and 1 of every 4 book­ keepers and accounting clerks works part time. Employment Bookkeepers and accounting clerks held 2.1 million jobs in 1986. Jobs for bookkeepers are found in virtually every industry. Approxi­ mately 3 out of 10 bookkeepers work for a retail or wholesale firm. Large numbers also can be found in schools, hospitals, physicians’ offices, banks, and government agencies. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have taken business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and principles of ac­ counting meet the minimum requirements for most bookkeeping jobs. Increasingly, employ­ ers prefer applicants who have completed ac­ counting programs at the community or junior college level or those who have attended busi­ ness school. The ability to use bookkeeping machines and computers is required by a grow­ ing number of employers. A knowledge of typ­ ing is useful. Training for this occupation is widely avail­ able. Bookkeeping is taught in high schools, community and junior colleges, and business  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/231  Related Occupations Workers in a number of other jobs also must be good at working with figures. Among such workers are bank tellers, billing clerks, col­ lection workers, insurance clerks, and statis­ tical clerks. Sources of Additional Information A brochure describing a career as a bookkeeper or accounting clerk is available upon request from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036.  State employment service offices can pro­ vide information about job openings for book­ keeping workers.  Accuracy is essential in the work of bookkeepers. schools and colleges. Business education pro­ grams typically include courses in bookkeeping and accounting, business arithmetic, office practices, and principles of data processing and computer operation for office workers. Some programs give business students an opportunity to leam on the job through work-study pro­ grams arranged by high schools and local busi­ nesses. Work experience, together with a first­ hand knowledge of office procedures, can help when students look for jobs after graduation. In a few States, bookkeepers and accounting clerks who work on tax returns must be li­ censed. State licensing agencies can provide information on the requirements in your area. Bookkeepers need to be good at working with numbers and concentrating on details. Small mistakes can be very serious in this field, so bookkeepers need to be careful, accurate, and orderly in their work. Because they often work with others, bookkeepers should be co­ operative and able to work as part of a team. Beginning bookkeepers record routine trans­ actions such as accounts receivable or accounts payable. As they gain experience, they advance to more responsible assignments, such as pre­ paring income statements, reconciling ac­ counts, and reviewing computer printouts. Some bookkeepers are promoted to super­ visory jobs. Some highly experienced book­ keepers who get additional training advance to jobs as accountants. Bookkeeping experience provides a good background for college courses in accounting but normally cannot be credited towards a degree in accounting. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of bookkeepers and accounting clerks through the year 2000. Job prospects should be good, nonetheless, in view of the large number of openings that will occur because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. As in most other clerical occupations, there is considerable  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  movement into and out of the labor force due to homemaking responsibilities and relatively low wages. Because the occupation is excep­ tionally large, replacement needs produce many openings each year. The volume of business transactions is ex­ pected to grow rapidly, with a corresponding increase in the need for financial and account­ ing records. However, the need for bookkeep­ ers, who maintain these records, is not ex­ pected to increase because of the rising use of computers to record, store, and manipulate data. The sophisticated software packages that now are available greatly facilitate bookkeeping and accounting work, and permit employers to do much more work with the same number of employees. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time bookkeep­ ers and accounting clerks were about $14,900 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $11,900 and $18,800 a year. Ten percent earned less than $9,600, and 10 percent earned more than $24,200. According to an Administrative Manage­ ment Society survey, entry level accounting clerks averaged $14,300 a year in 1986, while accounting clerks with more responsibility av­ eraged $16,800. Experienced bookkeepers in the private sector earned an average annual salary of about $17,800 in 1986, according to a survey by the Executive Compensation Ser­ vice, Inc., a subsidiary of the Wyatt Company, Fort Lee, New Jersey. Accounting clerks’ salaries vary by industry. They tend to be highest in public utilities and mining and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Salaries vary by region also. Those in the West and Midwest tend to be higher than those in the Northeast and South. In 1987, the Federal Government paid ac­ counting clerks with 2 years of experience or postsecondary education a starting salary of $13,248 a year.  Clerical Supervisors and Managers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See page  425.)  Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective clerical support if they are going to operate efficiently. The responsibility for coordinating this work and keeping it flowing smoothly be­ longs to clerical supervisors and managers. In many firms, they are simply called office man­ agers. Although their specific duties vary by employer, many duties are common to all. Clerical supervisors and managers generally interview prospective clerical employees and make recommendations regarding their hiring. Some may be actively involved in recruiting new workers. Supervisors greet new workers and orient them to the procedures in their sec­ tion. They may give these workers training on the job or see to it that they get the necessary training elsewhere. They instruct workers in the daily routines of the workplace, interpret work rules, and make clear what is expected of them. Planning the work of subordinates is a key function of clerical supervisors and managers. To do this effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of the staff as well as the level of quality required for each job. They must make allowances for unex­ pected absences and other disruptions and ad­ just assignments as circumstances dictate. After allocating work assignments and issuing dead­ lines, clerical supervisors oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meets quality standards. This generally is the most time-consuming task of supervision and may involve direct observation of the various workstations. It also may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer, as in the case of data entry keyers, or, in the case of telephone operators, listening to how they deal with callers. When supervising long-term proj­ ects, the supervisor may establish regular meet­ ings with staff members to discuss their prog­ ress as well as any problems that have arisen.  232/Occupational Outlook Handbook  When problems arise, clerical supervisors need to assess the cause and take steps to cor­ rect them. This may involve in-depth discus­ sions with the workers involved to resolve in­ terpersonal conflicts, meetings with professional or managerial staff to alter the specifications of the project, or arranging special training to increase a worker’s skill level. An integral part of a clerical supervisor’s job is to evaluate the work of subordinates. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor needs to tell the worker. Likewise, if a worker has done a poor job, the supervisor must dis­ cuss this with the employee, determine the cause, and help the worker improve perfor­ mance. Clerical supervisors may recommend promotions or other awards, retentions, trans­ fers, or firings of workers under their super­ vision. Supervisors may be responsible for ensuring that the equipment and machinery' used in their departments is in good working order. If a word processor or other machine breaks down, they must alert the persons responsible for its main­ tenance. They also must keep their superiors informed of the progress of their work and alert them to any real or potential problems. In organizations covered by union contracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labormanagement contracts and run their depart­ ments according to these agreements. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. In addition to supervising others, many cler­ ical supervisors do some clerical work them­ selves. Where appropriate, they may relieve their subordinates to give them a break, as is the case with telephone operators. Working Conditions Clerical supervisors and managers are em­ ployed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in offices that are clean, well lighted, and generally comfortable. The majority work a standard 40-hour week. However, because some workplaces operate around the clock.  clerical supervisors may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. In some cases, su­ pervisors rotate among the three shifts. In oth­ ers, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Due to the need for continuity of supervision, few clerical supervisors and managers work on a temporary or part-time basis. Because supervisors frequently must deal with their subordinates’ problems and short­ comings, the job can be quite stressful. In ad­ dition, supervisors often are caught between the demands of their superiors and those of their subordinates, and this may cause conflict. Employment Clerical supervisors and managers held about 956,000 jobs in 1986. Although jobs for cler­ ical supervisors are found in practically every industry, the largest number are in industries with a large clerical work force, such as gov­ ernment agencies, wholesale trade outlets, banks, business service firms, colleges and uni­ versities, hospitals, and telephone companies. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clerical supervisor is not usually an entry level position. Most people entering this occupation transfer from other occupations, very often from those that they then supervise. Many super­ visors are hired from within the organization; some, however, are recruited from outside. To be considered for a clerical supervisor position, workers must first prove themselves, demonstrating that they have mastered their own work. In evaluating candidates, superiors look for determination, poise, confidence, high motivation, and the ability to follow orders. They also look for supervisory attributes, such as the ability to set priorities, to organize and coordinate work efficiently, and to establish good personal relations with other workers. The ability to pay close attention to detail, as in proofreading, is considered important to en­ sure that errors made by subordinates are caught  and corrected. Employers increasingly view some experience with computers as necessary. Many employers also require some postsec­ ondary training. An associate degree is con­ sidered enough in many cases, but increasingly a bachelor’s degree is preferred. A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occasional supervisory assign­ ments. Shortly before or after assuming full­ time supervisory duties, he or she may be given in-house training or sent to take courses outside the organization, at a local community college or vocational school, for example. Seminars offered by professional associations are another source of outside training. Job Outlook Employment of clerical supervisors and man­ agers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the economy grows, the volume of clerical work to be done will greatly expand. Technological changes affecting clerical work, particularly office automation, are expected to cause employment of clerical supervisors to grow more slowly than the volume of clerical work, however. As employment in some cler­ ical occupations slows or even declines as a result of office automation, fewer supervisors may be needed in some work settings. In ad­ dition, a growing number of clerks wbrk ex­ clusively on computers; this enables some cler­ ical supervisors to monitor the work of their subordinates electronically, thereby increasing their own productivity. Although growth in the demand for clerical supervisors and managers will generate many job openings, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced supervisors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because the occupation is so large, replacement needs will create an exceptionally large number of job openings. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time clerical supervisors were about $22,000 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,800 and $29,500 a year. Ten percent earned less than $13,200, and 10 percent, more than $39,700. As is the case in most fields, large employers tend to pay higher salaries than small ones. In addition, employers in major metropolitan areas tend to pay higher salaries than those in rural areas. Depending on their employer, clerical su­ pervisors may receive a variety of fringe ben­ efits. These may include health and life insur­ ance, paid vacations, and pension plans. Some clerical supervisors in the private sector may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, stock awards, and the use of company cars. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and em­ ployment opportunities in this and other cler­ ical jobs.  Supervisors must be able to motivate their subordinates.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/233  Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators (D.O.T. 208.685-030; 213.362, .382, .582, .682, and .685)  Nature of the Work Since their invention in the 1940’s, computers have become steadily more important in our society. At first used only for military and sci­ entific research, today computers are essential to the operation of stores, banks, colleges and universities, government agencies, hospitals, factories, and many other organizations. Like all machines, the usefulness of computers is dependent upon the skill of the people who run them. The duties of computer and peripheral equip­ ment operators vary with the size of the in­ stallation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. In organizations with small computer systems, for example, com­ puter operators may run both the computer and all the peripheral equipment such as printers, disk drives, and tape readers. In large computer installations, computer operators specialize in console operation while peripheral equipment operators run the related devices. Generally, the duties of computer operators and peripheral equipment operators involve the following tasks. Working from operating instructions pre­ pared by programmers or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the com­ puter and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators or, in large installations, peripheral equipment operators load the equipment with tapes, disks, and paper as needed. While the computer is running— which may be 24 hours a day for large com­ puters—computer operators monitor the com­ puter console and respond to operating and computer messages. If an error message oc­ curs, operators must locate the problem and solve it or terminate the program. Peripheral equipment operators may have to prepare printouts and other output for distri­ bution to computer users. Operators also main­ tain log books listing events such as machine malfunctions that occurred during their shift. In addition, computer operators may supervise and train peripheral equipment operators and computer operator trainees. They also may help programmers and systems analysts test and de­ bug new programs. (Detailed descriptions of these occupations are presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Computer operating personnel work in welllighted, well-ventilated, and generally com­ fortable rooms. When the equipment is oper­ ating, however, the computer room can be noisy. Computer and peripheral equipment op­ erators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends because many or­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  VAX n/780  Many large computer installations operate around the clock. ganizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Employment In 1986, computer operators and peripheral equipment operators held about 263,000 and 46,000 jobs, respectively. Although some jobs for computer and peripheral equipment oper­ ators are found in almost every industry, most are in data processing service firms; wholesale trade establishments; banks; government agen­ cies; insurance companies; accounting, audit­ ing, and bookkeeping service firms; colleges and universities; and hospitals. These organi­ zations have data processing needs that require large computer installations. About 1 out of 10 computer and peripheral equipment operators works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many firms, clerical workers such as sec­ retaries, typists, bookkeeping clerks, and com­ puter tape librarians may be transferred to jobs as peripheral equipment or computer operators and trained on the job. Employers who recruit from outside their firms look for workers who already have experience or training in operating the brand and type of equipment they use. Many high schools, public and private vocational schools, business schools, and community col­ leges offer training in computer operations.  The military services also offer training, as do some computer manufacturers. Employers usually require a high school ed­ ucation, and many prefer computer operators with some trade school or junior college train­ ing in data processing. Employers who select operators from within their organization may pay for training at such schools. Many em­ ployers test applicants to determine their ap­ titude for computer work. Workers usually receive some on-the-job training to become acquainted with their em­ ployer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the expe­ rience of the worker. New peripheral equip­ ment operators are expected to learn their jobs in a few weeks. New computer operators, how­ ever, may require several months of training because they must become sufficiently familiar with the computer equipment to handle all problems. Operators with prior experience or training are expected to learn their employer’s system within a few weeks. Because computer technology changes of­ ten, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. Computer and peripheral equipment operators must be able to communicate well in order to work effectively with programmers and each other. Computer operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no supervision on evening, night, or weekend shifts. A few computer operators may advance to  234/Occupational Outlook Handbook  supervisory jobs. Peripheral equipment oper­ ators may become computer operators. Through on-the-job experience and additional training, some computer and peripheral equipment op­ erators advance to jobs as programmers. Job Outlook Employment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is expected to rise much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and the cost of computer equipment while at the same time increasing their capacity for data storage and processing. These im­ provements in technology have fueled an ex­ pansion in the use of computers in such areas as factory and office automation, telecom­ munications, medicine, and education. As computer usage grows, so will the need for computer operators and peripheral equipment operators. Because computer and peripheral equipment operators work mainly with large computer systems—the part of the overall computer market that has slowed down—em­ ployment of operators is not expected to rise as rapidly as in previous years. As the trend toward networking—making connections between computers—accelerates, a growing number of these workers can be expected to operate minicomputers. More and more establishments are realizing the need to connect all their computers in order to enhance productivity. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, minicomputers will serve as the center of such networks, often referred to as local area networks or multi-user systems. While some of these minicomputers will be operated by other workers in the area, many will require the services of full-time operators. In addition to jobs resulting from growth in demand for operators, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings In 1986, full-time computer operators earned an average annual salary of $16,500. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $12,800 and $21,800. The lowest 10 percent of computer operators earned less than $10,100, and the top 10 percent earned more than $29,000. In the Federal Government, computer op­ erators without work experience started at about $12,500 a year in 1987. The average annual salary for all computer operators in the Federal Government was about $18,000 in 1986. Computer operators and peripheral equip­ ment operators had higher earnings in the North and West than in the South. Operators em­ ployed in manufacturing, transportation and public utilities, and wholesale trade had higher earnings than those employed in retail trade, banking, insurance, and services. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with com­ puters include systems analysts, programmers, and computer service technicians. Other oc­ cupations in which workers operate electronic  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  office equipment include data entry keyers, secretaries, typists, and printing typesetters and compositors. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about work oppor­ tunities in computer operations, contact firms that use computers such as banks, manufac­ turing and insurance firms, colleges and uni­ versities, and data processing service organi­ zations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employ­ ment and training opportunities.  Data Entry Keyers (D.O.T. 203.582-022, -026, -030, -054. and -070)  Nature of the Work Vast amounts of data stored and processed by modem computer systems must be updated al­ most continuously. Each time an individual writes a check, for example, the amount must be entered into the bank's computer, so the correct charge can be made to his or her ac­ count. Getting data from checks, bills, in­ voices, and other documents into the computer system is the work of data entry keyers. The main function of the data entry keyer is to type data from documents quickly and accurately. This is done with a variety of type­ writer-like equipment. Many keyers use a ma­ chine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. The information is then read into the computer from the tape or disk. Some keyers operate on-line terminals of the main computer system that transmit and receive data. Although brands and models of computer terminals and data entry equipment differ somewhat, their operation and keyboards are similar. Some keyers working from terminals use data from the computer to produce business, scientific, and technical reports. In some of­ fices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Data entry keyers usually work in offices that are clean, well lighted, and generally com­ fortable. However, they must sit for long pe­ riods and may be subjected to high noise levels. Keyers often work with video display terminals and may experience stress and eyestrain as a result. Increasingly, studies are focusing on the risk of miscarriage, birth defects, and other pregnancy complications that may be experi­ enced by women who use VDT’s extensively. Data entry lends itself to flexible working arrangements; many data entry keyers have part­ time schedules with their employer and others take short-term jobs through temporary help agencies. Employment Data entry keyers held about 400,000 jobs in 1986. Although jobs for data entry keyers are  found in almost every industry, about twothirds of all workers are in data processing service firms, government agencies, banks, wholesale trade establishments, insurance firms, temporary help agencies, hospitals, colleges and universities, and bookkeeping firms. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually require a high school ed­ ucation and the ability to key data at a certain speed. Applicants often are tested for speed and accuracy. Some employers prefer appli­ cants with experience or training in the oper­ ation of data entry equipment. In some firms, other clerical workers such as tabulating and bookkeeping machine operators may be trans­ ferred to jobs as data entry keyers. Training in the use of data entry and similar keyboard equipment is available in high schools and pri­ vate business schools. Data entry keyers should be able to work under close supervision and pay attention to detail. They also must feel comfortable doing repetitive work. Advancement opportunities for data entry keyers are limited. However, promotion to a supervisory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often including community or junior college study, a few data entry keyers advance to jobs as computer or peripheral equipment operators. Job Outlook Employment of data entry keyers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Despite this decline, many openings, including part-time ones, will occur each year due to the need to replace workers who transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. The amount of data that must be entered into computer systems is tremendous and growing. However, improvements to data processing technology and systems will enable organi­ zations to handle the growing volume of data with fewer data entry keyers. The use of on­ line processing that enables departments within an organization to enter data from remote ter­ minals is an example of such an improvement. Another is the use of recognition technologies such as bar code scanners now used in many food stores. Optical character readers—ma­ chines that can scan data in the form of letters and numbers and enter it into a computer—are being used in more and more workplaces. Increasingly, data are being captured at the point of origin and entered into the system without human intervention. Such is the case in the banking industry with automatic teller machines. In addition, as more companies buy computers and communication among com­ puters becomes easier through standardization, data increasingly will need to be entered only once. After that, it can simply be sent from one computer to another, without the need for a data entry keyer to reenter it. Perhaps the most important new technology is voice rec­ ognition systems, which allow data to be en­ tered directly just by speaking to the computer. While it is uncertain just when, or if, this tech-  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/235  Sources of Additional Information For further information about job opportunities in data entry, contact firms that use computers such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and universities, and data pro­ cessing service organizations. The local office of the State employment service is another source of information about employment and training opportunities.  File Clerks (D.O.T. 206.362-010, .367-014, and .387)  Data entry work is repetitive. nology will be fully implemented throughout the economy, it has the potential to dramati­ cally reduce the demand for data entry keyers. With the proliferation of personal computers throughout the economy, a growing proportion of data is being entered by workers other than data entry keyers. For example, more and more traveling salespersons use portable, lap-top computers to enter their orders; previously, such orders were entered by data entry keyers in the central office. As improvements to communications sys­ tems allow data to be transmitted great dis­ tances at relatively low cost, more firms may choose to locate data entry facilities out of the country in areas where wage rates are lower. If this occurs, the demand for data entry keyers could decline even more sharply. Earnings In 1986, median annual earnings of full-time data entry keyers were $14,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $11,600 and $18,300. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $9,700, while the top 10 percent earned more than $23,100 a year. Average annual earnings of data entry keyers in private industry ranged from $13,600 to $16,600 in 1986. Keyers in the transportation and utilities industries and manufacturing had higher average earnings than those in trade and the financial and service industries. Keyers in the West and Midwest had higher average earn­ ings than those in the Northeast and South. In the Federal Government, data entry key­ ers without work experience started at about $10,800 a year in 1987. Average salaries for all data entry keyers in the Federal Government were about $13,400 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers key in information on electronic office equipment in­ clude secretaries, typists, receptionists, and typesetters and compositors.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nature of the Work An orderly file system is often the key to an efficient organization. In most offices, records are arranged so that information can be located quickly. This need creates many job oppor­ tunities for file clerks, who keep records ac­ curate, up to date, and properly placed. File clerks classify, store, update, and re­ trieve office information on request. To do this, they examine incoming material and file it ac­ cording to a numerical system, by letter of the alphabet, or by subject matter. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and turn them over to the borrower. If necessary, they make copies of records and distribute them. They keep track of materials removed from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. Records must be current to be useful. File clerks ensure that new information is added to existing files shortly after it is received. In addition, from time to time, file clerks may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are cor­ rectly placed. Whenever data cannot be lo­ cated, the file clerk searches for the missing records. As an organization’s needs for infor­ mation change, file clerks modify old filing systems or establish new ones. There are many different types of filing sys­ tems in use. Most file clerks still place paper files in file cabinets. Some clerks operate mech­ anized files that rotate to bring the needed rec­ ords to them. Others retrieve documents stored on microform (microfilm or microfiche) and place them in viewers for display. A small number of file clerks use optical disks as a storage medium. A growing number of file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems. In these, information on the location of docu­ ments is stored on a computer. To retrieve a document, the clerk enters the document’s identification code, obtains the location, and retrieves the document. The document may be a sheet of paper stored in a drawer in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the first example, the clerk manually retrieves the doc­ ument and gives it to the borrower. In the latter example, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader for the re­ quester to use.  In small offices, file clerks often type, sort mail, or operate copying machines in addition to their regular duties. Those who work with automated filing systems may code, index, and put all incoming documents on microfilm or microfiche. Working Conditions Most file clerks work in clean, well-lighted offices, right alongside the organization’s other clerical workers. If the organization has a cen­ tral filing room, however, these workers may be separated from other departments. Although they do not do a lot of heavy lifting, file clerks must frequently stoop, bend, and reach. Those who spend a lot of time using video display terminals may experience eyestrain and mus­ culoskeletal pain. Employment There were about 242,000 file clerk jobs in 1986. In addition, many other clerical workers performed some filing tasks in connection with their work. While file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, about 4 out of 5 file clerks are employed in services; finance, insurance, and real estate; and gov­ ernment. About 1 out of 3 file clerks works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for be­ ginning file clerk positions. Generally, they seek applicants who can type and do accurate paperwork. Many employers prefer applicants who have some knowledge of office practices as well. High schools, community and junior col­ leges, and business schools teach these and other skills. Business education programs typ­ ically include courses in typing, shorthand, clerk-typist skills, records management, and office practices and procedures. Many pro­ grams have work-study arrangements that per­ mit students to earn school credits while they gain experience in an office job. Because file clerks generally hold entry level positions, some employers consider an appli­ cant’s willingness to work and learn more im­ portant than any special training or education. File clerk training usually is on the job; it al­ most always is necessary because each organ­ ization has its own filing system and office procedures. In organizations that have tradi­ tional filing procedures, the clerk can learn the job in a short while. Learning to operate me­ chanical or computerized filing systems usually takes more time. If more than filing is involved, several months of on-the-job training may be needed. File clerks must read accurately and rapidly, spell well, and like detailed work. Most file clerks also must be able to type. They should be neat, able to work as part of a team, and not be easily bored by repetitive tasks. With experience, workers can advance to more difficult filing duties and to jobs super­ vising other file clerks. In addition, after more  236/Occupational Outlook Handbook  f.- p,;.*;  Although a growing number of file clerks use computerized filing systems, most still work with paper files.  training, they may be promoted to jobs as typ­ ists, receptionists, or office machine operators. Job Outlook Employment of file clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000 as employers in­ creasingly automate their recordkeeping sys­ tems. Many openings, nevertheless, will occur to replace workers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Recordkeeping requirements arc expected to rise in conjunction with a general increase in population and economic activity. However, the rise in the volume of records should be largely offset by the greater use of automated systems that enable file clerks to become more productive. The spread of personal computers to professionals and managers also will relieve file clerks of some work. Business firms are increasingly expected to use temporary workers to reduce costs and to be more flexible. A large proportion of all new jobs will occur in personnel supply firms that provide organizations with temporary workers. Other industries where the demand for file clerk services will be strong include offices of phy­ sicians, dentists, and other health profession­ als, legal services, and computer and data pro­ cessing services. Jobseekers who have typing and other sec­ retarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines—especially personal com­ puters—should have better opportunities than less experienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part­ time work, especially during peak business pe­ riods. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time file clerks were about $12,400 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $9,900 and $16,300 a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  year. Ten percent earned less than $8,100, and 10 percent, more than $21,100. Beginning file clerks in private industry earned an average annual salary of $10,300 in 1986. File clerks with greater responsibilities earned higher salaries, up to an average of $15,600 a year. Salaries of file clerks vary by industry. They tend to be highest in public utilities and lowest in construction and finance, insurance, and real estate. In 1987. the Federal Government paid file clerks starting salaries of $10,816 a year if they were high school graduates or had 6 months of clerical work experience. In 1986, file clerks in the Federal Government earned an average annual salary of $14,300. Related Occupations Among other workers who sort, store, and re­ trieve documents and other materials are gen­ eral office clerks, mail handlers, property clerks, medical record clerks, routing clerks, collators, and sorters. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for file clerks.  General Office Clerks (D.O.T. 209.362-030, .562-010. and .567-022, 219.362­ 010, -022, and -026, 243.362-014, 245.362-014, .367­ 010, -014, and -018, 249.367-010 and -014, 375.362­ 010, and 579.137-030)  Nature of the Work Many clerical tasks must be performed in order to keep a modem office running smoothly. While most clerical workers specialize in one specific task, such as typing or filing, some do a variety of duties without concentrating in any  particular area. These workers, called general office clerks, perform many different tasks in support of general office, business, or admin­ istrative operations. Work assignments of general office clerks are set in accordance with the needs of the employer. Therefore, variety is the key. Some days may be spent filing or typing; others may be spent entering data at a computer terminal. General office clerks also may operate pho­ tocopiers, calculators, or other office equip­ ment, as well as answer telephones and deliver messages. Experienced workers may handle more de­ manding tasks. These could include maintain­ ing financial or other records, verifying statis­ tical reports for accuracy and completeness, and handling and adjusting customer com­ plaints. Other duties could include taking in­ ventory of equipment and supplies, answering questions on departmental services and func­ tions, and helping prepare budgetary requests. In addition, senior general office clerks may be expected to oversee and direct the work of lower level clerks. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for gen­ eral office clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Those on a full-time schedule usually work a standard 40-hour week. Nevertheless, 1 in 4 works part time. In addition, a significant number of gen­ eral office clerks work as temporaries. Employment General office clerks held about 2.4 million jobs in 1986. They work in every sector of the economy and are fairly evenly distributed among industries, private and public alike. Their dis­ tribution by geographic region is very similar to that of the labor force in general. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many general office clerk jobs are entry level and do not require office or business experi­ ence. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, word pro­ cessing, and other general office skills. Training for this occupation is widely avail­ able. Business education programs are offered in high schools, community and junior col­ leges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses on office practices are particularly helpful. General office clerks usually work with oth­ ers. Therefore, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Some general office clerks are promoted to supervisory positions. Others move into dif­ ferent clerical jobs, such as receptionist, typist, or secretary. To transfer to professional oc­ cupations usually requires more formal edu­ cation, such as a college degree. Job Outlook Employment of general office clerks is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In ad-  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/237  Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time general office clerks were about $14,700 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $ 11,500 and $19,800 annually. Ten percent earned less than $9,200, and 10 percent, more than $25,800. Beginning general office clerks in private firms averaged $10,500 a year in 1986. Clerks with more responsibilities earned higher sal­ aries, up to an average of $19,300 a year. General office clerks’ salaries vary by in­ dustry. They tend to be highest in public util­ ities and mining and lowest in construction and finance, insurance, and real estate. In 1987, the Federal Government paid gen­ eral office clerks a starting salary of $10,816 a year if they were high school graduates or had 6 months of clerical work experience. In 1986, general office clerks in the Federal Gov­ ernment earned an average annual salary of about $14,500.  Clerks have ample opportunities for part­ time and temporary work.  dition to jobs created by growth in demand for these workers, higher than average turnover in this very large occupation will create several hundred thousand additional openings each year to replace those who transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. As more and more offices arc automated, managers are recognizing that flexibility of their work force is necessary to increase efficiency, and a growing number of employers are show­ ing a preference for office generalists. Rather than specializing in a single task, such as word processing or data entry, an increasing number of clerical workers are being given a broad range of office responsibilities. General office clerks are well suited to this environment be­ cause they can be deployed to different tasks as the need arises. As manufacturers make their office equipment simpler to use, general office clerks can be expected to do an even greater variety of tasks. In many small businesses, a single office worker—frequently a general office clerk—is in charge of all the clerical work. The healthy growth in the number of small businesses an­ ticipated through the year 2000 should stim­ ulate demand for general office clerks. Because they are clerical “jacks-of-alltrades,” general office clerks find work in vir­ tually every kind of industry. Therefore, em­ ployment is not dependent on the fortunes of any single industry. Similarly, because they perform a wide variety of office duties using many types of equipment, their employment is not dependent on any particular technology. Due to the large number of expected open­ ings, job prospects should be quite favorable. Jobseekers who have typing and other secre­ tarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines should have the best op­ portunities. General office clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Related Occupations Other workers who perform a variety of clerical tasks to keep offices functioning smoothly in­ clude office helpers, messengers, mail clerks, file clerks, and real estate clerks. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for general of­ fice clerks.  Insurance Claims and Policy Processing Occupations (D.O.T. 168.267-014; 203.382-014; 205.367-018; 209.687-018; 219.362-042, D050, .482-014; and 241.217, .267-018, and .362)  Nature of the Work Rapid and fair settlement of all claims is es­ sential to any insurance company if it is to meet its commitments to policyholders and protect its financial vitality. To achieve these goals, insurance companies rely upon several kinds of workers—claim representatives (in­ cluding adjusters, examiners, and investiga­ tors) and insurance processing clerks (includ­ ing claim clerks and policy processing clerks). Claim representatives. Claim representa­ tives investigate claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize payments to claimants. When a policyholder files a claim for damage or a loss, the claim adjuster must determine whether the policy covers it and the amount of the loss. To expedite processing, minor claims filed by au­ tomobile or homeowner policyholders are usu­ ally handled by “inside adjusters” or “telephone adjusters.” They contact claimants by tele­ phone or mail to get information on repair costs, medical expenses, or other records needed by  the company. Many companies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases are referred to a “claim adjuster” or “outside adjuster.” Claim adjusters plan and schedule the work required to process a claim. Claim adjusters investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, con­ sulting police and hospital records, and in­ specting property damage to determine the ex­ tent of the company’s liability. They keep written or taped records of information ob­ tained from witnesses and prepare reports of their findings. When the company is liable, they negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. Material damage adjusters inspect automo­ bile damage and use the latest computerized estimating equipment to prepare estimates of the damage. Some adjusters work with all lines of in­ surance. Others specialize in claims associated with fire damage, marine loss, automotive damage, product liability, or workers' com­ pensation. Claim adjusters sometimes testify in court on contested claims. In life and health insurance companies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner, who investigates questionable claims or those exceeding a designated amount. Ex­ aminers may check claim applications for com­ pleteness and accuracy, interview medical spe­ cialists, consult policy files to verify information on a claim, or calculate benefit payments. Claim examiners may also travel to obtain informa­ tion by personal interview or to contact State insurance departments. Generally, examiners are authorized to in­ vestigate and approve payments on all claims up to a certain limit; larger claims arc referred to a senior examiner. In addition to verifying claims and approving payments, examiners also maintain records of settled claims and prepare reports to be submitted to their company’s data processing department. Claim representatives are making greater use of computers to keep records of clients and actions taken in various claims. Insurance processing clerks. Policy pro­ cessing clerks process new policies, modifi­ cations to existing policies, and claims. They also review insurance applications to ensure that all the questions are answered. After an application has been reviewed by underwriters and a company determines that it will issue a policy, policy processing clerks—using word processors—compile the necessary forms. They also correspond with insurance sales agents to inform them of the status of the application being processed and to encourage prompt de­ livery to policyholders. Policy processing clerks also make adjustments to existing policies— such as a change in beneficiary, amount of coverage, or type of insurance—and recalcu­ late premiums. Policy processing clerks also work on policies that are to be reinstated or cancelled. A file for each policyholder is pre­ pared and maintained with changes in coverage  238/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Insurance claim representatives settle claims when a policyholder suffers a loss.  recorded to ensure an up-to-date record. They mail correspondence notices regarding changes to the sales agent and policyholder. Claim clerks (many are designated as claim interviewers) obtain information from policy­ holders regarding claims. They prepare reports and review insurance claim forms and related documents for completeness. They call or write insured or other involved persons for missing information and update claim files. Claim clerks may transmit routine claims for payment or advise the claim supervisor if further investi­ gation is indicated.  Working Conditions Claim representatives may work inside or out­ side, depending on their particular job. Most claim examiners and some claim adjusters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac­ tivity. They typically work a normal 5-day, 40-hour week. Claim examiners may work longer hours at times of peak loads or when quarterly and annual statements are prepared. They also may travel occasionally. Material damage adjusters work at local claim centers. However, many claim adjusters work outside the office, traveling and inspecting damaged property. Occasionally, an experi­ enced adjuster may travel to the scene of a disaster such as a tornado or a flood to work with local adjusters and government officials. Some cases may require travel outside the United States. Some adjusters may be on “emergency call” duty from time to time. Ad­ justers generally have some flexibility in their work schedules to accommodate evening and weekend appointments. Much of the work of insurance processing clerks is routine and requires remaining at work stations for extended periods of time. Since most companies provide 24-hour claim service to their policyholders, some claim clerks work evenings and weekends. Many claim clerks work part time.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Insurance claims and policy processing work­ ers held about 388,000 jobs in 1986. This in­ cluded about 119,000 claim adjusters, exam­ iners, and investigators; 34,000 property and casualty insurance claim examiners; 151,000 policy processing clerks; and 85,000 claim clerks. Nearly 9 out of 10 worked for property, liability, life, health, and other insurance com­ panies while more than 1 out of 10 worked for the Federal Government. Some claim adjusters are employed by in­ dependent adjusting firms that contract out their services for a fee. A relatively small number of adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance company. These “public adjus­ ters” are retained by individuals, government agencies, banks, financial organizations, and business firms to negotiate their claims against insurance companies for losses due to fire and other causes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most companies prefer to hire college gradu­ ates for claim representative positions. Persons may be hired without college training, partic­ ularly if they have specialized experience. For example, persons experienced in automobile repair may qualify as automobile adjusters, and those with clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is rec­ ommended as the best preparation. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other busi­ ness subjects are helpful, a major in almost any field is adequate preparation. Knowledge of computer science is increasingly important. An adjuster who has a business or an account­ ing background might specialize in financial loss due to strikes, breakdowns in equipment, or damage to merchandise. College training in engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims. A legal background is most helpful to those handling workers’ compensation and  product liability cases. Claim representatives at some companies are required to pass a bat­ tery of written aptitude tests designed to mea­ sure communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. Knowledge of automobile body shop and mechanical applications is helpful to a pro­ spective material damage adjuster. Material damage adjusters are taught automobile body construction, analysis of collision data, and repair cost estimation, including the use of the latest computerized estimating equipment. They also learn how to deal with customers. Most large insurance companies provide onthe-job training and home study courses to be­ ginning claim adjusters and examiners. Work­ ers at smaller firms may receive their training through courses offered by the Insurance In­ stitute of America, a nonprofit organization offering educational programs and professional certification to persons in the property-liability insurance industry. The Insurance Institute of America offers an Associate in Claims (AIC) designation upon successful completion of six examinations. Adjusters can prepare for these examinations by independent home study or through company or public classes. The College of Insurance in New York City offers a variety of courses to persons interested in careers in the insurance industry, including a program leading to a professional certificate in insurance adjusting. The International Claim Association (ICA) offers a program on life and health insurance claims administration. Completion of the fiveexamination program leads to the professional designation, Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC). The Life Office Management Association (LOMA) offers a comprehensive ten-course life and health insurance educational program that leads to the professional designation. Fellow, Life Management Institute (FLMI). LOMA also offers the Master Fellow Program (FLMI/M) that is designed specifically to meet the con­ tinuing education needs of life and health in­ surance professionals. Students can prepare for LOMA exams through independent home study or through insurance company or FLMI Society classes. Most States require adjusters to be licensed. Applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following; Pass a written exami­ nation covering the fundamentals of adjusting; complete an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; furnish character references; be at least 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claim­ ants, witnesses, and other insurance profes­ sionals, claim representatives must be able to communicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of others. Examiners must un­ derstand Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Both adjusters and examiners should have a good memory and enjoy working with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an ex­ perienced worker. As they learn more about  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/239  claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Train­ ees are promoted as they demonstrate com­ petence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Because of the complexity of insurance regulations and claims procedures, workers who lack formal academic training may advance more slowly. Employees who show competence in claims work or ad­ ministrative skills may be promoted to de­ partment supervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home office. High school graduation is considered ade­ quate preparation for most insurance process­ ing clerk positions. Most clerks have at least a high school education. Courses in typing, business arithmetic, and office machine op­ eration are desirable. Applicants may be given aptitude tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately. File clerk is generally the entry level position for most clerks. However, clerks can enter at different levels depending on their experience. Some insurance processing clerks may be pro­ moted to a clerical supervisory position. Ad­ vancement to a claim representative or an un­ derwriting technician position is possible for those clerks who demonstrate potential, have had college training, or have taken specialized courses in insurance. Many companies offer home study courses that allow their employees to gain the necessary knowledge to advance. Job Outlook Overall, employment of insurance claims and policy processing workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire or transfer to other jobs. Employment of claim representatives is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations as the increasing volume of in­ surance sales results in more insurance claims. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family respon­ sibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, and protec­ tion for homes, automobiles, and other pos­ sessions. A growing demand for insurance cov­ erage for working women is also expected. New or expanding businesses will need pro­ tection for new plants and equipment and for insurance covering their employees’ health and safety. Opportunities should be particularly good for claim representatives who specialize in complex business insurance such as marine cargo, workers’ compensation, and product and pollution liability insurance. Little or no change is expected in the em­ ployment of insurance processing clerks due to the greater use of word processors, com­ puters, and other office automation. Employ­ ment of policy processing clerks will be more adversely affected by this trend than employ­ ment of claim clerks. Since turnover among insurance processing clerks is relatively high, however, many job openings are expected to result from replacement needs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The number of job openings for insurance claims and policy processing workers should not fluctuate greatly from year to year. The insurance industry is less sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy than most industries. Earnings According to a survey of property and liability insurance companies, inside adjusters earned a median salary of $19,200 a year in 1986; senior inside adjusters, $21,500; outside ad­ justers, $22,500; and senior outside adjusters, $29,000. Adjusters are also furnished a com­ pany car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Claim exam­ iners earned a median annual salary of $29,100 in 1986; claim supervisors, $32,300; and claim managers, $41,300. Information on earnings of policy processing clerks and claim clerks is not available. How­ ever, median annual earnings for records clerks, a category which includes policy processing clerks, were $15,600 in 1986. Interviewers, whose work is similar to that of claim clerks, had median annual earnings of $14,300. Related Occupations The work of claim representatives is related to that of automobile damage appraisers, contract administrators, contractors, lease buyers, and other workers who negotiate contracts and in­ vestigate claims for companies and individuals. The work of insurance processing clerks is related to that of other workers who compile, review, or maintain records, including coding, contract, auditing, and reservation clerks and title searchers. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers as a claim representative or an insurance processing clerk is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities in these occupations may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038.  Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the de­ partment of insurance in each State. For more information on claim representa­ tives, contact: Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173.  For information about public insurance ad­ justing, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 300 Water St., Baltimore, MD 21202.  Career information on life insurance ex­ amining clerks is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1001 Penn­ sylvania Ave. NW., Washington. DC 20004.  Information on the Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC) and the Fellow, Life Man­ agement Institute (FLMI) designations can be obtained from: Life Office Management Association, 5770 Powers Ferry Rd., Atlanta, GA 30327.  Postal Clerks and Mail Carriers (D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367­ 018; and 243.367-014)  Nature of the Work Each day, the United States Postal Service re­ ceives, sorts, and delivers millions of letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this, it employs about 748,000 workers. About fourfifths of these are postal clerks and mail car­ riers . Postal clerks work at local post offices or at large central mail processing facilities. Those at local post offices sort local mail for delivery to individual customers and provide retail ser­ vices such as selling stamps and money orders, weighing packages to determine postage, and checking that packages are in satisfactory con­ dition for mailing. Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing re­ strictions, and other postal matters. Occasion­ ally, they may help a customer file a claim for a damaged package. Local postal offices for­ ward mail from local collection boxes to the nearest mail processing center, where other clerks sort and prepare the mail for delivery. About 515 mail processing centers through­ out the country service post offices in sur­ rounding areas. Some clerks, more commonly referred to as mail handlers, unload the sacks of incoming mail and separate letters, parcel post, magazines, and newspapers. Letters are put through stamp-canceling machines, and taken to other workrooms to be sorted accord­ ing to destination. Clerks operating electronic letter-sorting machines push keys correspond­ ing to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered; the machine then drops the letters into the proper slots. Some clerks operate optical character readers (OCR’s) and bar code sorters, machines that can "read” the address and sort a letter ac­ cording to a code printed on the envelope. Others sort odd-sized letters, magazines, and newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to local post offices for sorting according to delivery route and for delivery. Most mail carriers travel planned routes de­ livering and collecting mail. They start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. Carriers may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some areas, they use a ear or small truck. Residential carriers cover their routes only once a day, but some carriers as­ signed to a business district may make two trips a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings, such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, car­ riers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d.  240/Occupational Outlook Handbook  (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed re­ ceipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and businesses. They turn in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels for further processing by clerks. The duties of some city carriers may be very specialized; some deliver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and re­ ceiving boxes in office buildings. In contrast, rural carriers provide a wide variety of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept parcels, letters, and items to be registered, certified, or insured. All carriers answer customers' questions about postal regulations and services and pro­ vide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. In addition to their reg­ ularly scheduled duties, carriers often partic­ ipate in neighborhood service programs in which they check on elderly or shut-in patrons or notify the police of any suspicious activities along their route. ■ The Postal Service recently implemented an employee involvement program. Open to members of the three participating unions, the National Association of Letter Carriers, the National Rural Letter Carriers Association, and the Mail Handlers Union, the aim of the pro­ gram is to bring together workers and managers to address problems and improve conditions in the workplace. Teams of workers and man­ agers meet to discuss and try to resolve the problems of the work unit. Through these pro­ grams, employees can increase their partici­ pation in the decisionmaking process while im­ proving their work environment. Working Conditions Postal clerks usually work in clean, well-ven­ tilated, and well-lit buildings. However, other conditions vary according to work assignments and the type of laborsaving machinery avail­ able. In small post offices, handtrucks are used to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another and mail may be sorted by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done by machines. When not operating a letter-sorting machine, clerks usually are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail. Many work at night or on weekends because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Window clerks, on the other hand, have a greater variety of duties, frequent contact with the public, and rarely have to work at night. However, they may have to deal with irate customers, and they are held accountable for  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the assigned stock of stamps and for postal funds. Most carriers begin work early in the morn­ ing, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. A carrier’s schedule has its advantages, however: Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon, and they spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers always must be cautious of potential hazards on their routes. Wet roads and side­ walks can be treacherous, and each year nu­ merous carriers are bitten by unfriendly dogs. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 370,000 postal clerks and mailhandlers and 269,000 mail carriers in 1986. Three-fourths of them worked full time. Most postal clerks worked at mail processing centers, although some pro­ vided window service and sorted mail at local post offices. Although most mail carriers worked in cities and suburban communities, 36,000 were rural carriers. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks and mail carriers must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent res­ ident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have a high school diploma). Qualification is based on a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and ability to memorize mail distri­ bution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination as well, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for jobs as postal clerks operating electronic sorting machines must pass a special examination that includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license, a good driving record, and a passing grade on a road test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work in order to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged vet­ eran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a va­ cancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses 1 of the top 3 applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years from the examination date. Relatively few people under the age of 25 are hired as career mail carriers or postal clerks, a result of keen competition for these jobs and the customary waiting period of 1-2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not  surprising, therefore, that most entrants trans­ fer from other occupations. Postal clerks and mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are not career employees, but are hired to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers are career employees who do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours; they replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of less than 40 hours per week. Full-time postal employees work a 40hour week over a 5-day period. New postal clerks are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruction. Clerks receive additional instruction when new equip­ ment is introduced. They usually are trained by another postal employee or, sometimes, a training specialist hired under contract by the Postal Service. A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are im­ portant. Distribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch transportation dead­ lines. Window clerks must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving com­ plaints. New mail carriers also are trained on the job. Carrier training includes instruction on the delivery route, sorting procedures, avoiding injury, and other pertinent information. Some localities sponsor training academies where, through classroom instruction, new carriers learn skills and experienced carriers receive training to improve their skills. Physical stamina is required because mail carriers spend much of their time on their feet and usually lift or carry heavy sacks of mail. In addition, they should enjoy frequent public contact because they often answer questions and provide other postal services to the patrons on their route. Postal clerks and mail carriers often begin on a part-time flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority as vacancies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window service technician. Carriers can look forward to obtaining pre­ ferred routes as their seniority increases, or to higher level jobs such as carrier technician. Both clerks and carriers can advance to su­ pervisory positions. Job Outlook Those seeking a job in the Postal Service can expect to encounter keen competition—the number of applicants for mail carrier and postal clerk positions is expected to continue to far exceed the number of openings. Job oppor­ tunities will vary by occupation and duties per­ formed.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/241  Overall employment of postal clerks is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In spite of the anticipated increase in the total volume of mail, automation will continue to raise postal clerks’ productivity. Postal clerks who sort the mail will be affected most. Au­ tomation in the Postal Service encompasses such things as the further implementation of computer forwarding, presorting programs, and the “ZIP + 4” routing program, as well as the installation of optical character readers, bar code sorters, and flat-sorting machines. These and other technological advances have already eliminated thousands of postal jobs. Demand will be stronger for postal clerks who work at post office windows, although their productiv­ ity should increase as more electronic scales and computerized terminals are installed for their use. Conflicting factors also will influence the employment of mail carriers. Despite com­ petition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication, the volume of mail handled by the Postal Service is expected to continue to grow. Population growth and the formation of new households, coupled with an increase in third class mail, will stimulate demand for mail delivery. How­ ever, increased use of the “ZIP + 4” system, which can be used to sort mail to the carrier route, should decrease the amount of time car­ riers spend sorting their mail. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more cen­ tralized mail delivery, such as the use of more cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. These trends are ex­ pected to offset somewhat the growth in mail volume, and employment of mail carriers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. In addition to new jobs created, some jobs will be available because of the need to replace postal clerks and mail carriers who retire or stop working for other reasons. The factors that make entry to these occupations highly competitive— attractive salaries, a good pension plan, steady work, and modest educational requirements— contribute to a high degree of job attachment, so that replacement needs produce fewer job openings than in most other occupations. In contrast to the typical pattern, postal workers generally remain in their jobs until they retire; relatively few transfer to other occupations. Although the volume of mail to be processed and delivered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time postal clerks and mail car­ riers have, to date, never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time clerks and car­ riers work overtime, part-time clerks and car­ riers work additional hours, and casual clerks and carriers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are dis­ charged. Earnings In late 1986, base pay for beginning full-time carriers and postal clerks was $20,100 a year,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  I  I  >»*■'* *■*'J  v' *  Many postal clerks must work nights and weekends.  rising to a maximum of $27,100 after 10!/2 years of service. For those working between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m, a 10-percent supplement is paid. Experienced, full-time, city delivery mail carriers earn an average salary of $25,900 a year, about one and one-half times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in pri­ vate industry, except farming. Postal clerks and carriers working part-time flexible schedules begin at $10 an hour and, based on the number of years of service, increase to $13.49 an hour. Rural delivery carriers had average base sal­ aries of $26,600 in late 1986. Their earnings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Carriers with heavier workloads generally earn more than those with lighter workloads. Rural carriers also receive a maintenance allowance when required to use their own vehicles. In addition to their hourly wage, some postal workers receive a uniform allowance. This  group includes those workers who are in the public view for 4 or more hours each day and various maintenance workers. The amount of the allowance depends on the job performed— some workers are only required to wear a par­ tial uniform, and their allowance is lower. In 1986, for example, the allowance for a letter carrier was $208 per year, compared to $89 for a window clerk. Most of these workers belong to 1 of 4 unions: American Postal Workers Union, National As­ sociation of Letter Carriers, National Post Of­ fice Mail Handlers, and National Rural Letter Carriers Association. Related Occupations Postal clerks, mailhandlers, and mail carriers play an important role in moving the Nation’s mail, and their work and qualifications are closely related. Other workers whose duties are related to those of postal clerks include mail  242/Occupational Outlook Handbook  clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, med­ ical record clerks, clerk typists, cashiers, data entry operators, and ticket sellers. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include messengers, merchandise deliverers, and de­ livery-route truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment ser­ vice offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment oppor­ tunities for postal clerks and mail carriers.  Receptionists and Information Clerks (D.O.T. 203.362-014; 205.367-038; 237.267-010, .367­ 010, -018, -022. -026,' -038, -042, -046, and -050; 238.367-022 and -034; and 249.262-010 and .367-082)  Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression on the public. This is an important part of the job of the receptionist or information clerk, who generally is the first person a caller sees or speaks to. Receptionists and information clerks greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the person who can help them. They also answer questions front  the public. Their day-to-day duties vary a great deal, depending on where they work. Those in hospitals and doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain personal and financial information and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty shops, they arrange appoint­ ments and may show customers to the opera­ tor’s booth. In factories or large business firms and government offices, they provide identi­ fication cards and arrange for escorts to take callers to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and the like. Many receptionists and information clerks keep records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, they may perform clerical duties, such as typ­ ing or filing. Some open and sort mail and collect and distribute messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple book­ keeping. Often, receptionists, particularly those in large cities, have a security function—seeing who belongs in a given place and who does not. They also may be expected to monitor the attendance of other employees and report this to management. Increasingly, receptionists and information clerks use automated office equipment such as word processors or personal computers in the course of their work. While this equipment allows them to handle more messages, for ex­  trig?  .  ##  i| | ,1  "Sf Receptionists must be courteous to the public.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ample, it does not alter the basic content of their job—human contact and interaction. That is something that even the most sophisticated machine cannot replace. Working Conditions Because receptionists and information clerks greet customers and visitors, they usually work in areas that are carefully designed and fur­ nished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually are pleasant; offices are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Although most work a regular 40-hour week, receptionists and information clerks in hospi­ tals and some professional offices may work weekends or in the evenings. This type of work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements, and 1 receptionist in 3 works part time. Employment Receptionists and information clerks held about 682,000 jobs in 1986. More than one-third of all jobs were located in health-related facilities of various kinds; Doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent care centers, surgicenters, clinics, and so forth. Factories, wholesale and retail stores, government agen­ cies, real estate offices, and firms providing business and personal services also employed large numbers of receptionists and information clerks. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many receptionist and information clerk jobs are entry level and do not require office or business experience. The occupation accord­ ingly attracts people entering the labor force for the first time and those who are reentering, particularly homemakers. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some re­ quire typing and other general office skills. Personal characteristics are very important in this occupation. Receptionists and infor­ mation clerks should like meeting people and have a desire to be helpful and informative. A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, and an even disposition also are important. Because recep­ tionists and information clerks do not work under close supervision, common sense and a thorough understanding of how the business is organized help them handle various situations that arise. Promotion opportunities for these workers are limited, especially in small offices. In large workplaces, however, a receptionist or infor­ mation clerk who has clerical skills may ad­ vance to a better paying job as a secretary, administrative assistant, or bookkeeper. English, typing, shorthand, business arith­ metic, basic accounting and bookkeeping, of­ fice procedures, and other subjects useful for receptionists and information clerks are taught in high schools throughout the country. Junior college or business school training also can be helpful in advancing to better paying office jobs. Many companies have their own training programs so that the skills needed for advance­ ment can be learned on the job.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/243  Job Outlook Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although many openings will occur as businesses expand, most jobs for receptionists and information clerks will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will create an exceptionally large number of job openings, for the occupation is large and turnover is higher than average. Many opportunities for part-time work will be available. Employment of receptionists and informa­ tion clerks is expected to grow more rapidly than employment of clerical workers in gen­ eral. This is largely because so many recep­ tionists and information clerks work for firms providing business and professional services— sectors of the economy that are expected to continue to show strong growth—particularly doctors’ and dentists’ offices, law firms, tem­ porary help agencies, and consulting firms. In addition, more and more firms recognize the importance of these workers in promoting good public relations. Because the work of receptionists and in­ formation clerks is of a person-to-person na­ ture, it is unlikely to be affected by office au­ tomation. In addition, because establishments need their services even in hard economic times, receptionists and information clerks usually are not subject to layoffs during recessions. Since many receptionists and information clerks also perform secretarial duties, persons with good typing, stenographic, and other skills should have the best job prospects. Earnings Receptionists in the private sector averaged about $13,600 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the Executive Compensation Ser­ vice. In 1987, the Federal Government paid beginning information receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of work experience $10,816 a year. The average salary for infor­ mation receptionists employed by the Federal Government was about $ 14,200 a year in 1986. Median annual earnings of full-time recep­ tionists were about $12,600 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $10,200 and $15,500 a year. Ten percent earned less than $8,700, and 10 percent, more than $18,600. Earnings of receptionists vary by industry. Salaries in manufacturing, transportation and utilities, and wholesale trade tend to be higher than in services, finance, and retail trade. Earn­ ings vary by region also, with those in the West and Northeast tending to be higher than those in the Midwest and South. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the pub­ lic, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are customer-service representatives, dis­ patchers, hotel clerks, reservation agents, and telephone operators.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and em­ ployment opportunities.  Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-030; 238.167-010 and -014, .362-014, .367 except -022; and 248.382-010)  Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Be­ cause so many people travel, it often is nec­ essary to make reservations and plan trips well in advance. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks work for trans­ portation companies, other businesses, and government agencies providing assistance to those planning trips. These workers facilitate passenger travel in a variety of ways. They help passengers plan their trips by answering questions and offering suggestions on travel arrangements such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of ac­ commodation. They make and confirm reser­ vations, calculate expenses, and write and sell tickets. When passengers are about to embark on their trip, these agents and clerks check their baggage, direct them to the point of departure, and help them to board. Reservation agents usually work in large central offices answering customer telephone inquiries and booking reservations. Most agents have access to computer terminals and, by typ­ ing instructions on the keyboard, can quickly obtain the necessary information and make the reservations. Agents also can change or cancel reservations at the customer’s request, simply by modifying the record on the computer. After the reservation has been made and the ticket has been purchased, ticketing clerks compile and record the information, such as dates of travel and method of payment. The tickets then are sent to the passenger. Ticket agents are sometimes referred to by other titles, such as passenger agent, passen­ ger-booking clerk, reservation clerk, ticket clerk, and ticket seller. In addition to selling tickets, they answer inquiries, check baggage, examine visas, ensure passenger seating, and check in animals. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate agents, work in air­ ports assisting passengers when boarding. Their duties include directing passengers to the cor­ rect boarding area, checking flight tickets, making boarding announcements, and assisting elderly, disabled, or young passengers when they board or depart the airplane. Passenger rate clerks work for bus compa­ nies. They arrange charter trips by planning travel routes, computing rates, selling fares,  and keeping customers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel accom­ modations for tourists. Most travel clerks are employed by auto­ mobile clubs. These workers, often called travel counselors, plan trips and offer travel sugges­ tions for club members. Using a road map, they show the best route from the point of origin to the destination, as well as the return. They indicate the points of interest, restaurants, ho­ tels, or other housing accommodations along the route and explain what emergency repair services are available during the trip. They may make reservations for club members and cal­ culate expenses and mileage. Travel clerks also work in other settings, such as hotels and motels, business firms, and government agencies. When guests or em­ ployees are planning trips, travel clerks assist them by providing the appropriate literature and information, answering questions, and of­ fering suggestions. They may make reserva­ tions, pick up and deliver tickets, arrange for visas, and make any other arrangements nec­ essary for a safe and enjoyable trip. Regardless of setting, reservation and trans­ portation ticket agents and travel clerks must be knowledgable about their companies’ pol­ icies and procedures. They must be aware of any special promotions and services available and be able to answer any questions their cus­ tomers may have. Working Conditions Because the transportation industry operates at all hours, reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may have irregular schedules. Agents and clerks with the least seniority often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Reservation agents spend most of their day answering the telephone and typing reservations into a computerized reservation system. Although not physically strenuous, some workers may find this tiring. Ticket agents stand most of the time and often must lift heavy baggage. During holidays and other busy periods, agents and clerks may find the work hectic due to the large number of travelers who must be accommodated rapidly. When operations are interrupted or when scheduled service is de­ layed or canceled because of weather or other conditions, agents and clerks serve as buffers between the companies and their customers. Trying to pacify irate passengers under these conditions can be stressful. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 122,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly 3 of every 4 of these workers were employed by the airlines. Others worked for automobile clubs, bus companies, hotels and other lodging places, railroad companies, and other companies that provided transportation services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work in down­ town ticket and reservation offices and at large metropolitan transportation terminals where  244/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Ticket agents often work irregular hours. most passenger business originates. The re­ mainder work in smaller communities often served only by intercity bus or railroad lines.  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although hiring requirements vary from com­ pany to company within the transportation in­ dustry, a high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required, and often some college education is preferred. While the airline in­ dustry has traditionally drawn jobseekers who have had some college education, passenger service jobs throughout the transportation in­ dustry are increasingly being sought by college graduates, in part because of the attractive travel benefits that are offered. Many reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks begin on a part-time basis and move into a full-time position when it becomes available. Orientation and training for these workers vary by company. In some cases, formal instruction is given, whereas in others, all the training is given on the job. For example, most airline reservation agents leam their skills through formal company programs. In a classroom setting, they are taught company policy and government regulations that cover ticketing procedures and other matters related to the airline. They learn to read schedules, calculate fares, and plan passenger itineraries. They also are taught to use the computer to obtain information on schedules and seat avail­ ability, and to reserve space for passengers. They are tested daily, and homework usually is assigned. To maximize their productivity, reservation agents are expected to minimize the time spent on each call without, of course, alienating customers. Thus, learning how to carry on a conversation in an organized, yet pleasing manner is an important part of their training. After completing classroom instruc­ tion, new agents work under supervisors or experienced agents for several weeks. In con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  trast, automobile clubs train their travel clerks on the job, without formal classes. Previous experience dealing with the public, prior employment in the transportation indus­ try, or both, are helpful for those interested in a passenger service job. Because reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks must deal directly with the public, a good ap­ pearance and a pleasant personality are im­ portant, as are problem-solving ability and good interpersonal skills. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use telephones or public address systems. Courses useful to persons wanting to enter these occupations include basic math and English, geography, U.S. history, and public speaking. Typing ability often is needed, and experience with word processing equipment and com­ puters is useful. Some employers may require applicants to take a typing test to gauge their skills. Most reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks continue to receive instruction even after their initial training pe­ riod ends. Many employers provide weekly training sessions on new procedures, altera­ tions to fare structures or schedules, and changes in company policies. Although these workers may advance by moving from a part-time to a full-time position or from reservation to ticket agent, advance­ ment opportunities generally are limited. Some reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks are promoted to supervisory po­ sitions, and a small number eventually become field sales agents or station managers. In un­ ionized establishments, entry level positions may be the only ones open to individuals out­ side the firm; higher level positions are gen­ erally filled through promotion from the ranks of company employees. Job Outlook Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to  increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although many jobs will be created by increased demand for transportation services, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. A growing and more travel-oriented popu­ lation will increase the number of passenger miles, which, in tum, is expected to increase demand for agents and clerks. However, fur­ ther increases in airline and intercity bus con­ solidations are likely to have a constraining effect on employment growth. Applicants are likely to encounter consid­ erable competition for openings because the supply of qualified applicants far outstrips de­ mand. For one thing, many people satisfy the entry requirements. Moreover, airline jobs, in particular, attract many applicants because of the travel benefits and glamour associated with the industry. Employment of reservation and transporta­ tion ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel de­ clines, and transportation service companies are less likely to hire and may even lay off or demote agents and clerks. Earnings In 1986, median weekly earnings of full-time reservation and transportation tickets agents and travel clerks were $420. The middle 50 percent earned between $278 and $562. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $99, while the top 10 percent earned more then $668. In addition to their hourly wage, agents and clerks usually receive a generous package of fringe benefits. Typical benefits include free or very low cost travel on their company’s carriers for themselves and their immediate family, health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and in some companies, uniforms. Those who work the evening or night shift also may receive a shift differential. Many agents and clerks belong to labor unions. Five unions cover most of the orga­ nized agents and clerks: The Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Broth­ erhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chaffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.); and the Transport Workers Union of America. Related Occupations Other workers who must be friendly and pleas­ ant while providing information or assisting people include hosts and hostesses, informa­ tion clerks, and receptionists. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a particular trans­ portation company may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Ad­ dresses of airlines are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/245  Secretaries (D.O.T. 201)  Nature of the Work The efficiency of any organization depends in part upon secretaries, who are at the center of communications within the firm. They process and transmit information to the staff and to other organizations. Secretaries perform a variety of administra­ tive and clerical duties that are necessary to mn and maintain organizations efficiently. They schedule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and take and transcribe dictation. The amount of time secretaries spend on these and other duties—including typing—depends on the way office work is handled within the or­ ganization. In offices that have word processing centers, administrative secretaries handle everything except dictation and typing. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering tele­ phones to more complex work such as an­ swering letters, doing research, and preparing statistical reports. Administrative secretaries sometimes work in clusters of three or four so that they can help each other. Because they are released from dictation and typing, they can serve several members of the professional staff. Some secretaries do highly specialized work. Legal secretaries prepare legal papers and cor­ respondence such as summonses, complaints, motions, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney. They also may review law jour­ nals and assist in other ways with legal re­ search. Medical secretaries transcribe dicta­ tion, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceed­ ings. They need to know medical terminology and be familiar with hospital or laboratory procedures. Technical secretaries assist engi­ neers or scientists. In addition to the usual secretarial duties, they may prepare much of the correspondence, maintain the technical li­ brary, and gather and edit materials for sci­ entific papers. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary, sometimes called a personal secre­ tary, who arranges social functions, answers personal correspondence, and keeps the em­ ployer informed about all social activities. Membership secretaries compile and maintain membership lists, record the receipt of dues and contributions, and give out information to members of organizations and associations. They may have such other duties as sending out newsletters and promotional materials. School secretaries handle secretarial duties in elementary and secondary schools; they may take care of correspondence, prepare bulletins and reports, keep track of money for school supplies and student activities, and maintain a calendar of school events. In today’s automated offices, more and more secretaries are assuming responsibilities pre­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  t r-y  b vc  Screening telephone calls is an important part of a secretary's job. viously handled by managers and profession­ als. For example, using personal computers, secretaries now run spreadsheet, database man­ agement, and graphics programs. Their role is to help ensure that information gets in a timely fashion to the people who need it. With com­ panies tending to view information as a valu­ able commodity for gaining a competitive edge on their rivals, this role of secretaries is be­ coming more critical.  Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices that are clean and free from high noise levels except during peak typing periods. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods, and typing often re­ quires working from materials that are difficult to read. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, mus­ culoskeletal strain, and stress. Secretaries generally work a standard 40hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flex­ ible working arrangements, and 1 secretary in 6 works part time. In addition, a significant number of secretaries work as temporaries. A few participate in job-sharing arrangements, in  which two people divide responsibility for a single job. Employment Secretaries held 3,234,000 jobs in 1986, mak­ ing this one of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. Secretaries are employed in organizations of every description. They work for firms that engage in manufacturing, mining, construc­ tion, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications. Banks, insurance com­ panies, investment firms, and real estate firms are important employers, as are Federal, State, and local government agencies. Almost half of all secretaries are employed in educational in­ stitutions, hospitals and other health facilities, law firms, membership organizations, and companies that provide business services. Among the latter are temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates qualify for most sec­ retarial positions provided they have basic of­ fice skills. Secretaries must be proficient in typing and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Shorthand is necessary for some positions. Word pro­ cessing experience is increasingly important and more and more employers require it.  246/Occupational Outlook Handbook  The skills needed for a secretarial job can be acquired in various ways. Although formal training or refresher courses are not essential for most jobs, training is an asset and may lead to higher paying jobs. Secretarial training ranges from high school vocational education pro­ grams that teach office practices, shorthand, and typing to 1- to 2-year programs in secre­ tarial science offered by business schools, vo­ cational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Specialized training programs also are available for students planning to becorhe medical or legal secretaries. In addition to a solid grounding in secretarial skills, employers look for a good command of the English language and an aptitude for num­ bers. Some firms look for individuals with ex­ cellent interpersonal skills, since secretaries must be tactful in their dealings with many different people. Discretion, judgment, organ­ izational ability, and initiative are important for the more responsible secretarial positions. Continuing changes in the office environ­ ment, many made possible by the computer, have increased the demand for secretaries who are adaptable and versatile. Workers must be prepared to be retrained whenever an employer introduces new equipment. Secretaries may have to attend classes at work to learn to operate word processing equipment, information stor­ age systems, personal computers, and other automated office equipment. These classes may be offered by the equipment manufacturer or an in-house trainer. Sometimes, secretaries must acquire this training at their own expense, for example, at a storefront school operated by a private training company. The frequency with which such equipment is changed or updated makes retraining and continuing education an integral part of the job, and employers seek workers who understand and accept the inev­ itability of change. The majority of job openings are filled by people who have not been working. Although some of these entrants have been in school or between jobs, most have been full-time home­ makers. The remaining openings are filled by individuals who transfer from another occu­ pation, most commonly another clerical job. The majority of entrants are between 25 and 54 years of age. Many positions are filled by persons who have completed some college coursework. Advancement for secretaries generally comes about either by promotion to more responsible secretarial positions or transfer to another kind of job. As secretaries gain experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified Profes­ sional Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of examinations given by the Institute for Certi­ fying Secretaries, a department of Professional Secretaries International. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employers as the mark of excellence in the secretarial field. Similarly, a legal secretary with five years’ experience may become certified as a Profes­ sional Legal Secretary (PLS) by passing an examination administered by the Certifying Board of the National Association of Legal Secretaries.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of their company’s operations may be promoted to positions such as administrative assistant, clerical or secretarial supervisor, and office manager. By taking college courses or completing a degree program in a field such as business, marketing, accounting, or per­ sonnel administration, secretaries may prog­ ress into entry level management positions. Training in computer skills is an increasingly important factor in promotions. Secretaries with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing train­ ers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word processing service bureau. They also can get jobs with manufacturers of word processing and other office equipment in positions such as instructor or sales representative. Job Outlook Employment of secretaries is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000 due primarily to productivity gains made possible by office au­ tomation. In firms that have invested in electronic type­ writers, word processors, or personal com­ puters, secretaries can turn out significantly more work than when they used electric or manual typewriters. Office automation has oc­ curred most fully in large firms, and now is spreading to small businesses. Many smallbusiness owners, though, are reluctant to invest in costly, unfamiliar equipment and software programs. Manufacturers and retailers, how­ ever, are taking steps to make automated office equipment more “user friendly.” Once cost and psychological barriers are overcome, expanded use of word processing equipment in the smallbusiness sector is likely to further dampen de­ mand for secretaries. Long-term job growth also will be affected by new office technologies such as electronic mail and voice message systems. These and other computer-based equipment are expected to be implemented ever more widely through the year 2000, further limiting demand for sec­ retaries. Widespread use of automated equipment is changing the way administrative support is handled in many offices, leading to reassign­ ment of job duties and restructuring of entire departments. Large firms are experimenting with different methods of staffing their admin­ istrative support operations. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as typing, filing, copying, and accounting are being assigned to workers in other units or departments. In some law offices and physicians’ offices, paralegals and medical assistants are taking over some duties formerly done by secretaries. In addi­ tion, there is a trend in many offices for groups of professionals and managers to “share” sec­ retaries, as opposed to the traditional practice of having one secretary work for only one professional or manager. The proliferation in recent years of personal computers in offices throughout the country has affected secretaries in another way. Increas­  ingly, professionals and managers are doing their own word processing rather than sub­ mitting the work to secretaries and other sup­ port staff, as they did previously. This trend is expected to continue, contributing to slower employment growth. Developments in office technology are cer­ tain to continue, and they will bring about fur­ ther changes in the secretary’s work environ­ ment. However, many of a secretary’s job duties are of an administrative nature—such as sched­ uling conferences, making travel arrange­ ments, and transmitting staff instructions—and hence not easily automated. Because auto­ mated equipment cannot substitute for the per­ sonal skills that are essential to the job, the need for secretaries will continue. Despite the slower than average growth expected in this occupation, an exceptionally large number of job openings will arise through the year 2000 due to replacement needs. Every year several hundred thousand secretaries transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force—primarily because of household re­ sponsibilities. In this occupation, as in most, replacement needs are the main source of jobs. Many employers complain of a shortage of first-rate secretaries. Therefore, well-qualified secretaries will be in great demand and should find many job opportunities. In addition to mastering the traditional secretarial skills, ap­ plicants who have computer skills will increas­ ingly be sought by employers.  Earnings Secretaries’ salaries vary a great deal, usually reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility. Secretaries earned av­ erage annual salaries in 1986 ranging from $16,326 to $28,051. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and highest in northern and western cit­ ies. In 1986, for example, secretaries averaged $19,968 a year in the Northeast, $20,410 in the Midwest, $21,840 in the West, and $19,266 in the South. In addition, salaries vary by industry. Sal­ aries of secretaries tend to be highest in public utilities and mining and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. Starting salaries for secretaries in the Federal Government ranged from $11,802 to $18,358 a year in 1987, depending on education, skills, and experience. Secretaries employed by the Federal Government in 1986 had average an­ nual salaries of about $17,600. Legal secretaries in the private sector av­ eraged about $20,000 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the Executive Compensation Service; bilingual secretaries averaged about $19,200. Most secretaries in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of ser­ vice, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other benefits often are provided.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/247  Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record in­ formation, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, steno­ graphers, office managers, personnel clerks, typists, administrative assistants, legal assis­ tants, medical assistants, and medical record technicians. Sources of Additional Information For career information, write to: Professional Secretaries International, 301 East Ar­ mour Bivd., Kansas City, MO 64111.  Persons interested in careers as legal sec­ retaries can request a pamphlet, So You Want To Be A Legal Secretary, from: National Association of Legal Secretaries (Interna­ tional), 2250 East 73rd St., Suite 550, Tulsa, OK 74136.  Brochures describing a career as a secretary or legal secretary are available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036.  State employment offices can provide in­ formation about job openings for secretaries.  Statistical Clerks (D.O.T. 209.387-014, 214.487-010, 216.382-062 and -066, 219.387-022, 221.382-010 and .584-010, and 245.362-010)  Nature of the Work Managers and administrators in organizations of all kinds depend on timely and accurate information in order to make decisions. Sta­ tistical clerks help develop such information. In particular, they put together numerical rec­ ords tptd help ensure that those records are complete and accurate. The process begins with the collection of information. In highly automated industrial work settings, the data may be entered auto­ matically into the recordkeeping system. In other settings, the statistical clerk must collect the data by hand and verify their accuracy and completeness. Statistical clerks generally record data either by manually transcribing them in a ledger or, in a growing number of cases, by entering data at a computer terminal or into a personal com­ puter. Clerks arrange data into usable files; for example, statistical clerks working with survey results sort information by age, sex, race, oc­ cupation, or other variables. Once the data have been recorded and com­ piled, statistical clerks can tabulate them to prepare charts, graphs, and tables that are use­ ful to members of the organization. For ex­ ample, statistical clerks in advertising tabulate statistical records for companies on the cost, volume, and effectiveness of their advertising. Medical record clerks might tabulate statistics on the incidence of illnesses that would help medical researchers illustrate their findings. In insurance companies, statistical clerks use for­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mulas, statistical tables, and insurance rate books to assist actuaries in determining insur­ ance rates for company customers. They also prepare graphs and tables for studies on general insurance practices. In power companies, these workers regularly compute the power factor and net amount of electric power consumed by the company’s commercial customers and de­ termine the peak load demand in order to verify that the appropriate rates are being charged. Working Conditions Most statistical clerks are employed in offices that are clean, well lighted, and free from ex­ cessive noise. Statistical clerks who work at video display terminals for extended periods may encounter problems of eyestrain, mus­ culoskeletal strain, and stress. Employment Statistical clerks held about 71,000 jobs in 1986. Although these jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, about one-half are in telephone communications; finance, insurance, and real estate; business services; hospitals; and government agencies. About 1 out of 5 statistical clerks works part time. Jobs for statistical clerks are concentrated in major metropolitan areas that are centers of commercial, financial, and government activ­ ities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer high school graduates for statistical clerk jobs. They seek applicants who have an aptitude for working with numbers and the ability to do detailed work. High school students may prepare for jobs as statistical clerks by taking courses in general mathematics, al­ gebra, and geometry. Also recommended are courses in data processing, office procedures, bookkeeping, and typing. In many companies, general office clerks  who have become familiar with their employ­ ers record systems and office procedures are promoted to statistical clerk positions. On-thejob training may include the use of calculators, tabulating machines, typewriters, and personal computers. Statistical clerks must be familiar with the items or information they observe and record. In preparing data for processing, coding clerks must use the proper computer codes to avoid errors. Statistical clerks should be able to do prompt and accurate work under close supervision. Also, they should be tactful and even tempered when working with others. Most employers follow a promotion-fromwithin policy that allows experienced workers to qualify for more responsible jobs as they become available. Qualified statistical clerks may perform more difficult assignments or ad­ vance to supervisory positions. Some statistical clerks are able to advance to a technician level where they may deal with the technical prob­ lems of statistical research projects. Some clerks move into computer-related occupations. Job Outlook Employment of statistical clerks is expected to decline through the year 2000. While the amount of statistical data to be processed is expected to increase substantially, particularly in the areas of finance and insurance, the tremendous pro­ ductivity gains associated with advances in in­ formation and data management techniques will mean that fewer statistical clerks will be needed. Many of the routine tasks performed by sta­ tistical clerks can be handled more quickly and more accurately by computers, and the appli­ cation of computer technology to recordkeep­ ing, data retrieval, and analysis is widespread and growing. The rapid pace of change has revolutionized the work environment as traditional ways of handling data have given way to computerbased methods. As professional workers and  WmnManMk; Statistical clerks must review their work carefully for accuracy.  248/Occupational Outlook Handbook  managers increasingly use personal computers and other automated office equipment, they are performing tasks traditionally delegated to sta­ tistical clerks or research assistants, thus re­ ducing demand for these workers. In addition, more and more statistical clerks are using com­ puters in their work. With the sophisticated statistical software currently available, their productivity has risen dramatically. These trends are expected to continue. In spite of the expected drop in employment, there will be many openings due to replacement needs. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time statistical clerks were about $17,800 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $14,000 and $22,200 a year. Ten percent earned less than $10,200, and 10 percent more than $28,000. Statistical clerks' salaries vary by industry. They tend to be highest in public utilities and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Experienced statistical clerks in the private sector earned an average salary of about $ 16,500 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the Executive Compensation Service. The entrance salary for beginning statistical assistants employed by the Federal Govern­ ment was $13,248 a year in 1987. The average annual salary for statistical assistants in the Federal Government was $16,732 in 1986. Related Occupations Other workers perform calculations, keep nu­ merical records, and prepare statistical reports for use by other departments in a company. Among these are accounting and bookkeeping clerks, payroll clerks, personnel clerks, and insurance clerks. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for statistical clerks.  Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362 and 203.582-058)  Nature of the Work The efficient conduct of business and other endeavors often requires a precise written re­ cord of spoken communication. Stenographers provide such records. Stenographers and stenotype operators take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter or word processor. They may either take shorthand or use a stenotype machine, which prints shorthand symbols. General stenographers, including most beginners, take routine dictation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take difficult dic­ tation and do more responsible clerical work. They may sit in on staff meetings and later give a summary report or a word-for-word re­ cord of the proceedings. They also supervise  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  other stenographers, typists, and clerical work­ ers. Technical stenographers must know the terms used in a particular profession. They include medical, legal, and engineering or sci­ entific stenographers. Some experienced steno­ graphers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenographers serving traveling business people and others. Shorthand reporters are specialized steno­ graphers who record all statements made in an official proceeding. Shorthand reporters often work as court reporters. They take down all statements made at legal proceedings and pre­ sent their record as the official transcript. Many other shorthand reporters work as freelance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for attorneys, proceedings of meetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the U.S. Con­ gress, in State and local governing bodies, and in government agencies at all levels. Some reporters dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Others transcribe their notes with the help of note readers, per­ sons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. A large and growing number of reporters use Computer-Aided Transcription, a system in which a computer directly translates the re­ porter’s shorthand notes into English. Because the reporter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally important. Transcribing-machine operators listen to re­ cordings and use a typewriter or word processor to transcribe what they hear into the proper format. In addition to transcribing letters, re­ ports, and the like, they may have some other clerical duties. Sometimes they are called dictating-machine transcribers or dictating-machine typists. Print shop stenographers take dictation and use typewriters to transcribe the dictated ma­ terial and to prepare metal printing plates to be used by addressing machines. Working Conditions Stenographers usually work in clean, welllighted offices. Sometimes they work in non­ office settings, such as courts, legislatures, and conventions. Although the work is not phys­ ically demanding, sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring. In addition, pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful. Stenographers generally work a standard 40hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Some stenographers work part time or as temporaries. Employment Stenographers held 178,000 jobs throughout the economy in 1986. One-third worked for government agencies, a reflection of the large number of shorthand reporters working in courts, legislatures, and agencies in the ex­ ecutive branch. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers hire only high school gradu­ ates. Stenographic skills are taught in high  Employers look for stenographers who can take dictation rapidly and accurately.  schools, vocational schools, and proprietary business schools. More than 400 postsecondary schools and colleges offer 2-year training pro­ grams in court reporting. Seventy-four of these programs have been approved by the National Shorthand Reporters Association, and all of them teach Computer-Aided Transcription. Employers usually have no preferences among the many different shorthand methods. For court reporters, however, the preference is for stenotype, not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high-speed transcription. The most impor­ tant factors in hiring and promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per minute. Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible positions. Although re­ quirements vary in private firms, applicants with the best speed and accuracy will receive first consideration in hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dictation per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Government generally must take at least 175 words a minute. Some States require each court reporter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each State that has CSR laws. The National Shorthand Reporters Association confers the designation Registered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a twopart examination and participate in continuing education programs. The RPR designation is recognized as the mark of excellence in the profession. Stenographers can advance to secretarial po­ sitions, especially if they develop their inter­ personal skills such as the ability to commu­ nicate well. Stenographers who take the  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/249  necessary training can become shorthand re­ porters. Job Outlook Employment of stenographers is expected to decline sharply. The widespread use of dic­ tation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenographers, and the traditional “steno pool” is becoming a thing of the past. Despite this decline, some job openings will arise each year due to the need to replace work­ ers who leave the occupation. Demand for skilled shorthand reporters should remain strong as State and Federal court systems expand to handle the rising number of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Another factor keeping demand strong is the growing number of conventions, conferences, and sim­ ilar meetings, the proceedings of which must be recorded. Competition for entry level jobs as a shorthand reporter is increasing as more students enter the field. Opportunities will be best for those who have earned certification by the National Shorthand Reporters Association. Earnings Stenographers’ salaries vary a great deal, usu­ ally reflecting differences in skill, experience, level of responsibility, and industry. Stenographers in private industry averaged $18,400 a year in 1986; experienced steno­ graphers averaged $21,700. Starting salaries for clerk-stenographers in the Federal Government ranged from $10,816 to $14,822 a year in 1987, depending on ed­ ucation, skill level, and work experience. The average annual salary for all clerk-steno­ graphers employed by the Federal Government was about $14,800 in 1986. Shorthand reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic office workers. Earnings vary, depending on speed, education, experience, and geographic location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas). Stenographers’ salaries tend to be highest in public utilities and lowest in finance, insur­ ance, and real estate. Most stenographers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are pro­ vided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record in­ formation, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, secre­ taries, office managers, personnel clerks, typ­ ists, administrative assistants, medical assis­ tants, and legal assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about shorthand reporting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 118 Park St. SE., Vienna, VA 22180.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Brochures describing a career as a shorthand reporter or court reporter are available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036.  State employment offices can provide in­ formation about job openings for steno­ graphers.  Stock Clerks (D.O.T. 219.367-018, -034, .387-026; 221.587-018, -022; 222.167-010, .367-014, -038, -042, -050, -062, .387-018, -026, -030, -034, -042, -058, -062, -070 .587­ 022, -054; 229.367-010, -014, .587-014; 249.367-058; 339.687-010; 969.367-010)  Nature of the Work Stock clerks receive, put away, issue, and keep track of stock—merchandise in wholesale and retail establishments, and equipment, supplies, and materials in all kinds of businesses, in­ dustries, and institutions. They receive, unpack, check, and store in­ coming merchandise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leaving the stock­ room and report damaged or spoiled goods. They organize and, when necessary, mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inven­ tories can be located quickly and easily. In many firms, stock clerks use hand-held scan­ ners and readers and computers to keep in­ ventories up to date. In stores, stock clerks may bring merchan­ dise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, they store materials according to plan in bins, on the floor, or on shelves. Stock clerks fill orders from customers, branch stores and plants, and departments of their own establishments. They keep records of the quantity and type of stock shipped out. Sometimes, they pack, crate, or address goods for delivery. Stock clerk duties vary depending on the place of employment. Stock clerks working in small firms perform many different tasks, in­ cluding those usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on shipping and receiving clerks elsewhere in the Hand­ book.) In large establishments, a stock clerk may be responsible for only one specific task and may be known as an inventory clerk, stock control clerk, merchandise distributor, prop­ erty custodian, or storekeeper. Working Conditions Stock clerks usually work in relatively clean, comfortable, and well-lighted areas. Working conditions vary, however, depending on the type of merchandise being handled. For ex­ ample, stock clerks who handle refrigerated goods must spend some time in cold storage rooms; those who handle construction mate­ rials such as brick and lumber may occasionally work outside in inclement weather. Although many stock clerks use mechanical material  MfpEi  .M:- -  <*-*5  Many stock clerks use mechanical material handling equipment. handling equipment to move heavy items, some may perform strenuous and laborious chores. Most jobs involve much standing, bending, walking, stretching, lifting, and carrying. Overtime may be required when large ship­ ments are delivered and when inventory is taken. Employment Stock clerks held about 1,813,000 jobs in 1986. Three out of five stock clerks were stockroom, warehouse, or yard clerks; 2 out of 5 were sales floor stock clerks. Many sales floor clerks worked part time. Almost 60 percent of stock­ room, warehouse, and yard stock clerks worked in retail and wholesale firms; about 20 percent were in factories; and others were in hospitals, government agencies, schools, and other or­ ganizations that keep large quantitites of ma­ terials and goods on hand. Almost all sales floor stock clerks were employed in retail trade. About two-thirds of these worked in food stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in urban areas, where stores, warehouses, and factories are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no specific educational re­ quirements for beginning stock clerks, em­ ployers prefer high school graduates. Reading and writing skills and a basic knowledge of mathematics are necessary; typing and filing abilities also are useful. Good health, espe­ cially good eyesight, is important. Generally, those who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs must be bonded. Stock clerks usually receive on-the-job train­ ing. New workers begin with simple tasks such as counting and marking stock. Basic respon­ sibilities of the job usually are learned within several weeks. As they progress, stock clerks learn to keep records of incoming and outgoing materials, take inventories, and place orders.  250/Occupational Outlook Handbook  As more and more wholesale and warehousing establishments use automated equipment, training and retraining on this equipment may take longer. Stock clerks who just bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks need little or no training. In small firms, stock clerks may advance to sales positions or become assistant buyers or purchasing agents. In large firms, stock clerks can advance to more responsible stock handling jobs such as invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. A few may be promoted to warehouse manager, a job which involves a wide range of duties and responsibilities and normally requires extensive stockroom expe­ rience and additional education. Job Outlook Although the volume of inventory transactions is expected to increase significantly through the year 2000, little change in employment of stock clerks is expected because automation and other productivity improvements will en­ able clerks to handle more stock. Firms are expected to hold down labor costs by using more efficient computers to store and retrieve inventory information and by installing auto­ mated material handling equipment such as so­ phisticated conveyor belts, automated high stackers to store and retrieve goods, and au­ tomated guided vehicles. Sales floor stock clerks, most of whom work in such establish­ ments as food and department stores, are ex­ pected to be somewhat less affected by auto­ mation since much of their work is done on the sales floor, where it is difficult to locate or operate machinery. Because this occupation is very large, many job openings will occur each year to replace stock clerks who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Many jobs are entry level and, therefore, many vacancies are created by nor­ mal career progression to other occupations.  Teacher Aides (D.O.T. 099.327-010, 219.467-010 and 249.367-074, -086)  Nature of the Work Teacher aides help classroom teachers in a va­ riety of ways to give them more time for teach­ ing. They help and supervise students in the classroom, cafeteria, school yard, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, or help prepare materials for instruction. Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly by school district. In some districts, teacher aides just handle routine nonteaching amd clerical tasks. They grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, type, file, and duplicate materials. They may also stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. In other districts, aides also help instruct children, un­ der the supervision and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups—listening while students read or help­ ing them find information for reports. Some­ times, aides take charge of special projects and prepare equipment or exhibits—for a science demonstration, for example. Working Conditions More than half of all teacher aides work part time. They may work outdoors supervising re­  cess when weather allows and spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Working closely with the students can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Employment Teacher aides held 648,000 jobs in 1986. Al­ though they are employed in both elementary and secondary schools, aides are concentrated in the lower grades. Some assist special edu­ cation teachers with physically, mentally, or emotionally handicapped children. Employ­ ment is distributed geographically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher aides range from less than a high school diploma to some college training. Districts that give aides some teaching responsibilities usually require more training than those that don’t assign teaching tasks. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher aides. However, most teacher aides receive on-the-job training. Aides are taught how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instruc­ tional materials. In addition, they are made familiar with the organization and operation of a school and with teaching methods. Teacher aides should enjoy working with  Earnings In general, beginning stock clerks earned the minimum wage of $3.35 an hour or slightly above in 1986. Experienced stock clerks gen­ erally earned between $5 and $10 an hour. Average earnings vary by industry and geo­ graphic location. Earnings in retail trade es­ tablishments fall into the middle range. In transportation, utilities, and wholesale trade, earnings usually are higher; in finance, insur­ ance, real estate, and services, they are lower.  Related Occupations Other workers who handle, move, organize, and store materials include order fillers, ship­ ping and receiving clerks, distributing clerks, and routing clerks. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks. Also, see clerical and sales occupations else­ where in the Handbook for sources of addi­ tional information.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Teacher aides handle routine activities to give teachers more time to teach.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/251  children and be able to handle classroom sit­ uations with fairness and patience. Preference in hiring may be given to those with previous experience in working with children. Aides also must demonstrate initiative and a willing­ ness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good oral and writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teachers. Clerical skills may also be necessary. Ten States have voluntary certification for general teacher aides. To qualify, an individual may need a high school diploma or general equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college training. Kansas, Louisiana, Texas, and Wisconsin grant permits for paraprofessionals, as some aides are called, in special education. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased re­ sponsibility, comes primarily with experience. Some school districts provide release time so that aides may takefcollege courses. Aides who earn bachelor’s degrees may become certified teachers. Job Outlook Employment of teacher aides is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000, primarily reflecting rising enrollments. Enrollment growth will not occur at the same rate in all parts of the country. Largely because of migration to the South and West, enrollment increases are expected to be greater in those regions than in the Northeast and Midwest. Teacher aide employment is sensitive to changes in State and local expenditures for education. Pressures on education budgets are greater in some States and localities than in others. A number of teacher aide positions are financed through Federal programs. For ex­ ample, a 1986 law requires that public schools provide special education services to all chil­ dren between the ages of 3 and 6 who need it. This will stimulate the demand for teacher aides who work with special education teachers. Because of a relatively high turnover in the occupation, most openings for teacher aides are expected to occur as a result of the need to replace workers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or who leave the labor force to as­ sume full-time housekeeping responsibilities, return to school, or for other reasons. Earnings In 1986-87, aides involved in teaching activ­ ities earned an average of $6.40 an hour; those performing only nonteaching activities aver­ aged $6 an hour. Earnings varied by region and also by work experience and academic qualifications. Many aides are covered by col­ lective bargaining agreements and have health and pension benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. Related Occupations The educational support activities that teacher aides perform demand organizational skills, cooperativeness, recordkeeping ability, and a talent for getting along with people. Other oc­ cupations requiring some or all of these skills  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  include childcare workers, career guidance technicians, home health aides, library attend­ ants, medical record technicians, nursing aides, receptionists, and retail sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on teacher aides as well as on a wide range of education-related subjects, in­ cluding teacher aide unionization, can be ob­ tained from; American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  School superintendents and State depart­ ments of education can provide details about employment requirements.  Telephone Operators (D.O.T. 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014. .662-014, -018. -022. and -026; and 239.367-026)  Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone numbers are dialed directly each day, making a call some­ times requires the assistance of a telephone operator. An operator may be needed because a caller wants to reverse long-distance charges, find out a telephone number in another city, or know the cost of a call. Operators also help contact the police or fire department in an emer­ gency and arrange conference calls for business or professional people. Two groups of telephone operators provide these services. The operators who work in tele­ phone company central offices probably are the most familiar. But many businesses and large organizations receive so many calls that they employ operators to run their private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. These workers often act as receptionists as well as PBX op­ erators. (Receptionists are described elsewhere in this section of theHandbook.) Many switch­ boards, especially those in telephone company central offices, are operated by pushbuttons. In older systems, however, operators still place calls by inserting and removing plugs in switchboards and by listening and speaking into their headsets. Telephone company operators, known as central office operators, help customers with calls that require assistance, such as personto-person, coin-station, and collect calls. They obtain the information needed to complete the call and record the details for billing. Those who make long-distance connections are called long-distance operators. Directory assistance operators answer customer inquiries for tele­ phone numbers by using computerized alpha­ betical and geographical directories. Some­ times the directory assistance operator does not even need to read the number—instead, a com­ puterized recording provides the answer. Switchboard operators, sometimes called PBX attendants or operators, run switchboards for business firms and other establishments. They connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, assist company em­  ployees in making outgoing calls, supply in­ formation to callers, and record charges. Mod­ em PBX switchboards permit direct inside dialing. This allows calls to be made to and from the office without going through the switchboard. In such establishments, PBX op­ erators may do other office work as well, such as typing or sorting mail. Many act as recep­ tionists or information clerks. Police district switchboard operators run switchboards to receive and transmit police communications, such as calls from citizens for assistance or from police officers in the field. Communication-center operators handle airport authority communication systems and monitor electronic equipment alarms. For ex­ ample, they use the public address system to page passengers or visitors. Telephone-an­ swering-service operators manage switch­ boards to provide answering service for clients. Private-branch-exchange service advisors, sometimes called customer instructors or tele­ phone usage counselors, conduct training classes in the operation of switchboard and teletype equipment at the telephone company’s training school or on the customer’s premises. Service observers monitor telephone conver­ sations between operators and customers to ob­ serve the operator’s behavior, technical ac­ curacy, and adherence to company policies. Working Conditions Telephone company operators generally work 32'/2 to 37‘/2 hours a week. The scheduled hours of PBX operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. In telephone companies, however, as well as in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, operators work shifts, even on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts— that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone com­ panies normally assign shifts by seniority, al­ lowing the most experienced workers to choose when they will work. These operators, like all telephone company employees, may be subject to 24-hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Because an operator cannot make up time missed, tele­ phone companies strictly regulate attendance and punctuality. Some PBX operators work as temporaries. Operators usually work in pleasant, welllighted, air-conditioned surroundings. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; during peak calling periods, however, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Computerized pacing and monitoring by man­ agement, combined with the rapid pace, may cause stress. Operators usually need supervi­ sory approval to leave their workstations. Many telephone company operators work at video display terminals. If the work site is not well designed, these operators may experience eyestrain and musculoskeletal strain. Occa­ sionally, if the humidity in an office is too low, terminals give off electrical shocks. Telephone companies continually strive to  252/Occupational Outlook Handbook  13**2  The work of telephone company operators can be hectic and stressful. increase operator efficiency, and this can create a tense work environment. An operator’s work generally is quite repetitive and, in telephone companies, is closely supervised. Employment Telephone operators held 353,000 jobs in 1986. More than one-half worked as PBX operators in manufacturing plants, hospitals, department stores, or businesses. The remainder worked in telephone companies. Roughly one-fifth of all operators worked part time, although rel­ atively few of those employed by telephone companies were part-time workers. Employment is concentrated in urban areas, where population as well as businesses and other large organizations are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming telephone op­ erators should like to serve the public; be pleas­ ant, courteous, and patient; and not mind sitting for long periods of time. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being a good listener, prospective operators should have good reading, spelling, and arith­ metic skills. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity are useful, as is an ability to work well under pressure. Many telephone companies and business firms require operators to pass a physical examination. Some em­ ployers require a high school diploma for op­ erator jobs. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background for persons interested in this occupation. New operators are taught how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. In the telephone companies, classroom instruction usually lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-the-job training. Class­ room instruction covers the time zones and geography so that central office operators un­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  derstand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to familiarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other tele­ phone sounds and to improve diction and cour­ tesy by giving them an opportunity to hear their own voices. Training is tailored to the knowl­ edge required of the department where the em­ ployee is going to work. Close supervision continues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usu­ ally have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. These workers usually are trained informally by ex­ perienced personnel, although, in large busi­ nesses, an instructor from the local telephone company may train new employees. Telephone company operators may be pro­ moted, after 1 or 2 years of experience, to junior service assistant or service observer, as­ sisting the supervisor by monitoring telephone conversations. Promotion to supervisor also is possible, as is advancement to PBX service advisor. Some operators advance to other cler­ ical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as installer or repairer. Large firms may advance PBX operators to more responsible clerical po­ sitions; however, many small businesses have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of telephone operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, within this occupation, conflicting trends will continue. Employment of switchboard opera­ tors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations as businesses ex­ pand to meet the changing needs of the pop­ ulation. On the other hand, employment of directory assistance operators and central office operators is expected to decline as automation continues to increase these workers’ produc­ tivity. As in most occupations, the majority of job openings for telephone operators will result from the need to replace experienced employ­  ees who stop working or transfer to another occupation. While demand for switchboard or PBX op­ erators will increase as the economy expands and the number of businesses rises, automation will cause the rate of growth to be slower than in the past. As older switchboards that require operators to make all the connections are re­ placed by newer, electronic switchboards that route calls automatically, fewer operators will be needed. In addition, voice message systems are expected to proliferate as computers be­ come smaller, cheaper, and more powerful. Voice message systems record spoken tele­ phone messages in digital form, and can store, play, and forward them, depending on the user’s instructions. These systems are expected to do much of the work currently performed by PBX operators, such as message taking. Employment prospects will be best for switchboard operator/receptionists—recep­ tionists who have been trained to make tele­ phone connections. PBX systems with a directinside-dialing (DID) option leave operators free to concentrate on other clerical tasks. This flex­ ibility appeals to employers and will stimulate demand for these workers. Employment prospects for telephone com­ pany operators are poor. Employment of these workers has been declining for the past 25 years as technological innovations have reduced la­ bor requirements, and this trend is expected to continue. Further productivity improvements should more than offset the employment gains from strong growth in residential and business demand for telephone services and the devel­ opment of new markets, including electronic fund-transfer systems and home data process­ ing. Technological innovations have taken place in a number of areas. Many telephone com­ panies have installed electronic switching sys­ tems in their central offices, thus reducing the need for manual switching. New traffic service position system terminals automatically feed data about each telephone connection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a computer that processes the billing statements. Formerly, an operator tabulated and then transferred this information to the statement. It is now possible in many places to dial numbers in other coun­ tries directly, without the help of an operator. The task of responding to “intercept” calls (va­ cant, changed, or disconnected numbers) is being automated. A device automatically an­ swers those calls, and a computerized record­ ing explains the reason for the interception and gives the new number. The monitoring and computing of charges on calls from pay tele­ phones also are being automated, eliminating functions formerly performed by operators. Also, calls made with telephone company credit cards will no longer require the assistance of an operator. Directory assistance operators now use a computerized system that shows the in­ formation on a screen, and computerized re­ cordings give the number to the caller once the operator finds it. Another change, while not of a technological nature, is expected to reduce the demand for directory assistance operators.  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/253  A number of telephone companies now charge for directory assistance calls, thus prompting customers to use telephone directories instead. A technology presently under development could—if perfected—profoundly affect em­ ployment in this occupation. Referred to as voice recognition technology, it aims to give computers the capacity to understand speech and to talk back. Such equipment conceivably could replace directory assistance operators al­ together because it could understand cus­ tomers’ requests and reply correctly. Rudi­ mentary forms of this technology exist, but much remains to be done before these machines could replace humans. Although it is doubtful that voice recognition technology will be suf­ ficiently developed by the year 2000 to affect employment significantly, it illustrates the technological changes that affect employment in this occupation. Employment of operators is less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than em­ ployment of other workers in the telephone industry. The volume of telephone calls is af­ fected very little by economic fluctuations. However, telephone companies hire fewer op­ erators during recessions because there is less turnover (and consequently fewer openings) when other jobs are relatively hard to find. Few PBX operators are laid off during recessions because, even in slow times, businesses must keep their lines of communication open. Technological change has had a far greater effect than the business cycle on employment of telephone company operators. However, op­ erators are usually not laid off, for collective bargaining agreements seek to ensure that the companies reduce employment either through attrition or by retraining or reassignment. Earnings Telephone operators earned a median annual salary of $16,400 in 1986. The middle 50 per­ cent earned between $ 11,600 and $22,000. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $8,900; the top 10 percent earned more than $24,400 a year. Telephone company operators generally earn more than switchboard operators. Telephone operators employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average annual salary of $22,500 in 1986. Earnings of experienced telephone operators are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1987, the Federal Government paid starting telephone operators between $10,816 and $13,248 a year, depending on education, training, and experience. The average annual salary in 1986 for all operators employed by the Federal Government was about $14,000. PBX operators nationwide averaged $13,364 a year in 1986, according to a survey by the Administrative Management Society. Most telephone company operators are members of the Communications Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and the time required to advance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, nonsupervisory op­ erator position to the highest). Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6‘/2 to 1'A hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most con­ tracts provide a pay differential for nightwork and split shifts. Paid vacations are granted ac­ cording to length of service. Many contracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on locality, holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Additional provisions include paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; sickness and accident benefits; re­ tirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Insurance, pensions, holidays, vacations, and other benefits for PBX operators are the same as those for other clerical employees in the firm. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include customer service rep­ resentatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, infor­ mation clerks, police aides, receptionists, res­ ervation agents, and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportun­ ities, contact your local telephone company or: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For general information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Independent Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Career in the Independent Telephone Industry from: United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  Traffic, Shipping, and Receiving Clerks (D.O.T. 209.367-042; 214.587-014; 219.367-022 and -030; 221.367-022 and .687-014; 222.367-066, .387-014, -022, -050, and -054, .485-010, .567-010 and -014, .587-010, -018, -034. and -058, .687-022 and -030; 248.362-010, .367-014 and -022; 919.687-010; and 976.687-018)  Nature of the Work Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep track of goods transferred between businesses and their suppliers and customers. In small companies, one clerk may record all shipments sent out and received; in larger companies, a number of clerks take care of this recordkeep­ ing. Traffic clerks record data about incoming and outgoing freight, such as their destination, weight, and charges. In some workplaces, the clerk enters this information into a computer  to be used by the accounting and other de­ partments within the firm. To be sure the rate charges are accurate, they compare the clas­ sification of materials with rate charts. They may keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damages to goods in transit. Shipping clerks are responsible for all ship­ ments leaving a place of business. Before goods are sent to a customer, these clerks make sure the order has been filled correctly, or may fill the order themselves. They obtain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping containers. Clerks also address and label packages, look up and compute either freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They also may pre­ pare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it—sometimes by forklift truck— to the shipping dock and direct its loading into vehicles according to its destination. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some stock clerk duties. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on stock clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer’s or­ ders have been correctly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They record the shipment and the condition of its contents. As more and more industries move toward automating their shipping and receiving operations, receiving clerks increasingly are recording much of the necessary data by using hand-held scanners and readers to read the bar codes on incoming products. After recording this information, they connect the scanner or reader to a personal computer and transfer the data to be processed. Clerks also arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchan­ dise is lost or damaged. The job also may include routing or moving shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom and providing information that is the basis of a computerized inventory system. Working Conditions Although shipping and receiving clerks gen­ erally work in warehouses or in shipping and receiving rooms, they may spend considerable time on outside loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Workplaces often are large, unpartitioned areas that may be drafty, cold, and littered with packing materials. Most clerks have to stand for long periods while they check merchandise. Locating num­ bers and descriptions on cartons often requires a great deal of bending, stooping, stretching, and lifting. Also, under the pressure of getting shipments moved on time, clerks sometimes may help load or unload materials in the ware­ house. Night work and overtime, including work on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, may be necessary when shipments have been unduly  254/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks were about $15,400 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $11,500 and $20,700 a year. Ten per­ cent earned less than $9,100, and 10 percent more than $25,900. Shipping and receiving clerks in urban areas earned an average annual salary of $18,100 in 1986. This was about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in­ dustry, except farming. Salaries vary substan­ tially, however, by type of employer. Shipping and receiving clerks employed in the services industry averaged $16,300; those working for wholesale houses averaged $17,100; and those employed by public utilities averaged $24,100. Shipping and receiving clerks working in the Midwest tended to have the highest salaries, while those in the Northeast had the lowest.  More and more clerks are using computers to maintain records of shipments. delayed or when materials are needed imme­ diately on production lines. Shipping and re­ ceiving clerks receive time and one-half for work over 40 hours. Employment Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held about 548,000 jobs in 1986. Eight of every ten workers were employed by wholesale estab­ lishments, retail stores, and manufacturing companies. Although jobs for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where factories and wholesale establishments gen­ erally are located. About 1 out of 10 traffic, shipping, and re­ ceiving clerks works part time. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation usually is required for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving de­ partments. Business arithmetic, typing, and other high school business subjects are helpful. The ability to write legibly and keep orderly records is important. In general, jobseekers must demonstrate that they can master com­ pany procedures, including the use of auto­ mated equipment. With the rapidly growing use of computers for inventory control and other recordkeeping purposes, the jobs of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are increasingly machine oriented. Willingness to work at repetitive tasks, de­ pendability, and an interest in learning about the firm’s products and business activities are other qualities that employers seek. New employees usually are trained on the job by an experienced worker. As part of their training, they often file, check addresses, at­ tach labels, and check items included in ship­ ments. As clerks gain experience, they may be assigned tasks requiring a good deal of inde­ pendent judgment, such as handling problems  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with damaged merchandise, or supervising other workers in shipping or receiving rooms. A job as a traffic, shipping, or receiving clerk offers a good opportunity for new workers in a firm to learn about their company’s products and business practices. Some clerks may be promoted to head traffic, shipping, or receiving clerk; warehouse manager; or purchasing agent. (Purchasing agents are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Very experienced workers with a broad understanding of shipping and receiv­ ing may enter related fields such as industrial traffic management.  Job Outlook Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth will continue to be affected by automation, as all but the smallest firms move to hold down labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of materials handling have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, ro­ bots, computer-directed trucks, and automatic storage and retrieval systems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in receiving departments, is expected to hold down em­ ployment growth. Despite automation, job openings will arise due to increasing economic activity and be­ cause certain functions cannot be automated. For example, someone needs to check ship­ ments before they go out and when they arrive to ensure that everything is in order. However, most job openings will occur because of the need to replace traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks who leave the occupation. Because this is an entry level occupation, many vacancies are created by normal career progression.  Related Occupations Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a com­ pany receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform sim­ ilar duties are stock clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks.  Typists and Word Processors (D.O.T. 203.362-010 and -022, .382-010, .582-034, -066, and -078, and 209.382-010)  Nature of the Work A rapid flow of communication is essential to the modem office. Typists and word processors help maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies of handwritten, printed, and recorded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, address envelopes, or prepare simple forms for standard tabula­ tions. As they gain experience, they may begin to do routine typing, such as insurance policies, or to type from handwritten drafts. Often, they perform other office tasks as well: Answering telephones, filing, and operating copiers, cal­ culators, and other office machines. More experienced typists do work that re­ quires a higher degree of accuracy and inde­ pendent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts that are difficult to read or that contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Increasingly, word processing centers han­ dle the transcription and typing for several de­ partments within an organization. Word pro-  Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/255  cessors, sometimes called word-processingmachine operators, use word processing equip­ ment to record, edit, store, and revise corre­ spondence, reports, statistical tables, forms, and other materials. Word processing equip­ ment normally includes a keyboard, a video display terminal, and a printer, and may have “add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition readers. Many word processors work in large, centralized word processing cen­ ters that are relatively isolated from other de­ partments. Others, however, are located in smaller areas that are physically dispersed throughout the organization, and they work fairly closely with other employees. Job titles of typists vary by duties performed and work setting. For example, clerk typists combine typing with filing, sorting mail, an­ swering telephones, and other general office work. Bordereau clerks compile data and type applications for insurance companies. Notereaders transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard formats. Continuity clerks aid movie editors by typing descriptive records of motion picture scenes, including such things as dialog, wardrobe, hairstyle, and en­ trances and exits of actors. Working Conditions Typists and word processors usually work in offices that are clean. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines, such as printers, or with lighting that may be in­ appropriate if they are using a video terminal. Much recent research on occupational health and safety has been concerned with the hazards to physical and mental health posed by new types of office equipment. Studies have found that word processors who work full time on video terminals experience musculoskeletal strain, eye problems, and stress. Increasingly, studies are focusing on the risk of miscarriage, birth defects, and other pregnancy complica­ tions that may be experienced by women who work at terminals extensively. Typists and word processors generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, es­ pecially in the Northeast, the scheduled work­ week is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flex­ ible working arrangements; many typists and word processors hold temporary jobs and 1 in 4 works part time. Some of these part-time workers are self-employed freelance typists or word processors; others take short-term jobs through temporary help agencies. Some em­ ployers are experimenting with “home based” offices—sophisticated computerized equip­ ment installed in workers’ homes enabling them to transcribe material at home and, almost in­ stantly, produce printed copy in an office miles away. These “telecommuting” jobs often do not include the full range of fringe benefits that office workers enjoy, and they lack the ad­ vantages of social interaction on the job. Employment Typists and word processors held 1,002,000 jobs in 1986 and were employed in every sector  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  These workers increasingly use word processors and personal computers instead of conventional typewriters. of the economy. Approximately one-third worked for business firms. About one-third held jobs in educational institutions, hospitals, law offices, and firms that provide business ser­ vices. Among the latter are temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. About one-quarter worked in Federal, State, and local government agencies. IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who can meet their requirements for typing speed. Increasingly, employers expect appli­ cants to have word processing training or ex­ perience. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar skills are important, and familiarity with stan­ dard office equipment and procedures is an asset. Because typists and word processors of­ ten work for many people at one time, good interpersonal skills are helpful. Typing can be learned in different ways— in high schools, community colleges, business schools, home study schools, or on one’s own, using self-teaching aids such as books, records, and personal computers. Some people learn to type for personal convenience, or because it is a useful skill for other jobs. Word processing is taught in many community colleges and busi­ ness schools and is beginning to be taught in high schools. Large companies and government agencies  generally have training programs to help cler­ ical employees upgrade their skills and advance to more responsible positions, including that of typist. Nonetheless, the proportion of job openings filled by workers who transfer from other occupations is lower than average. People who become typists and word processors tend to come from outside the labor force; they are younger than average, and many probably have never worked before. The proportion of typists and word processors who transfer to other oc­ cupations is higher than average, suggesting that typing and word processing serve as steppingstones to higher paying, more responsible jobs. It is common for typists and word pro­ cessors to transfer to another clerical job, such as secretary, statistical clerk, or stenographer, or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing center. Job Outlook Employment of typists and word processors is expected to decline through the year 2000 de­ spite the “information explosion” and rapid growth in the volume of business transactions. This is an indication of significant productivity improvements among office workers due to the widespread use of automated office equipment, especially word processing equipment. Jobs will be plentiful in this very large oc­ cupation, however, because of replacement needs. Every year, a substantial number of  256/Occupational Outlook Handbook  typists and word processors transfer to other kinds of jobs or leave the labor force tempo­ rarily—chiefly because of household respon­ sibilities or to attend school. With the installation of word processing equipment, the productivity of typists has risen dramatically, for such equipment allows work to be undertaken to a degree of complexity and in amounts that would have been impossible in the past. Improvements in optical character recognition technology (whereby a machine reads and types documents) are occurring, and widespread commercial application during the 1990’s is likely. This will appreciably reduce the typing workload. In addition, more and more professionals and managers are using desktop personal computers and executive work stations, and are handling an increasing portion of the work previously delegated to support staff, especially word processing. Researchers are working to develop voiceactivated typewriters. Although it is likely that such machines will be perfected sometime dur­ ing the 1990's, it is doubtful that they will be inexpensive enough to be widely used by the year 2000. However, when this technology fi­ nally is in place throughout the economy, it is expected to result in a sharp drop in the demand for typists and word processors.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job prospects should be brightest for those typists and word processors with the best tech­ nical skills. In particular, the more word pro­ cessing “languages” word processors know— especially the more complex ones—the better their job opportunities will be.  Earnings Beginning typists averaged $12,600 a year in 1986; those with experience averaged $ 16,900. Median annual earnings of all full-time typists were about $14,400 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $11,400 and $18,300. Ten percent earned less than $9,500 and 10 percent earned more than $22,900. According to a survey by the Administrative Management Society, word processing oper­ ators in the private sector earned average an­ nual salaries ranging from $14,000 to $18,100 in 1986, depending on the complexity of the work and the level of responsibility. Starting salaries for clerk typists in the Fed­ eral Government ranged from $10,800 to $13,200 a year in 1987, depending on edu­ cation, skills, and experience. Average yearly earnings for clerk typists in the Federal Gov­ ernment were about $12,400 in 1986. Typists’ salaries vary by industry. They tend  to be highest in public utilities and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Regardless of industry, typists generally receive higher salaries if they have word processing experi­ ence. Most typists in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of ser­ vice, vacations may range up to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are pro­ vided. Related Occupations Many other office workers use typing skills. Among these are secretaries, stenographers, receptionists, office machine operators, per­ sonnel clerks, and administrative assistants. Sources of Additional Information Brochures describing a career as a word pro­ cessing operator are available from; Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036.  State employment offices can provide in­ formation about job openings for typists.  Service Occupations Protective service occupations Correction Officers (D.O.T. 372.367-014, .567-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367)  Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the safety and security of persons who have been arrested, are awaiting trial, or who have been tried and convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institution. Correction officers may escort prisoners in transit between courtrooms, correctional institutions, and other points. They maintain order within the insti­ tution, enforce rules and regulations, and often supplement the counseling that inmates receive from psychologists, social workers, and other mental health professionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers monitor inmates’ ac­ tivities, such as working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise in­ mates’ work assignments, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and their liv­ ing quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce dis­ cipline. Correction officers cannot show fa­ voritism and must report any inmate who vi­ olates the rules. To prevent escapes, officers serve as guards on towers and at gates. They count inmates periodically to make sure all are present. Correction officers inspect the facilities to assure the safety and security of the prisoners. They check cells and other areas of the in­ stitution for unsanitary conditions, fire haz­ ards, and evidence of infraction of rules by inmates. Periodically, they inspect locks, win­ dow bars, grill doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Correction officers report orally and in writ­ ing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily record of their activities. In some modern fa­ cilities, correction officers monitor the activ­ ities of prisoners from a centralized control center with the aid of dosed circuit television cameras. Correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized visitors within the facility. From time to time, they may inspect mail for con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  traband (prohibited items), administer first aid, or assist police authorities by investigating crimes committed within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates with prob­ lems are increasingly important parts of the correction officer’s job. Correctional institu­ tions usually employ psychologists and social workers to counsel inmates, but correction of­ ficers informally supplement the work of the professionals. They may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can visit the library, help inmates get news of their families, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from prison. In some institutions, officers have a more formal coun­ seling role and may lead or participate in group counseling sessions. Correction sergeants directly supervise cor­ rection officers. They usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the ac­ tivities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an assigned area. Working Conditions Correction officers may work indoors or out­ doors, according to their duties. Some indoor areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, weather conditions may be disa­ greeable. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous; correction of­ ficers occasionally have been injured or killed during inmate riots. Correction officers usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which means some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. During emergencies, officers may work over­ time. Employment Correction officers held about 176,000 jobs in 1986. About three-fifths worked at State cor­ rectional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformatories. Most of the re­ mainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institutions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside metropolitan areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns.  Correction officers inspect cells and other areas of the institution on a regular basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correction offi­ cers be at least 18 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or quali­ fying work experience. However, the mini­ mum age is 21 in some institutions. In addi­ tion, correctional institutions increasingly seek correction officers with postsecondary educa­ tion in psychology, criminology, and related fields—reflecting an increased emphasis on personal counseling and rehabilitation of in­ mates. Correction officers must be in good health. Many States require candidates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Some States require candidates to pass a written ex­ amination. The Federal Government, as well as almost every State and a few localities, provides train­ ing for correction officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional As­ sociation. Some States have special training academies. All States and local departments of correction, however, provide informal on-thejob training. Academy trainees generally receive several weeks or months of instruction on institutional 257  258/Occupational Outlook Handbook  policies, regulations, and operations; counsel­ ing psychology, crisis intervention, inmate be­ havior, and contraband; custody and security procedures; inmate rules and rights; adminis­ trative responsibilities; written and oral com­ munication, including preparation of reports; self-defense, including the use of firearms; and physical fitness training. New Federal correc­ tion officers undergo 2 weeks of training at their assigned institutions followed by 3 weeks of basic correctional instruction at the Federal Bureau of Prisons training center at Glenco, California. On-the-job trainees receive several weeks or months of similar training in an ac­ tual job setting under an experienced officer. Experienced officers receive inservice train­ ing to keep abreast of new ideas and proce­ dures. Correction officers employed in Michigan must be certified. The criteria for certification are 340 hours of academy training and 15 hours of more advanced training that includes the law regarding corrections; human growth and de­ velopment; and prison organization. With additional education, experience, or training, qualified officers may advance to cor­ rection sergeant or other supervisory, admin­ istrative, or counseling positions. Many cor­ rectional institutions require experience as a correction officer for other corrections posi­ tions. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole. Job Outlook Employment of correction officers is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000 as additional officers are hired to supervise and counsel an increasing inmate population and to relieve ten­ sions in already crowded correctional institu­ tions. Expansion and new construction of cor­ rectional facilities are also expected to create many new jobs for correction officers. The adoption of proposed mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and re­ duced parole for inmates could spur even more demand for correction officers. Most job open­ ings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or transfer to other occupations. Difficult working conditions contribute to a particularly high turnover rate. Employment of correction officers is not usually affected by changes either in economic conditions or the overall level of government spending because security must be maintained . in correctional institutions at all times. Even when corrections budgets are cut, correction officers are rarely laid off. With the high turn­ over in this occupation, staffs can be cut quickly just by not replacing those who leave. Earnings According to a 1985 survey by the International Personnel Management Association, earnings of correction officers varied widely by level of government. At the local level, correction of­ ficers had median earnings of about $18,300 a year. Starting pay averaged $17,100 in jails  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and other county and municipal correctional institutions, and top earnings of correction of­ ficers averaged $21,500. At the State level, correction officers had median earnings of about $17,500 a year in 1985. Starting pay averaged $15,700 and max­ imum earnings averaged $21,400. At the Federal level, the starting salary was $14,800 per year in 1987; correction sergeants and other supervisory officers could advance to salaries of more than $35,000. The aver­ age salary for all Federal correction officers and correction sergeants was about $20,400 in 1986. Correction officers usually are provided uni­ forms or an allowance to purchase their own. Most are provided or can participate in hos­ pitalization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disability and life in­ surance at group rates. Officers employed by the Federal Government and most State gov­ ernments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in the pro­ tective services and the field of security. Bail­ iffs guard offenders and maintain order in courtrooms during proceedings. Bodyguards escort people and protect them from injury or invasion of privacy. House or store detectives patrol business establishments to protect against theft and vandalism and to enforce standards of good behavior. Security guards protect gov­ ernment, commercial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open to persons interested in working with offenders. Proba­ tion and parole officers counsel offenders, pro­ cess their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming pro­ ductive members of society. Recreation lead­ ers organize and instruct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Some of these related occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for correction officers may be obtained from the Federal Of­ fice of Personnel Management, State civil ser­ vice commissions, State departments of cor­ rection, or nearby correctional institutions and facilities. ■ Information on corrections careers, as well as information about schools that offer criminal justice education, financial assistance, and job listings, is available from: Contact, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, NE 68501.  Additional information on careers in cor­ rections is available from: The American Correctional Association, 4321 Hartwick Rd., College Park, MD 20740.  Firefighting Occupations (D.O.T. 373 except .117; 379.687-010; 452.134, .364­ 014. .687-014)  Nature of the Work Every year, fires take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Fire­ fighters help protect the public against this dan­ ger. This statement gives information only about career firefighters; it does not cover volunteer firefighters, who make up the overwhelming majority of all firefighters in the Nation. During duty hours, firefighters must be pre­ pared to respond to a fire and handle any emer­ gency that arises. Because firefighting is dan­ gerous and complicated, it requires organization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters per­ form specific duties assigned by an officer such as a lieutenant, captain, or chief. They may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. They may rescue victims and administer emer­ gency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled areas, operate equipment, and salvage the contents of buildings. Some firefighters operate fire ap­ paratus, ambulances, emergency rescue vehi­ cles, and fireboats. Most fire departments also are responsible for fire prevention. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. In addition, firefighters ed­ ucate the public about fire prevention and safety measures. They frequently speak on this sub­ ject before school assemblies and civic groups. Between alarms, they have classroom train­ ing, clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and partic­ ipate in physical fitness activities. Firefighters also prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of technological developments and adminis­ trative practices and policies. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have facilities for din­ ing and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods at fires, hazardous chemical incidents, and other emergencies on their feet and out­ doors, sometimes in adverse weather. Firefighting is one of the most hazardous occupations. It involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Fire­ fighters also may come in contact with poi­ sonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. Work hours of firefighters vary widely. In some cities, for example, firefighters are on  Service Occupations/259  duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. On average, firefighters work about 50 hours a week. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergen­ cies. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may include some time when firefighters are free to read and study. Employment Firefighters held about 279,000 jobs in 1986. More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Some firefighters work in fire departments on Federal and State in­ stallations, including airports. Private fire­ fighting companies employ a small number. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a written test, a medical exami­ nation, and tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility. These examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chances for appointment. Extra credit usually is given for military service and education. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or in the Armed Forces and completion of com­ munity college courses in fire science also may improve an applicant’s chances for appoint­ ment. In fact, in recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupation have some postsecondary education. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the depart­ ment’s training center. Through classroom in­ struction and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, haz­ ardous materials, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures; also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they are evaluated during a probationary period. A small but growing number of fire depart­ ments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers sub­ jects such as firefighting techniques and equip­ ment, chemical hazards associated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Most experienced firefighters continue to study to improve their job performance and pre­ pare for promotion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, firefighters must ac­ quire expertise in the most advanced firefighting equipment and techniques and in building con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Because firefighting is complicated and dangerous, it requires teamwork. struction, emergency medical procedures, writ­ ing, public speaking, management and budg­ eting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments frequently conduct training pro­ grams, and some firefighters attend training ses­ sions sponsored by the National Fire Academy on a variety of topics such as executive devel­ opment, anti-arson techniques, and public fire safety and education. Most States also have ex­ tensive firefighter training programs. Many colleges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire science that are helpful to firefighters, and fire departments often offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay to pursue ad­ vanced training. Many fire captains and other supervisory personnel have college training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, courage, mechanical ap­ titude, endurance, and a sense of public ser­ vice. Initiative and good judgment are ex­  tremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergencies. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Lead­ ership qualities are assets for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experi­ ence, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become el­ igible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of further promotion usually is to cap­ tain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, dep­ uty chief, and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores on a written examination, performance on the job, and sen­ iority. Increasingly, fire departments are using  260/Occupational Outlook Handbook  assessment centers—which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks—to screen for the best candidates for promotion. However, many fire departments require a master’s de­ gree—preferably in public administration or a related field—for promotion to positions higher than battalion chief. Job Outlook Employment of firefighters is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000 due to the in­ crease in the Nation’s population and fire protection needs. Employment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire prevention sections. However, little employment growth is expected in large, urban fire departments. Much of the expected increase will occur in smaller communities with expanding populations that augment volunteers with career firefighters to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. A small, but increasing number of local govern­ ments are expected to contract for firefighting services with private companies. Turnover of firefighter jobs is unusually low, particularly for an occupation that requires a relatively limited investment in formal edu­ cation. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace those who retire or stop working for other rea­ sons, or who transfer to other occupations. Firefighting attracts many people because a high school education is sufficient, earnings are relatively high, a pension is guaranteed upon retirement, and promotion is possible to pro­ gressively more responsible positions on the ba­ sis of merit. In addition, the work is frequently exciting and challenging and affords an oppor­ tunity to perform a valuable public service. Consequently, the number of qualified appli­ cants in most areas generally exceeds the num­ ber ofjob openings, even though the written ex­ amination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist through the year 2000. Opportunities should be best in smaller communities. Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire-protection coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment pur­ chases or the hiring of new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. Earnings According to a 1985 survey by the International Personnel Management Association, nonsupervisory firefighters had a median salary of about $20,900 a year, but their earnings varied considerably depending on city size and region of the country. Earnings for firefighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and generally are higher in large cities than in small ones. Entrance salaries for beginning full­ time firefighters averaged about $18,600 a year, while maximum salaries averaged $24,100 a year.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Fire lieutenants had a median annual salary of about $25,800 in 1985. Their starting annual salaries averaged $23,900, and maximum sal­ aries about $28,400. Fire captains had a median salary of about $28,500 a year in 1985. They started at an average annual salary of $26,700, and could advance to an average maximum salary of $32,000. Some fire captains had salaries in excess of $57,000 a year. The law requires that overtime be paid to those firefighters who average 53 hours or more a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Practically all fire departments provide pro­ tective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. The majority of career firefighters are mem­ bers of the International Association of Fire Fighters (AFL-CIO).  with the size, type, and location of their em­ ployer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, mer­ chandise, money, and equipment. In depart­ ment stores, they often work with undercover detectives watching for theft by customers or store employees. At ports, airports, and railroads, guards pro­ tect merchandise being shipped as well as prop­ erty and equipment. They screen passengers and visitors for weapons, explosives, and other forbidden articles. They insure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paintings and exhibits. They also answer routine ques­ tions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In factories, laboratories, government build­ ings, data processing centers, and military bases where valuable property or information—such as information on new products, computer codes, or defense secrets—must be protected, Related Occupations guards check the credentials of persons and Firefighters work to prevent fires and to save vehicles entering and leaving the premises. lives and property when fires and other emer­ University, park, or recreation guards perform gencies such as explosions and chemical spills similar duties and also may issue parking per­ do occur. Related fire protection occupations mits and direct traffic. Golf course patrollers include wild-land firefighters and fire-protec­ prevent unauthorized persons from using the tion engineers, who identify fire hazards in facility and help keep play running smoothly. homes and workplaces and design prevention At social affairs, sports events, conventions, programs and automatic fire detection and ex­ and other public gatherings, guards maintain tinguishing systems. Other occupations in which order, give information, and watch for persons workers respond to emergencies include police who may cause trouble. Some guards work as officers and emergency medical technicians. bouncers and patrol places of entertainment such as nightclubs to preserve order among Sources of Additional Information customers and protect property. Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter Armored car guards protect money and valu­ is available from local civil service offices or ables during transit. Bodyguards protect in­ fire departments. dividuals from bodily injury, kidnapping, or Information about a career as a firefighter invasion of privacy. may be obtained from: In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small International Association of Fire Chiefs. 1329 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. organization, a single worker may be respon­ sible for security. Patrolling usually is done on International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New foot, but if the property is large, guards may York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As Information about firefighter professional more businesses purchase advanced electronic qualifications may be obtained from: security systems to protect their property, more National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch guards are being assigned to stations where Park, Quincy, MA 02269. they monitor these systems. In many cases, Additional information on the salaries and these guards maintain radio contact with other hours of work of firefighters in various cities guards patrolling on foot or in motor vehicles. is published annually by the International City As they make their rounds, guards check all Management Association in its Municipal doors and windows, see that no unauthorized Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler sys­ tems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for janitorial workers. (D.O.T. 372.563, .567-010, .667-010, -014, and -030 Guards usually dre uniformed and may carry through -038: 376.667-010; and 379,667-010) a nightstick and gun, although the use of guns is decreasing. They also may carry a flashlight, Nature of the Work whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock— Guards, also called security officers, patrol and a device that indicates the time at which they inspect property to protect against fire, theft, reach various checkpoints. vandalism, and illegal entry. Their duties vary Correction officers—guards who work in  Guards  Service Occupations/261  prisons and other correctional institutions—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.  Working Conditions Guards work indoors and outdoors patrolling buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. In­ doors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or check the credentials of persons en­ tering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Since guards often work alone, no one may be nearby to help if an accident or injury oc­ curs. Some large firms, therefore, use a re­ porting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and mem­ bers of the public. Many guards work alone at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break.  Employment Guards held about 794,000 jobs in 1986. In­ dustrial security firms and guard agencies em­ ployed about one-half of all guards. These organizations provide security services on con­ tract, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. The other half were in­ house guards, employed in large numbers by banks; building management companies; ho­ tels; hospitals; retail stores; restaurants and bars; schools, colleges, and universities; and Fed­ eral, State, and local governments. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas.  Guards use two-way radios to maintain con­ tact with other security personnel. Applicants are expected to have good char­ acter references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good personal habits such as neatness and de­ pendability. They should be mentally alert and emotionally stable. Guards must be physically fit to cope with emergencies. Some employers require applicants to take a polygraph exami­ nation or a written test of honesty, attitudes, and other personal qualities. Virtually all States and the District of Co­ lumbia have licensing or registration require­ ments for guards who work for contract se­ curity agencies. Registration generally requires that employment of an individual as a guard be reported to the licensing authorities—the State police department or other State licensing commission. To be granted a license as a guard, individuals generally must be 18 years old, have no convictions for perjury or acts of vi­  olence, pass a background examination, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and seizure of suspected criminals. In 1986, only about five States and the District of Columbia had licensing requirements for in-house guards. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as a guard and pass a written examination. Armed Forces experience also is an asset. For most Federal guard positions, applicants must qual­ ify in the use of firearms. The amount of training guards receive var­ ies. Training requirements generally are in­ creasing as modem, highly sophisticated se­ curity systems become more commonplace. Many employers give newly hired guards in­ struction before they start the job and also pro­ vide several weeks of on-the-job training. Guards receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, and specialized train­ ing relevant to their particular assignment. Guards at nuclear power plants may undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. Guards may be taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested in their use according to State or local laws. Some guards are periodically tested for strength and endur­ ance. Although guards in small companies receive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organiza­ tions use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and salary. Guard ex­ perience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancement. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve administrative duties or the pre­ vention of espionage and sabotage. A few guards with management skills open their own contract security guard agencies.  While most protective service jobs are in government, guards are concentrated in firms that provide guard services on a contract basis. Distribution of guard employment, 1986  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Applicants with less than a high school education also can qualify if they pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate competence in following written and oral in­ structions. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Employers also seek people who have had ex­ perience in the military police or in State and local police departments. Most persons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Because of limited formal training requirements and flex­ ible hours, this occupation attracts some per­ sons seeking a second job. For some entrants, retired from military careers or other protective services, guard employment is a second career.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  1 Manufacturing Finance, insurance, and real estate Wholesale and retail trade Services  I Government Other 2%  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  262/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as guards are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. High turnover in this large occupation ranks it among those providing the greatest number of job openings in the entire economy. Many opportunities are expected for persons seeking full-time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at night or on weekends. However, competition is ex­ pected for in-house guard positions. Compared to contract security guards, in-house guards enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more advancement potential, and are usually given more training and responsi­ bility. Employment of guards is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increased concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism will heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, offices, and recreation areas. The level of business investment in increasingly expen­ sive plant and equipment is expected to rise, resulting in growth in the number of guard jobs. Demand for guards will also grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties— such as monitoring crowds at airports and pro­ viding security in courts—formerly handled by government police officers and marshals. (Po­ lice and detectives are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.) Because en­ gaging the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct re­ sponsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agencies. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies occasionally are laid off when the firm at which they work does not renew its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employment with other agencies, how­ ever. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or factory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily. Earnings Guards working in 23 urban areas averaged an estimated $5.32 an hour in 1986. Those work­ ing in the Midwestern States earned more than the average, while guards employed in the South earned somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were estimated to average $9.69 in manufac­ turing; $9.55 in public utilities and transpor­ tation; $7.25 in banking, finance, insurance, and real estate; $7.59 in wholesale trade; $6.45 in retail trade; and $4.49 in the various service industries, including security and guard agen­ cies. Guards with specialized training or some supervisory responsibilities averaged $7.94 an hour, while those with less training and re­ sponsibility averaged $4.99 an hour. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies generally started at or slightly above the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour in 1986. Unionized in-house guards tend to earn more than the average. Many guards are represented  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  by the United Plant Guard Workers of Amer­ ica. Other guards belong to the International Union of Guards or the International Union of Security Officers. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned be­ tween $11,800 and $13,300 a year in 1987. Guards employed by the Federal Government averaged about $15,400 a year in 1986. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Many guards have paid vacations, sick leave, and insurance and pension plans. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations for entry and conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations in­ clude: Bailiffs, border guards, correction of­ ficers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, police officers, and private investigators. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local employers and the nearest State employment service of­ fice. Information about registration and licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local juris­ dictions establish licensing requirements, con­ tact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Information about Federal Government con­ tract guard job requirements is presented in the Contract Guard Information Manual, GPO Publication No. 022-00-00192-2, which may be purchased from the U.S. Government Print­ ing Office, Washington, DC 20402.  Police, Detectives, and Special Agents (D.O.T. 168.167-010; 372.137. .167-018, .363. .367­ 010; 375.133 through .137-018. .137-026 through . 167­ 014, -022, -030 through -046, .263 through .363, .384; 377.264; 379.263-014)  Nature of the Work The safety of our Nation's cities, towns, and highways greatly depends on the work of po­ lice, detectives, and special agents, whose re­ sponsibilities range from controlling traffic to preventing and investigating crimes. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. As civilian police department employees and private security personnel increasingly assume routine police duties, police and detectives are able to spend more time fighting serious crime. Police and detectives are also becoming more involved in public relations—increasing public confidence in the police and instructing the  public in the best ways to help the police fight crime. Police and detectives who work in small communities and rural areas have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a bur­ glary, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police department, by contrast, of­ ficers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to special work such as accident prevention. Others are experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms identification, and hand­ writing and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with spe­ cial units such as mounted and motorcycle po­ lice, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid ser­ vices. Detectives and special agents are plain­ clothes investigators who gather facts and col­ lect evidence for criminal cases. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the ac­ tivities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) spe­ cial agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, theft of Government property, organized crime, espi­ onage, sabotage, kidnapping, and terrorism. Agents with specialized training usually work on cases related to their background. For ex­ ample, agents with an accounting background may investigate white-collar crimes such as bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankrupt­ cies and land deals. Frequently, agents must testify in court about cases that they investi­ gate. Special agents employed by the U.S. Depart­ ment of the Treasury work for the U.S. Cus­ toms Service; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; the U.S. Secret Service; and the Internal Revenue Service. Customs agents en­ force laws preventing the illegal smuggling of goods across U.S. borders. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents might investigate suspected illegal sales of guns or the underpayment of taxes by a liquor or cigarette manufacturer. U.S. Secret Service agents protect the Presi­ dent, Vice President, and their immediate fam­ ilies, Presidential candidates, ex-Presidents, and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate coun­ terfeiting, the forgery of Government checks or bonds, and the fraudulent use of credit cards. Internal Revenue Service special agents collect evidence against individuals and companies that are evading the payment of Federal taxes. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol highways and enforce laws and regulations that govern their use. They issue traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment including ambulances. They also write reports which may be used to determine the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide ser­ vices to motorists on the highways. For ex-  Service Occupations/263  ample, they radio for road service for drivers with mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic as­ sistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as during spe­ cial occurrences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driver exami­ nations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibilities, State police in the majority of States also enforce criminal laws. In communities and counties that do not have a local police force or a large sheriff’s department, the State police are the primary law enforcement agency, investigating crimes such as burglary or assault. They also may help city or county police catch lawbreak­ ers and control civil disturbances. Most new police recruits begin on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on “foot” patrol. They work alone or with senior officers in such varied areas as congested busi­ ness districts or outlying residential neighbor­ hoods. New officers attempt to become thor­ oughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for any­ thing unusual. They note suspicious circum­ stances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen automobiles. At regular intervals, officers report to police headquarters from call boxes, radios, or telephones. Police, detectives, and special agents also write reports and maintain police records. They may testify in court when their arrests result in legal action. Some officers, such as division or bureau chiefs, are responsible for training or certain kinds of criminal investigations, and those who command police operations in an assigned area have administrative and super­ visory duties. Working Conditions Police, detectives, and special agents usually work 40 hours a week. Because police pro­ tection must be provided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and special agents are subject to call any time their services are needed and may work overtime, particularly during criminal in­ vestigations. The jobs of some special agents such as U.S. Secret Service agents require extensive travel. Police, detectives, and special agents may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate among police, detectives, and special agents is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks taken in pursuing speeding motorists, apprehending criminals, and dealing with public disorders. Employment Police, detectives, and special agents held about 489,000 jobs in 1986. Most were employed by  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  h  Is  Police officers write reports which may be used to detemine the cause of an accident. local governments, primarily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. State police agencies employed about 10 percent of all police, detectives, and special agents; various Federal agencies, particularly the Treasury Department and the Federal Bu­ reau of Investigation, employed an additional 5 percent. There are about 17,000 State and local police departments in the Nation. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appoint­ ment of police and detectives in practically all States and large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Eligibility for appointment depends on performance in competitive written examinations as well as on education and experience. Physical examina­ tions often include tests of vision, strength, and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of re­ sponsibility are especially important in police and detective work, candidates are interviewed by a senior officer at police headquarters, and their character traits and background are in­ vestigated. In some police departments, can­ didates also may be interviewed by a psychi­  atrist or a psychologist, or be given a personality test. Many applicants are subjected to lie de­ tector examinations and drug testing. Although police and detectives work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with laws and departmental rules. They should en­ joy working with people and serving the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, applicants usually must have a high school education. An increasing number of cit­ ies and States require some college training, and some hire law enforcement students as police interns; some departments require a col­ lege degree. A few police departments accept applicants who have less than a high school education as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an applicant must be a graduate of an accredited law school or a college grad­ uate with a major in either accounting, engi­ neering, or computer science; be fluent in a foreign language; or have at least 3 years of full-time work experience. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, between 23 and 35 years of age, and willing to accept an assignment anywhere in the United States. They also must be in excellent physical condition with at least 20/ 40 vision in one eye, 20/200 vision in the other eye, and 20/20 corrected vision. All new agents undergo 15 weeks of training at the FBI acad­ emy at the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. /  264/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Department of the Treasury must have a bachelor’s degree, or a minimum of 3 years’ work experience of which at least 2 are in criminal investigation, or a comparable com­ bination of experience and education. Candi­ dates must be in excellent physical condition and be less than 35 years of age at the time of entrance on duty. Treasury agents undergo 8 weeks of training at the Federal Law Enforce­ ment Training Center in Glenco, California, and another 8 weeks of specialized training with their particular bureau. More and more, police departments are en­ couraging applicants to take post-high school training in law enforcement. Many entrants to police and detective jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education; a significant number are college graduates. Many junior col­ leges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police career include psychology, counseling, Eng­ lish, American history, public administration, public relations, sociology, business law, chemistry, physics, and driver education. Physical education and sports are especially helpful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. Knowledge of a for­ eign language is an asset in areas that have concentrations of ethnic populations. Some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as civilian police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes and are appointed to the regular force at age 21 if qualified. Before their first assignments, officers usu­ ally go through a period of training. In small communities, recruits work for a short time with experienced officers. In State and large city police departments, they get more formal training that may last a number of weeks or months. This training includes classroom in­ struction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and han­ dling emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large depart­ ment, promotion may allow an officer to be­ come a detective or specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory analysis of evi­ dence, traffic control, communications, or working with juveniles. Promotions to ser­ geant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate's position on a pro­ motion list, as determined by scores on a writ­ ten examination and on-the-job performance. Many types of training help police officers and detectives improve their job performance and advancement. Through training given at police department academies—required an­ nually in many States—and colleges, officers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil defense, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforcement equip­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ment. Many police departments pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward college associate and bachelor’s degrees in law en­ forcement, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn a degree.  $21,700. They started at an average of $18,900 a year and could reach an average maximum of $25,100 a year. Police and detective sergeants had a median annual salary of about $26,700 in 1985. They started at an average of $24,500 a year and could advance to an average maximum of $29,500 a year. Police and detective lieuten­ ants had a median annual salary of $30,400 and started at an average of $27,800 a year. With experience and satisfactory job perfor­ mance, they could advance to an average max­ imum salary of $33,600 a year in 1985. The law requires that overtime be paid to those police officers and detectives who av­ erage 43 or more hours a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. In 1987, starting FBI agents earned about $24,700 a year, and starting U.S. Treasury Department agents earned about $14,800 or $18,400 a year. Salaries of experienced FBI agents started at around $38,700, while su­ pervisory agents started at around $45,800 a year. Salaries of experienced U.S. Treasury Department agents started at $32,600, while supervisory agents started at $45,800. Police departments usually provide officers with special allowances for uniforms and fur­ nish revolvers, nightsticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. Because police officers generally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service.  Job Outlook Employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the increase in the Nation’s population and police protection needs. How­ ever, employment growth may be tempered by continuing budgetary constraints—resulting in the increased use of lower paid civilian police department employees in parking enforcement and various clerical, administrative, and tech­ nical support positions. In addition, private se­ curity firms may increasingly assume some routine police duties such as crowd surveillance at airports and other public places. Although turnover of police, detective, and special agent jobs is among the lowest of all occupations, the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of most jobopenings. The opportunity for public service through police work is attractive to many. The job fre­ quently is challenging and involves much re­ sponsibility. Furthermore, in some commu­ nities, police officers may retire with a pension to pursue a second career before age 50. Al­ though written examinations and strict physical requirements always eliminate many appli­ Related Occupations cants, competition is expected to remain keen Police officers maintain law and order in the for job openings, particularly for higher paying Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Work­ jobs in large police departments, through the ers in related law enforcement occupations in­ year 2000. Because of attractive salaries and clude guards, bailiffs, correction officers, dep­ benefits, the number of qualified candidates uty sheriffs, fire marshals, fish and game exceeds the number of job openings in many wardens, and U.S. marshals. Federal agencies and State and local police departments—resulting in increased hiring Sources of Additional Information standards and selectivity by employers. The Information about entrance requirements may outlook should be best for persons having col­ be obtained from Federal, State, and local civil lege training in law enforcement. service commissions or police departments. Competition is expected to be extremely keen Additional information on the salaries and for special agent positions with the FBI and hours of work of police and detectives in var­ U.S. Treasury Department as these prestigious ious cities is published annually by the Inter­ jobs tend to attract a far greater number of national City Management Association in its applicants than the number of job openings. Municipal Yearbook, which is available in many Consequently, only the most highly qualified libraries. candidates obtain jobs. Pamphlets providing general information The level of government spending influences about jobs as special agents with the U.S. De­ the employment of police officers, detectives, partment of Treasury and instructions for sub­ and special agents. The number of job oppor­ mitting an application are available from any tunities, therefore, can vary from year to year U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job In­ and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other formation Center. Look under U.S. Govern­ hand, are rare because early retirements enable ment. Office of Personnel Management, in your most staffing cuts to be handled through attri­ telephone book to obtain a local Job Infor­ tion. However, police officers who lose their mation Center telephone number. If there is no jobs from budget cuts usually have little dif­ listing in your telephone book, dial the tollficulty finding jobs with other police depart­ free number 800-555-1212 and request the ments. number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location. Earnings For information on FBI special agents, con­ According to a 1985 survey by the International tact: Personnel Management Association, police pa­ FBI, Applicant Recruiting Office, 1900 Half St. SW., trol officers had a median annual salary of about Washington, DC 20535.  Food and beverage preparation and service occupations restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburg­ ers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook french fried potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time. Prior to busy periods, they may slice meats and cheese or prepare coleslaw or potato salad. During slow periods, (D.O.T. 311.674-014; 313.281 through .687; 315.361 they may clean the grill, food preparation sur­ through .381; 316.661, .684-010 and -014; 317; 318.687; and 319.464 through .687) faces, and counters. Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restau­ rants. They cook and package batches of food Nature of the Work A reputation for serving fine food is an asset such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which to any restaurant or hotel, whether it prides are prepared to order or kept warm until sold. itself on “home cooking” or exotic foreign cuis­ Other kitchen workers, under the direction ine. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers of chefs and cooks, perform tasks requiring are largely responsible for the reputation a res­ less skill. They weigh and measure ingredients, taurant acquires. Some restaurants offer a var­ fetch pots and pans, and stir and strain soups ied menu featuring meals that are time con­ and sauces. They clean, peel, and slice pota­ suming and difficult to prepare, requiring a toes, vegetables, and fruits and make salads. highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants They also may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. Their emphasize fast service, offering hamburgers and sandwiches that can be prepared in advance responsibilities also include cleaning work or in a few minutes by a fast-food or short- areas, equipment and utensils, and dishes and order cook with only limited cooking skills. silverware. The number and types of workers employed Chefs and cooks arc responsible for prepar­ ing meals that are tasty and attractively pre­ in kitchens depend partly on the size and kind of restaurant. Fast-food outlets offer only a few sented. Chefs are the most highly skilled, trained, and experienced kitchen workers, al­ items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. though the terms chef and cook are often used Smaller restaurants usually feature a limited interchangeably. Many chefs have earned fame number of easy-to-prepare items, supple­ for both themselves and the restaurants, hotels, mented by short-order specialties and ready­ and institutions where they work because of made desserts. Typically, one chef or cook their skill in artfully preparing the traditional prepares all of the food with the help of a shortfavorites and in creating new dishes and im­ order cook and one or two other kitchen work­ proving familiar ones. ers. Large eating places usually have more varied Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools, industrial cafeterias, hos­ menus and prepare, from start to finish, more pitals, and other institutions. For each meal, of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often they prepare a small selection of entrees, veg­ include several chefs or cooks, sometimes called assistant or apprentice chefs or cooks, a bread etables, and desserts, but in large quantities. Restaurant chefs and cooks generally prepare and pastry baker, and many less skilled kitchen a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cook­ workers. Each chef or cook usually has a spe­ ing most individual servings to order. Whether cial assignment and often a special job title— vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. in institutions or restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according Executive chefs or head cooks coordinate the to recipes. In the course of their work they use work of the kitchen staff and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grind­ of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy ers, and blenders. They are often responsible food supplies. for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have supplies. Some chefs and cooks also help plan modem equipment, convenient work areas, and meals and develop menus. Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs air-conditioning; but others, particularly in older in some kitchens, produce baked goods for and smaller eating places, are frequently not as well equipped. Other variations in working restaurants, institutions, and retail bakery shops. Unlike bakers who work at large automated conditions depend on the type and quantity of industrial bakeries, bread and pastry bakers food being prepared and the local laws gov­ need only supply the customers who visit their erning food service operations. Workers gen­ establishment. They bake smaller quantities of erally must withstand the pressure and strain breads, rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing of working in close quarters during busy pe­ most of the work by hand. They measure and riods, stand for hours at a time, lift heavy pots mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. Job hazards include falls, cuts, and burns, but and apply fillings and decorations. Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in injuries are seldom serious.  Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook in­ gredients according to recipes. Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or other institutions may be more regular. Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Vacation resorts offer sea­ sonal employment. Employment Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held 2.6 million jobs in 1986. Short-order and fastfood cooks held 591,000 of the jobs, restaurant cooks 520.000. institutional cooks 389.000, bread and pastry bakers 114,000, and other kitchen workers 949,000. Nearly two-thirds of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers worked in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places. One-fifth worked in in­ stitutions such as schools, universities, hos­ pitals, and nursing homes. The remainder were employed by hotels, government and factory cafeterias, private clubs, and many other or­ ganizations. More than one-third worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or shortorder cooks, or in one of the other less skilled kitchen positions that require little education or training and that allow them to acquire their skills on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant or fry cook, but many years of training and ex­ perience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant. Even though a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it 265  266/Occupational Outlook Handbook  is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are particularly helpful. An increasing number of chefs and cooks are obtaining their training through high school or post-high school vocational programs and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks may also be trained in apprenticeship programs of­ fered by professional culinary institutes, in­ dustry associations, and trade unions. An ex­ ample is the 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local chapters of the American Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own train­ ing programs for new employees. Persons who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job, and they may have an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training. But usually these courses, which range from a few months to 2 years or more and are open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools, vocational centers, col­ leges, professional associations, and trade unions. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students usu­ ally spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu plan­ ning, determination of portion size and food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quan­ tity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in su­ pervisory and management skills sometimes is emphasized in courses offered by private vo­ cational schools, professional associations, and university programs. Many school districts, in cooperation with school food services divisions of State de­ partments of education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who wish to become cooks. Some junior colleges, State departments of education, and school associations also offer training programs. Cafeteria kitchen employ­ ees who have participated in these training pro­ grams often are selected for jobs as cooks. Certification provides valuable formal rec­ ognition of the skills of a chef or cook. The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, chef, pastry chef, executive chef, and master chef. Certi­ fication standards are based primarily on ex­ perience and formal training. The ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal clean­ liness are important qualifications for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers. Most States  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  require health certificates indicating that these workers are free from contagious diseases. Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food and beverage preparation and service occupations. Many acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to an­ other. Others gradually advance to executive chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restaurant owners; others may become instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and com­ munity colleges, and other academic institu­ tions. Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Employment growth will create many job openings, but most openings will arise from the need to replace the relatively high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial turnover in many of these jobs because their limited formal education and training require­ ments allow easy entry, and the large number of part-time positions are attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of the workers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while others stop working to assume household re­ sponsibilities or to attend school full time. Workers under the age of 25 have tradition­ ally filled a significant proportion of these jobs. The pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000, however, forcing many employers to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers. Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drink­ ing establishments is associated with the over­ all level of economic activity—workers’ lunches and entertainment of clients, for ex­ ample—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the ecomony. Other factors contributing to employment growth will be population growth, rising family and personal incomes, and more leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. Also, as more women join the work force, families increasingly may find dining out a welcome convenience. Employment in restaurants is expected to grow rapidly. Increasing demand for restau­ rants that offer table service and varied menus, particularly more expensive restaurants that of­ fer more exotic foods, will require highly skilled cooks and chefs. Employment in cafeterias in educational ser­ vices is expected to increase slowly due to the anticipated slow growth of that sector. How­ ever, growth of the number of elderly people is expected to result in a rapid increase in kitchen jobs associated with nursing homes, residential  care facilities, and other health care institu­ tions. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Na­ tional Restaurant Association, median hourly earnings of chefs were $8.35 in 1986, and generally ranged between $7.25 and $9.00. Cooks had median hourly earnings of $5.25, with most earning between $4.50 and $6.25. Assistant cooks had median hourly earnings of $4.75, with most earning between $4.00 and $5.00. According to the same survey, short-order cooks had median hourly earnings of $4.50 in 1986; most earned between $4.00 and $5.00. Median hourly earnings of bread and pastry bakers were $5.04; most earned within the range of $4.94 to $6.00. Salad preparation workers generally earned less, with median hourly earn­ ings of $4.25; most earned between $4.00 and $4.83. Food preparation workers in fast-food restaurants had median hourly earnings of $3.85, with most earning between $3.35, the minimum wage, and $4.50. Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers vary depending on the part of the coun­ try and. especially, the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are high­ est in elegant restaurants and hotels. Some em­ ployers provide uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers exer­ cise this right. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Em­ ployees International Union and the Service Employees International Union, both A FI.-CIO affiliates. Related Occupations Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers handle and prepare food. Workers who perform sim­ ilar tasks include butchers and meatcutters, cannery workers, and industrial bakers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available from: The Educational Foundation of the National Restau­ rant Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, IL 60606.  For information on the American Culinary Federation’s apprenticeship and certification programs for cooks, write to: American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, FL 32084.  For information on hospitality careers and a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to:  Service Occupations/267 Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Ed­ ucation, 311 First St. NW., Washington. DC 20001.  For general career information and a direc­ tory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in the culinary arts, write to: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville. MD 20850.  Food and Beverage Service Workers (D.O.T. 310.137-010 and .357; 311.472 through .674­ 010 and .674-018 through .677; 312; 319.474 and .687; 350.677-010, -026, -030; 352.677-018; and 355.677-010)  Nature of the Work Whether they work in small, informal diners or large, elegant restaurants, all food and bev­ erage service workers deal with customers. The quality of service they provide determines in part whether the patron is likely to return. Waiters and waitresses all take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept pay­ ments—but the manner in which they perform these tasks varies considerably, depending on where they work. In coffee shops, they are expected to provide fast and efficient, yet cour­ teous, service. In fine restaurants, where gour­ met meals are accompanied by attentive formal service, waiters and waitresses serve the meal at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal service to patrons. For example, they may rec­ ommend a certain kind of wine as a comple­ ment to a particular entree, explain how various items on the menu are prepared, or prepare some salads and other special dishes at tableside. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform duties associated with other food and beverage service occu­ pations in addition to waiting on tables. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, setting up and clearing tables, or cashiering. However, larger or more formal restaurants frequently relieve their waiters and waitresses of these additional duties. Bartenders can skillfully prepare a drink at a moment’s notice. It may be a cool glass of gin and tonic or a colorful, exotic mixture such as a Singapore Sling. Bartenders make these concoctions by combining, in exact propor­ tions, ingredients selected from what may seem to be a bewildering variety of alcoholic bev­ erages, mixes, and garnishes. A well-stocked bar contains dozens of types and brands of liquor, beer, and wine, plus soft drinks, fruits and fruit juices, cream, and soda and tonic water. Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from customers seated at the bar. Because some peo­ ple like their cocktails made a certain way.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  bartenders occasionally are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer's taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers have left, and may also serve food items to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders who work at service bars have little contact with customers. They work at small bars in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where drinks are served only to diners at tables. How­ ever, the majority of bartenders work in eating and drinking establishments where they also directly serve and socialize with patrons. Many establishments, especially larger ones, use automatic equipment to mix drinks of vary­ ing complexity at the push of a button. How­ ever, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable to prepare drinks not handled by the automatic equipment or mix drinks when it is not functioning. Also, equipment is no substitute for the friendly socializing most cus­ In fine restaurants, waiters and waitresses tomers prefer. offer more personal service to patrons. Bartenders usually are responsible for or­ food at counters. In cafeterias, they serve food dering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also ar­ displayed on counters and steamtables as re­ range the bottles and glassware into attractive quested by patrons, carve meat, dish out veg­ displays and often wash glassware used at the etables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill cups bar. Some bartenders own the tavern or bar and glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, and, therefore, also must keep their own busi­ counter attendants take orders from customers ness records and hire, train, and direct staff. seated at the counter, transmit the orders to the Hosts and hostesses try to evoke a good kitchen, and pick up and serve the food when impression of the restaurant by warmly wel­ it is ready. They also fill cups and glasses with coming guests. They courteously direct patrons coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare to where they may leave coats and other per­ fountain specialties such as milkshakes and ice­ sonal items and indicate where they may wait cream sundaes. They often prepare some shortuntil their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses order items, such as sandwiches and salads, assign guests to tables suitable for the size of and wrap or place orders in containers to be taken out and consumed elsewhere. Counter their group, escort them to their seats, and attendants also clean counters, write up item­ provide menus. Hosts and hostesses are restaurants’ personal ized checks, and accept payment. representatives to patrons. They try to insure Fast-food workers take orders from cus­ that service is prompt and courteous and the tomers standing at counters at fast-food res­ meal enjoyable; they also adjust complaints of taurants. They gather the ordered beverage and dissatisfied diners. Hosts and hostesses sched­ food items from the stock waiting to be sold, ule dining reservations, arrange parties, and serve them to the customer, and accept pay­ organize any special services that are required. ment. Many fast-food workers also cook and package french fries, make coffee, and fill bev­ In some restaurants, they also act as cashier. Dining room attendants and bartender help­ erage cups using a drink-dispensing machine. ers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by keeping the serving area stocked with sup­ Working Conditions plies, cleaning tables, and removing dirty dishes Food and beverage service workers are on their to the kitchen. They replenish the supply of feet most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the restaurant dining room, and keep the bar During busy dining periods, they are under stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink pressure to serve customers quickly and effi­ garnishes. Bartender helpers also keep the bar ciently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips or falls and bums. equipment clean and wash glasses. Dining room Although some food and beverage service attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and workers work 40 hours or more a week, the serve ice water, rolls, and butter to patrons. majority are employed part time—a larger pro­ At the conclusion of the meal, they remove portion than in almost any other occupation. dirty dishes and soiled linens from the tables The majority of those working part-time sched­ and take them to the kitchen. Cafeteria at­ ules do so on a voluntary basis because the tendants stock serving tables with food, trays, wide range in dining hours creates work op­ dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to portunities attractive to homemakers, students, dining tables for patrons. and others seeking supplemental income. Many food and beverage service workers are ex­ Counter attendants take orders and serve  268/Occupational Outlook Handbook  pected to work evenings, weekends, and hol­ idays. Some work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Employment Food and beverage service workers held 4.2 million jobs in 1986. Waiters and waitresses held 1.7 million of these jobs, fast-food work­ ers 1.5 million, bartenders 396,000, dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers 433,000, and hosts and hostesses 172,000. Restaurants, coffee shops, bars, and other retail eating and drinking places employed 80 percent of all food and beverage service work­ ers. Of the remainder, nearly half worked in hotels and other lodging places, and others in bowling alleys, casinos, and country clubs and other membership organizations. Jobs are lo­ cated throughout the country but are most plen­ tiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some workers alternate between summer and winter resorts instead of remaining in one area the entire year. 'framing, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and beverage service jobs. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, completion of high school is generally not required for fastfood workers, counter attendants, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many persons, a job as a food and beverage service worker serves as a source of immediate income rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twen­ ties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school students. Most employers place an emphasis on per­ sonal qualities. Food and beverage service workers should be well spoken and have a neat and clean appearance because they are in close and constant contact with the public. They should enjoy dealing with all kinds of people, and a pleasant disposition and sense of humor are important. State laws often require that food and beverage service workers obtain health cer­ tificates showing that they are free of conta­ gious diseases. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers’ orders and to recall the faces, names, and preferences of fre­ quent patrons. They also should be good at arithmetic if they have to total bills without the aid of a calculator or cash register. In restau­ rants specializing in foreign foods, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. Experience waiting on tables is preferred by restaurants and hotels which have rigid table service stand­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ards. Jobs at these establishments often have higher earnings, but may also have higher ed­ ucational requirements than less formal estab­ lishments. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, and employers prefer to hire per­ sons who are 25 or older. They should be fa­ miliar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage service workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, particularly some fast-food restau­ rants, use self-instruction programs to teach new employees food preparation and service skills through the use of audiovisual presen­ tations and instructional booklets. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant as­ sociations, and large restaurant chains also pro­ vide classroom training in a generalized food service curriculum. Some bartenders acquire their skills by at­ tending a bartending school or taking voca­ tional and technical school courses that include instruction on State and local laws and regu­ lations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Due to the relatively small size of most food­ serving establishments, opportunities for pro­ motion are limited. After gaining some ex­ perience, some dining room and cafeteria at­ tendants and bartender helpers are able to advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, ad­ vancement usually is limited to finding a job in a larger restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. A few hosts and hostesses and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, dining room supervisor, or restaurant manager. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Job Outlook Job openings for food and beverage service workers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of work­ ers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because the limited for­ mal education and training requirements for these jobs allow easy entry, and the predom­ inance of part-time jobs is attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of these workers simply move to other occupations; others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to at­ tend school. Workers under the age of 25 have tradition­ ally filled a significant proportion of these jobs. This pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000, however, forcing many employers to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers. Employment of food and beverage service occupations is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Since a significant proportion  of food and beverage sales by eating and drink­ ing places is associated with the overall level of economic activity—workers' lunches and entertainment of clients, for example—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the economy. Demand also will stem from population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time. Also, as more women join the work force, families may in­ creasingly find dining out a welcome conven­ ience. Because potential eamings are greatest in popular restaurants and fine dining establish­ ments, keen competition is expected for the limited number of jobs in these restaurants. Earnings Food and beverage service workers derive their eamings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Their wages and the amount of tips they receive vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses gen­ erally do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and wait­ resses, who may earn more from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, waiters and wait­ resses contribute a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among many of the establishment’s other food and beverage serv­ ice workers. Tip pools allow workers who nor­ mally do not receive tips, such as dining room attendants, to share in the rewards for a meal well served. In 1986, median hourly eamings (including tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were $4.30. The middle 50 percent earned between $3.33 and $5.90; the top 10 percent earned at least $7.77. For most waiters and waitresses, higher eamings are primarily the result of re­ ceiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks, so waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restau­ rants earn the most. Full-time bartenders had median hourly eamings (including tips) of $5.35 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned from $4.08 to $7.18; the top 10 percent earned at least $9.75. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their eamings as tips. Service bartenders are often paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip eamings. Median hourly earnings (including tips) of full-time dining room attendants and bartender helpers were $4.10 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $3.45 and $5.10; the top 10 percent earned over $6.58. Most re­ ceived over half of their eamings as wages; the rest was their share of the proceeds from tip pools. Full-time counter attendants and fast-food workers had median hourly eamings (including any tips) of $3.80 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $3.25 and $4.33, while the highest 10 percent earned over $6.33. Al­ though some counter attendants receive part of their eamings as tips, fast-food workers gen­ erally do not.  Service Occupations/269  Federal law permits employers to credit an employee’s tip earnings toward the minimum hourly wage, up to an amount equaling 40 percent of the minimum, and some employers exercise this right. Thus, in 1986, an employer who claimed the full credit was permitted to pay a minimum wage of $2.01 an hour instead of the normal $3.35 an hour. Employers are also permitted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. However, many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage service workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  and the Service Employees International Union, both AFL-CIO affiliates. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving cus­ tomers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, and tour busdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. General information on food and beverage service jobs is available from: The Educational Foundation of the National Restau­  rant Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, IL 60606.  For information on hospitality careers and a directory of colleges and schools offering pro­ grams and courses in hospitality education, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Ed­ ucation, 311 First St. NW„ Washington, DC 20001.  For general career information and a direc­ tory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training for bartender and other food and beverage service jobs, write to: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850.  Health service occupations Dental Assistants (D.O.T. 079.371-010)  Nature of the Work Dental assistants work at chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. In some dental of­ fices, assistants perform clerical and laboratory duties as well. The assistant makes the patient as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepares him or her for treatment, and obtains dental records. The assistant hands the dentist the proper instruments and materials and keeps the patient’s mouth dry and clear by using suc­ tion or other devices. Assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment; prepare tray setups for dental procedures; provide post­ operative instruction; and instruct patients in oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and resto­ rations, expose radiographs, and process dental X-ray film as directed by the dentist. Depending on the size of the dental practice and the way it is organized, dental assistants may be expected to perform a variety of clin­ ical, office, and laboratory duties. If the prac­ tice is large, they are likely to specialize in one of these areas. Clinical duties generally pre­ dominate. State law determines which clinical tasks a dental assistant may (or may not) per­ form, but in most States they remove sutures, apply anesthetic and caries-preventive agents to the teeth and oral tissue, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. In small, single-dentist  practices, dental assistants may manage the office in addition to their clinical responsibil­ ities, arranging and confirming appointments, receiving patients, keeping treatment records, sending bills, receiving payments, and order­ ing dental supplies and materials. Those with laboratory duties may, for example, make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by the dentist. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist, who is licensed to perform a wider variety of clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hy­ gienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Handling radiographic equip­ ment poses dangers, but the hazards can be minimized by proper use of lead shielding and safety procedures. Dental assistants, like dentists, work in either a standing or sitting position. Their work area is usually near the dental chair, so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and med­ ication, and hand them to the dentist when needed. They must be a dentist’s “third hand," and, therefore, should exhibit some manual dexterity and be able to deal with people who may be under considerable stress. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule might include work on Saturday. Employment Dental assistants held about 155,000 jobs in 1986. About 1 out of4 worked part time, some­ times in more than one dentist’s office.  v  SMS  mm  %  v  Dental assistant is an entry level job. 270   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  '  '  Most dental assistants work in private dental offices. Others work in dental schools, hospital dental departments. State and local public health departments, or private clinics. The Federal Government employs dental assistants in hos­ pitals and dental clinics of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Veterans Administra­ tion.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental assisting is an entry level job. The prin­ cipal requirements are a congenial personality and the ability to learn the job. Consequently, entrants to this occupation tend to be young; for some, it is their first experience in the world of work. About 2 out of 5 dental assistants learn their skills on the job, and an equal number are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, and technical institutes. Some assistants are trained in Armed Forces schools. About 280 formal training programs were accredited by the American Dental Associa­ tion’s Commission on Dental Accreditation in 1986. The majority of these programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs of­ fered in community and junior colleges earn an associate degree. The minimum requirement for any of these programs is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools require typing or a science course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the Commission on Dental Ac­ creditation. Those receiving dental assistant training in the Armed Forces almost always qualify for civilian jobs as dental assistants. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biol­ ogy, chemistry, health, typing, and office prac­ tices. Accredited dental assisting programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruc­ tion in dental assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in affiliated dental schools, local clinics, or selected dental offices. Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifica­ tions and professional competence, but usually is not required for employment. In several States that have adopted standards for dental assis­ tants who perform radiologic procedures, com­ pletion of the certification examination meets those standards. High school graduates may qualify to take the certification examination by graduating from a training program accredited by the Commis­ sion on Dental Accreditation or by having 2 years of full-time experience as a dental as­ sistant. In addition, all applicants must have  Service Occupations/271  taken a course in cardiopulmonary resuscita­ tion. Some dental assistants seek to qualify for practice as dental hygienists. Prospective den­ tal assistants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully, since credit earned in a dental assistant program often is not applicable toward requirements for a dental hygiene certificate. The field of dental assisting education also of­ fers opportunities in teaching and program administration. Job Outlook Employment of dental assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. Demand for dental care is expected to continue to rise be­ cause of population growth and the relatively widespread availability of dental insurance. Almost all dentists employ at least one dental assistant, and large dental practices employ several. The incentive to do so is strong, for if dentists are able to delegate routine tasks, they can use their time for more remunerative procedures. Employment growth is closely related to the demand for dental care, and a sharp decline in patient load could encourage dentists to per­ form more functions themselves and hire fewer support staff. This is a possibility in view of improvements in dental health due to fluori­ dation and preventive dentistry, together with an expanding supply of dentists. However, the need for dental assistants should continue be­ cause current practice techniques require the aid of a dental assistant. Regardless of the rate of growth between now and the year 2000, most job openings for dental assistants will arise from the need to replace assistants who leave the occupation. Since dental assisting offers relatively low pay and limited advancement, a large proportion of dental assistants leave the occupation an­ nually. Qualified applicants should have little trouble locating a job. Each year many assis­ tants leave the job to take on family respon­ sibilities, return to school, or transfer to another occupation. Few leave for retirement or dis­ ability. Earnings Salaries of dental assistants depend largely on the duties and responsibilities attached to the particular job and on geographic location. Den­ tists’ policies with respect to salaries vary widely, but there is some evidence that indi­ viduals who have completed a formal training program in dental assisting or are employed in States that require certification command higher pay. In 1986, median weekly earnings for dental assistants working full time were about S223 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $190 and $295 a week; 10 percent earned less than $145; and 10 percent earned more than $370 a week. Related Occupations Dental assistants perform a variety of duties that do not require the dentist’s professional  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  knowledge and skill. Workers in other occu­ pations supporting health practitioners include medical assistants, chiropractor assistants, ophthalmic medical assistants, optometric as­ sistants, podiatric assistants, and veterinary technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, schol­ arships, accredited dental assistant programs, and requirements for certification is available from: American Dental Assistants Association, 666 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1130, Chicago, IL 60611. Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 216 E. On­ tario St., Chicago, IL 60611.  Medical Assistants (D.O-T. 079.364-010 and -014, .367-010, and .374-018)  Nature of the Work Medical assistants help physicians examine and treat patients and perform routine tasks needed to keep the office running smoothly. Although medical assistants usually perform both clinical and administrative tasks, the na­ ture of the work varies from office to office. The size of the practice affects the scope of the job, as does the physician's view of medical assisting responsibilities. Thus, in small prac­ tices, medical assistants are usually “general­ ists,” who handle both clerical and clinical du­ ties and report directly to the office manager or physician, whereas those employed in large practices—multispecialty groups, for exam­ ple—tend to specialize in a particular aspect of the work under the supervision of depart­ ment administrators. Clinical duties most commonly include tak­ ing and recording vital signs and medical his­ tories; explaining treatment procedures to pa­ tients; preparing patients for examination by the doctor and assisting during the examina­ tion; disposing of contaminated supplies; col­ lecting and preparing specimens for shipment to medical laboratories; maintaining aseptic techniques; and disinfecting medical instru­ ments. Other clinical duties include instructing patients about medication and special diets, authorizing drug refills as directed, telephoning prescriptions to the pharmacy, drawing blood, preparing patients for X-rays, taking EKG’s, and applying dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange instru­ ments and equipment in the examining room; check office and laboratory supplies; and main­ tain the waiting, consulting, and examination rooms in a neat and orderly condition. Medical assistants perform a variety of ad­ ministrative duties. They may answer the tele­ phone, greet patients and other callers, record and file patient charts and medical records, fill out insurance forms, manage medical record  systems, handle correspondence, schedule ap­ pointments, and arrange for hospital admission and laboratory services. Along with other of­ fice duties, they may use word processors and personal computers to handle bookkeeping and billing. Some assistants specialize. Podiatric med­ ical assistants, for example, make castings of the feet, expose and develop X-rays, and assist podiatrists at surgery in addition to handling front office responsibilities. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthal­ mologists provide medical eye care. They take medical histories and use precision instruments to administer diagnostic tests, measure and re­ cord vision, and test the functioning of eyes and eye muscles. These workers instruct patients in the use of eye dressings, protective shields, and safety glasses, as well as in the insertion, removal, and care of contact lenses. At the direction of the physician, they may administer prescribed ocular medications, including instillation of eye drops. Their responsibilities may include main­ taining optical and surgical instruments and assisting the ophthalmologist in surgery. Although most assistants work in practi­ tioners’ offices, a growing number have jobs in clinics and hospitals. Job duties in clinics are similar to those in office-based practices. In hospitals, medical assistants greet patients, conduct them to treatment rooms, record med­ ical histories, sterilize equipment, schedule ap­ pointments, and do paperwork. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. They need to be careful when performing clinical work, such as sterilizing equipment or doing laboratory tests Although medical assistants generally have a 40-hour workweek, this may include evening and weekend hours. Employment Medical assistants held about 132,000 jobs in 1986. Most jobs were in the offices of phy­ sicians or other health practitioners such as optometrists, podiatrists, and chiropractors. Most of the remaining jobs were in hospitals, clinics, and health maintenance organizations. The following tabulation shows the distribution of wage and salary jobs in 1986: Percent Total .........................................................100 Offices of physicians including osteopaths ............................................. 67 Hospitals..................................................... 14 Offices of other healthpractitioners .... 7 Outpatient care facilities........................... 5 All other ..................................................... 7 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical assisting is one of the few health oc­ cupations open to individuals with no formal training. Although education in medical as­ sisting is available at both the secondary and  272/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to an­ ticipated expansion of the health services in­ dustry. Employment growth will be spurred by the increased medical needs of an aging popula­ tion, growth in the number of practitioners, more diagnostic testing, and the increased vol­ ume and complexity of paperwork. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced assistants who leave the occupation. In view of high turnover as well as the pref­ erence of many physicians for trained person­ nel, job prospects should be excellent for med­ ical assistants with formal training, experience, or both. Employers prefer applicants with for­ mal certification, and medical assistants with word processing and computer skills will have an advantage over less-qualified applicants. Medical assistant is one of the fastest growing occupations in the economy.  postsecondary levels, such training—while generally preferred—is not always required. It is still the case that medical assistants are trained on the job. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, health, biology, typ­ ing, bookkeeping, computers, and office prac­ tices are helpful. Formal programs in medical assisting are offered in vocational-technical high schools, and at the postsecondary level by trade schools, community and junior colleges, and univer­ sities. Community college and university pro­ grams in medical assisting usually last 2 years and lead to an associate degree; the other pro­ grams take up to 1 year to complete, and grad­ uates receive a diploma or certificate. Two agencies are recognized by the U.S. Department of Education to accredit programs in medical assisting: The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Educa­ tion Schools (ABHES). The 182 medical as­ sisting and 9 ophthalmic medical assisting pro­ grams approved by CAHEA graduated about 6,000 students in 1985. The ABHES accredited 159 medical assisting programs, which grad­ uated about 7,300 students in 1986. The med­ ical assisting curriculum consists of courses in biology, anatomy and physiology, typing, transcription, accounting, records and record­ keeping, and medical terminology. Many stu­ dents receive instruction in computer skills as they apply to the medical office. Students also receive supervised clinical experience and learn laboratory techniques, use of medical equip­ ment, clinical procedures, and first-aid tech­ niques. In addition, students receive instruction in administrative and office practices including communications skills, human relations, med­ ical law and ethics, and insurance processing. Although there are no licensing requirements for medical assistants, employers prefer to hire certified applicants who have successfully completed a national examination. The Amer­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ican Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Assistants awards the Certified Podiatric Assistant credential; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Per­ sonnel in Ophthalmology awards the Ophthalmic Medical Assistant credential at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic Assistant, Certi­ fied Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Technologist. Regardless of training or certification, a neat, well-groomed appearance and a courteous, pleasant manner are necessary traits for med­ ical assistants, who have a great deal of contact with the public. Communication skills are es­ pecially important. Medical assistants must not only be good at putting patients at ease, but be good listeners and interpret a physician’s instructions correctly the first time they are given. Conscientiousness, a sense of respon­ sibility, and respect for the confidential nature of medical information are all necessary qual­ ities in a medical assistant. Clinical duties re­ quire a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants must be able to deal with people who are under stress. Advancement for medical assistants some­ times means leaving the occupation. Hospitals often hire people with training or experience in medical assisting for jobs as ward clerks, medical record clerks, phlebotomists, and EKG technicians. Medical assistants who are certi­ fied may be able to advance to the position of office manager. (The trend toward group prac­ tice, walk-in clinics, health maintenance or­ ganizations, and other alternatives to solo prac­ tice is likely to heighten demand for office managers.) Medical assistants with computer skills are qualified for a wide variety of research and management support positions. Those who enjoy clinical work sometimes enter educa­ tional programs to prepare for careers in areas such as nursing and medical technology.  Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary widely. Pay levels are governed chiefly by the assis­ tant’s qualifications and experience, the size and location of the physician’s practice, and the number of hours worked. According to a survey conducted by the American Medical Technologists, 6 of 10 who responded earned between $10,000 and $16,000 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include medical secretaries, pharmacy helpers, medical receptionists, medical records clerks, dental assistants, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapist aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAHEA-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, and requirements for the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: The American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606.  Information about career opportunities and requirements for becoming a Registered Med­ ical Assistant are available from: American Medical Technologists, Registered Med­ ical Assistants, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, write: Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514.  Information about career opportunities, training programs, and requirements to become a Certified Ophthalmic Assistant is available from: Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology. 1812 N. St. Paul Rd., St. Paul.MN 55109.  Information about careers for podiatric as­ sistants is available from: American Society of Podiatric Assistants, 2204 Washington St., Waco, TX 76701.  Service Occupations/273  Nursing Aides and Psychiatric Aides (D.O.T. 354.374-010, .377-010, and .677-010; 355.377­ 014 and -018, .674-014, -018, and -026)  Nature of the Work Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help care for people who are physically or mentally ill, disabled, or infirm. They work in hospitals, nursing homes, and mental health settings, for the most part. (Homemaker-home health aides do similar work in clients’ homes; see the state­ ment elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nursing aides in general hospitals, some­ times known as nursing assistants, orderlies, or hospital attendants, work under the super­ vision of registered nurses and licensed prac­ tical nurses. Typical duties include answering patients' bell calls and delivering messages, serving meals, feeding patients who are unable to feed themselves, making beds, and bathing and dressing patients. Aides also may give massages, take temperatures, and assist pa­ tients in getting out of bed and walking. In some hospitals, they may help registered nurses and licensed practical nurses care for patients. The type of work depends on whether the pa­ tient is confined to bed after major surgery, is recovering after a disabling accident or illness, or needs assistance in daily activities because of advanced age. At times they may have to escort patients to operating and examining rooms or store and move supplies in hospital pharmacies or supply rooms. Aides employed in nursing homes, some­ times called geriatric aides, also work under the supervision of registered nurses and li­ censed practical nurses. Because they are often the principal caregivers in nursing homes, aides have far more contact with residents than other members of the staff. They furnish virtually all of the routine care—helping residents in and out of bed, for example, and assisting with bathing, dressing, feeding, and personal hy­ giene. They also take and record vital signs, and may provide skin care to comatose or par­ alyzed patients. Since residents may stay in a nursing home for months or even years, aides are expected to devote some time to developing ongoing relationships with them. Many resi­ dents are confused or disoriented, and it is up to the aide to respond in a positive, caring way. Psychiatric aides, known also as mental health assistants, psychiatric nursing assis­ tants, or ward attendants, care for people who are mentally impaired or emotionally dis­ turbed. They are found in a variety of settings: State and county mental hospitals, private psy­ chiatric hospitals, psychiatric units of general hospitals, community mental health centers, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, halfway houses, and, increasingly, in drug abuse and alcoholism treatment programs. They work as part of a team that includes psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social work­ ers, and various types of therapists. In addition to their personal care duties—helping patients  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with dressing, bathing, grooming, and eat­ ing—psychiatric aides spend time socializing with patients. They may play cards or other games with them, watch television with them, participate in sports and other activities, and, in general, implement the treatment plan de­ signed by the professional staff. They observe patients and report any meaningful signs or actions to the professional staff. If necessary, they help restrain and seclude unruly, disturbed patients. Because they are the staff members in closest contact with patients, psychiatric aides can greatly influence patients’ outlook and treatment by being patient, understanding, and emotionally supportive. Working Conditions With few exceptions, the scheduled workweek of aides in hospitals and nursing homes is 40 hours or less. Because patients need care 24 hours a day, scheduled work hours include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Workers spend many hours standing and may have to move patients in bed or help them stand or walk. Nursing aides often empty bed pans, change soiled bed linens, and care for disoriented and irritable patients. Psychiatric aides sometimes are confronted with violent patients. Such ex­ periences can be emotionally draining. Many gain personal satisfaction, however, from as­ sisting those in need. Employment Nursing aides held about 1,224,000 jobs in 1986, while psychiatric aides held about 88,000 jobs. Most wage and salary jobs were in hos­ pitals or nursing homes (see chart). Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hiring requirements for nursing and psychiatric aides are usually minimal; neither a high school diploma nor previous work experience is nec­ essary in many cases. Limited education and rudimentary English language skills do not or­ dinarily stand in the way of getting a job. Per­ sonal qualifications such as dependability, in­ tegrity, and a pleasant manner are the principal requirements. Since employers often accept applicants who are 17 or 18 years of age, these occupations offer young people an entry to the world of work, and the availability of night and weekend hours provides high school and college students a chance to work during the school year. Many entrants, however, are middle-aged men and women. Nearly all employers prefer to hire aides who already have some training or experience, and some insist on it. Hospitals, for example, may require a minimum of 1 year’s experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Hospitals affiliated with nursing training programs may look to student nurses when they have openings for nursing aides. Nursing homes, however, generally are willing to hire untrained and in­ experienced workers with the understanding that the aide will complete the necessary train-  nj  L ;1  Nursing aides provide routine care.  ing within the first few weeks or months on the job. A move to upgrade hiring standards in long­ term care is underway. By 1987, 20 States had laws or regulations requiring that aides in long­ term care facilities complete approved training courses, either before starting to work or after they are hired. Similar requirements were pending in another 6 States. Training require­ ments are minimal in some States but fairly stringent in others. California, for example, requires nursing home aides to complete 50 classroom hours and 100 clinical hours of train­ ing, all within 9 months of starting to work. Aides who complete State-mandated training programs receive a certificate. English lan­ guage proficiency requirements are beginning to appear as well. The typical nurses aide training program is offered in a vocational-technical institute, community college, or nursing home. It covers body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and phys­ iology, infection control, and communications skills. Orientation programs for newly hired aides are customary in both hospitals and nursing homes, but these vary greatly in length and sophistication. Some facilities provide class­ room instruction as well as on-the-job training, while others rely exclusively on informal in­ struction from a licensed nurse or an experi­ enced aide. Newly hired aides learn to take and record temperatures, bathe patients, change linens on beds occupied by patients, and lift and move patients. In nursing homes, aides are also taught how to help residents with activities of daily living, how to deal with confused or disruptive residents, and how to improve their commu nications skills. Psychiatric aides are taught interpersonal relations, group dynamics, and socialization techniques to enable them to work constructively with the mentally ill. Initial training may last several days or a  274/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Almost all psychiatric aides work in hospitals, but fewer than a third of nursing aides do. Distribution of employment, 1986 Nursing [ homes 3%  /  Other 5%  Hospitals I  Hospitals  ' Psychiatric aides  Nursing homes  Other Nursing aides  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  few months, depending on the policies of the institution, the complexity of the duties, and the aide’s aptitude for the work. Opportunities for learning continue, since most aides are re­ quired to attend lectures, workshops, and other forms of in-service training from time to time. Courses in home nursing and first aid provide a useful background for this kind of work. Volunteer work or summer jobs in hospitals and nursing homes also are helpful. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understand­ ing, emotionally stable, and dependable. Nurs­ ing aides and psychiatric aides should have a genuine desire to help people, have good oral communications skills, be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. Career ladders, where they exist at all, are very short. Nonetheless, the large and rapidly growing health industry— which comprises hundreds of occupations and employment settings—offers opportunities for aides who undertake additional training. Nurs­ ing aides may enroll in practical nursing pro­ grams, for example, or—in some States— qualify for jobs as medication aides. Job Outlook Job prospects for nursing aides are expected to be excellent through the year 2000. Em­ ployment growth and the need to replace ex­ perienced workers who leave their jobs will create far more openings than in most other occupations. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all oc­ cupations in response to the long-term care needs of a growing and aging population. De­ mand will increase as a result of the anticipated expansion of long-term care facilities and pro­ grams for people with chronic illnesses and disabling conditions, many of whom are el­ derly. Also contributing to the growing demand will be modem medical technology which, while saving more lives, also increases the need  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  treatment facilities, halfway houses, and out­ patient psychiatric clinics. In both occupations, replacement needs will constitute the major source of openings. Turn­ over is high, a reflection of modest entry re­ quirements, low pay, minimal benefits, and lack of advancement opportunities.  to provide care for those who never fully re­ cover. Employment of nursing aides in hospitals is expected to decline due to shifts in staffing patterns as hospitals concentrate on providing intensive, high-technology care to seriously ill patients. Patients who are not quite so ill, and those in need of continued care after a hospital stay, will be treated elsewhere—in a rehabil­ itation unit, a nursing home, or at home. For this reason, long-term care settings—not hos­ pitals—are expected to provide most of the new jobs for nursing aides in the years ahead. Employment of psychiatric aides is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. As in the past, job prospects for aides will be tied almost exclusively to the outlook for public and private mental hospitals. Demand for inpatient psychiatric care may rise in the years ahead because of demographic factors. The very sharp increase in the number of older persons—many of whom experience severe depression or are unable to recognize friends and relatives—is likely to increase de­ mand, as is the movement of the large babyboom generation through young adulthood, a time of life when schizophrenia and other se­ vere mental illnesses peak. However, employ­ ment in public mental hospitals is not likely to grow much, if at all, due to constraints on public spending and continued support for a policy of deinstitutionalization, which has “emptied” State hospitals and diverted new ad­ missions for nearly 25 years. Demand for in­ patient care in private psychiatric facilities is likely to grow somewhat, however, for several reasons. Among them are broad third-party coverage for acute psychiatric episodes; grow­ ing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism; and some lessening of the stigma attached to receiving mental health care. While most openings for psychiatric aides are likely to occur in hospitals, additional op­ portunities will be available in such settings as community mental health centers, residential  Earnings Median annual earnings of nursing aides who worked full time in 1986 were about $10,700. The middle 50 percent earned between $8,300 and $12,200. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,000 or less. The top 10 percent earned $19,300 or more. In 1987, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced nursing aides who were high school graduates annual salaries of $10,816. Nursing aides with a year of experience re­ ceived $11,801, while those with 2 years re­ ceived $13,248. The average salary of nursing aides employed by the Federal Government was about $15,800 a year in 1986. Orderlies in hospitals had average median salaries ranging from $9,700 to $13,400 a year in 1986, depending on the size of the hospital, according to the Executive Compensation Ser­ vice. Nursing homes paid certified nursing aides median annual salaries of $10,000 and noncertified nursing aides, about $9,500 in 1987, according to a survey by the Hospital Com­ pensation Service, Hawthorne, NJ. Attendants in hospitals and similar institu­ tions generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital employees. Related Occupations Nursing aides help with the routine care and treatment of people who are sick, disabled, or infirm. Workers with similar duties include homemaker-home health aides, childcare at­ tendants, companions, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapy aides. Psychiatric aides work in mental health set­ tings. Among professional occupations found in such settings are psychologists, psychia­ trists, registered nurses, social workers, human services workers, occupational therapists, and recreational therapists—all described else­ where in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: American Hospital Association, Division of Nurs­ ing , 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.  For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Information about employment also may be obtained from local hospitals and nursing homes.  Personal service and cleaning occupations Barbers (D.O.T. 330)  Nature of the Work Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Many people still go to a barber for just a haircut, but an increasing number seek services such as hairstyling and permanents. Barbers trained in these areas are called “hairstylists” and work in styling salons; "unisex” salons, shops that have male and female customers; and some barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each customer and may color or straighten hair and fit hairpieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, and facial mas­ sages. By tradition, most customers are men. How­ ever, a growing number of barbers cut and style women’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons. Some States require a cosmetologist's license as well as a barber’s license, however, to permanent wave or color women’s hair. In most States, barbers are licensed to perform all the duties of cosmetologists except skin care and nail treatment. (See the Handbook state­ ment on cosmetologists and related workers.) As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs, and other instruments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Some sell lotions, tonics, and other cos­ metic supplies. Those who own or manage a shop order supplies, pay bills, keep records, and hire employees. Working Conditions Barbers usually work in clean, pleasant sur­ roundings, with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important because barbers must stand on their feet a great deal and work with both hands at shoulder level— a position that can be tiring. Most barbers work more than 40 hours a week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Although weekends and lunch hours are generally very busy, a barber may have some time off during slack periods. To assure an even workload, some barbers ask customers to make appointments. Employment Barbers held about 80,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in barbershops, some worked in beauty shops and unisex salons, and a few worked in department stores, hotels, hospitals, and pris­ ons. About 3 out of every 4 barbers operate their own businesses. Almost all cities and towns have barber­ shops, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in large cities, where the greatest demand for their services exists.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, and facial massages. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all States require barbers to be licensed. The qualifications necessary to get a license vary from one State to another, however. Gen­ erally a person must be a graduate of a Stateapproved barber school and be at least 16 years old (18 in some States). In addition, education requirements vary from State to State—some require graduation from high school while oth­ ers have no requirement at all. About half of the States require a beginner to take an examination for an apprentice license and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the examination required for a license as a registered barber. In the examinations, the applicant usually is required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform the basic services. Fees for these examinations range from $15 to $85. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers to practice in a different State without additional formal training. How­ ever, some States do not recognize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses obtained in another State; consequently, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a barber school or seeking employ­ ment. Barber training is offered in about 500 schools; about 8 out of 10 barber schools are private. Some State-approved schools train both barbers and cosmetologists. Some public high schools offer barbering in their vocational pro­ grams. Barber school programs usually last 9 to 12 months. Students buy their own tools, which cost about $250. They study the basic services—haircutting, shaving, facial massag­ ing, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school  “clinics.” Most schools now teach unisex hair­ styling and chemical styling as part of their regular curriculum. Besides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, students take courses in sanitation and hygiene, and learn how to recognize certain skin conditions. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. Ad­ vanced courses are available in some localities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better than average disposition. In addition, good eye-hand coordination is required. Bar­ bers also should have sound judgment about what hair style is most flattering. Beginners usually get their first jobs through the barber school they attended. Some experienced barbers advance by be­ coming managers of large shops or by opening their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into business for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. New equipment for a one-chair shop averaged about $5,000 in 1986. Some shopowners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, however. Job Outlook Over the last 15 years, the demand for barbers has decreased. The shift in consumer prefer­ ences from regular haircuts to more person­ alized and intensive services has greatly af­ fected the occupation. However, the decline in employment of barbers has slowed down re­ cently, and little or no change is expected in the employment of barbers through the year 2000 as more barbers offer hairstyling services. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have been much more successful than those who 275  276/Occupational Outlook Handbook  offer conventional services. This trend is ex­ pected to continue, and employment oppor­ tunities should be better for hairstylists than for other barbers. Barbers have a relatively strong attachment to their occupation—unlike most workers in occupations that require less than a year of formal training. Nevertheless, most job open­ ings will result from the need to replace ex­ perienced barbers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Most barbers remain in the occupation until they retire—perhaps because most barbers are self-employed. Earnings Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 60 to 70 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Beginning barbers and hairstylists earned between $125 and $175 a week in 1986, ac­ cording to limited information available. Ex­ perienced barbers and hairstylists earned be­ tween $350 and $475 a week. Hairstylists usually earn more than conventional barbers because the services they provide are more personalized and complex and, therefore, more expensive. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ tipping habits, competi­ tion from other barbershops, and the barber’s ability to attract and hold regular customers. Some barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid va­ cations, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union that organizes barbers— both employees and shopowners—is the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. The principal association that repre­ sents and organizes shopowners, managers, and employees is the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America.  Childcare Workers (DOT. 355.674-010; and 359.677-010, -018, -026)  Nature of the Work Childcare workers look after young children when parents are at work or cannot be with their children for other reasons. They do many of the things parents do. Those caring for in­ fants and toddlers follow a routine of basic care—feeding, bathing, diapering, playing with, and comforting. Those working with older preschool children take care of their basic needs and also plan and carry out programs which stimulate their physical, emotional, intellec­ tual, and social growth. Childcare workers' duties depend on the set­ ting. In a large daycare center, they are in charge of groups of children under the super­  vision of a director, who has administrative and program development responsibilities. Selfemployed childcare workers have sole respon­ sibility for a small number of children. They provide a safe and clean environment, usually in their own homes, and good nutrition. They also handle their own administrative work such as obtaining and renewing a license, hiring help, purchasing supplies, keeping records, mailing out bills, and recruiting children. This type of childcare is often called family daycare. Childcare workers ensure that the childrens’ basic physical, psychological, social, and ed­ ucational needs are met. They greet children as they arrive, help them remove outer gar­ ments, and teach them how to dress and un­ dress. They may organize and direct indoor and outdoor games. They plan activities which provide exercise and teach children to get along with each other. They also select activities which provide self-expression and development  V k-.-v”": Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of improving a patron’s personal appearance in­ clude cosmetologists, electrologists, makeup artists, and estheticians. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11th St., Lincoln, NE 68502. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850.  Every State maintains information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber examiners or the equivalent authority at your State capital. Additional information on this occupation is available free of charge from: National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, NY 10467. Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of Amer­ ica, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Char­ lotte, NC 28222.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Childcare workers spend much of their time standing, walking, and stooping.  Service Occupations/277  through arts and crafts, music, and language. These may include painting and drawing, working with clay and wood, singing, and story reading and telling. Childcare workers are also concerned with childrens’ health and nutrition. They serve nu­ tritious meals and snacks and use these as an opportunity to teach good eating habits and responsibility for cleaning up. They see to it that children have proper rest periods. They spot children who may be getting sick or show­ ing signs of emotional or developmental prob­ lems and bring these to the parents’ attention. Working Conditions Childcare facilities can range from a single poorly furnished room to a large, beautifully equipped building. Some facilities accommo­ date a few children, others a hundred or more. Childcare centers may be in private homes, churches, workplaces where employers pro­ vide care for employees’ children, or buildings used exclusively for childcare. Childcare centers are open year round .Many are open 12 hours a day. Full-time staff workers usually have 8-hour shifts. However, many work part time or have staggered hours. Family daycare providers who have young children can earn money without having to leave them. They have flexibility in their hours of work and in daily routine, but may work long hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Since they work at home, they can also handle some housekeeping responsibilities. Childcare workers spend much of their time standing, walking, bending, stooping, and lift­ ing. They must be constantly alert, anticipate and prevent trouble, deal with disruptive chil­ dren, and provide fair but firm discipline. This can be physically and emotionally taxing. The work is demanding and sometimes hectic and requires a great deal of physical stamina. Re­ wards, on the other hand, come from seeing young children blossom and grow under their care. Employment Childcare workers held about 589,000 jobs in 1986. Many work part time. More than two-thirds of childcare workers are self-employed; most take care of children in their own homes. One half of the salaried childcare workers work in independent childcare centers and res­ idential childcare institutions. About 20 per­ cent work in childcare centers affiliated with churches and synagogues and in social or wel­ fare agencies. Some are in State and local gov­ ernment agencies, public and private schools, hospitals, and employer-sponsored daycare centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level positions for childcare workers re­ quire little or no experience, for the most part. Although there are no specific educational re­ quirements, employers prefer individuals with a high school diploma. Some employers pro­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  vide on-the-job training by an experienced worker. High school students who plan to work with small children should take courses in psy­ chology, sociology, home economics, and nu­ trition. Courses in art, music, drama, and phys­ ical education also provide good preparation. Volunteer or paid babysitting is helpful. Formal training or certification is desirable in some jobs and is recommended for advance­ ment. Many 2-year and 4-year colleges offer programs in childcare, early childcare educa­ tion, child and family studies, and pre-elementary education. Subjects include childhood development, child health care, child psy­ chology, and play and educational activities. The Child Development Associate (CDA) credential program certifies childcare workers. The program is open to anyone 18 years of age or older who has childcare experience and some related classroom, workshop, or other training. A team of childcare professionals helps can­ didates improve their childcare skills and rec­ ommends further training, if necessary. The training is offered in local schools and colleges. When candidates are ready, the team assesses their abilities and performance with young chil­ dren and decides whether they qualify for the CDA credential. Childcare workers should be kind and patient and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling are also important. Those who work for themselves must have business sense and management abilities. As childcare workers gain experience, they may advance to supervisory or administrative po­ sitions in large childcare centers. Often, how­ ever, these positions require additional train­ ing. Some set up their own childcare business. Job Outlook Job openings for childcare workers are ex­ pected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Many openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of childcare work­ ers who leave this large occupation every year. There is considerable movement in and out due to the ease of setting up childcare in one’s home, limited education and training require­ ments, the abundance of part-time jobs, low pay, and minimal fringe benefits. Employment of childcare workers is ex­ pected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations, primarily because of anticipated growth in the number of preschool-age children with working mothers. (There actually will be fewer preschoolers, but a higher proportion will have working mothers.) Employment of childcare workers is sensi­ tive to ups and downs in the economy. During recessions, the number of parents who cannot find jobs increases, and parents who are not employed are less likely to need or afford child­ care. Earnings In 1986, median annual earnings of full-time childcare workers were $9,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $7,500 and $11,500; the top 10 percent earned at least $16,000.  Wages of childcare workers vary depending on the type of childcare center. Many entry level childcare workers receive only the min­ imum wage of $3.35 an hour. Earnings of selfemployed childcare workers vary even more than those of wage and salary workers, de­ pending on the hours worked, number and ages of the children, and the geographic area. Related Occupations Childcare work requires patience, creativity, an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and in­ fluence others, and, in some cases, leadership and organizational and administrative abilities. Other occupations involving work with chil­ dren that require these aptitudes include teacher aides, children’s tutors, foster parents, kin­ dergarten and elementary school teachers, and early childhood program directors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about childcare work­ ers, contact; Childcare Employee Project, P.O. Box 5603, Berke­ ley, CA 94705.  For information on childcare center accred­ itation standards and program development and resources, contact: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1834Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate credential (CDA), write to: CDA National Credentialing Program, 1718 Con­ necticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009.  Cosmetologists and Related Workers (D O T. 331; 332; 333; 339.361, .371)  Nature of the Work Hair Jias been a center of attention since people first began to care about their appearance. Throughout history, a great deal of effort has gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Although styles change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s task remains the same—to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, also called beauty opera­ tors, hairstylists, or beauticians, shampoo, cut, and style hair, and advise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently, they straighten or per­ manent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetologists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists may give manicures and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Related workers include makeup artists, who apply makeup; electrologists, who remove hair from skin by electrolysis; and estheticians, who cleanse and  278/Occupational Outlook Handbook  i  ■  V-  Cosmetologists cut and style hair and advise customers on how to care for their hair. beautify the skin. Cosmetologists offer all the services that barbers do except men’s shaves. (See the Handbook statement on barbers.) Most cosmetologists make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular patrons. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize their hairdressing implements. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which include hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and ordering supplies. Working Conditions Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleas­ ant surroundings, with good lighting and com­ fortable temperatures. Their work can be ar­ duous and physically demanding because they must be on their feet for hours at a time and work with their hands at shoulder level. Many full-time cosmetologists work more than 40 hours a week, including evenings and week­ ends, when beauty salons are busiest. Employment Cosmetologists held about 595,000 jobs in 1986. The overwhelming majority of cosme­ tologists were hairstylists; other specialists in­ cluded nail technicians and shampooers. Most worked in beauty salons, some worked in “uni­ sex” salons, barber shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals and hotels. More than two-fifths of all cosmetol­ ogists operate their own businesses. About two-fifths of all cosmetologists work part time. The abundance of part-time jobs attracts many persons who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibil­ ities. All cities and towns have cosmetology sa­ lons, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Those cos­ metologists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifications necessary to ob­ tain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed cosme­ tology school, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, ed­ ucation requirements vary from State to State— some require graduation from high school while others require as little as an eighth grade ed­ ucation. In a few States, completion of an ap­ prentice training program can substitute for graduation from a cosmetology school, but very few cosmetologists leam their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private vocational schools, in either daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; an evening course takes longer. Many public school programs include the academic subjects needed for a high school diploma and last 2 to 3 years. An apprenticeship program usually lasts from 1 to 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practical work. Most schools provide students with the necessary hairdressing implements, such as manicure implements, combs, scissors, razors, and hair rollers, and include their cost in the tuition fee. Sometimes students must purchase their own. A good set of implements costs about $250. Beginning students work on man­ nequins or on each other. Once they have gained some experience, students practice on patrons in school “clinics.” Most schools now teach unisex hairstyling as part of their regular curriculums. After graduating from a cosmetology pro­ gram, students take the State licensing ex­ amination. The examination consists of a writ­ ten test and, usually, a practical test in which applicants demonstrate their ability to perform the required services. In some States, an oral examination is included, and the applicant is  asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practical test. In some States, a separate examination is given for persons who want only a nail technology license or an esthetics license. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow a cos­ metologist licensed in one State to work in another without reexamination. For many people, cosmetology serves as an entry point to the world of work. The field is also characterized by a pattern of movement from family responsibilities into the labor force—when employment and earnings op­ portunities are attractive enough—and back to the home again. In fact, most entrants to this occupation come from outside the labor force; relatively few transfer from other occupations. Persons who want to become cosmetologists must have finger dexterity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ instructions. Because hairstyles are constantly changing, cosmetologists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty tech­ niques. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. Many schools help their students find jobs. During their first months on the job, new cos­ metologists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform the more com­ plicated tasks such as hair coloring and per­ manent waving. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele, but many manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in cosmetology schools. Others become sales representatives for cos­ metics firms, or open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants. Some cosmetologists work as examiners for State cosmetology boards.  Job Outlook Job openings for cosmetologists are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Most openings will result from the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year—primarily to devote full time to household responsibilities. Employ­ ment of cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to population growth, particularly among middle-aged per­ sons, who are the primary users of cosmetology services, and the rising number of working women. Hairstyling for men also contributes to the demand for cosmetologists because many men go to full-service shops or cosmetology salons for styling services. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be very good. Most people regard spending on grooming care as discretionary. During hard economic times, they tend to visit cosmetologists less frequently, which reduces cosmetologists’ earnings. Rarely, however, are cosmetologists laid off solely because of economic downturns.  Service Occupations/279  Earnings Cosmetologists receive income from commis­ sions or wages, and from tips. Those who are not salon owners receive a percentage of the money they take in, about 50 percent; a few are paid straight salaries. Earnings (including tips) of beginning cos­ metologists generally ranged between $12,000 and $13,000 in 1986, according to limited in­ formation available. Experienced cosmetolo­ gists usually earned between $18,000 and $24,000 a year, while some cosmetologists earned over $30,000 annually. Earnings also depend on the size and location of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, compe­ tition from other beauty salons, and the indi­ vidual cosmetologist’s ability to attract and hold regular patrons. Large salons and department stores offer group life and health insurance and other ben­ efit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s service. The principal union which organizes cos­ metologists—both employees and salon own­ ers—is the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. The principal trade association which represents and orga­ nizes salon owners, managers, and employees is the National Cosmetology Association, Inc. Other organizations include the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America; the National Association of Accredited Cos­ metology Schools, Inc., which represents school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, representing black cos­ metologists, teachers, managers, and salon owners. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of helping patrons improve their personal ap­ pearance include barbers, beauty consultants, and health club directors and specialists.  Flight Attendants (D.O.T. 352.367-010)  Nature of the Work Flight attendants are aboard almost all passen­ ger planes to look after the passengers’ flight safety and comfort. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain on such things as expected weather conditions and special pas­ senger problems. The attendants see that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies of food, beverages, blankets, and reading mate­ rial are adequate, and that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order. As passengers board the plane, attendants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them in storing coats and carry-on lug­ gage. Before the plane takes off, attendants in­ struct passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened and seat backs forward. In the air, they answer questions about the flight, distribute magazines and pillows, and help care for small children and elderly and handicapped persons. They may admin­ ister first aid to passengers who become ill. Attendants also serve cocktails and other re­ freshments and, on many flights, heat and dis­ tribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, the flight attendants assist passengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare reports on medications given to passengers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane’s cabin. Assisting passengers in the rare event of an emergency is the most important function of attendants. This may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong turbulence to opening emergency exits  and inflating evacuation chutes following an emergency landing. Lead or first flight attendants aboard planes oversee the work of the other attendants while performing most of the same duties. Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock year round, attendants may work at night and on holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month. In addition, they generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flight, writing re­ ports following completed flights, and waiting for planes that arrive late. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 11 or 12 days or more off each month. Attendants may be away from their home bases at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides flight attendants the oppor­ tunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served. A rough flight can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Employment Flight attendants held about 80,000 jobs in 1986. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines’ home bases. A small number of flight attend­ ants worked for large companies that operate their own aircraft for business purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines like to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can deal comfortably  Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements can be obtained from State boards of cosmetology or from; National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 1333 H St. NW., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005. National Association of Accredited Cosmetology Schools, Inc., 5201 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041.  Additional information about careers in cos­ metology and State licensing requirements is available free of charge from: National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, NY 10467. National Cosmetology Association, Inc., 3510Olive St., St. Louis, MO 63103.  For general information about the occupa­ tion, contact: Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of Amer­ ica, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Char­ lotte, NC 28222.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Flight attendants help make a passenger's flight more comfortable.  280/Occupational Outlook Handbook  with strangers. Applicants usually must be at least 19 to 21 years old, but some airlines have higher minimum age requirements. Flight at­ tendants must have excellent health, good vi­ sion, and the ability to speak clearly. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or ex­ perience in dealing with the public are pre­ ferred. Flight attendants for international air­ lines generally must speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines require that newly hired flight attendants complete 4 to 6 weeks of in­ tensive training in their own schools. The air­ lines that do not operate schools generally send new employees to the school of another airline. Transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies may be provided. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, op­ erating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attendants also are taught flight regulations and duties, and company operations and policies. Trainees receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations and dealing with terrorism. Towards the end of their train­ ing, students go on practice flights. Attendants must receive 12 to 14 hours of training in emer­ gency procedures and passenger relations an­ nually. After completing initial training, flight at­ tendants are assigned to one of their airline's bases. New attendants are placed in “reserve status” and are called on either to staff extra flights or fill in for attendants who are sick or on vacation. Reserve attendants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year; at some cities, it may take 5 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced at­ tendants are remaining in this career for more years than they used to. Attendants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assign­ ments. Because these assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of base and flights. Some attendants transfer to flight service in­ structor, customer service director, recruiting representative, or various other administrative positions. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as flight attendants is ex­ pected to remain very keen through the year 2000 because the number of applicants is ex­ pected to greatly exceed the number of job openings. The glamour of the airline industry and the opportunity to travel and meet people attract many applicants. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance of being hired. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000. Growth in pop­ ulation and income is expected to increase the number of airline passengers. Airlines enlarge their capacity by increasing the number and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  size of planes in operation. Since Federal Avia­ tion Administration safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight at­ tendants will be needed. As more career-minded people enter this oc­ cupation, job turnover will decline. Neverthe­ less, most job openings are expected from the need to replace attendants who stop working or transfer to other occupations. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel de­ clines, many flight attendants are put on part­ time status or laid off. Until demand increases, few new attendants are hired. Earnings Beginning flight attendants had median earn­ ings of about $12,500 a year in 1986, according to data from the Association of Flight Attend­ ants. Flight attendants with 6 years of flying experience had median annual earnings of about $24,000, while some senior flight attendants earned as much as $35,000 a year. Flight at­ tendants receive extra compensation for over­ time and for night and international flights. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most other airlines. Many flight attendants belong to the Asso­ ciation of Flight Attendants. Others are mem­ bers of the Transport Workers Union of Amer­ ica or several other unions. Flight attendants are required to buy uni­ forms and wear them while on duty. Uniform replacement items are usually paid for by the company. The airlines generally provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people and re­ quire the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances include tour guide, gate agent, host or hostess, waiter or waitress, and camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a par­ ticular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of air­ line companies and information about job op­ portunities and salaries, contact: Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 J. Memorial Dr., Atlanta, GA 30032. (This organi­ zation may be called toll free at 800-Jet-Jobs.)  Homemaker-Home Health Aides (D.O-T. 079.224-010; 309.354-010; and 3S4.377-014)  Nature of the Work Homemaker-home health aides provide home­ making services, personal care, and emotional support for clients who need such assistance  to maintain themselves in their own homes. Originally, homemaker-home health aides worked with families in which the parent was incapacitated and small children needed care. Some aides still do this kind of work, while others assist families in which child abuse or neglect has occurred. Others help discharged hospital patients who have short-term needs. Most homemaker-home health aides, however, work with elderly or disabled clients who re­ quire more extensive care than spouse, family, or friends can provide informally. Job duties as well as schedules vary ac­ cording to clients’ needs. For example, a client recuperating from major surgery may require daily care for a period of days or weeks, while someone with a chronic condition is likely to need help several times a week over an indef­ inite period of time. Basic duties include clean­ ing a client’s room, kitchen, and bathroom, doing the laundry, and changing bed linens. Aides may also plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and prepare meals. Among the personal care services that aides perform are assisting with bathing or giving a bed bath, shampooing hair, and helping the client move from bed to a chair or another room. Homemaker-home health aides also check pulse and respiration, help with simple prescribed exercises, and assist with medica­ tions. Occasionally, they may change nonsterile dressings, use special equipment such as a hydraulic lift, or assist with braces or artificial limbs. In addition to taking care of practical matters, homemaker-home health aides provide instruc­ tion and psychological support. For example, a client newly confined to a wheelchair may need to be taught how to perform daily tasks. Provid­ ing emotional support and understanding is a particularly important aspect of the work since a client’s progress in regaining strength and in­ dependence may be greatly influenced by his or her mental attitude. Lastly, if employed by an agency, the aide reports changes in the client’s condition and helps a professional team decide when the services being given to the client should be changed. In agency settings, homemaker home-health aides are assigned specific duties by a supervi­ sor—usually a registered nurse, physical ther­ apist, or social worker. The supervisor ordinar­ ily consults the client’s physician about the need for in-home services, especially if the client re­ cently has been discharged from the hospital. Many homemaker-home health agencies, both public and private, require that a physician cer­ tify that such services are necessary. Before the aide starts coming to the client’s home, the supervisor pays an initial visit to determine what specific services are appropri­ ate and to discuss the aide’s scheduled duties with the client. (In many agencies, the aide is expected to submit a daily report, signed by the client, that lists the exact services per­ formed and the hours worked.) The supervisor visits the client regularly to be sure that the service is satisfactory. If the supervisor determines that extensive services will be required over a long period of  Service Occupations/281  time, attempts are made to coordinate the as­ signment of the aide with other community and in-home services such as adult day care, mealson-wheels, friendly visitors, and telephone re­ assurance. If satisfactory provision for the re­ quired care cannot be made, the supervisor may suggest an alternative arrangement such as transfer to a nursing home or retirement resi­ dence. However, in many cases it is possible to maintain care in the home through the ser­ vices provided by homemaker-home health aides—coordinated, when needed, with other community services.  high school diploma is desirable, but not nec­ essary. Some agencies require previous train­ ing such as completion of a homemaker-home health aide course, nursing aide certificate pro­ gram, or courses in home health care. Many agencies are willing to hire untrained applicants and either provide training or give them the opportunity to receive training on their own while employed. Homemaker-home health aides usually undergo orientation and training shortly after they are hired. The length and quality of this training vary greatly, and may be determined by State regulations. Agencies that require ex­ Working Conditions perience as a nursing aide generally provide The amount of variety in a homemaker-home only a few hours of orientation. Many agen­ health aide’s daily routine depends on whether cies, however, provide a 1- or 2-week training the aide assists one client or many. The job program. Topics covered include basic nutri­ can entail going to the same home every day tion and meal planning and preparation; per­ for months or even years. More commonly, sonal care of the sick, such as bathing, turning, however, aides work with a number of different and lifting bed patients; emotional problems clients, each job lasting a few days or weeks. accompanying illness; and the aging process Sometimes, aides go to two or three clients in and behavior of the elderly. Some agencies the course of a single day. include training in child care. Because aides assist clients in their own Many agencies offer in-service training op­ homes, surroundings differ from case to case. portunities for staff members. Workshops or One home may be clean and neat, while another lectures may be scheduled on topics such as may be dirty or untidy. Likewise, one case diets for diabetics, exercise for clients with a may be emotionally draining because the client heart condition, or coping with depression. is angry, abusive, or mentally confused, while Successful homemaker-home health aides another may be enjoyable because the client is are mature persons who like to help people and so pleasant to be with. don't mind hard work. They have a sense of Homemaker-home health aides are essen­ responsibility, compassion, emotional stabil­ tially on their own when they are at work. ity, and a cheerful disposition. They are able Although aides sent out by agencies generally to overcome an atmosphere of depression and have detailed instructions as to what services bring brightness into the day of a sick, elderly are to be performed, which clients are to be person. Aides also must be tactful and able to visited, and when these visits are to take place, get along with all kinds of people. it is up to the aide to carry out the instructions. In addition to these personal qualities, home­ Ordinarily, there is little direct in-home su­ maker-home health aides must have good health pervision. since some of their duties, such as lifting, mov­ Aides are usually required to furnish their ing, and supporting patients, require above­ own transportation. Often, this means having average physical strength. A physical exami­ access to an automobile. In any event, it is the nation may be required. aide’s responsibility to find a way to get to the Homemaker-home health aides often are client’s home on time. Aides may spend a good middle-aged women. However, younger and portion of the working day traveling from one older women, and men of all ages, are readily client to another. accepted for this work. The minimum age is Full-time, part-time, and shift work is avail­ usually 17; however, most agencies prefer peo­ able for homemaker-home health aides. An ple in their 20’s at least. attractive element of this job is that aides are Although only a small number of men cur­ often able to arrange their schedules to meet rently are employed in the occupation, addi­ their personal needs. tional men are needed to care for men who prefer a male aide. Employment Some agencies employ nursing, home eco­ Homemaker home-health aides held about nomics, or social work students for night, 197,000 jobs in 1986. Most aides are employed weekend, or summer jobs. by public or private agencies, including home­ As aides take on a variety of cases, they de­ maker-home health agencies, home health velop expertise in caring for persons with many agencies, visiting nurse associations, hospitals, types of illness. Some aides discover a special public health and welfare departments, and talent for caring for a specific type of client, temporary help firms. Self-employed aides have such as those suffering from Alzheimer's dis­ no agency affiliation or supervision, and ac­ ease. In some larger agencies, experienced cordingly accept clients, set fees, and arrange homemaker-home health aides can specialize in work schedules on their own. caring for clients with a specific type of prob­ lem . After gaining experience in different types Training, Other Qualifications, of cases, aides can assume more responsibility and Advancement and become more self-directing within the scope To be hired as a homemaker-home health aide, of their assigned duties. In some agencies, ex­ applicants must be able to read and write. A perienced aides can be promoted to special as-   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  The desire to help others is essential in this field. sistant to the supervisor, relieving the supervi­ sor of some of the more routine aspects of supervision and management. Job Outlook Employment of homemaker-home health aides is expected to grow much faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000. The underlying factor is demographic: a sub­ stantial increase in the frail elderly population is a virtual certainty in the years immediately ahead, given projected growth in the number of people in their 80’s and beyond. The extent to which population growth is translated into jobs for home care workers will depend on other factors, however, notably the availability of public and private funds to purchase in-home services; trends in informal caretaking by fam­ ily, friends, and neighbors; and the role of alternative arrangements, including adult day care and lifecare communities. Concern about the cost of hospital care has set in motion a number of important changes in the way such care is delivered and paid for. Pressure to reduce the length of hospital stays, for example, has spurred demand for home health services for patients recovering from stroke, surgery, and other serious conditions. The use of home care for patients upon their discharge from the hospital is expected to ex­ pand substantially, due in part to coverage for such care by Medicare, Medicaid, health main­ tenance organizations, and private health in­ surance plans. Job prospects are excellent for people seek­ ing work as homemaker-home health aides. In addition to new jobs created by the growth and aging of the population, replacement needs are expected to produce numerous job openings. Turnover appears to be high, a reflection of the relatively low skill requirements and low pay. Also contributing to turnover are the emo­ tional demands this kind of work imposes. Pro­ viding personal care and performing home­  282/Occupational Outlook Handbook  making duties in a client's own home can be quite stressful if the client is mentally impaired or has an abrasive personality. Moreover, if no other family members are present, the work can be isolating. Aides who lack the temper­ ament or maturity for handling difficult inter­ personal situations are likely to leave the oc­ cupation. However, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have no trouble finding and keeping jobs. Individuals with prior experience or training as home­ maker-home health aides or nursing aides should find employment opportunities abundant and will be in great demand. Earnings Earnings for homemaker-home health aides vary considerably. In 1986, beginning wages ranged from the minimum wage of $3.35 to about $6 an hour. Agencies in large cities that have a high cost of living generally pay higher wages. Agencies that have union contracts usually pay higher wages and offer more benefits. While some agencies pay the same rate to all aides, most agencies give pay increases as aides gain experience and are given more responsibility. A few agencies have career ladders, with the increasing responsibilities and wages of each step stated in detail. Benefits vary even more than wages. Some agencies offer no benefits at all, while others offer a full package of holidays, vacation, sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. While some agencies hire only “on call” hourly workers, with no benefits, many agen­ cies also employ aides on a full-time or part­ time basis with many benefits and a minimum number of hours guaranteed. A typical full­ time aide is guaranteed 36 hours of work a week; has 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation each year, based on number of years of employment; earns 1 day of sick leave a month; is paid for major holidays; and can participate in health insurance and pension plans. A typical part­ time employee works a regular schedule and usually works at least 20 hours a week, receives the same hourly wage as full-time employees, and may have prorated benefits. A few agencies also prorate vacation and sick leave to those employees who do not have a guaranteed min­ imum number of hours or a regular schedule.  Janitors and Cleaners (D.O.T. 323.687; 358.687-010; 381.687 except -010; 382.664-010; 389.667-010. .683-010, 739.687-198; 891.687-010 and -018; and 952.687-010)  Nature of the Work Janitors or cleaners—also called building cus­ todians—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some janitors only do cleaning; others have a wide range of duties. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. Janitors and cleaners use different equip­ ment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job they may need a mop and bucket; for an­ other, an electric polishing machine and a spe­ cial cleaning solution. Improved building ma­ terials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but janitors must know how to use equipment and cleaners properly to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Working Conditions Since most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaners work evening hours. Some, however, such as school cus­ todians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Janitors and cleaners usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings. However, sometimes they work outdoors sweeping walk­ ways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow.  Related Occupations Homemaker-home health aide is a service oc­ cupation that combines duties of health workers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help or instruct others include attendants in children’s institutions, childcare attendants in schools, child monitors, companions, nursing aides, nursery school attendants, occupational therapy aides, orderlies, physical therapy aides, playroom attendants, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information General information about training and em­ ployment opportunities for homemaker-home health aides is available from: The National Association for Homecare, 519 C St. NE., Stanton Park, Washington, DC 20002.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Janitors and cleaners spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes pushing heavy equipment.  Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer minor cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. Janitors and cleaners spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bend­ ing, stooping, and stretching. Employment Janitors and cleaners held almost 2.7 million jobs in 1986. One-third worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Custodians worked in every type of estab­ lishment. About 1 in 5 worked in a school, including colleges and universities. One in 6 worked for a firm supplying building mainte­ nance services on a contract basis. One in 10 worked in a hotel and another 1 in 10 in a hospital. Others were employed by restaurants, operators of apartment buildings, office build­ ings, and other types of real estate, churches and other religious organizations, manufactur­ ing firms, and government agencies. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apartment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most clean­ ing jobs, but the beginner should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for minor plumbing or carpentry work. Most janitors and cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. They are given more complicated work as they gain experience. In some cities, programs run by unions, gov­ ernment agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, the correct way to clean different surfaces, and how to operate and maintain machines used on the job, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs may also be given. As part of their training, students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Janitors and cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements or apply­ ing directly to organizations where they would like to work or to a building maintenance ser­ vice. They also get jobs through State em­ ployment service offices. Advancement opportunities for janitorial workers usually are limited because, in many buildings, the janitor is the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, janitors can be promoted to supervisory jobs. A high school diploma im­ proves the chances for advancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance business.  Service Occupations/283  Job Outlook Employment of building janitors and cleaners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the number of office buildings, factories, hos­ pitals, apartment houses, schools, and other buildings increases. Employment will grow much faster than average in firms supplying building maintenance services as more em­ ployers contract out their cleaning work. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will create most job openings. This large occupation is easy to enter since there are few requirements for formal education and training, turnover is high, and part-time jobs are plentiful. New technology is expected to have little effect on employment of janitors and cleaners. Robots now under development are limited to performing a single cleaning task such as vac­ uuming and then only in large, uncluttered areas like airport terminals. Robots with multiple cleaning functions will probably not become available for some time, and, if they are ex­ pensive, it may not be practical to replace lowpaid cleaning personnel with these machines. Even if these robots become affordable, they may not be usable in many places, particularly cluttered areas such as hotel and hospital rooms. Earnings Janitors and cleaners who usually worked full time averaged $247 a week in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $179 and $328. Ten percent earned less than $140. Ten percent more than $435. In 1986, average straight-time hourly earn­ ings of janitors and cleaners in metropolitan areas were $5.85, which is less than threefourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for janitors in manufacturing industries was $8.87 an hour and for nonmanufacturing industries, $5.19. Earnings, however, vary by industry and area of the country. Workers in large cities of the Northeast, North Central, and Western regions usually earn the highest wages. Many non­ union, part-time workers earned the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour. Most building service workers receive paid holidays and vacations and health insurance. Related Occupations Private household workers have job duties sim­ ilar to janitors and cleaners. Workers who spe­ cialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include refuse collectors, floor waxers, street sweepers, window clean­ ers, gardeners, boiler tenders, pest controllers, and general maintenance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be ob­ tained from a local State employment service office or from; Service Employees International Union, 1313 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Private Household Workers (D.O.T. 301 except 687-018; 302.685.010, .687-010; 305; 309 except .354-010 and .677-014)  Nature of the Work People employ private household workers to clean, do laundry, take care of children, plan and cook meals, and do numerous other tasks to ensure that their household runs smoothly. Many household workers work for two or more employers; others work for just one. Most household workers are general houseworkers and usually the only worker employed in the home. They dust and polish furniture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes. A few wash windows. Other duties may include cooking, looking after a child or an elderly person, feeding pets, answering the telephone and doorbell, and calling and waiting for repair workers. Household workers may also take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy gro­ ceries, and do other errands. Household workers whose primary respon­ sibility is to take care of children are called childcare workers. Those employed on an hourly basis are usually called babysitters. Childcare workers dress, feed, and bathe chil­ dren; supervise their play, wash their clothes, and clean their rooms. They may also waken them and put them to sleep, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, some­ times called infant nurses or nannies, also pre­ pare bottles and change diapers. Tutors or gov­ ernesses look after older children. They may help them with school work, teach them a for­ eign language, and guide them in their general upbringing. (Childcare workers who work out­ side the child’s home are covered in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those who take care of elderly, handi­ capped, or convalescent people are called com­ panions. They keep their house tidy, prepare and serve their meals, help them bathe and dress, and may read, play cards or games with them, and take them on outings or for doctors’ visits. They may also handle their social and business affairs. Households with a large staff may include a housekeeper or a butler, a cook, a caretaker, and a launderer. Housekeepers and butlers hire, supervise, and coordinate the work of the household staff and keep the household running smoothly. Butlers also receive and announce guests, answer telephones, deliver messages, serve food and drinks, chauffeur, or act as a personal attendant. Cooks plan and prepare meals, clean the kitchen, order groceries and supplies, and may also serve meals. Caretakers do heavy housework and general home main­ tenance. They wash windows, wax floors, and hang draperies. They maintain heating and other equipment and do light carpentry, painting, and  odd jobs. They may also mow the lawn and do some gardening if the household does not have a gardener. Working Conditions Private household workers usually work in pleasant and comfortable homes or apartments. Most are dayworkers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. Live-ins usually work longer hours. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off. Liv­ ing in may isolate them from family and friends. On the other hand, they often become part of their employer’s family and may derive sat­ isfaction from caring for them. Being a general houseworker can also be isolating, since work is usually done alone. Housekeeping is hard work. Both daywork­ ers and live-ins are on their feet most of the day and do much walking, lifting, bending, stooping, and reaching. In addition, some em­ ployers may be hard to please. Employment Private household workers held about 981,000 jobs in 1986. More than half were general house workers, mostly dayworkers. About 40 percent were childcare workers, including ba­ bysitters. About 5 percent were housekeepers, butlers, cooks, and launderers. Most jobs are in big cities and their affluent suburbs. Some are on large estates or in resorts away from cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Private household workers generally do not need any special training. Individuals who can­ not find other work because of limited language or other skills often turn to this work. Most jobs require the ability to clean well, cook, or take care of children. These skills are generally learned by young people while helping with housework at home. Some training takes place on the job. Employers show the household workers what they want done and how. For childcare workers and companions, general ed­ ucation, background, and ability to get along with the person they will care for are most important. Home economics courses in high schools and vocational and adult education schools of­ fer training in cooking and childcare. Courses in child development, first aid, and nursing in postsecondary schools are also useful. A few special schools exist for butlers, nan­ nies, and governesses. Private household workers must be honest, discreet, dependable, courteous, and neat. They need physical stamina. Opportunities for advancement within this occupation are limited. There are very few large households with big staffs where general houseworkers can advance to cook, executive housekeeper, or butler, and these jobs may require specialized training. Advancement usually consists of better pay and working con­ ditions. Workers may move to similar jobs in  284/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Demand for private household workers is expected to grow as more women join the labor force. hotels, hospitals, and restaurants, where the pay and fringe benefits are usually better. Oth­ ers transfer into better paying unrelated jobs. Job Outlook Employment of private household workers is expected to show little or no change through the year 2000 because only a limited number of people are willing to enter or stay in this occupation. Unattractiveness of the work, low status, poor pay, lack of fringe benefits, limited advancement potential, and a decline in the population between the ages of 16 and 24— an age group from which many childcare work­ ers and babysitters come—are some of the rea­ sons that will limit supply. The demand for household services is ex­ pected to grow as more women join the labor   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  force and need—and can afford—these ser­ vices. Because of shortages of household workers, prospective employers are turning to domestic cleaning firms and childcare centers. (See the statements on janitors and cleaners and childcare workers elsewhere in the Hand­ book ). Although employment of private household workers is not expected to grow, many jobs will be available each year because of the need to replace the high proportion who leave this very large occupation. With the large number of openings and a limited supply, those willing to enter should have very good job prospects. Earnings Earnings of private household workers depend on the type of work, the number of hours,  household and staff size, geographic location, and experience. Nearly 2 out of 3 private household workers work part time, or less than 35 hours a week. Some work only 2 or 3 days a week, while others may work half a day 4 or 5 days a week. Earnings vary from less than the Federal min­ imum wage of $3.35 an hour in a rural area (minimum wage laws often do not apply to domestic workers) to about $6 an hour or more in a big city. In addition, day workers often get carfare and a free meal. Live-in domestics usu­ ally earn more than dayworkers and also get free room and board. However, they often work longer hours. Babysitters usually have the low­ est earnings. In 1986, median earnings for full-time pri­ vate household workers were about $120 a week. The middle 50 percent earned from about $100 to $170 a week, while the top 10 percent earned about $220 a week or more. The median for cleaners was about $150 and for childcare workers, about $90 a week. Some full-time live-in housekeepers or but­ lers, nannies, and governesses earn much higher wages than these. For instance, in a small household in New York City, a butler who also acts as a cook and driver may earn between $400 and $500 a week; a nanny or a chef in a large household may also earn as much. A major domo, or senior butler, who runs a large household and supervises a staff of six people or more may earn up to $1,000 a week. Most private household workers have very limited or no health insurance, retirement plans, or unemployment compensation.  Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve cleaning and maintenance services, looking after children and adults, preparing and serving food and drink, as well as providing other personal ser­ vices, include building custodians, hotel and restaurant cleaners, childcare workers who care for children in day care centers or in their own homes, home health aides, practical nurses, cooks, kitchen workers, waiters and wait­ resses, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for private household workers is available from local private employment agencies and State employment service offices.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Farm Operators and Managers (D.O.T. 180.117, .161, .167 except -014, -022, -050, -054; 401.161; 402.161; 403.161; 404.161; 405.161; 405.361; 407.161; 410.161; 411.161; 412.161; 413.161; 421.161; 446.161)  Nature of the Work American farm operators and managers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricultural sectors. They pro­ duce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export huge quantities to countries around the world. Farm operators. Farm operators may be farmer owners or tenant farmers (renters). Their specific tasks are determined by the type of farm they operate. On crop farms—farms growing grain, fiber, fruit, and vegetables— farm operators are responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spray­ ing, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are packaged, loaded, and promptly marketed or stored for resale. On livestock, dairy, and poultry farms, farm op­ erators must plan, feed, and care for the ani­ mals and keep bams, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in repair. They also oversee breeding, some slaughtering, and mar­ keting activities. On horticultural specialty farms, farm operators oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery products—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses. Farm operators perform tasks ranging from setting up and operating machinery to erecting fences and sheds. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle themselves. Operators of large farms have employees who do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Although employment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal work­ ers. Some of these workers are in nonfarm occupations, such as truckdriver, sales repre­ sentative, and bookkeeper. Farm operators must make many managerial decisions. Their farm output is strongly influ­ enced by the weather, disease, fluctuations in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and, in some cases, Federal farm programs. Farm operators must determine the best time to seed, fertilize, cultivate, harvest, and market. They  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  must carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so that, if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for it. Also, prices of crops and live­ stock change from one month to another, and farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of better prices later in the year. Farm operators may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. They also keep financial records of the farm operation and train and supervise workers in the use of equipment and the performance of farm work. Farm managers. The duties and responsi­ bilities of farm managers vary widely. For ex­ ample, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a farm manager to oversee a single activity such as feeding livestock. When man­ aging a small crop farm for an absentee owner, on the other hand, the farm manager may as­ sume all functions from planning the output to participating in planting and harvesting activ­ ities. Farm management firms employ highly trained professional farm managers who may manage some or all farm operations or oversee tenant operators of several farms. In these cases, farm managers may establish output goals and monitor production. Working Conditions Farming is attractive to persons who prefer a slower pace and the more wholesome rural life  to urban living. Even when farming generates a modest income, many farmers earn supplemen­ tary income from part-time or seasonal jobs in nearby cities or towns rather than leave farming. The topography of the land and the climate of an area generally determine the type of farm­ ing that is done. For example, wheat, com, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large farms on level land where large and so­ phisticated machinery can best be used. Thus, these crops arc ideal for the plains of Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Kansas. Crops that re­ quire longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country’s fruits and veg­ etables come from California, Texas, and Flor­ ida. Crops requiring a temperate climate—for example, potatoes—come from Northern States such as Idaho, Washington, and Maine. Dairy herds are best suited for the areas of good pastureland, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Minnesota. Livestock production requires large tracts of grazing land and thus is con­ centrated in Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, and some Western States. Many types of farming are seasonal in na­ ture. Although many farm operators and man­ agers on crop farms work from sunup to sun­ down during the planting and harvesting seasons, they often work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year, and many have second jobs off the farm. On farms that raise animals for meat or dairy  nn  m  laMMraiiK.;. ; «t" mwm. - -■ t < •' 1 • Bgjy®  WMM,  • ’ •  mwiim  ■■  ;  Giant combines are used to harvest crops on large farms. 285  286/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Farms are decreasing in number but increasing in size. Farms (millions)  Average size (acres) - 600  Number of farms  Farm size  1955  I960  1965  Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture  products, work goes on constantly throughout the year. Because animals must be fed and watered every day and cows must be milked twice daily, operators of these farms rarely get the chance to be away. Farm work can be extremely hazardous; each year, many farmers are injured by planting and harvesting machinery. They are subject to ill­ nesses and diseases from handling and breath­ ing dangerous pesticides and chemicals and from handling crops that have been sprayed with insecticides. They may be injured or catch diseases transmitted by farm animals. On very large farms, farm operators spend substantial time meeting with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activ­ ities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet with farm operators and plan­ ning and scheduling farm operations while in their offices. Employment In 1986, farm operators and managers held about 1,336,000 jobs. Nearly 3 out of 5 man­ aged crop production activities and over 2 out of 5 managed livestock production activities. A relatively small number were involved in agricultural services such as contract harvest­ ing and farm labor contracting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in fanning programs for young people spon­ sored by the Future Farmers of America or the 4-H youth educational programs are important sources of training for prospective farmers. However, modem farming requires increas­ ingly complex scientific, business, and finan­ cial decisions. Even young people who have lived on farms must acquire a strong educa­ tional background. Their high school training should include courses in mathematics and the sciences. Completion of a 2-year and prefer­ ably a 4-year program in a college of agricul­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ture is becoming necessary. A bachelor’s de­ gree in agriculture is essential for persons without farm experience who aspire to become farmers or farm managers. Students should select the college most ap­ propriate to their specific interests and location. All States have land-grant universities that in­ clude a college of agriculture; their major pro­ grams of study include areas such as dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, soil sci­ ence, and animal science. Also, colleges usu­ ally offer special programs of study concerning products important to the area in which they are located, such as animal science programs at colleges in the Western and Plains States. Whatever one’s interest, the college curriculum should include courses in farm management and in business, finance, and economics. Professional status can be acquired through certification as an accredited farm manager (AFM) by the American Society of Farm Man­ agers and Rural Appraisers. Applicants must have several years’ farm experience and the ap­ propriate academic background—a bachelor’s degree or preferably a master’s degree in a field of agricultural science—and must pass courses and examinations relating to business, finan­ cial, and legal aspects of farm management. It is necessary to keep abreast of continuing advances in farming methods both in the United States and abroad. Farm operators should be willing to try new processes and adapt to con­ stantly changing technologies to produce their crops or raise their livestock more efficiently. Keeping abreast of changing foreign agricul­ tural policies and international exchange rates is important to operators of farms producing internationally traded crops and livestock. Op­ erators also must have enough technical knowl­ edge of crops and growing conditions and plant and animal diseases to be able to make deci­ sions that ensure the successful operation of their farms. They also must have the mana­ gerial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. Mechanical aptitude and the ability  to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for the operator of a small farm, who often must maintain and repair machinery or farm structures. A basic knowledge of ac­ counting and bookkeeping can be helpful in keeping financial records, and a knowledge of credit sources is essential. Familiarity with computers is important, especially on large farms, since computers are used to monitor all aspects of farm operations. Job Outlook The expanding world population is increasing the demand for food and fiber. However, in­ creasing productivity in our highly efficient agricultural sector is expected to easily meet domestic and export requirements. Although requirements for farm land, machinery, and equipment will increase, labor requirements in the agricultural sector will decrease. Thus, em­ ployment of farm operators and managers com­ bined is expected to continue to decline through the year 2000, but at a slower rate than in the past. The overwhelming majority of job open­ ings will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons. The trend toward fewer and larger farms, primarily through mergers, is expected to con­ tinue to reduce the number of jobs for farm operators. A farm can be acquired by inher­ itance. However, purchasing a farm is prohib­ itively expensive, although the costs of land, buildings, machinery, and equipment have moderated in the last few years. The recent decline in land values has made loans even more difficult to obtain. In addition, sufficient funds are required to withstand the adverse effects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income and to cover operating costs—livestock, feed, seed, and fuel. Also, the complexity of modem farming and keen competition among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful farmer or the "gentleman” farmer who considers farming a hobby rather than a necessity. Small- and me­ dium-size farms, many of which do not gen­ erate sufficient income to support the desired standard of living, are expected to decrease in number. However, the small but increasing number of horticultural farms may provide some employment opportunities. The increase in the average size of farms and in the complexity of farming is expected to spur demand for highly trained and exper­ ienced farm managers. Additional demand will come from the increasing number of absentee owners who, rather than work their farms, of­ ten hire farm managers to run the farm or over­ see tenant farmers. Earnings In 1986, median annual earnings of farm op­ erators and managers were $16,700. However, farm income varies greatly from year to year, since prices of farm products fluctuate de­ pending upon weather conditions that influence the amount and quality of farm output. A farm that shows a large profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Many farmers—  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations/287  primarily small—have off-farm income often several times larger than their farm income. Farm income also varies greatly depending upon the type and size of farm. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, vegetable and melon, poultry and egg, and horticulural specialty farms generated an average income of over $90,000 in 1986. On the other hand, tobacco, cattle, hog and sheep, and animal specialty farms generated less than $10,000 in income, on the average. Generally, large farms generate more income than small farms. Ex­ ceptions include some specialty farms produc­ ing low-volume but high-value horticultural and fruit products. Related Occupations Farmers and farm managers strive to improve the quality of agricultural products and the ef­ ficiency of farms. Workers with similar func­ tions include agricultural engineers, agrono­ mists, animal breeders, animal scientists, apiculturalists, botanists, county agricultural agents, dairy scientists, extension service spe­ cialists, farm worker supervisors, feed and farm management advisors, horticulturalists, plant breeders, poultry scientists, range managers, and soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and ag­ ricultural occupations, contact: National FFA Organization, Box 15160, 5632 Mt. Vernon Memorial Hwy., Alexandria, VA 22309. American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touhy Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  For information about certification as an ac­ credited farm manager, contact: American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Ap­ praisers, 950 South Cherry St., Suite 106, Denver, CO 80222.  For general information about farm occu­ pations and 4-H activities, contact your local County Extension Service office. For information about agricultural educa­ tion, contact: National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, Division of Agriculture, One DuPont Circle, Suite 710, Washington, DC 20036. National Postsecondary Agricultural Student Orga­ nization, Box 34, Cobleskill, NY 12043. Higher Education Program, U.S. Department of Ag­ riculture, Washington, DC 20250.  Timber Cutting and Logging Occupations (D.O.T. 408.664, .667; 454 except .134; 455 except .134 and .367; 455.367; 459.387, .687; 669.687-022; 921.364, .664-014, .667-014, .687-014, -030; 922.687­ 082; 929.683-010)  Timber harvested from the Nation’s forests provides the raw material for countless con­ sumer and industrial products. The timber cut­ ting and logging process begins when foresters,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  aided by forest technicians, decide when and which trees will be harvested, and may specify the type of equipment, the means of access to the logging site, and the manner of transporting the cut timber (logs) to the landings (loading areas), yards (storage areas), or mill. Appropriate equipment is used to fell (cut down) trees and minimize destruction of other trees and the forest floor. Suitable access to and from the logging sites expedites the trans­ portation of logs and minimizes disruption of the forest ecology. Roads connecting the cut­ ting operations and the landings are carefully bulldozed through the forest. Logs are hauled primarily by specially designed trucks or, in some instances, by small tractors or tracked vehicles. In a few areas of the Northwest, be­ cause of the long distances and the size of the trees, it is more economical to haul logs and pulpwood by railroad. In the Northeast, par­ ticularly for small operations within metro­ politan areas, horses and mules—which for­ merly were the primary means of hauling logs— are used to minimize destruction of the forest floor. In mountainous or marshy areas, a cable yarding system—consisting of one or more towers (either other trees, mobile cranes, or fixed steel towers) interconnected by cables and fixed to the ground by guy wires and tree stumps—may be used. The logs are attached to the cables, which are reeled on and off drums by machines called yarders, and then for­ warded from the felling site to the landing.  Tree trimmers prune tree tops and branches, using saws or pruning shears. Pickers select and place logs onto skidders and log blocks onto conveyors to be sent to other machines for further processing. Log markers determine the bucking points at which logs will be sawn into sections. Rivers use sledge hammers, mal­ lets, wedges, and froes (cleaving tools) to split logs to form posts, pickets, shakes, and other objects. Rigging slingers determine the se­ quence of logs to be yarded by the cable yarding system. Chasers direct the placement of logs at landings and disengage their chokers. Pulp pilers stack logs at landings near logging roads. Although timber cutting and logging equip­ ment has been greatly improved and operations substantially mechanized, most logging jobs are still labor intensive. These jobs require various levels of skill, ranging from manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully us­ ing saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or loading. Skillful operation of vehicles and equipment is necessary to avoid accidents and to minimize damage to the equipment and en­ vironment. The knowledge to maintain and re­ pair equipment is increasingly necessary to re­ duce costs and increase productivity. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a va­ riety of logging operations. Weather can force curtailment of logging operations, particularly during the winter months and dry summer periods. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residen­ Nature of the Work tial, also affect logging activities. In addition, Timber cutting and logging operations are per­ logging operations must be relocated when formed by a variety of workers. marketable timber in a particular area is de­ Fallers cut down trees. Buckers trim off the pleted. During prolonged periods of inactivity, tops and branches and may buck (cut) the re­ some workers may stay on the job to maintain sulting logs into specified lengths. These work­ or repair logging machinery and equipment; ers usually use gas-powered chain saws or me­ others are forced to find jobs in other occu­ chanical felling machines and occasionally use pations or be without work. axes and manually operated electric power saws. The timber cutting and logging industry is Choke setters fasten chokers (steel cables or characterized by a large number of small crews chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by of four or fewer workers—primarily fallers, tractors or forwarded by the yarding system to buckers, choke setters, and others whose jobs the landing. Included are riggers, who set up are labor intensive. Most of these crews work and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the for self-employed logging contractors who cable yarding system. possess substantial logging experience, the Logging tractor operators drive crawler or capital to purchase equipment, and the skills wheeled tractors to skid logs from the felling needed to run a small business successfully. site to the landing. Some operate harvesting Most contractors work alongside their crews machines—tractors outfitted with specialized as working supervisors. Many manage more equipment that can cut and delimb trees, haul than one crew and function as owner-super­ the logs to the landing, and load them onto visors. Crews may work directly or on a con­ trucks. tractual basis for large logging companies, Log handling equipment operators operate sawmills, or forest product companies. They tracked or wheeled equipment to load or unload may travel throughout several States working logs and pulpwood onto or off trucks or gon­ at various sites. dola railroad cars. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for de­ Working Conditions fects, measure logs to determine their volume, Most timber cutting and logging jobs involve and estimate the marketable content or value lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activi­ of logs or pulpwood. ties. A few lumber camps, primarily in Alaska, Other timber cutting and logging workers house workers in dormitories or company have a variety of responsibilities. Cruisers hike towns. Workers in sparsely populated Western through forests to assess logging conditions and States daily commute long distances between estimate the volume of marketable timber. Brush their homes and logging sites. In the densely clearing laborers clear areas of brush and other populated Eastern States, commuting distances growth in preparation for logging activities. are much shorter.  288/Occupational Outlook Handbook  *'**•&■  is® L V:  *  PS#1?.  '  ;  . * ■* 'iHHH  §***-  ',. :  Falters use power saws to fell trees. Loggers work under unusually hazardous conditions. Falling trees and branches are a constant menace, as are the dangers associated with log handling operations and use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Strong winds require special care and can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency but present a constant danger, es­ pecially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants and brambles are minor annoyances. Other hazards include con­ tact with chemicals and pesticides used to con­ trol or eradicate diseases and insects that at­ tack trees. Over long periods of time, hearing may be impaired by the high noise level of sawing and skidding operations. Experience, exercise of caution, and use of proper safety measures and equipment, such as hard hats, eye protection equipment, and heavy clothing and boots, are extremely important to avoid injury. Employment Timber cutting and logging workers held about 103,000 jobs in 1986. Seven out of ten jobs were wage and salary positions in the following occupations: Fallers and buckers ............................ Logging tractor operators................... Log handling equipment operators .. All other timber cutting and related logging occupations .......................  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  36,000 28,000 16,000 23,000  ation of newly purchased machinery. Safety I training is a vital part of instruction for all logging workers. Experience in other occupations can expe­ dite entry into various logging occupations. For example, woodworkers such as carpen­ ters and sawyers can become buckers. Equip­ ment operators such as truckdrivers and bull­ dozer and crane operators can assume skidding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in sawmills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Many logging con­ tractors were formerly crew members of fam­ ily-owned businesses operated over several generations. Generally, little formal education is re­ quired. However, many secondary institutions, including vocational and technical schools, and a few community colleges offer courses in gen­ eral forestry and forest harvesting. Courses in basic mathematics are recommended. A cur­ riculum which includes field trips to observe or participate in logging activities provides a particularly good background. Timber cutting and logging workers must ' ■-■ - • have good health, physical strength and stam­ ina, and the desire and ability to work outdoors under difficult conditions. The ability to work as part of a team is vital. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, in­ telligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordi­ nation are necessary qualities for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are re­ sponsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a self-employed Most salaried timber cutting and logging logging contractor. workers are employed in the logging camps Timber cutting and logging workers gen­ and logging contractors industry. Others work erally advance from occupations involving in the sawmills and planing mills and arborist primarily manual labor to those involving services industries. Although logging opera­ the operation of expensive, sometimes com­ tions are found in most States, Oregon and plicated machinery and equipment. Inexperi­ Washington account for about I out of every enced entrants begin as laborers, clearing brush 4 logging workers. and loading and unloading logs and brush. For Self-employed logging contractors account some, familiarization with logging operations for about 3 out of every 10 logging workers— may lead to jobs such as choke setter and log a much higher proportion of self-employment handling equipment operator. Further experi­ than for most occupations—and are found al­ ence may lead to jobs involving the operation most exclusively in the logging camps and log­ of more complicated machinery and yarding ging contractors industry. towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those While seasonal demand for logging workers who have the motor skills required for the ef­ varies slightly by region, employment is high­ ficient utilization of power saws and other est in the summer and lowest in the winter. equipment may become fallers and buckers. Some logging workers who can readily assess Training, Other Qualifications, the marketable volume of timber or identify and Advancement defects in logs may become cruisers and grad­ Most timber cutting and logging workers de­ ers. velop their skills through on-the-job training. They must familiarize themselves with the Job Outlook character and potential dangers of the forest Employment of timber cutting and logging environment and the operation of logging ma­ workers is expected to decline through the year chinery and equipment. Instruction comes pri­ 2000. Despite an increase in demand for lum­ marily from experienced workers. However, ber and wood products, increased mechani­ larger logging companies may offer special zation of logging operations and improvements programs, particularly for workers training to in logging equipment will reduce labor re­ operate large, expensive machinery and equip­ quirements. However, many job openings ment. Often, a representative of the manufac­ are expected each year to replace workers turer or company may spend several days in who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor the field explaining and overseeing the oper­ force.  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations/289  forest technician, forest worker, forester aide, The projected decline in employment will Earnings gardener, groundskeeper, landscaper, nursery In 1986, median annual earnings of full-time affect mainly wage and salary workers. How­ ever, the rates of decline are expected to vary logging workers were $14,300. The lowest 10 worker, range aide, soil conservation techni­ percent earned $8,700 or less, while the highest cian, and tree-farm worker. by occupation. Employment of fallers, buck10 percent earned $31,200 or more. Generally, ers, choke setters, and other logging workers whose jobs are labor intensive should be most earnings of more skilled workers, such as fall­ ers and yarders, are substantially higher than adversely affected by the introduction of safer, Sources of Additional Information laborsaving machinery and equipment. Em­ those of less skilled workers, such as laborers For information about timber cutting and log­ ployment of machinery and equipment oper­ and choke setters. ging careers and secondary and postsecondary Earnings vary widely by size of establish­ ators, such as logging tractor and log handling equipment operators, should be less adversely ment and geographic area. Earnings of workers programs offering training for logging occu­ affected. Little or no change is expected in in the largest establishments are much higher pations, contact: Northeastern Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69. Old employment of log graders and scalers, cruis­ than those in the smallest establishments. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn sub­ Forge, NY 13420. ers, and related workers. Little or no change is expected in the number stantially more than those in the South. Timber Producers Association of Michigan and Wis­ A large proportion of logging workers in the consin, P.O. Box 39, Tomahawk, WI 54487. of logging contractors. To counter volatile changes in demand for lumber and wood prod­ Northwest, where the larger establishments are Western Logging Council, c/o P.O. Box 846, ucts, increasing foreign competition, and rising concentrated, are members of either of two Springfield, OR 97477. costs, large firms are reducing their full-time unions—the International Woodworkers of The school of forestry at your State landwork force and contracting out small logging America and the Western Council of Industrial grant college or university should also be able Workers. operations. to provide useful information. Many logging workers experience periods Residents of Southern States may also con­ of unemployment because of weather condi­ Related Occupations tions, declines in construction activity, and re­ Other occupations concerned with the care of tact their State forestry associations. Addresses are available in public libraries. trees and their environment include arborist, location of logging operations.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Aircraft Mechanics and Engine Specialists (D.O.T. 621.281 except -030, .381-010, -014, .684-014' 806.281-038, .684-110; 807.261, .381-014, .684-018) ’  Nature of the Work Most travelers hardly think twice about flying thousands of feet above the ground. The con­ fidence they have in aircraft is a tribute to the mechanics (also referred to as technicians) who keep them in top operating condition. Many mechanics specialize in scheduled maintenance required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Following a schedule that is based on the number of hours flown, calendar days, cycles of operation, or a com­ bination of these factors, mechanics inspect the engines, landing gear, instruments, pressurized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for example— and other parts of the aircraft and do the nec­ essary maintenance. They may examine an en­ gine through specially designed openings while working from ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking the engine apart, mechanics may use precision instruments to measure parts for wear, and use X-ray and magnetic inspec­ tion equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective parts are repaired or re­ placed. They also may repair sheet-metal sur­ faces, measure the tension of control cables, or check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks  ■  in the fuselage, wings, and tail. Mechanics test the equipment to make sure the repairs were made properly. Mechanics specializing in repair work rely on the pilot’s description of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may check the elec­ trical connections, replace the gauge, or use electrical test equipment to make sure no wires are broken or shorted. They work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Mechanics may work on one or many dif­ ferent types of aircraft, such as jets, propellerdriven airplanes, and helicopters, or, for ef­ ficiency, may specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulic, or electrical system. In small, in­ dependent repair shops, mechanics usually in­ spect and repair many different types of air­ craft. Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or other indoor areas. However, if the hangars are full or if repairs must be made quickly, they may work outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather. This occurs most often to airline mechanics who work at airports because, to save time, minor repairs and preflight checks often are made at the terminal. Mechanics often work under the pressure of time to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing customers. At the same  't  Aircraft mechanic inspects airplane's hydraulic system. 290   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  time, mechanics must maintain safety stand­ ards. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull as much as 50 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when testing engines. Aircraft mechanics gen­ erally work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Employment Aircraft mechanics held about 107,000 jobs in 1986. About three-fifths worked for airlines, about 15 percent for the Federal Government, and over one-tenth for aircraft assembly firms. Most of the rest were general aviation me­ chanics, the majority of whom worked for in­ dependent repair shops or companies that op­ erate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Very few mechanics were self-em­ ployed. (The accompanying chart indicates the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry.) Most airline mechanics work near large cit­ ies at the airlines’ main stops. Many are ci­ vilians employed by the Armed Forces and work at military aviation installations. Others work for the FAA, many in the headquarters at Oklahoma City. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. TFaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on ci­ vilian aircraft are certificated by the FAA as "airframe mechanic,” “powerplant mechanic,” or “repairman.” Airframe mechanics are au­ thorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and pro­ pellers. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and to do limited work on propellers. Technicians called repairmen—who are employed by appropriately rated FAA-certificated repair stations and air carriers—do work on instruments and major work on pro­ pellers. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics can work on any part of the plane, and those with an inspector’s authorization can certify inspection work completed by other me­ chanics. Uncertificated mechanics are super­ vised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or re­ pairman's certificate. Fora combined airframeand-powerplant certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes are required. To obtain an inspector’s authorization, a mechanic must have held an airframe-and-powerplant certificate for at least  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/291  Although aircraft mechanics are concentrated in the transportation industry, a substantial proportion work for the Federal Government. Distribution of employment, 1986 Federal Government  Air transportation  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  3 years. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certif­ icate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in the Armed Forces or in trade schools certified by the FAA. Courses in these trade schools generally last from 2 years to 30 months and provide training with the tools and equip­ ment used on the job. For an FAA certificate, attendance at such schools may substitute for work experience. However, these schools do not guarantee jobs or FAA certificates. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certifying exam. Generally, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. A high school diploma or its equivalent is necessary for all prospective aircraft mechan­ ics. Courses in mathematics, physics, chem­ istry, electronics, computer science, and me­ chanical drawing are helpful because many of their principles are involved in the operation of an aircraft and knowledge of the principles often is necessary to make repairs. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, mechanics must update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance necessitate a strong background in electronics—both for ac­ quiring and retaining jobs in this field. A work­ ing knowledge of composite materials such as graphite is also important, as such materials are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Aircraft and parts manufacturing  growing population and rising incomes are ex­ pected to stimulate the demand for airline trans­ portation, and the number of aircraft is ex­ pected to grow. Most job openings are expected to arise from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work or stop working altogether. Declines in air travel during recessions force airlines to curtail the number of flights, which results in less aircraft maintenance and, con­ sequently, layoffs for aircraft mechanics.  Earnings In 1986, the median annual salary of aircraft mechanics was about $26,000. Mechanics who worked on jets generally earned more than those working on other aircraft. The top 10 percent Other of all aircraft mechanics earned over $35,000 a year. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Some mechanics, including those employed by some major airlines, are covered by union Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thor­ agreements. Earnings of airline mechanics ough work which requires high mechanical ap­ generally are higher than mechanics work­ ing for other employers. Beginning aircraft titude. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary for the job. Aircraft me­ mechanics employed by the airlines earned chanics must not be afraid of heights since they from $10 to $16 an hour in 1986, according may work on the top of wings and fuselages to the Future Aviation Professionals of America. Earnings of experienced mechanics on large jet planes. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they ranged from $14 to $21.50 an hour. The prin­ have the opportunity for advancement. Op­ cipal unions are the International Association portunities are best for those who have an air­ of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the craft inspector’s authorization. A mechanic may Transport Workers Union of America. Some advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), in­ mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware­ spector, lead inspector, and shop supervisor. In the airlines, where promotion is often de­ housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Mechanics employed by the Federal Gov­ termined by examination, supervisors may advance to executive positions. Those with ernment averaged $12.17 an hour in 1986. broad experience in maintenance and overhaul may become inspectors with the FAA. With Related Occupations additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance fa­ Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are cilities. electricians, elevator repairers, and telephone maintenance mechanics. Job Outlook Overall, aircraft mechanics—particularly those with work experience—are expected to have Sources of Additional Information excellent job opportunities since the number of Information about jobs in a particular airline job openings is expected to exceed the supply may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of air­ of qualified applicants. Job opportunities are likely to be best in line companies and information about job op­ general aviation. Since wages in small com­ portunities and salaries, contact; panies tend to be relatively low, there generally Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 are fewer applicants for these jobs than for J. Memorial Dr., Atlanta, GA 30032. (This or­ airline jobs. Also, some jobs will become ganization may be called toll free at 800-JETavailable as experienced mechanics leave for JOBS.) better paying jobs with airlines or large private For general information about aircraft me­ companies. Mechanics may face some com­ chanics, write to; petition for airline jobs because the high wages and travel benefits attract more qualified Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box 2826, applicants. The number of job openings for Redmond, WA 98073. aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, P.O. will fluctuate with changes in defense spend­ Box 248, St. Ann, MO 63074. ing. For information on jobs in a particular area, The number of aircraft mechanics is ex­ pected to increase about as fast as the average contact employers at local airports or local of­ for all occupations through the year 2000. A fices of the State employment service.  292/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Automotive Body Repairers (D.O.T, 620.364 and .684-034; 807.267; .281; .361-010; .381-010, -018, -022, and -030; .484; .684-010' and 865.684-010)  Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents every day. Although some are junked, most can be made to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace crum­ pled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can fix all types of vehicles, but most body repairers work on cars and small trucks. A few work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought into the shop, body repairers generally receive instruc­ tions from their supervisors, who have deter­ mined which parts are to be restored or replaced and how much time the job should take. Automotive body repairers use special ma­ chines to restore damaged frames and body sections to their original shape and location. They chain or clamp the frames and sections to alignment machines that usually use hydraulic pressure to align the damaged metal. For “unicoupe” designs, which are built without frames, they also use bench systems to return body sections to precise alignment. Body repairers remove badly damaged sec­ tions of body panels with a pneumatic metal­ cutting gun or acetylene torch and weld in new sections to replace them. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. They remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches.  Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts used increasingly on newer model vehicles. They remove the damaged panels and determine the type of plastic from which they are made. With most types, they can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water, and press the soft­ ened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts which are more dif­ ficult to repair. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which cannot be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they then file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automotive painters do the paint­ ing. (These workers are discussed in the Hand­ book statement on painting and coating ma­ chine operators.) In smaller shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fi­ berglass car bodies. Some body repairers specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Glass installers remove broken, cracked, or pitted windshields and window glass. Curved win­ dows sometimes must be cut from a sheet of safety glass. Glass installers apply a moisture proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weather proof. Body repair work has variety and chal­ lenge—each damaged vehicle presents a dif­ ferent problem. Repairers must develop ap­ propriate methods for each job, using their broad knowledge of automotive construction and re­ pair techniques. Body repairers usually work alone with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender re­ pairing.  Automotive body repairers often work in awhvard or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Automotive body repairers work indoors in body shops which are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated, but often they are dusty and smell of paint. Body re­ pairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is stren­ uous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. Employment Automotive body repairers held about 214,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for shops that spe­ cialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and au­ tomobile rental companies. A few worked for motor vehicle manufacturers. About 1 auto­ motive body repairer out of 4 was self-em­ ployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many automotive body repairers enter the oc­ cupation by transfer from related helper po­ sitions. Persons in good physical condition who know how to use handtools learn the trade as helpers, picking up skills on the job from ex­ perienced body repairers. Helpers begin by as­ sisting body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks such as body straightening. Gen­ erally, skill in all aspects of body repair re­ quires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Although there is no formal educational re­ quirement, good reading and basic mathemat­ ics skills are essential. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates. Completion of a formal training program in automotive body repair is highly desirable because advances in technology in recent years have greatly changed the structure, the components, and even the materials used in automobiles, requiring many new skills and creating many new repair prob­ lems. Automotive body repair training pro­ grams are offered by many high schools, vo­ cational schools, private trade schools, and community colleges. Formal training in au­ tomotive body repair can enhance chances for employment and speed promotion to a jour­ neyman position. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence, which is vol­ untary, is recognized as a standard of achieve­ ment for automotive body repairers. To be cer­ tified, a body repairer must pass a written examination and must have at least 2 years of experience in the trade. Completion of a high school, vocational school, trade school, or community college program in automotive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experience. Automotive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/293  Automotive body repairers must buy their own tools, but employers usually furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumulate tools as they gain experience, and many workers have thousands of dollars invested in tools. An experienced automotive body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile dam­ age appraisers for insurance companies. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000. As the number of motor vehicles in operation grows with the Nation’s population, the num­ ber damaged in accidents will increase as well. In addition, requirements for body repairers will increase because new, lighter weight au­ tomotive designs are prone to greater collision damage than older, heavier designs. However, employment growth will be dampened as au­ tomobiles increasingly are manufactured with plastic body panels, which are easier to repair and replace than steel panels and do not rust. The need to replace experienced repairers who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons will account for the majority of job openings. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. Although major body damage must be re­ paired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred. As a result, most employers hire fewer new workers during an economic slowdown. Thus, persons seeking to enter this occupation may face in­ creased competition for jobs during recessions. Earnings Body repairers employed by automobile deal­ ers in 24 large metropolitan areas had estimated average hourly earnings of about $15.40 in 1986. Average earnings generally were high­ est in the West and lowest in the Northeast. Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. Many body repairers employed by auto­ motive dealers and repair shops are paid a com­ mission, usually about half of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend on the amount of work as­ signed to the repairer and how fast it is com­ pleted. Employers frequently guarantee com­ missioned workers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to work on commission. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, buslines, and other or­ ganizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Most body repairers work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many automotive body repairers are mem­ bers of unions, including the International As­ sociation of Machinists and Aerospace Work­ ers; the International Union, United  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the importance of the mechanic’s job. The ability to quickly and accurately di­ agnose the source of the problem, one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. In fact, many mechanics consider diagnosing "hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical troubles oc­ Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often in­ cur, mechanics first get a description of the volves working on their mechanical compo­ symptoms from the owner or, if they work in nents as well as their bodies. Automotive body a dealership, the repair service estimator who repairers often work closely with several re­ wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have lated occupations including diesel mechanics to test drive the vehicle or use testing equip­ and automotive repair service estimators, me­ ment, such as engine analyzers, spark plug testers, or compression gauges, to locate the chanics, painters, and body customizers. problem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. Sources of Additional Information If a part is damaged or worn beyond repair, or More details about work opportunities may be cannot be fixed at a reasonable cost, they re­ obtained from automotive body repair shops place it, usually after consultation with the ve­ and motor vehicle dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the hicle owner. During routine service, mechanics inspect, State employment service. The State employ­ lubricate, and adjust engines and other com­ ment service also is a source of information ponents, repairing or replacing parts before they about training programs. cause breakdowns. They usually follow a For general information about automotive checklist to be sure they examine all important body repairer careers, write to: parts, such as belts, hoses, steering systems, Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, spark plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel Bedford, TX 76021-0929. bearings, and other potentially troublesome Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North items. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Mechanics use a variety of tools in their For information on how to become a certified work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine automotive body repairer, write to: tools such as lathes and grinding machines to National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­ rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and lence, 1920 Association Dr., Suite 400, Reston, VA flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair 22091. exhaust systems and other parts; jacks and hoists For a directory of accredited private trade to lift cars and engines; and a growing variety and technical schools that offer training pro­ of electronic service equipment, such as in­ grams in automotive body repair, write to: frared engine analyzers and computerized di­ National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, agnostic devices. They also use many common Department BL. P.O. Box 10429, Rockville, MD handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and 20850. wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Automotive mechanics in larger shops in­ creasingly specialize. For example, automatic transmission mechanics work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic transmissions. Because these are complex mechanisms, their repair requires (D.O.T. 620.261-010, -012, -030, and -034; .281-010, considerable experience and training, includ­ -026, -034, -038, -062, -066, and -070; .381-010 and -022; .684-018 and -022; 706.381-046; 721.281-010; ing a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up me­ 806.361-026 and .684-038; 807.664 and .684-022; and chanics adjust the ignition timing and valves, 825.381-014) __________ and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use electronic test equipment to help them Nature of the Work Automotive mechanics, often called service adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, technicians, repair and service automobiles and and emissions control systems. Automotive air-conditioning mechanics in­ occasionally light trucks, such as vans and pickups, with gasoline engines. (Mechanics who stall and repair air-conditioners and service work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and components such as compressors and con­ equipment are discussed in the Handbook state­ densers. Front-end mechanics align and bal­ ment on diesel mechanics. Motorcycle me­ ance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use chanics—who repair and service motorcycles, special alignment equipment and wheel-bal­ motorscootcrs, mopeds, and occasionally small all-terrain vehicles—are discussed in the ancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, Handbook statement on motorcycle, boat, and replace brake linings and pads, repair hydraulic cylinders, turn discs and drums, and make other small-engine mechanics.)  Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im­ plement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­ feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Most body repairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and buslines.  Automotive Mechanics  294/Occupational Outlook Handbook  4 4 4  Automotive mechanics often use electronic engine analyzers to adjust engines to ensure efficient performance. repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work. Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radia­ tors with caustic solutions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores or com­ plete replacement radiators. They also may re­ pair heaters and air-conditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks.  jobs complete a formal training program. Pro­ grams in automotive mechanics are offered in high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools. High school programs, particularly, vary greatly in quality. Postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs vary greatly in format. Some concentrate the instruction in only 6 months or a year, depending on how many hours the stu­ Working Conditions dent must attend each week. Community col­ Generally, automotive mechanics work in­ lege programs sometimes spread the training doors. Most repair shops are well ventilated out over 2 years, supplement the automotive and lighted, but some are drafty and noisy. training with instruction in academic subjects, Mechanics frequently work with dirty and and award an associate degree. greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They The National Automotive Technical Edu­ often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cation Foundation, an affiliate of the National cuts, bums, and bmises are common, but se­ Institute for Automotive Service Excellence, rious accidents may be avoided when the shop recently began certifying automobile mechanic is kept clean and orderly and safety practices training programs offered by high schools and are observed. postsecondary trade schools, technical insti­ tutes, and community colleges. While certifi­ Employment cation is voluntary, and many institutions have Automotive mechanics held about 748,000 jobs not sought it, it does signify that the program in 1986. They primarily worked for automotive meets uniform standards for instructional fa­ dealers, automotive repair shops, gasoline ser­ cilities, equipment, staff credentials, and cur­ vice stations, and automotive service facilities riculum. In early 1987, nearly 140 programs at department, automotive, and home supply had been certified, and many additional pro­ stores. Others were employed by Federal, State, grams were in the process of becoming certi­ and local governments, taxicab and automobile fied. leasing companies, and other organizations that Knowledge of electronics is increasingly de­ repair their own fleets of automobiles. Motor sirable for automotive mechanics because elec­ vehicle manufacturers employed some me­ tronics are being used in a growing variety of chanics to adjust and repair cars at the end of automotive components. Engine controls and assembly lines. Over 20 percent of automotive dashboard instruments were among the first mechanics were self-employed. components to use electronics, but now elec­ tronics are being used in brakes, transmissions, Training, Other Qualifications, steering systems, and a variety of other com­ and Advancement ponents. In the past, problems involving elec­ Many automotive mechanics still learn the trade trical systems or electronics were usually han­ solely by assisting and working with experi­ dled by a specialist, but electronics are becoming enced mechanics. However, automotive tech­ so commonplace that most automotive me­ nology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, chanics must be familiar with at least the basic and most training authorities recommend that principles of electronics in order to recognize persons seeking trainee automotive mechanic when an electronic malfunction may be re­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  sponsible for a problem, and to be able to test and replace electronic components. For trainee mechanic jobs, employers look for people with good reading and basic math­ ematics skills who can study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology and leant new service and repair procedures and speci­ fications. Trainees also must possess mechan­ ical aptitude and knowledge of how automo­ biles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive mechanics, either in high school or later at a postsecondary insti­ tution, as the best preparation for trainee po­ sitions. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is also valuable. Completion of high school is required by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics can provide a good basic educational background for a career as an automotive mechanic. Beginners usually start as trainee mechanics, helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline ser­ vice station attendants and gradually acquire and practice their skills by working with ex­ perienced mechanics. Although a beginner can perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, it usually takes 1 to 2 years of experience to acquire adequate proficiency to become a ser­ vice mechanic and quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. An additional 1 to 2 years are usually required to become thoroughly experienced and familiar with all types of repairs. Difficult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or 2 of training and experience. In con­ trast, automotive radiator mechanics and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of automotive repair, may learn thenjobs in considerably less time. In the past, many persons have entered automotive mechanics through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, as formal automotive training programs have increased in popularity, the number of employers willing to make such a long­ term apprenticeship commitment has greatly declined. Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and beginners are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many experienced me­ chanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive mechanics to factory training cen­ ters to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components such as electronic fuel injection or air-condi­ tioners. Motor vehicle dealers may also send promising beginners to factory-sponsored me­ chanic training programs. Factory represen­ tatives come to many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by the National In­ stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is widely recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive mechanics. Mechanics are cer-  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/295  Earnings Highly skilled automotive mechanics em­ ployed by automobile dealers in 24 cities had estimated average hourly earnings of $14.50 in 1986. Less skilled service mechanics who perform routine service and make minor repairs had estimated average hourly earnings of $11; lubricators, $10. Many experienced mechanics employed by automotive dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed by the mechanic. Employ­ ers frequently guarantee commissioned me­ chanics a minimum weekly salary. Most me­ chanics work between 40 and 48 hours a week, but many work even longer hours during busy periods. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. The unions include the International Job Outlook Job opportunities in automotive mechanics are Association of Machinists and Aerospace expected to be plentiful for persons who com­ Workers; the International Union, United plete training programs in high school, voca­ Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural tional and technical schools, or community col­ Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal leges. Persons without formal mechanic training Workers’ International Association; and the In­ are likely to face competition for entry level ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­ jobs. Mechanic careers are attractive to many feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. because they afford the opportunity for good pay and the satisfaction of skilled work with Related Occupations one’s hands. Other workers who repair and service motor Employment of automotive mechanics is ex­ vehicles include diesel and motorcycle me­ pected to increase more slowly than the average chanics and automotive body repairers, cus­ for all occupations through the year 2000. De­ tomizers, repair service estimators, and paint­ clining employment in gasoline service sta­ ers. tions, together with little change in employ­ ment in automobile dealerships, will offset growth in independent automotive repair shops Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, and other industries. Nevertheless, the number of mechanics is contact local automotive dealers and repair expected to increase because expansion of the shops; locals of the unions previously men­ driving age population will increase the number tioned; or the local office of the State employ­ ment service. The State employment service of motor vehicles on the road. The growing complexity of automotive technology, such as also may have information about training pro­ the use of electronic and emissions control grams. Information on automotive mechanic train­ equipment, increasingly necessitates that cars ing is available from: be serviced by professionals, contributing to Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, growth in demand for mechanics. In addition, if the average age of automobiles in operation Technical Training Council, 300 Sylvan Ave., En­ continues to increase, a growing proportion of glewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. vehicle operating costs will be spent on repairs, A list of certified automotive mechanic train­ and less on the cost of the vehicle. However, ing programs may be obtained from: improvements in the reliability of automobiles, National Automotive Technical Education Founda­ together with less frequent requirements for tion, 1920 Association Dr., Suite 400, Reston, VA routine service, are expected to dampen em­ 22091. ployment growth. Information on how to become a certified More job openings are expected for auto­ automotive mechanic is available from: motive mechanics than for most other occu­ pations because replacement needs, the main National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­ source of job openings, will be substantial, in lence, 1920 Association Dr., Suite 400, Reston, VA 22091. large part because of the size of the occupation. Replacements will be needed as experienced For general information about the work of workers transfer to other occupations or retire automotive mechanics, write to: or stop working for other reasons. Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Most persons who enter the occupation may Bedford, TX 76021-0929. expect steady work because changes in eco­ nomic conditions have little effect on the au­ Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. tomotive repair business. During a downturn, however, some employers may be more re­ Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the U.S., Inc., 300 New Center Bldg., Detroit, Ml 48202. luctant to hire inexperienced workers.  tified in one or more of eight different service areas, such as tune-ups, brake and front-end work, or electrical system repair. General au­ tomotive mechanics are certified in all eight areas. For certification in each area, mechanics must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written examination; completion of an automotive mechanic program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. Certified mechanics must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or ser­ vice manager. Mechanics who work well with customers may become automotive repair ser­ vice estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Commercial and Industrial Electronic Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 638.261-026; 726.361-022, .381-014, .684-090; 828.251-010, .261-014, .281-010, -014, and -022)  Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial electronic equip­ ment repairers, also called industrial electron­ ics technicians, install and repair electronic equipment used in industrial automated equip­ ment controls, missile control systems, radar systems, medical diagnostic equipment, trans­ mitters, and antennas. (Workers who repair data processing equipment and home enter­ tainment equipment are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Commercial and industrial electronics tech­ nicians install the electronic components of new equipment. Duties vary by industry setting. On an Air Force base, for example, they may in­ stall the electronic control panel on a new fighter plane. In a hospital, the work might involve installing computer-assisted tomography (CAT scan) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment. In a factory, they might set up and service an industrial robotic system. Regard­ less of the type of equipment, repairers must coordinate their efforts with workers installing mechanical or electromechanical components. (For a detailed description of the duties of these workers, see the statements on industrial ma­ chinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook). Using testing equipment, the repairer insures that everything is functioning properly before the customer takes charge of the equipment. Preventive maintenance is a major respon­ sibility of electronics repairers. Equipment is checked, cleaned, and repaired periodically to detect and prevent major malfunctions. Tech­ nicians may maintain a log on each piece of equipment to provide a history of performance problems and repairs. Records are usually kept to show the date and condition of the equipment serviced, and to indicate when it is due to be serviced again. Repairers also have to maintain records of repairs, calibration, and tests. When an equipment breakdown does occur, the repairer first determines that it is in the electronic component of the equipment and checks for common causes of trouble such as loose connections or obviously defective com­ ponents. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers refer to blueprints and man­ ufacturers' specifications that show connec­ tions and provide instruction on how to locate problems. When locating the cause of electronic fail­ ures, repairers use several kinds of tools in­ cluding voltmeters, ohmmeters, signal gener­ ators, ammeters, and oscilloscopes. They also may run special diagnostic programs that help pinpoint certain malfunctions. To make re­ pairs, they may replace defective components or wiring, or adjust and calibrate equipment.  296/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Although it may take several hours to locate a problem, fixing the equipment may take only a few minutes. Working Conditions Commercial and industrial electronic equip­ ment repairers generally work a 40-hour week. Industries that operate around the clock often will rotate shifts, so repairers may work eve­ nings, nights, days, weekends, or holidays. For example, repairers working for hospitals may have to work evenings and weekends so that someone is always available to make emer­ gency repairs to malfunctioning respirators and other life-support equipment. In less critical situations, electronics repairers employed as part of an emergency crew may be on call during off-duty hours. Working conditions vary depending upon the job. On the factory floor, repairers may be exposed to heat, grease, and noise, and may have to work in cramped spaces. Sometimes the work is done in the electronic repair shop, which is generally located off the factory floor; Here, as well as in hospitals, military instal­ lations, and other job settings, the surroundings usually are quiet, clean, and well lighted. Elec­ tronics repairers usually work with little su­ pervision. Employment in manufacturing establish­ ments generally entails considerable walking, kneeling, bending, and reaching to install or repair equipment.  Employment Commercial and industrial electronic equip­ ment repairers held about 81,000 jobs in 1986. About 1 out of 3 repairers is employed by the Federal Government; the overwhelming ma­ jority of these work for the Department of De­ fense—mostly at military installations around the country. Repairers also are employed by electronic and transportation equipment manufacturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, air­ ports, telephone companies, hospitals, and firms that provide maintenance under contract (called third-party maintenance firms). Metropolitan areas where large numbers of repairers are lo­ cated include Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, In­ dianapolis, and Dallas. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Commercial and industrial electronic equip­ ment repairers need training in the practical application of electronics. Required courses in­ clude electronics theory and technology, pre­ ventive maintenance, and troubleshooting techniques. Most repairers attend either a pub­ lic, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some receive training through a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship program administered by em­ ployers. High school graduates who have had courses in mathematics and science are pre­ ferred for the apprenticeship program.  Electronics repairers need good color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordi­ nation. They should have an aptitude for math­ ematics and be able to do detailed work. Other qualifications include a good memory, record­ keeping ability, the ability to do repetitive tasks, and physical strength. Repairers who test and repair radio trans­ mitting equipment, other than business and land mobile radio, must hold a General Operators License from the Federal Communications Commission. There are voluntary programs for the cer­ tification of repairers administered by the In­ ternational Society of Certified Electronics Technicians (ISCET) and by the Electronics Technicians Association. In both programs, electronics repairers with 4 years’ experience may apply for certification as a Certified Elec­ tronics Technician (CET). Certification, which is by examination, is offered in radio-TV, in­ dustrial and commercial repair, audio, and ra­ dar systems. There is also an Associate Level Test of basic electronics available for students or beginning repairers who do not have the experience required for full certification. Some workers advance to jobs as electronics technicians or engineering assistants. Oppor­ tunities for advancement are improved by tak­ ing courses offered by employers, junior col­ leges, or technical schools. Some highly skilled repairers open their own repair businesses. Job Outlook Employment of commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu­ pations through the year 2000 as the volume of electronic equipment to be installed and maintained grows. To boost productivity, more and more business and industrial firms are ex­ pected to install equipment to automate pro­ duction and other processes. In addition, elec­ tronic equipment used in medicine, energy conservation, and pollution control, and re­ search and development of sophisticated weap­ ons systems will greatly stimulate demand for skilled repairers. Many job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Commercial and industrial electronic equip­ ment repairers are less likely to be laid off during recessions than other workers because complex equipment must be maintained even when production declines.  -  ___-__  Electronics repairers may replace defective components or wiring.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  “■* Earnings Beginning commercial and industrial elec­ tronic equipment repairers started at between $12,600 and $18,500 a year in 1986, according to the limited information available. Experi­ enced repairers earned from $18,000 to $24,000, while highly skilled specialists who can work on more than one type of equipment earned between $24,000 and $30,000; man­ agers and supervisors earned as much as $37,000 a year. The average annual salary of repairers who  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/297  were employed by the Federal Government in 1986 was $26,500. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment include home appliance and power tool repairers, office machine and cash register servicers, computer service tech­ nicians, and electronic home entertainment equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information, con­ tact: The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth, TX 76109.  For certification, career, and placement in­ formation, contact: Electronics Technicians Association, 825 East Franklin, Greencastle, IN 46135.  Information on trade and technical schools offering programs in electronics is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20007.  For career guidance information, contact: Electronics Service Dealers Association of Illinois, 4621 North Kedzie Ave., Chicago, IL 60620.  For information about the general radio­ telephone operator license, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20554.  Information about employment in the Fed­ eral Government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management Job Infor­ mation Center in your location.  Communications Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 722.281; 726.381-014; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, -022, -026, -030 and -034, .361-014, .381-010, -018, -022, and .684-010; 823.261-010, -018, and -022, .281-010, -014, and -022; 825.261-010; and 829.281­ 022)  Nature of the Work / The ability to communicate quickly and easily is a necessity in modem society. Because com­ munication is vital to a healthy economy, it is essential that communications systems operate properly. Installing, repairing, and maintaining the wide array of complex and sophisticated communications equipment are the responsibil­ ities of communications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics— sometimes referred to as telecommunication technicians—work either in telephone com­ pany central offices or on customers’ premises installing and repairing complex telephone switching and transmission systems. Central office equipment installers, or equipment installation technicians, set up, rearrange, and remove the complex switching and dialing equipment used in central offices.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  They install equipment in new central offices, add equipment in expanding offices, or replace outdated equipment. Installers follow work order information, blueprints, circuit diagrams, electrical sche­ matics, and floor plans to position and wire equipment. They often use hoists to lift heavy items, and handtools, such as screwdrivers or soldering guns, to connect equipment once it is in place. For example, they construct and erect iron and steel frames and connect these to the central office equipment. The newer electronic equipment, however, comes in preassembled components and often requires only simple plug-in connections. After the new equipment has been put in place, installers connect the outgoing and in­ coming telephone trunklines, consulting dia­ grams to insure that connections are made cor­ rectly. Once this is completed, installers test and troubleshoot the system to see that every­ thing is working correctly. They use com­ munications testing equipment, such as pulsing test sets, oscilloscopes, ohmmeters, and volt­ meters, to measure the strength and consistency of the current flow. If the system is not func­ tioning properly, they must determine the cause of the difficulty and correct the malfunction. Frame wirers, sometimes referred to as frame workers or frame attendants, connect, discon­ nect, inspect, and repair wires that run from telephone lines and cables to the central office. The frame has many terminal lugs mounted on it, each of which is assigned a specific tele­ phone number. It also contains one pair of wires for each telephone that is connected to that central office. To connect a new telephone, the frame wirer attaches the customer’s pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs, using small handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, and soldering irons. To disconnect a telephone, the frame wirer melts the solder or otherwise re­ moves the wires from the terminal. Frame wir­ ers occasionally change a customer’s phone number by reconnecting the customer’s pair of wires to a different set of terminal lugs. Frame wirers inspect and repair all parts of the frames after checking for breaks or loose wires. They also may help other craft workers locate and correct malfunctions. To gain experience, frame wirers generally work on residential telephone service. Later, they may work on more com­ plex special services, such as circuitry for large business systems, civil defense warning sirens, or burglar alarms. Central office repairers, often referred to as central office technicians or switching equip­ ment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all types of local and toll switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Most of these switching systems are electromechanical—that is, they contain moving parts and must be cleaned and oiled periodically. Newer switching systems, which utilize digital electronics and have no moving parts, must be checked occasionally for break­ ages. When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble locators work at special switchboards—sometimes called testboards—  to find the source of the problem. To do this, they have the telephone repairer connect a port­ able phone at various places on the customer’s line until a connection can be made to the central office. For a problem at the central office, the trouble locator repeats this proce­ dure with a central office repairer. Trouble lo­ cators who work for cable television companies must insure that subscribers’ television sets re­ ceive the proper signal. They may work with cable installers to track down the cause of the interference and make repairs. Within the last few years, most telephone companies have started replacing trouble lo­ cators with maintenance administrators. These workers perform many of the functions of trou­ ble locators but generally do not have as much technical training. Their jobs are largely au­ tomated; instead of using testboards and as­ sociated equipment to perform the complex circuit testing, they do so by entering instruc­ tions into a computer terminal. Maintenance administrators also update and maintain com­ puterized files of trouble status reports. PBX installers, also called systems techni­ cians, specialize in complex telephone system installations. These workers create switch­ board systems for businesses with unique com­ munications requirements. PBX and other sys­ tems are used to transmit both voice and data. Using equipment that includes handtools, sig­ nal generators, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other specialized telephone test equipment, these workers connect wires from terminals to switchboards and power cabinets and make tests to check their installations. PBX repairers, with the assistance of trouble locators, locate the malfunction in customers' PBX, CENTREX, KEY, or other telephone systems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as  batteries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX repairers maintain and repair equipment for mobile radiophones, microwave transmission equipment, switching equipment, and data pro­ cessing equipment. Other communications equipment mechan­ ics include instrument repairers, sometimes referred to as shop repairers or shop techni­ cians, who use handtools and power tools to repair, test, and modify communications equipment such as telephones, teletypewriters, and switchboards. In addition, they may paint various types of equipment and cut and weld iron for special work equipment. Office elec­ tricians make operating adjustments in sub­ marine cable repeater and terminal circuits and related equipment. When trouble arises, they may rearrange cable connections to insure that service is not interrupted. Submarine cable equipment technicans repair, adjust, and main­ tain the machines and equipment used in sub­ marine cable offices or stations to control cable traffic. Some mechanics specialize in working on telegraphic equipment. Called automatic equipment technicians, telegraph plant maintainers, or teletype installers, these workers install, repair, and maintain a variety of trans­ mitting and receiving equipment in telegraph company offices and on customers’ premises.  298/Occupational Outlook Handbook ~——  **"A5s  "  •!Stk  Ki\ pHHB  isaaK^  Mechanic repairing the sophisticated switching equipment in a telephone company central office. Radio repairers and mechanics install and repair stationary and mobile radio transmitting and receiving equipment. Some of these work­ ers repair intercommunication equipment such as microwave and fiber optics installations. Avionics technicians inspect and repair aircraft communication, navigation, and flight control systems. Signal or track switch maintainers install electric gate crossings, signals, track switches, and intercommunication systems in a railroad network.  Employment Communications equipment mechanics held about 109,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for telephone and telegraph companies. A small number worked for cable television and related companies, as well as for railroad companies and electrical repair shops.  Working Conditions Because most communications systems operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many com­ munications equipment mechanics have work schedules that include shifts, weekends, and holidays. Where shift work is required, the assignments are made on the basis of seniority. To cope with any emergency that may arise, these workers are subject to 24-hour call. Me­ chanics generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. Depending on the job, they may have to stand for long pe­ riods, climb ladders, and do some reaching, stooping, and light lifting. They also must take precautions to avoid electrical shocks. Some wear headsets most of the time and commu­ nicate with others over telephone circuits. Some headsets may produce a high-pitched, shrill noise known as “acoustic shock,” which over a prolonged period may lead to hearing loss.  TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, trainees were selected from both in­ side and outside the company. However, since the deregulation of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1984, this pat­ tern has changed. In the new competitive envi­ ronment, companies increasingly are reducing the size of their internal training programs and looking for workers who already possess the skills to do the job. Most companies prefer workers who have developed these skills in an­ other job or in the Armed Forces. For example, experience in data systems technology or com­ puter maintenance is very good preparation for work with electronic switching systems. After relevant work experience, employers look for persons who have completed associate degree or postsecondary vocational school programs in telecommunications technology, electronics,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Because much of the older communications equipment continually produces sounds, these workers must learn to "block out” noise.  computer maintenance, or related subjects. When enough applicants with these preferred credentials are not available, some companies still promote from within and provide training on company time. However, companies are trying to reduce operating costs by minimizing in-house training, and the trend is clearly to­ ward phasing out such training altogether. Persons considering a job as a communi­ cations equipment mechanic should have the analytical skills and judgment to resolve me­ chanical difficulties. Self-discipline is needed to follow detailed instructions without close supervision. Prospective workers should be able to work as part of a team, because cooperation with others often is essential in solving com­ plex problems. Reading comprehension, logic, and arithmetic ability are necessary to under­ stand company manuals and circuit wiring dia­ grams. Verbal skills are needed for those jobs that require contact with the public and coor­ dination of activities with other employees. Because wires usually are color coded, ap­ plicants must be able to distinguish colors. Physical strength and agility are needed for carrying equipment and climbing and working from ladders. These workers also need manual dexterity in order to handle small tools. Ap­ plicants generally must undergo a physical ex­ amination. For many jobs, driving may be nec­ essary. If so, a valid State driver’s license and a good driving record are required. New workers may receive a combination of formal instruction and on-the-job training. More and more telephone companies are replacing their traditional classroom training programs with modular ones. Modular training programs include entry tests, videotapes, movies, com­ puter terminals, and programmed workbooks that allow employees to learn new skills at their own pace, cover only the material they need, and provide tests upon completion of training. Trainees without experience or formal training gain practical experience by observing and helping experienced frame wirers. After 1 or 2 years of satisfactory performance, frame wir­ ers may be selected to train for a more skilled job, such as trouble locator, central office re­ pairer, or instrument repairer. The more demanding repair jobs usually"are filled by workers who have previous electrical or electronic experience or appropriate train­ ing. Communications equipment mechanics must continue to study throughout their ca­ reers. They receive periodic training to learn about new types of equipment, which may in­ clude electronic switching systems, data trans­ mission equipment, and picturephones. This training is offered by the employer or by equip­ ment manufacturers. These workers have a number of opportun­ ities for advancement, which usually involve further technical training. They may be pro­ moted to jobs maintaining more sophisticated equipment, or to jobs as engineering techni­ cians. Some advance to sales or personnel work. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to decline through the  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/299  year 2000 due to the tremendous productivity increases associated with computerization. Therefore, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The telephone industry is in the midst of a dramatic transformation from the traditional electromechanical system to a completely elec­ tronic one. This transition began some time ago and accelerated following deregulation in 1984. While this change has had an impact on practically all occupations in the telephone in­ dustry, among the most affected have been communications equipment mechanics. Em­ ployment of these workers is expected to de­ cline because the new technology and equip­ ment make each worker much more productive. For example, once a digital electronic switch­ ing system has replaced an electromechanical one, fewer service technicians are needed for maintenance and repair because the new sys­ tems are better and more reliable. Conversion to electronic switching requires fewer installers because much of this equipment is prefabri­ cated and, therefore, is easier to install. It also permits a greater use of centralized mainte­ nance. As telephone companies use more com­ puter-based support programs to automate cen­ tral offices, maintenance and repair personnel can be stationed at various control centers. Mo­ bile crews of repairers then can provide the necessary modifications by rotating among several automated central offices. Consider­ ably fewer maintenance and repair workers will be needed with centralized maintenance. Moreover, these new electronically equipped central offices use sophisticated, self-diagnos­ ing test equipment that requires fewer repair and maintenance personnel. Such equipment detects the source of a problem and directs the technician to the defective part, which usually can simply be removed and replaced. Decreased labor requirements in central of­ fices have caused layoffs in recent years. As technology continues to displace communi­ cations equipment mechanics, competition for available openings should intensify, making it much more difficult for other telephone work­ ers to move into these positions without ex­ perience or formal training and virtually im­ possible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to compete for jobs. Earnings Wage rates for communications equipment me­ chanics vary by employer and locality; specific information may be obtained from local tele­ phone companies. Central office installers, central office technicians, and PBX installers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Commu­ nications Workers of America earned an av­ erage weekly salary of $621 in 1986; frame attendants averaged $518. Central office tele­ phone craft workers and PBX installers and repairers usually earn more than other com­ munications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics are members of the Communications Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Electrical Workers. For these workers, union contracts determine wage rates, wage in­ creases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. Contracts also require extra pay for work beyond the normal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Additional pay for nightwork is provided for in most contracts. Paid vacations are based on time in service. Generally, contracts provide for a 1-week va­ cation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the lo­ cality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other contract provisions include the follow­ ing: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; vision care; sickness and ac­ cident benefits; educational benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan.  tions thousands of miles from the computer. Keeping this intricate equipment in good work­ ing order is the job of the computer service technician. Most computer service technicians are as­ signed several clients, depending on the tech­ nician’s specialty and the type of equipment to be serviced. Workers with several accounts must travel from place to place to maintain these systems and to make emergency repairs. In some cases, more than one technician will share an account and service different parts of a system. In other cases, an experienced tech­ nician may be assigned to work full time at a client’s installation in order to maintain all phases of that operation. Some technicians work in central facilities where equipment or com­ ponents are brought for service. Others work in establishments that use a lot of computer equipment. At regular intervals, computer service tech­ nicians (often called field engineers or cus­ tomer engineers) service the equipment ac­ Related Occupations Other workers who have the skills needed to cording to manufacturers’ recommended do technical, manual work with tools and elec­ maintenance schedules. For example, they rou­ trical or electronic machines include computer tinely adjust, lubricate, and clean mechanical parts of printers and sorters. service technicians, office machine repairers, When computer equipment breaks down, biomedical equipment technicians, electronics technicians, electricians, telecommunications technicians must quickly find the cause of the failure and make repairs. To locate the cause technicians, and sound technicians. of failures, technicians run special diagnostic programs that pinpoint malfunctions. Some of Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportun­ the most modem and sophisticated computers ities, contact your local telephone or telegraph have a self-diagnosing capacity that directs the technician to the exact source of the problem. company or write to: Once the problem has been found, fixing the Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. equipment may take just a few minutes because NW., Washington, DC 20006. most repairs merely involve the replacement For more information on the telephone in­ of malfunctioning components. To correct an dustry and career opportunities in it, request electronic problem, for example, the technician copies of Phonefacts and Is It For You? A would replace the circuit board indicated by Career in the Telephone Industry from: the diagnostic program. In some cases, tech­ United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. nicians simply give the customer a new piece NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006. of equipment and take the malfunctioning one to a central facility for service. Computer service technicians also install new equipment. They lay cables, hook up electrical connections between machines, thoroughly test the new equipment, and correct any problems before the customer uses the machine. Some technicians specialize in maintaining (D.O.T. 633.261-010, 828.261-014, .281-010, and -014) a particular brand or type of equipment or sys­ tem, or in doing a certain type of repair. For Nature of the Work example, some technicians are experts in cor­ Computer systems play a vital role in our lives. recting problems caused by errors in the com­ They help us make telephone calls, enable us puter’s internal programming. to have our pay deposited directly to our bank, Computer technicians must be familiar with and reserve hotel rooms and tickets for travel technical manuals and diagnostic programs for and entertainment. In business and industry, each piece of equipment. They also must keep computer systems perform countless tasks— up with the technical information and revised from maintaining business records to control­ maintenance procedures issued periodically by ling manufacturing processes. equipment manufacturers. To repair mechan­ A computer system consists of a computer ical parts, repairers use a variety of handtools, and peripheral equipment, such as remote ter­ including needle-nosed pliers, wirestrippers, minals, tape and disk storage units, and high­ and soldering equipment. The employer sup­ speed printers. Systems vary in size from desk­ plies tools and test equipment, but technicians top systems consisting of a microcomputer, are responsible for keeping them in good work­ disk drive, and printer to large mainframe ing order. systems that occupy entire floors of office Technicians keep a record of preventive buildings and may have terminals in loca­ maintenance and repairs on each machine they  Computer Service Technicians  300/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Computer sendee technicians frequently work without direct supervision. service. In addition, they fill out time and ex­ pense reports, keep parts inventories, and order parts. Technicians spend much of their time work­ ing with people. They listen to customers’ complaints, answer questions, and sometimes offer technical advice on ways to keep equip­ ment in good condition. In many ways, tech­ nicians act as public relations workers for their employer, promoting customer satisfaction and good will. In addition, experienced technicians often help train new workers and sometimes have limited supervisory duties. Working Conditions The normal workweek for technicians is 40 hours. Many users of computer systems, how­ ever, rely on their equipment around the clock, and working time lost because of a breakdown can be very expensive. For this reason, tech­ nicians must be available to make emergency repairs at any time, day or night. Although overtime is commonplace, the method of as­ signing overtime varies by employer. Some technicians are on call 24 hours a day, others work rotating shifts—days one week, nights the next. Although some bending and lifting are nec­ essary, the job is not strenuous. Work hazards are limited mainly to minor bums and electric shock, but these can be avoided if safety prac­ tices are followed. For most technicians, travel is local; they usually are not away from home overnight. Employers pay for travel, including reimburse­ ment for job-related use of the technician’s car. In some cases, employers provide a car for the technician’s use. Technicians who work for a nationwide organization must sometimes trans­ fer to another city or State. Employment Computer service technicians held about 69,000 jobs in 1986. Most were employed by whole­ salers and manufacturers of computer equip­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ment and by firms that provide maintenance services for a fee. A small number were em­ ployed directly by organizations that have a great deal of computer equipment. Computer technicians generally work in metropolitan areas, where computer equipment is concen­ trated. Training, Other Qualifications, ■ and Advancement Most employers require applicants for tech­ nician jobs to have 1 to 2 years’ post-high school training in basic electronics, data pro­ cessing equipment maintenance, or electrical engineering. This training may be from a public or private vocational school or a college or university. Basic electronics training offered by the Armed Forces and by some vocational high schools also is acceptable preparation for some jobs. Many entrants transfer from other occupations, such as office machine repairer, television service technician, and engineering technician, where a knowledge of electronic equipment provides a good background for work in this field. A high school student interested in becoming a computer service technician should take courses in mathematics and physics. High school courses in electronics and computer pro­ gramming also are helpful. Besides technical training, applicants for trainee jobs must have good vision and normal color perception to work with small parts and color-coded wiring. Because technicians usu­ ally handle jobs alone, they must have the ini­ tiative to work without close supervision. Also important are a pleasant personality and neat appearance, because the work involves fre­ quent contact with customers. Patience is an asset, because some malfunctions occur inter­ mittently, making the cause difficult to pin­ point. In some companies, applicants must pass a physical examination. A security clearance may be required in cases where technicians regularly service machines located in restricted  buildings, such as Federal Government instal­ lations engaged in classified activities. Newly hired technicians usually receive 3 to 6 months of training from their employer. They may study elementary computer theory, com­ puter math, and circuitry theory in addition to expanding their knowledge of basic electron­ ics. This training includes hands-on experience with computer equipment, doing basic main­ tenance, and using diagnostic programs to lo­ cate malfunctions. The training generally oc­ curs in a traditional classroom setting, but self­ instruction or computer-based training also may be utilized. In addition to formal instruction, trainees must complete 6 months to 2 years of on-thejob training. At first, they work closely with experienced technicians, learning to maintain machines that are relatively simple. Some com­ panies have trainees gain experience by spe­ cializing in a certain type of equipment for a time. When trainees have mastered repair of that device, they specialize in another. This process continues until the technician can work with a variety of equipment. Because manufacturers continually redesign equipment and develop new service proce­ dures, experienced technicians must attend training sessions to keep up with these changes and to broaden their technical skills. Many technicians take advanced training to specialize in a particular computer system or type of re­ pair. Instruction also may include program­ ming, systems analysis, and other subjects that improve the technician’s general knowledge of the computer field. Experienced technicians with advanced training may become specialists or trouble­ shooters who help technicians throughout their territory diagnose difficult problems. They also may work with engineers in designing equip­ ment and developing maintenance procedures. Those with leadership ability may become su­ pervisors or service managers. Experience in computer maintenance when combined with additional education also may help qualify a technician for a job in equipment sales, programming, or management. (See the statements on programmers and manufactur­ ers’ sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of computer technicians is ex­ pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the Nation’s economy expands, more computer equipment will be used, and more technicians will be needed to install and maintain it. Busi­ ness, government, and other organizations will buy equipment to manage vast amounts of in­ formation, control manufacturing processes, and aid in scientific research. The development of new uses for computers also will spur de­ mand. Employment of service technicians is not expected to grow as rapidly as the amount of equipment in use due to improvements that make equipment more reliable and easier to repair. For example, the latest equipment can diagnose the cause of its own malfunctions.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/301  For some computer equipment, the diagnosis of the malfunction will be done by another computer via telephone hookup. As computer equipment becomes smaller and more portable, more of the diagnosis and repair will be done in centralized repair facilities, lessening the time spent traveling to job sites. These factors will lessen the time needed to make repairs. Despite the faster than average growth in employment, most job openings for technicians will result from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations such as service manager. Computer service technicians have been less likely than other workers to be laid off during downturns in economic activity. However, firms do restrict hiring of new technicians during recessions, making it harder to enter the oc­ cupation. Technicians experienced in the service of several models and brands of equipment or with the most complex equipment generally will be in the greatest demand. Employers are placing increasing emphasis on formal education. Job applicants with a 2-year degree in electronics should have the competitive edge in landing jobs. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time computer service technicians were about $26,700 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,300 and $34,400. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,800 a year. Many of these prob­ ably were trainees. The top 10 percent of tech­ nicians earned over $40,800 a year. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equipment include appliance repair­ ers, automotive electricians, electronic organ technicians, instrument repairers, office ma­ chine repairers, radio repairers, radar mechan­ ics, and television service technicians. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in computer maintenance, contact the personnel department of computer manufacturers and computer maintenance firms in your area. The State de­ partment of education in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institu­ tions offering postsecondary training in basic electronics. The State employment service office in your area can provide information about local job opportunities.  Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T 620.281-046, -050, and -058; and 625.261, .281­ 010, -014, -022, and .361) __________  Nature of the Work Diesel engines usually are more durable and thus usually are heavier than gasoline engines.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  In addition, they use fuel more efficiently than gasoline engines because the higher compres­ sion ratios found in diesel engines convert a higher percentage of the fuel into power. Be­ cause of their greater durability and efficiency, diesel engines are used to power most of the Nation’s heavy vehicles and equipment. Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment, such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomotives; construction equipment such as bulldozers, cranes, and road graders; and farm equipment such as tractors and combines. A small number work on diesel-powered automobiles. Diesel mechanics also service a variety of other dieselpowered equipment, such as electric generators and compressors and pumps used in oil well drilling and in irrigation. Most diesel mechanics work on heavy trucks used in industries such as mining and construc­ tion to carry ore and building materials, and by private and commercial trucking lines for general freight hauling. Most light trucks are gasoline powered, and although some diesel mechanics may occasionally service gasoline engines, most work primarily on diesel en­ gines. For information on mechanics who work primarily on gasoline engines, see the Hand­ book statement on automotive mechanics. Mechanics who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a maintenance check on a truck, for example, they usually follow a regular check list that includes the inspection of brake systems, steer­ ing mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. They usually can repair or adjust a part that is not working properly. Parts that cannot be fixed are replaced. In many shops, mechanics do all kinds of repair work. For example, they may work on a vehicle’s electrical system one day and do major engine repair the next. In some large shops, mechanics specialize in one or two types of work. For example, one mechanic may spec­ ialize in major engine repair, another in trans­ mission work, another in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or brake systems. Diesel mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneu­ matic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; ma­ chine tools such as lathes and grinding ma­ chines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; com­ mon handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Diesel mechanics also use a variety of testing equipment. For example, when working on electrical systems and electronic components, they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters; to lo­ cate engine malfunctions, they often use tach­ ometers, dynamometers, and engine analyzers. For heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by  an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers, who may check the me­ chanics’ work or assist in diagnosing problems. Working Conditions Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, al­ though they may occasionally work or make repairs on the road. They are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped po­ sitions to repair vehicles and equipment. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ven­ tilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Employment Diesel mechanics held about 263,000 jobs in 1986. About one-third serviced trucks and other diesel-powered equipment of customers of ve­ hicle and equipment dealers, leasing compa­ nies, and independent automotive repair shops. One-fifth worked for local and long-distance trucking companies, and about another fifth maintained the buses and trucks of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, and Federal, State, and local governments. The re­ mainder maintained the fleets of trucks and other equipment of manufacturing, construc­ tion, and other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Diesel mechanics are employed in every sec­ tion of the country, but most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. lYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most diesel mechanics leam their skills on the job. Beginners usually do tasks such as clean­ ing parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving ve­ hicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become avail­ able, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, beginners—especially those having automobile service experience— start as mechanics' helpers. Most helpers can make minor repairs after a few months’ experience and advance to in­ creasingly difficult jobs as they prove their abil­ ity. After they master the repair and service of diesel engines, they leam to work on related components such as brakes, transmissions, or electrical systems. Generally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience are necessary to qualify as an all-round diesel tmck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be neces­ sary for mechanics who wish to specialize in diesel equipment. For entry jobs, employers generally look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school also is desirable. Good reading skills are needed to study complex service instruction manuals. A State chauffeur’s license is needed for test driv­ ing trucks or buses on public roads. Many employers prefer graduates of formal training programs in diesel mechanics. These  302/Occupational Outlook Handbook  1- to 2-year programs, given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. They provide a foundation in the basics of the latest diesel technology, such as the use of electronics, and speed ad­ vancement to the journeyman mechanic level. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another good way to learn diesel mechanics. While never plentiful, apprenticeships are becoming rare because employers are reluctant to make such a long-term investment in training, es­ pecially when graduates of postsecondary die­ sel mechanic programs are increasing in num­ ber. Competition for the limited number of apprenticeship slots is extremely keen. Typical apprenticeship programs for diesel truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of practical experience working on trans­ missions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of formal instruction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, engine theory, and safety. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine re­ pair. High school auto shop and science and math­ ematics classes help a mechanic understand how engines and vehicles operate. Practical experience in automobile repair in a gasoline service station, in the Armed Forces, or from a hobby also is valuable. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often have thou­ sands of dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send experienced me­ chanics to special training classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, parts, and equip­ ment manufacturers where they leam the latest technology or receive special training in sub­ jects such as diagnosing engine malfunctions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National In­ stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is recognized as a standard of achievement for  diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certified as Master Heavy-Duty Truck Technician or may be certified in 1 or more of 6 different areas of heavy duty truck repair: Brakes, gas­ oline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, electrical systems, and suspension and steer­ ing. For certification in each area, mechanics must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience. High school, vo­ cational or trade school, or community or jun­ ior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year of ex­ perience. To retain certification, mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisors or ser­ vice managers. Mechanics who have sales abil­ ity sometimes become sales representatives. A few mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as freight transportation by truck increases. More trucks will be needed for both local and intercity haul­ ing due to the increased production of goods. Additional diesel mechanics will be needed to repair and maintain growing numbers of buses and heavy construction graders, cranes, earthmovers, and other equipment. Due to the greater durability and economy of the diesel relative to the gasoline engine, buses and trucks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels, also creating new jobs for diesel mechanics. The majority of job openings, nevertheless, will arise from the need to replace diesel mechanics who transfer to other occu­ pations, retire, or stop working for other rea­ sons. Careers as diesel mechanics are attractive to many because wages are relatively high and skilled repair work is challenging and varied. Opportunities will be best for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics  *  Transportation ........................................$13.05 Manufacturing ...................................... 12.46 Retail trade .......................................... 12.36 Wholesale trade .................................. 12.26 Services ............................................... 11.28 Beginning apprentices usually earn one-half the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled mechanics. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Those employed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and week­ ends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay for this work. Many diesel mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa­ tion; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffers, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Diesel mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment and keep them in good working order. Related mechanic occu­ pations include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, and motorcycle mechanics and small-engine specialists.  American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314.  'Avv/1, .3^.. ■  Experienced diesel mechanics often have thousands of dollars invested in tools.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Diesel mechanics employed by trucking com­ panies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average hourly earnings of $12.66 in 1986. Earnings generally were highest in the West and Midwest and lowest in the South. They varied by industry as fol­ lows:  Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for die­ sel mechanics may be obtained from local em­ ployers such as trucking companies, truck deal­ ers, or bus lines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State em­ ployment service. Local State employment service offices also may have information about apprenticeships and other training programs. For general information about careers as truck, bus, and diesel mechanics, write to:  'Mi ■#  at community and junior colleges and voca­ tional and technical schools.  Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. International Association of Machinists and Aero­ space Workers, Apprenticeship Department, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Information on diesel mechanic training is available from:  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/303 Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Council, 300 Sylvan Ave., En­ glewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. ’  For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel mechanics, contact: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, Department BL, P.O. Box 10429, Rockville, MD 20850.  Information on how to become a certified heavy duty diesel mechanic is available from: National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­ lence, 1920 Association Dr., Suite 400, Reston, VA 22091.  Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 720.281. 726.381-014, 729.281-010, 730.281­ 018, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010)  A technician first checks for common sources of trouble. They have to order equipment and supplies, keep records, and supervise other technicians.  Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment re­ pairers, also called service technicians, repair a wide range of home electronic products, of which radios and television sets are the most numerous. These technicians also repair stereo components, video and audio tape recorders, compact disk players, video games, home se­ curity systems, microwave ovens, and even electronic organs. Some repairers specialize in one kind of equipment—for example, televi­ sion sets or car radios. Others repair several types—television sets, video cassette re­ corders, and stereo systems. Electronic equipment may fail to operate properly for many reasons, such as defective parts, faulty circuits, or poor connections. Service technicians first conduct a routine check for these common sources of trouble. Talking to customers may help the technician identify the problem. When routine checks do not locate the trou­ ble, repairers refer to wiring diagrams and ser­ vice manuals that show connections and pro­ vide instructions on how to locate problems. They check circuits using testing equipment, such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, signal gen­ erators, and frequency counters. For example, they may measure voltage or wave forms in the circuits of a television set for unusual or irregular patterns that indicate the trouble. To make repairs, technicians replace faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a television set. In repair work, technicians use pliers, soldering guns, wire cutters, and other handtools. Those who make customer service calls carry a variety of solidstate components, modules, and other parts that can be easily replaced in the customer’s home. Self-employed electronic home entertain­ ment equipment repairers have managerial re­ sponsibilities in addition to their regular duties.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Service technicians work in shops and some­ times customers’ homes, where working con­ ditions generally are good. They usually work alone and receive little supervision. Techni­ cians who service electronic products in homes may do considerable driving. Potential hazards include electrical shock and strains from lifting and carrying heavy or unwieldy objects. Service technicians generally work 40 to 44 hours per week, usually in 5 or 5 1/2 days. Some of this work may be conducted on week­ ends or evenings in order to better serve cus­ tomers. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment re­ pairers held about 49,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly one-fourth were self-employed, a larger pro­ portion than in most skilled trades. Most serv­ ice technicians, whether self-employed or working for others, work in television repair shops and stores that sell and service television sets, radios, and other home entertainment electronic products. Geographically, employment is distributed in much the same way as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The work of electronic home entertainment re­ pairers ranges from tasks that require only a basic knowledge of electronics to those calling for a broad understanding of electronics theory. Some training in electronics—acquired for­ mally or through on-the-job training in another, related occupation—generally is required to get an entry level job in this field. The military services also offer training and work experi­ ence that are very useful in civilian electronics work. Formal training is offered by high schools,  private vocational schools, and junior colleges. Programs in these schools include subjects such as mathematics, physics, schematic reading, electricity, electronics, and hands-on work with television sets, radios, and other electronic equipment. The training lasts from 1 to 2 years. Additional training in radio and television elec­ tronics generally is required by employers. A few repairers complete formal appren­ ticeship programs that are sponsored jointly by employers and by locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. New repairers usually begin by working in the shop or in the field under the supervision of an experienced worker. Large repair stores may provide in-house training combined with home study to familiarize new workers with particular brands and models of equipment. Service technicians must keep abreast of changes in technology. Manufacturers, em­ ployers, and trade associations conduct training seminars to teach technicians how to service new models or products. Technicians also keep up with developments by studying manufac­ turers’ service manuals and technical maga­ zines. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers must be able to manipulate small parts and tools, and must have good eye-hand co­ ordination, normal hearing, and good eyesight and color perception. Courtesy and tact are essential in dealing with customers, especially when the customer is upset about a malfunc­ tioning piece of equipment. Five States now require repairers to be li­ censed. To obtain a license in Connecticut, Indiana, Louisiana, Massachusetts, and Ore­ gon, applicants must pass an examination de­ signed to test their knowledge of electronic circuits and components and their skill in the use of testing equipment. Service technicians who work in large repair shops may be promoted to supervisor or service manager. Those interested in advancing to po­ sitions such as electronics “troubleshooters”  304/Occupational Outlook Handbook  can improve their opportunities by taking courses in automatic controls, electronic en­ gineering, television engineering, and mathe­ matics. Technicians who have sufficient funds may open their own service shops. Those planning to go into business for themselves should take some business administration courses, partic­ ularly accounting and consumer relations. Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000, in response to the grow­ ing number of television sets, video games, disk players, radios, phonographs, tape re­ corders, and other home entertainment prod­ ucts in use. Population growth and rising per­ sonal incomes will contribute to the demand. Closed-circuit television, which is being used increasingly to monitor production processes in manufacturing plants, to provide security surveillance in buildings, and to bring edu­ cational programs into classrooms, will create additional demand for service technicians. Continuous improvements in solid-state tech­ nology have reduced service requirements, however, which will keep employment from rising as fast as otherwise would be expected. Despite the rising demand for these workers, the need to replace workers who leave the oc­ cupation will account for most job openings. Because experience in commercial and indus­ trial electronic repair is good preparation for other jobs such as office machine and cash register servicer, computer service technician, and broadcast technician, an unusually large proportion of radio and television service tech­ nicians transfer to other occupations. Earnings In 1986, trainees earned between $8,000 and $17,000 a year, according to the limited in­ formation available. Experienced repairers earned between $14,000 and $20,000, while highly skilled specialists earned between $16,000 and $24,000. The wide variation in wage rates reflects differences in skill level, type of employer, and geographic location. A few service technicians are members of labor unions. Most of these belong to the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment include home appliance and power tool repairers, office machine and cash register servicers, computer service tech­ nicians, commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, and broadcast techni­ cians. Sources of Additional Information For more information about jobs in this field, contact local shops and stores that service radio and television sets and other electronic equip­ ment. Technical and vocational schools that offer courses in radio and television repair or electronics may provide information about  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  training. In addition, locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the lo­ cal oflice of your State employment service may have information about programs that pro­ vide training opportunities. Information about the work of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is available from: Electronic Service Dealers Association of Illinois, 4621 N. Kedzie Ave., Chicago, IL 60629. Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW.. Washington, DC 20006. National Electronic Sales and Service Dealers As­ sociation and the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth. TX 76109. Electronics Technicians Association. 604 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135.  Elevator Installers and Repairers (D O T. 825.261-014: .281-030, -034; and .361-010)  Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or mechanics—assem­ ble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, and similar equipment in new and old build­ ings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it. To install an elevator, mechanics prepare the shaft through which the elevator runs. Working on scaffolding or working platforms, crews bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator up and down. To install electrical wires and controls, me­ chanics run tubing called conduit along the shaft’s walls from floor to floor and then pull plastic-covered electrical wires through it. They install all electrical components and related de­ vices as required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Mechanics bolt or weld together the steel frame of the elevator car at the bottom of the shaft, install the car's platform, walls, and doors, and attach guide shoes and rollers which minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. Mechanics also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cable elevators, workers install a winch, an electrically powered spool which simulta­ neously winds and unwinds a heavy steel cable that connects the elevator car to a counter­ weight. The counterweight moves in the op­ posite direction from the car and aids in its swift and smooth movement. These workers install elevators in which a car sits on a long hydraulic cylinder that is driven by a hydraulic pump. Instead of pulling the car upward, the cylinder pushes the elevator car from underneath, like a lift in an auto serv­ ice station. Elevator constructors also install escalators. They place the steel framework, the electrically  powered stairs, and the huge oval tracks on which they rotate, and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, ele­ vator constructors install other devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts, which are sim­ ilar to elevators in design, and powered walk­ ways, which more closely resemble escalators. Elevator constructors usually specialize in construction, maintenance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need more knowledge of electricity and electronics than construction workers because a large part of maintenance and repair work is trouble­ shooting. Similarly, construction “adjustors,” who fine-tune the newly installed equipment, need a thorough knowledge of electricity and electronics. Maintenance mechanics, unlike most ele­ vator constructors, are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. They generally do preventive maintenance—oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equip­ ment for optimal performance. They also do emergency repairs. A repair crew usually handles major repairs, for example, repairing and setting doors back on their tracks. This may require a welding machine, cutting torches, and rigging equip­ ment—tools the maintenance mechanic doesn’t normally carry. Repair crews also do major modernization and alteration work such as moving and replacing electrical motors, hy­ draulic pumps, and control panels. Working Conditions Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equip­ ment and parts and are exposed to falls and electrical shocks. Maintenance and repair me­ chanics often work overtime when repairing essential elevator equipment. They are at times on 24-hour call. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 15,000 jobs in 1986. Most were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers. Some were employed by small, local elevator main­ tenance and repair contractors or by govern­ ment agencies or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all elevator constructors learn their trade in programs administered by joint committees of employers and locals of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. These pro­ grams combine on-the-job training with class­ room instruction in electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. Most trainees or helpers assist ex­ perienced elevator mechanics. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, they leant to do more difficult tasks, such as wiring, which requires a knowledge of local and national elec­ trical codes.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/305  ally work indoors, so they seldom lose work because of bad weather. Most elevator constructors are members of the International Union of Elevator Construc­ tors. Related Occupations Elevator constructors combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that employ many of these skill s are boilermakers, electricians, in­ dustrial machinery repairers, millwrights, sheetmetal workers, and structural ironworkers. Sources of Additional Information For further details about opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer, contact elevator manufacturers, elevator repair and mainte­ nance contractors, a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors, or the nearest local public employment service office.  Farm Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 624.281, .361-014. .381. .684, and 629.281­ 018)  ...... ....... i  Elevator repairers must know electric and electronic theory. Generally, trainees qualify as helpers after 6 months and become fully qualified construc­ tors within 4 years. Many continue to receive training from their employers to keep up with the rapid pace of technological developments in the industry. Some States and cities require elevator constructors to pass a licensing ex­ amination. Applicants for trainee positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school educa­ tion, and pass an aptitude test; courses in elec­ tricity, mathematics, and physics can provide a useful background. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude are important. Some installers advance to supervisors or elevator inspectors. Job Outlook Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  2000. Growth will occur as the construction of structures with elevators and escalators in­ creases and as the stock of equipment needing maintenance grows. There also will be many job openings to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities for elevator mechanics in con­ struction may fluctuate from year to year as economic conditions change. Economic down­ turns generally do not affect maintenance and repair mechanics because most equipment must still be kept in operating condition.  Earnings Median weekly earnings for elevator installers and repairers were about $605 in 1986, ac­ cording to limited data available. Helpers start at about 50 percent of the rate for experienced elevator mechanics. Elevator constructors usu­  Nature of the Work In today's world of large-scale, mechanized agriculture, few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized ma­ chines. Farm equipment has grown enormously in size, complexity, and variety. Many farms have tractors equipped with 300-horsepower and larger diesel engines. Harvesting com­ bines, hay balers, corn pickers, crop dryers, planters, tillage equipment, and elevators are common. As farm machinery has grown more com­ plex, it has become important for the sellers of farm equipment to be able to service and repair the machines they sell. Almost every dealer employs farm equipment mechanics, of­ ten called service technicians, to do this work and to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors many dealers also sell to surburban homeowners. In addition, some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assemble new implements and machinery and sometimes do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet metal on the tractors or other machinery. Mechanics spend much of their time re­ pairing and adjusting malfunctioning equip­ ment that has been brought to the shop. But during planting and harvesting, they may travel to farms to make emergency repairs on equip­ ment so that critical farming operations are not unduly delayed. Mechanics also perform preventive main­ tenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in certain types of work, such as diesel engine overhaul, hydraul­ ics, or clutch and transmission repair. Others  306/Occupational Outlook Handbook  specialize in repairing the air-conditioning units often included in the cabs of combines and large tractors, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair milking, irrigation, and other equip­ ment on farms. Mechanics use many basic handtools in­ cluding wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screw­ drivers. They also may use precision equip­ ment, such as micrometers and torque wrenches; engine testing equipment, such as dynamom­ eters, to measure engine performance; and compression testers, to find worn piston rings or leaking cylinder valves. They may use weld­ ing equipment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modern farm equipment repair shops  are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not offer these advantages. During planting and harvesting seasons, me­ chanics may make emergency repairs in the field, perhaps traveling many miles to do so. Farm equipment mechanics come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also be used to avoid burns from hot engine parts, cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and injury from farm chemicals. Employment Farm equipment mechanics held about 52,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in service depart­ ments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, in shops on large farms, and in service departments of retail lawn and garden supply stores. Most farm  DEERE  ■S'" ;  Farm equipment mechanics need problem-solving abilities to diagnose the source of the equipment’s malfunction.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  equipment mechanics worked in small repair shops. About 1 out of 9 farm equipment me­ chanics was self-employed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the United States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. Employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, making this an attrac­ tive career choice for people who do not wish to live the fast-paced life of a large city. How­ ever, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment me­ chanics who prefer the conveniences of city life need not live in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have an ap­ titude for mechanical work. A farm back­ ground is an advantage since growing up on a farm usually provides experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Employers also prefer high school graduates, but some will hire applicants who have less education. In general, employers stress previous experience or training in diesel and gasoline engines, the maintenance and re­ pair of hydraulics, and welding—subjects that may be learned in many high schools and vo­ cational schools. Mechanics also must be able to read circuit diagrams and blueprints in order to make complex repairs to electrical and other systems. Most farm equipment mechanics arc hired as trainees and learn the trade on the job by assisting qualified mechanics. The length of training varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. At least 2 years of on-thejob training usually are necessary before a me­ chanic can do the more routine types of repair work, and additional training and experience are required for highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a related occupation. For in­ stance, they may gain experience as farmers and farm laborers, or as heavy equipment me­ chanics, automotive mechanics, or air-condi­ tioning mechanics. People who enter from re­ lated occupations also may start as helpers, but they may not require a long period of on-thejob training. With the development of more complex farm implements, technical training has become more important. A growing number of large em­ ployers prefer applicants who have completed 1 or 2 years of training in agricultural me­ chanics, including electronics, at a vocational or technical school or community or junior college. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship pro­ gram, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and in­ cludes on-the-job as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment repair and maintenance. Applicants for these programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment technology requires a great deal of careful study of service manuals and analysis of complex diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/307  and trainees receive refresher training in short­ term programs conducted by farm equipment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A company service representative explains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send employees to local vocational schools that teach special weeklong classes in subjects such as air-conditioning repair or hy­ draulics. Persons considering a career in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equipment. Occasionally, strength is required to lift, move, or hold heavy parts in place. Difficult repair jobs require problem-solving abilities to diagnose the source of the machine’s malfunction. Experienced mechanics should be able to work indepen­ dently with minimum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor, service manager, or manager of a farm equipment dealership. Some me­ chanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equipment mechanics earn 2-year asso­ ciate degrees in agricultural mechanics and ad­ vance to service representatives for farm equip­ ment manufacturers. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employ­ ment of farm equipment mechanics through the year 2000. Most job openings will arise each year as experienced mechanics transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Opportunities will be best for persons with formal training in farm equipment repair or diesel mechanics, and for applicants who have lived or worked on farms and know how to operate farm machinery and make minor repairs. Continued consolidation of farm land into fewer and larger farms, requiring less farm equipment, is expected to restrict growth of farm equipment mechanic employment, par­ ticularly in farm equipment dealerships. The absence of growth in the amount of farm equip­ ment in operation should keep employment of mechanics near its present level, even though a growing number of large farms are expected to employ their own mechanics. The increasing technical sophistication of farm equipment will make it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs, forcing them to rely more on skilled mechanics in the future. For instance, many newer tractors have much larger, electronically controlled engines and air-conditioned cabs, which have improved the comfort of the operator, and feature advanced transmissions with many speeds. New planting equipment uses electronics to spread seeds more uniformly, and electronic controls help har­ vesters reduce waste. Nevertheless, employ­ ment of farm equipment mechanics will be slow to benefit from the increasing complexity of new equipment. New equipment with ad­ vanced technology will only slowly replace older, less complex equipment because farm machinery is generally designed and manufac­ tured to withstand many years of rugged use.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Many farmers are reluctant to replace old equipment until increasingly frequent break­ downs and expensive repairs force them to do so. Besides the development of larger and more complex farm machinery, sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment have increased vastly over the past decade and are expected to con­ tinue to do so. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now offer a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. Although relatively few mechanics service this equipment, more will be needed. As with most agricultural occupations, the demand for farm equipment mechanics is high­ est during planting and harvesting seasons. During these busy periods, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, however, mechanics may work less than 40 hours a week and some may be laid off. The agricultural equipment industry expe­ riences periodic declines—mostly in sales. Layoffs of mechanics, however, are uncom­ mon because farmers often elect to repair old equipment rather than purchase new equip­ ment. Earnings Farm equipment mechanics had median hourly earnings of about $6.90 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.30 and $8.70 an hour. The top 10 percent averaged $13.40 an hour. Most farm equipment mechanics also have the opportunity to work overtime during the planting and harvesting seasons, for which they generally are paid time and onehalf. Very few farm equipment mechanics belong to labor unions, but those who do are members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Teams­ ters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair large mobile ma­ chinery include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, diesel mechanics, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be ob­ tained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about the occupation, write to: National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers As­ sociation, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, MO63127.  For general information on training, contact: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Council, 300 Sylvan Ave., En­ glewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. ’  General Maintenance Mechanics (D.O.T. 899.281-014; 899.381-010  Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work; general maintenance mechanics are jacksof-all-trades. They repair and maintain ma­ chines, mechanical equipment, and buildings, and work on plumbing, electrical, and air-con­ ditioning and heating systems. They build par­ titions, make plaster or dry wall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, wood­ work, and other parts of building structures. They also install, maintain, and repair spe­ cialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include replacing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-con­ ditioning motors, and installing water lines. Those in small establishments, where they are often the only maintenance worker, do all repairs except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to a few tasks. General maintenance mechanics inspect and diagnose problems and plan how work will be done, often checking blueprints, repair man­ uals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distributors or store­ rooms. They use common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers as well as specialized equipment and electronic test devices. They replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments. They also do routine preventive maintenance to correct defects before equipment breaks down or buildings deteriorate. They may follow a check list, inspecting belts, checking fluid lev­ els, replacing filters, and so forth. Maintenance mechanics also keep records of maintenance and repair work. Working Conditions General maintenance mechanics often do a va­ riety of tasks in a single day, generally at a number of different locations in a building, or in several buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environments. Like other maintenance craft workers, they may work in awkward and cramped positions or on ladders. They are subject to electrical shock, bums, falls, and cuts and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening or night shifts or on week­ ends, or may be on call for emergency repairs. Those employed in small establishments, where they may be the only maintenance worker, often operate with only limited su­ pervision. Employment General maintenance mechanics held about 1 million jobs in 1986. They worked in almost every industry. Nearly 3 out of 10 worked in  308/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Related Occupations Some of the work of general maintenance me­ chanics is similar to that of carpenters, plumbers, industrial machinery mechanics, electricians, and air-conditioning, refrigera­ tion, and heating mechanics.  ^  Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the public employment service.  m  Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics (D.O.T. 637.261-014, -026, -030, -034, and .381; 827.361-014; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869.281-010)  Genera/ maintenance mechanics do a wide variety of jobs. service industries; most worked for elementary and secondary schools, colleges and univer­ sities, hospitals and nursing homes, and hotels. About one-fourth were employed in manufac­ turing industries. Others worked for real estate firms that operate office and apartment build­ ings and for wholesale and retail firms, gov­ ernment agencies, and gas and electric com­ panies.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general maintenance mechanics learn their skills informally on the job. They start as help­ ers, watching and learning from skilled main­ tenance workers. Helpers begin by doing sim­ ple jobs such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing light bulbs and progress to more dif­ ficult tasks such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Others learn their skills by working as help­ ers to other repair or construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, machinery repair­ ers, or automobile mechanics. Necessary skills can also be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-thejob training or school, or a combination of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, woodworking, blueprint reading, science, and mathematics are useful. Mechanical aptitude, ability to use shop math, and manual dexterity are important. Good physical health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require prob­ lem-solving ability. and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision. Some general maintenance mechanics in large organizations advance to maintenance super­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  visor. In small organizations, promotion op­ portunities are limited. Job Outlook Employment of general maintenance mechan­ ics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment is related to the number of buildings and amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. Growth will occur as the number of office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, and factories increases. In addition to jobs created by in­ creased demand for maintenance mechanics, many more openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. General maintenance mechanics who work in manufacturing industries may be laid off during recessions. Most mechanics, however, work in relatively stable nonmanufacturing in­ dustries and are not usually subject to layoff because buildings must be maintained regard­ less of economic conditions. Earnings In 1986, general maintenance mechanics had median earnings of $380 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $270 and $520; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $205; and the top 10 percent earned more than $660 a week. Earnings vary widely by industry and geographic area. Wages generally are highest in transportation companies and public utulities and lowest in service firms. On average, work­ ers in the Midwest and Northeast earned more than those in the West and South. Mechanics earn overtime pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week. Some general maintenance mechanics are members of unions, including the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Work­ ers.  Nature of the Work What would those living in Boston do without heating, those in Dallas do without air-con­ ditioning, or grocery stores in all parts of the country do without refrigeration? People al­ ways have sought ways to make their envi­ ronment more comfortable. Today, heating and air-conditioning systems control the tempera­ ture, humidity, and even the cleanliness of the air in homes, stores, offices, factories, and schools. In addition, refrigeration systems make it possible to store food, blood, and other per­ ishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics are skilled workers who install, maintain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, or refrigeration requires more than a single appliance. In cen­ tral heating systems, for example, a furnace heats the air that is then distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Mechanics must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems with the entire system—the ducts as well as the machinery. Mechanics may specialize in installation or in maintenance and repair. They may further specialize in one type of equipment, such as oil burners or commercial refrigerators. How­ ever, some do both installation and service, and work with heating, cooling, and refrig­ eration equipment. The following describes some of the specific jobs in this field. Furnace installers, also called heating equip­ ment installers, follow blueprints or other spec­ ifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multifuel heating systems. After setting the equipment in place, they often install fuel and water supply lines,-air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They then con­ nect electrical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. After a furnace has been installed, the me­ chanic must perform routine maintenance and repair in order to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, when the system is needed most, they service and  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/309  adjust burners. If the system is not operating properly, mechanics check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts to locate the problem. The mechanic corrects the problem by adjusting or replacing parts. During the summer, mechanics do maintenance work, such as replacing filters and vacuum-cleaning vents, ducts, and other parts of the heating system that may accumulate soot and ash if not adjusted properly. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechan­ ics install and service central air-conditioning systems and a variety of refrigeration equip­ ment. Mechanics follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufacturers’ installation instructions to install motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, and other com­ ponents. They connect this equipment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, mechanics diagnose the cause and make repairs. To find defects, they test parts such as compressors, relays, and thermostats. During the winter, air-condition­ ing mechanics inspect the systems and do re­ quired maintenance, such as overhauling com­ pressors. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics use a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene torches, to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check air flow, refrigerant pressures, elec­ trical circuits, burners, and other components. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craft workers. For example, on a large air-conditioning in­ stallation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might be done by sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, con­ densers, and other components by plumbers and pipefitters. Room air-conditioners and household refrigerators are serviced by home appliance repairers. Additional information about these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics work in homes, office buildings, factories—anywhere there is climate control equipment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day or they may be dispatched to jobs by radio or tele­ phone. Mechanics may work outside in cold or hot weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equip­ ment is broken. In addition, mechanics often work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, mus­ cle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Mechanics usually work a 40-hour week, but during peak seasons they often work over­ time or irregular hours. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round, yet they may have to reduce hours temporarily or lay off some mechanics when the season is over. However, in most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, em­ ployment is fairly stable throughout the year. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics held about 222,000 jobs in 1986. Slightly more than half worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder were em­ ployed in a wide variety of industries. Some worked for fuel oil dealers and refrigeration and air-conditioning service and repair shops. Others were employed by the Federal Govern­ ment, hospitals, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or  heating systems. Approximately 1 out of 7 me­ chanics was self-employed. Jobs are found throughout the country, re­ flecting our dependence on climate-control sys­ tems. However, the proportion of mechanics in the South is slightly greater than the pro­ portion of the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the increased sophistication of heat­ ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration sys­ tems, most employers prefer to hire those with technical school or apprenticeship training. Many heating, air-conditioning, and refriger­ ation mechanics, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many high schools, private trade schools, and junior and community colleges offer pro­ grams in heating, air-conditioning, and refrig­ eration. Students study theory, design, and  1KEON500 ■  tfi.r ;<?■  ’if  Adding freon is a routine part of air-conditioner maintenance.  310/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics is concentrated in the construction industry. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1986  pany vans. Some mechanics are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada or the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association.  Trade  Services  Construction i  Manufacturing Government Other 2% Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, main­ tenance, and repair. Apprenticeship programs are run by joint apprenticeship committees made up of locals of the United Association of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada and some local chapters of the Air­ Conditioning Contractors of America and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. Apprenticeships, which usually are 4 years in length, consist of on-the-job training as well as 144 hours of classroom in­ struction each year in related subjects, such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blue­ print reading, and air-conditioning theory. Ap­ plicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or its equivalent and be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assisting experienced me­ chanics and doing simple jobs. They may carry materials, insulate refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time, they do more difficult jobs, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. In 4 to 5 years, new mechanics should be able to do all types of repair and installation. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, electronics, and blueprint reading provide a good background for those interested in en­ tering this occupation. A basic understanding of microelectronics is becoming more impor­ tant because of the increasing use of this tech­ nology in equipment controls. Because me­ chanics frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, especially when dealing with an aggravated customer. To keep up with changes in technology and to expand their skills, experienced mechanics may take courses offered by heating and air­ conditioning equipment manufacturers and by associations such as the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society and the Air Conditioning Contractors of America.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mechanics enjoy a variety of employer-spon­ sored benefits. Most receive health and life insurance, paid vacations, and pension plans. In addition, some employers pay for workrelated training and provide uniforms and com­  Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some mechanics advance to positions as supervisors. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own con­ tracting business. Job Outlook Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the population and economy expand and new residential, com­ mercial, and industrial structures are built, more heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics will be needed to install climate control systems. In addition, growing concern about energy management and conservation should prompt installation of new energy-sav­ ing heating and air-conditioning systems in ex­ isting homes and buildings. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Those specializing in the installation of new systems may experience periods of unemploy­ ment when the level of construction activity declines. On the other hand, employment of those doing maintenance work is fairly sta­ ble—people and businesses depend on their heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems regardless of economic conditions. Earnings Median weekly earnings of air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics who were wage and salary workers were $390 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $291 and $520. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $225 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $675 a week. Apprentices usually begin at about 40 per­ cent of the wage rate paid to experienced work­ ers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration  Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical mo­ tors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermakers, elec­ trical appliance servicers, electricians, plumbers and pipefitters, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment and training opportunities in this trade, contact lo­ cal vocational and technical schools; local heat­ ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration con­ tractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap­ prenticeship committee; a local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. The Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration In­ stitute recently created a video tape that de­ scribes the occupation. For price and ordering information, contact: Eustis Enterprises, 3307 Quesada St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20015.  For information on career opportunities and training, write to: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016.  Home Appliance and Power Tool Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-010 and -018; 723.381 and .584; 729.281-022; and 827.261, .464, and .661)  Nature of the Work Household chores such as cooking, cleaning, or yardwork that once took a great deal of time and physical effort are today much simpler to do—thanks to a variety of laborsaving appli­ ances. Microwave ovens cook meals in min­ utes. Washers and dryers clean clothes with little physical effort, and vacuums clean floors, curtains, and furniture quickly and efficiently. Power lawnmowers and hedge trimmers help keep grass and shrubs neat in a fraction of the time required by hand. Indeed, the num­ ber of household jobs machines can do is al­ most limitless. Installing and servicing these machines is the job of home appliance and  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/311  power tool repairers—often called service technicians. Technicians in large shops generally spec­ ialize in a certain type of machine. For ex­ ample, some may service only small appliances such as toasters and vacuum cleaners; others may specialize in major appliances such as refrigerators, freezers, washers, and dryers; and others may handle power tools such as lawnmowers, drills, and powersaws. Some tech­ nicians specialize in either gas or electric ap­ pliances; others handle both types. As a general rule, the larger the shop, the greater the like­ lihood that repairers will specialize. When technicians install gas appliances, they must first turn off the gas at the tank valve or meter. Then they measure, cut, and thread pipe and connect it to a feeder line and to the ap­ pliance. To install piping to a gas main with the least waste of pipe, service technicians first measure and mark the layout of the piping. They may saw holes in walls or the floor and may hang steel supports from beams or joists to hold the pipe in place. Once the gas line is in place, technicians turn on the flow of gas and check for leaks. Portable appliances are worked on in shops. Major appliances usually are repaired in cus­ w : tomers' homes by appliance repairers who carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van. To determine why an appliance or power tool fails to operate properly, repairers look for frequent sources of trouble, such as faulty electrical connections, and consult service manuals and troubleshooting guides. They may Portable appliances are worked on in repair shops. disassemble the appliance or tool to examine its parts. To check electrical systems, repairers timates on the cost of repairs. They keep rec­ Employment follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices, ords of parts used and hours worked on each Home appliance and power tool repairers held such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. job and, when completed, they calculate all about 76,000 jobs in 1986. About 7 out of 10 After identifying the problem, the technician charges and collect payment. worked in retail trade establishments such as makes the necessary repairs or replacements. department stores, household appliance stores, To fix a portable appliance such as a toaster Working Conditions and dealers that sell or service appliances and oven, the repairer may replace a defective heat­ Repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, power tools. Others worked for gas and electric ing element. To fix a major appliance such as and adequately ventilated. Working conditions utility companies, wholesalers, and electrical a washer, the repairer may replace worn bear­ outside the shop vary. For example, repairers repair shops. About 1 out of 10 repairers was ings, transmission belts, or gears. To remove sometimes work in cramped and uncomfortable self-employed. old parts and install new ones, repairers use positions amidst dirt and dust. They also may Appliance and power tool technicians are common handtools, including screwdrivers, have to deal with customers who are very upset employed in almost every community, but are soldering guns, files, pliers, and special tools over a malfunctioning appliance. Those who concentrated in the more highly populated areas. designed for particular appliances. When serv­ repair appliances in homes may spend several icing appliances with electronic parts, the re­ hours a day driving. Tf-aining, Other Qualifications, pairer may only have to replace a circuit board The work generally is safe, but technicians and Advancement or other electronic component. After com­ must exercise care and follow safety precau­ Some entrants to this occupation acquire their pleting a repair, technicians operate the appli­ tions when handling electrical parts and lifting skills in other jobs and transfer into appliance ance to check their work. and moving large appliances. When servicing repair. Many others complete formal training When answering service calls for gas ap­ gas appliances and microwave ovens, they must in appliance repair and related subjects in high pliances, technicians may check the heating be aware of the dangers of gas and radiation schools, private vocational schools, and com­ unit and replace pipes, thermocouples, ther­ leaks. munity colleges. No matter how their basic mostats, valves, and indicator spindles. Re­ Home appliance and power tool repairers skills are developed, repairers usually get ad­ pairers also answer emergency calls, such as generally work a 40-hour week, but, in order ditional training from their employer. a report of a gas leak. to meet the needs of the growing number of The type of training provided by employers Technicians answer customers’ questions and families where no one is home during working varies among companies. In shops that fix port­ complaints about appliances and frequently ad­ hours, many repair shops are expanding their able appliances, new employees work on a vise customers about their care and use. For service hours to include early mornings, eve­ single type of appliance, such as vacuum clean­ example, they may demonstrate how to load nings, and Saturdays. ers, until they master its repair. Trainees then automatic washing machines, arrange dishes Home appliance and power tool repairers in dishwashers, or sharpen the blade on a chain usually work with little or no direct supervi­ move on to work on a different type of appli­ ance; this process continues until they can re­ saw. sion, a feature of the job that appeals to many pair a variety of appliances. In companies that Technicians may provide customers with es­ people. repair major appliances, beginners may learn  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  312/Occupational Outlook Handbook  by accompanying experienced repairers during visits to customers’ homes. In other cases, they are taught in the shop to locate basic controls from a schematic drawing, to analyze and de­ termine whether to repair or replace specific parts, and to learn precautions to be taken dur­ ing removal and replacement of controls. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repair of the more complex appliances. Some large companies such as appliance and power tool manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs, which include home study courses and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstration ap­ pliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental in­ struction through seminars that are conducted periodically by appliance and power tool man­ ufacturers. These seminars usually last 1 or 2 weeks and deal with the repair of one of the manufacturer’s appliances or tools. To become familiar with new appliances and power tools and the proper ways to repair them, experi­ enced repairers attend training classes or study service manuals. Persons who want to become home appli­ ance and power tool repairers generally must have a high school diploma. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are desirable because most repairs involve work with electrical equipment, and more and more appliances have electronic components. Employers prefer to hire people with some vocational school training in appliance repair and electronics. Mechanical aptitude also is desirable. Technicians who work in customers’ homes must be courteous and tactful. California, Minnesota, Rhode Island, and New York City require technicians who service gas appliances to be licensed. Applicants for licensure must meet certain minimum stand­ ards of education, training, and experience. They also must pass an examination, which can be written, practical, or a combination, depending upon the requirements of the licen­ sing authority. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant serv­ ice manager, or service manager. A few may advance to managerial positions such as re­ gional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Preference is given to those who demonstrate their technical competence and show an ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowl­ edge of small business management may open their own appliance store or repair shop.  sensing devices in appliances should make them more reliable and lessen somewhat the need for repairers. Virtually all openings for appli­ ance repairers will arise from the need to re­ place workers who transfer to other occupa­ tions or leave the labor force. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appliance repair services continues even during economic downturns. Prospects should be very good for applicants with a strong background in electronics. Earnings Earnings of home appliance and power tool repairers vary widely according to skill level, geographic location, and the type of equip­ ment serviced. According to the limited data available, average annual salaries for experi­ enced technicians ranged from $15,600 to $24,000. Trainees earned less and senior tech­ nicians earned more. Salaries tend to be highest in large firms and for those servicing gas ap­ pliances. Some home appliance and power tool re­ pairers belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and elec­ tronic equipment include heating, air-condi­ tioning, and refrigeration mechanics; pinsetter mechanics; office machine and cash register servicers; electronic home entertainment equipment repairers; and vending machine servicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs in the home appli­ ance and power tool repair field, contact local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local office of your State employment service. Information about training programs or work opportunities also is available from: Appliance Service News, P.O. Box 789, Lombard, IL 60148.  A list of schools offering training in the field is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 225 Wisconsin Ave. NW.. Washington, DC 20007.  Industrial Machinery Repairers (DOT. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Job Outlook Employment of home appliance and power tool repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 Although the number of home appliances and power tools in use is expected to increase as the number of households grows and new and improved appliances and tools are intro­ duced, increasing use of electronic parts such as solid-state circuitry, microprocessors, and  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Nature of the Work When a machine breaks down in a plant or factory, not only is the machine idle, but raw materials and human resources are wasted. It is the industrial machinery repairer’s job to prevent these costly breakdowns and to make repairs as quickly as possible. Industrial machinery repairers—often called  maintenance mechanics—spend much of their time doing preventive maintenance. This in­ cludes keeping machines well oiled and greased, and periodically cleaning parts. Repairers reg­ ularly inspect machinery and check perfor­ mance. They use tools such as micrometers, calipers, and depth gauges to measure and align all parts. For example, forearms on industrial robots in motor vehicle manufacturing plants need frequent adjustment, and gears, bearings, and other mechanical parts have to be aligned and lubricated. By keeping complete and upto-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service the machinery before fac­ tory production is interrupted. The maintenance mechanic must be able to spot minor problems and correct them before they become major ones. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the me­ chanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or any number of other possibilities. Computerized mainte­ nance-management systems are making this task easier. Self-diagnostic features on new indus­ trial machinery can determine the cause of a malfunction and, in some cases, can alert the mechanic to potential trouble spots before they develop symptoms. After the problem has been diagnosed, the maintenance mechanic disassembles the equip­ ment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. When correcting problems with electronically controlled machinery, these mechanics may work closely with electronic repairers or elec­ tricians who maintain the machine’s electronic parts. Additional information about commer­ cial and industrial electronic equipment re­ pairers and electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook. A wide range of tools may be used when doing preventive maintenance or making re­ pairs. For example, repairers may use a screw­ driver and wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, re­ pairers may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Repairers use catalogs to order replacement parts and often follow blueprints and engineering specifica­ tions in maintaining and fixing equipment. After the equipment has been serviced, the repairer reassembles and tests it. Some of the industrial machinery repairer’s duties may be performed by millwrights. (See the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Repairers may work in stooped or cramped positions, to reach the underside of a generator, for example. They also may work from the top of a ladder when repairing a large machine. These workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises. Because fac­ tories and other organizations cannot afford breakdowns in industrial machinery, industrial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs.  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/313  Employment Industrial machinery repairers held about 421,000 jobs in 1986. Repairers work in every industry in which a great deal of machinery is used. Two of every three work in manufac­ turing industries, primarily food processing, transportation equipment, textile mill products, chemicals and allied products, machinery, fab­ ricated metal products, and primary metals. Others work for government agencies, public utilities, mining companies, and machinery equipment wholesalers. Because industrial machinery repairers work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every section of the country. Employment is concentrated, however, in heavily indus­ trialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers who become industrial machin­ ery repairers start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally and by taking courses offered by machine manufacturers. Some learn the trade through apprenticeship programs sponsored by the International As­ sociation of Machinists and Areospace Work­ ers, the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers. This training usually lasts 4 years and consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction. Apprentices learn from experienced repairers how to operate, disas­ semble, and repair machinery. Classroom in­ struction focuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, shop theory, blueprint reading, welding, and safety. Electronics training is of­ fered as a part of the apprenticeship program but is not required. However, a growing num­ ber of employers prefer this background. Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. However, participants in appren­ ticeship programs must have a high school di­ ploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mechanical drawing, mathematics, blueprint reading, physics, and electronics are useful. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifications for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility are also necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equip­ ment located high above the floor. Opportunities for advancement are limited. Industrial machinery repairers advance either by working with more complicated equipment or by becoming a supervisor. Examinations may be administered period­ ically by employers to determine the repairer’s ability to maintain more advanced machinery. Some of the most highly skilled repairers can be promoted to master mechanics or become machinists or tool-and-die makers. Job Outlook Employment of industrial machinery repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ' -  •  These workers are spending an increasing amount of time working on industrial robots. U.S. firms, to remain competitive in the world markets, will continue to introduce more automated production machinery. Demand for repairers created by the need to keep this machinery in good working condition, however, will be offset somewhat by the generally lower maintenance requirements of new industrial equipment. Most job openings will result from the need to replace repairers who transfer to other occupations or retire. Industrial machinery repairers are not usually affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. Although these workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek when economic conditions are particularly severe, they generally are less affected than other workers because machines have to be maintained regardless of the level of production. Earnings Median hourly earnings of most industrial machinery repairers were $10.38 in 1986; the middie 50 percent earned between $8.48 and $12.85 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.10, and the top 10 percent earned more than $15.95. This is in sharp contrast to the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, which was $8.75. Earnings vary by industry. On average, in-  dustrial machinery repairers earn the highest wages in transportation and public utilities and the lowest in wholesale trade. Earnings also vary by geographic region. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers in 11 cities that represent various regions of the country are shown in table 1. Labor unions to which most industrial machinery repairers belong include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Auto­ mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Asso-  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers, selected areas 1986 Area  Hourly rate y Detroit...................................................... $15.29 San Francisco ...................................... 14.98 Houston ................................................. 13.37 Chicago.................................................. 13.24 New Orleans ......................................... 13.20 Baltimore ............................................... 13.14 Sacramento ............................................. 13.13 Philadelphia ............................................. 12.69 Boston...................................................... 11.78 Miami ...................................................... 11.72 Atlanta .................................................... 11.18 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  _«_____  314/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ciation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing ma­ chinery include aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, automotive and motorcycle me­ chanics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics, die­ sel mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, machinists, millwrights, tool-and-die makers, and vending machine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and appren­ ticeship opportunities in this field may be ob­ tained from local offices of the State employ­ ment service or from: International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salar­ ied, Machine, and Furniture Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Line Installers and Cable Splicers (D.O.T. 821.261-010. -014. -022, and -026, .281-010, .361-010, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -038, .687-010; 822.381-014; 823.261-014; 829.361-010 and -014; and 959.367-010)  Nature of the Work A vast network of wires and cables links the electric power produced in generating plants to individual customers, connects telephone central offices to customers’ telephones and switchboards, and extends cable TV to resi­ dential and commercial customers. This net­ work is constructed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers. To install new electric power or telephone lines, line installers, often referred to as outside plant technicians or construction line workers, install poles and terminals and place wires and cables that lead from the central office or gen­ erating plant to customers' premises. They usu­ ally use power-driven equipment to dig holes and set in the poles that support cables. Line installers climb the poles or use truck-mounted buckets (aerial work platforms) and then use various handtools to attach the cables. When working with electric power lines, installers must bolt or clamp insulators onto the pole before the cable can be attached. They may add other equipment to the erected poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, trans­ formers, circuit breakers, or switches. Tele­ phone line installers usually leave the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. Electric util­ ity line workers usually are required to splice the cables at the time of installation. In cities where power and telephone lines are below the streets, installers place cables in underground conduits. In newly developed res­ idential and rural areas, installers use trenchers, plows, and other special power-driven equip­ ment to bury cable directly underground. Line  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  installers also place cable television lines un­ derground. These lines transmit the broadcast signal from a microwave tower to the custom­ er’s home. Cable television installers and re­ pairers connect the customer’s television set to the cable television line by installing a coaxial drop wire with connectors. After telephone line installers place cables on poles, towers, or in underground conduits and trenches, cable splicers, also referred to as cable splicing technicians, generally com­ plete the line connections. Electric power line workers install and splice the cables simulta­ neously. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large buildings. When splicing fiber optic cables, which contain tiny, hair-thin glass fi­ bers that transmit voice, data, or video infor­ mation by light, the delicate connections are made in vans positioned close to the splice point. Splicers connect individual wires or fi­ bers within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. They must first read and interpret service orders and circuit dia­ grams in order to determine the proper splicing specifications. Splices are then made by twist­ ing, soldering, or joining wires and cables with small handtools, epoxy, and even with me­ chanical equipment. For example, cable spli­ cers use machines that use heat to connect fiber optic strands. At each splice, they place in­ sulation over the conductor, and seal the splice with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of protective covering. They may fill the cable sheathing on critical transmission routes with compressed air so that leaks in the sheathing can be monitored and repaired. Line installers and cable splicers spend much of their time maintaining and repairing tele­ phone, power, and cable television lines. In some areas, this is done by a separate group of workers called cable repair technicians or cable service technicians. Service technicians do preventive maintenance by periodically checking to make sure lines are clear of tree limbs or other obstructions that could cause problems. They also routinely check to make sure that insulation on cables is in good con­ dition and that insulators and other equipment on line poles are working properly. This pre­ ventive maintenance is extremely important, because a single defect in a cable may interrupt service for many customers. When wires or cables break, or when poles are knocked down or underground ducts collapse, these workers must make emergency repairs as rapidly as possible. These repairs are most common in parts of the country that have hurricanes, tor­ nadoes, earthquakes, lightning storms, and heavy snowfalls. Working Conditions Line installers and cable splicers usually work outdoors in all kinds of weather. They must do a lot of climbing and lifting, and often work in stooped and cramped positions. Electric power line workers have the most hazardous jobs. They typically work at higher elevations because the electric cable is always above telephone and cable TV lines. Moreover,  all of the voltages electric power line workers come in contact with can cause death if safety procedures are not followed. Line installers and cable splicers also must wear safety equipment when entering manholes. In addition, they are required to test for the presence of gas before going underground. They may be exposed to hazardous chemicals from the solvents and plugging compounds that they use when splic­ ing cables. These workers are subject to 24hour call. For example, when severe weather damages transmission and distribution lines, they may be called upon to work long and irregular hours to restore service. At times, they may travel to distant locations—and oc­ casionally stay for a lengthy period to help restore damaged facilities or build new ones. Employment Line installers and cable splicers held about 227,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly all worked full time for telephone companies, publicly and privately owned power companies, and con­ struction companies specializing in power line and cable TV construction. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Line installers often begin as helpers or grounds workers. Although local hiring policies vary, most employers prefer high school graduates. High school courses help develop the reading and arithmetic skills essential for understand­ ing company manuals and work orders. Many employers test applicants for basic verbal, arithmetic, and abstract reasoning skills. In ad­ dition, there are entry tests of physical ability such as balance, coordination, and strength. Applicants also may be tested for mechanical aptitude. Knowledge of the basic principles of electricity and training in installing telephone systems obtained in the Armed Forces or vo­ cational education programs may be helpful. Because the work entails a lot of climbing, applicants should have stamina and must be unafraid of heights. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables usually are coded by color. Motivation, self­ discipline, and the ability to work as part of a team are needed to work efficiently and safely. The types of training programs vary by em­ ployer. Line installers and cable splicers in electric companies and construction firms spe­ cializing in cable installation generally com­ plete a formal apprenticeship program. These are administered jointly by the employer and the union representing the workers, either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Work­ ers or the Communications Workers of Amer­ ica. These programs last several years and combine formal instruction with on-the-job training. Although workers in telephone com­ panies usually do not go through a formal ap­ prenticeship, they receive several years of for­ mal and on-the-job training. A growing number of employers are using other teaching aids to supplement or replace classroom instruc­ tion. These may include computer-assisted instruction, video cassettes, movies, or “pro­ grammed” workbooks. Some classrooms are  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/315  equipped with actual equipment, such as poles, cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures, to simulate working conditions as closely as pos­ sible. Trainees learn to work on poles while keeping their hands free to work. In one class­ room exercise, for example, they play catch with a basketball while on the poles. Trainees also are taught safety procedures to avoid falls and contact with power wires. Formal training, which also includes instruction in electrical codes, blueprint reading, and beginning elec­ trical theory, is followed by informal, on-thejob training. Trainees are assigned to a crew to work with experienced line installers under a line supervisor. In addition to the training by employers, line and cable workers may attend a training school provided by manufacturers who sell cable in­ stallation equipment to telephone, electric power, or cable TV companies. At other times, manufacturers send instructors to the job site. Some small companies, particularly those in rural areas, do not have adequate facilities to train their employees. Therefore, they may rely on local vocational and technical schools to provide classroom training to their workers. Line installers and cable splicers continue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. For ex­ ample, crews of cable splicers are introduced to the techniques of fiber optic cable splicing by having several days of training and several additional days of field supervision. Because there have been fewer changes in electric power line installation and repair, less training is needed to update utility line workers. Since deregulation of the telephone industry, many telephone companies have reduced the scope of their training programs in order to reduce their costs and to remain competitive. As a result, fewer courses are offered to prepare workers for higher level telephone jobs. In­ creasingly, workers interested in advancing are responsible for getting their own training to develop new skills. Necessary training not pro­ vided by the employer has to be obtained at employee expense from community colleges and postsecondary vocational schools. For installers in the telephone industry, ad­ vancement may come about through promotion to splicer, or to a higher level occupation such as telephone installer or repairer. Promotion to a supervisory position also is possible. In the electric industry, promotion is usually to a su­ pervisory position. Cable splicers may transfer to other highly skilled jobs—in the telephone industry, for ex­ ample, cable splicers can advance to com­ munications equipment mechanic or may move into other kinds of work, such as sales. Pro­ motion also is possible to crew supervisor or instructor of new employees. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of line installers and cable splicers through the year 2000. While demand is expected to grow for the services of these workers, increases in productivity brought about by changes in tech­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  nology will enable this demand to be met with few additional workers. Job openings will re­ sult almost entirely from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A growing and increasingly mobile popu­ lation will require additional telephone, electric power, and cable television lines. Despite this demand, technological advances that improve productivity should keep employment of line installers and cable splicers from rising. For example, fewer line workers will be needed in the future as microwave towers and fiber optics cables replace aerial wires for long-distance telephone communications. New communi­ cation systems are not as vulnerable to adverse weather conditions as aerial wires, and fewer workers are needed to maintain them. Simi­ larly, new cables and lines increasingly are being installed underground and require less maintenance. Furthermore, because fiber optic cables handle much more traffic than the tra­ ditional copper cables, once fiber optic cables are installed, they should not need to be aug­ mented or replaced for a long time. In addition, most areas of the country that can economically be served by cable TV have already been wired. New kinds of splices and the telephone splicing van that uses a self-contained engine to heat and ventilate manholes, as well as new power tools and equipment, also will continue to im­ prove the efficiency of cable splicers. Job prospects will be best for line workers employed by electrical utilities and construc­ tion firms doing electrical work because the impact of technology is expected to be less severe in these industries than in telephone communication. In fact, there already have been layoffs of telephone line workers, and more are anticipated. Earnings Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers vary greatly across the country; specific infor­ mation may be obtained from local telephone, electric power, and cable TV companies. Earn­ ings also depend on length of service. It gen­ erally takes about 5 years to go from the bottom to the top of the pay scale. In 1986, line in­ stallers and cable splicers earned a median weekly wage of $527. The middle 50 percent earned between $432 and $616. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $331; the top 10 percent earned more than $701 a week. Line installers employed by AT&T and the Bell Op­ erating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average weekly salary of $609 in 1986; cable splicers averaged $621. Cable splicers working on fiber optics cables tend to earn more than those working on copper cables. Because of low job turnover in these occupations, many workers earn salaries near the top of the pay scale, which is about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most line installers and cable splicers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these  Line installers and cable splicers must ob­ serve all safety precautions. workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. These contracts require extra pay for overtime and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Most contracts provide for additional pay for night work. Time in serv­ ice determines the length of paid vacations. Depending on the locality, there are 9 to 12 holidays a year. Other provisions in contracts include many or all of the following: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insur­ ance; sickness and accident benefits; vision care; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; educational benefits; and an employee stock ownership plan. Related Occupations Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who do manual work with tools and machines in­ clude communications equipment mechanics, biomedical equipment technicians, telephone installers and repairers, electricians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportun­ ities, contact the telephone or electric power company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent these workers. For general information on line installer and cable splicer jobs, write to: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. international Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Ca­ reer in the Independent Telephone Industry from: United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  316/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Millwrights (D.O.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, -026, and .281-018 and -022)  Nature of the Work Millwrights install and dismantle the machin­ ery and heavy equipment used in almost every industry, from food processing to oil and gas extraction. The millwright’s responsibilities begin when machinery arrives at the job site. The new equipment must be unpacked and un­ loaded, inspected for damaged and missing parts, and then moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, millwrights may use rigging and hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables. Moving machinery sometimes re­ quires the assistance of a hydraulic lift-truck operator. In cases where machinery and parts are too heavy for handtools and lift-trucks, millwrights must rely on crane operators to position the machinery in its new site. Because millwrights often decide what de­ vice to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of ropes, ca­ bles, hoists, and cranes. For example, when installing a new oven in a food processing plant, a millwright sets up steel cables and a small hoist to move the oven from the truck on which it arrived to the conveyor that will carry it into the plant. The oven is then lifted, with other hoisting devices and perhaps the aid of a crow­ bar for leverage, onto a dolly and taken to the foundation for proper positioning. New machinery sometimes requires a new foundation. Since millwrights either personally prepare the foundation or supervise its con­ struction, they must know how to read blue­ prints and work with building materials such as concrete, wood, and steel. In assembling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach mo-  tors, and connect belts according to the man­ ufacturer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process; millwrights must have good mathematical skills so that they can measure angles, material thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and mi­ crometers. In some cases, particularly when lining up conveyor machinery or tracks, a mill­ wright may use laser equipment to “shoot” a straight line over long distances. Millwrights also use hand and power tools, cutting torches, welding machines, and soldering guns. Some millwrights use metalworking lathes to grind or turn parts to specifications. A growing number of millwrights are in­ volved in the installation of industrial robots in manufacturing plants. To prepare for the new equipment, millwrights may rearrange existing machinery, install conveyors and tracks, or re­ route them in order to make better use of avail­ able space. Robots are complex machines that combine electronic and mechanical compo­ nents. Millwrights install, inspect, and adjust the mechanical components; they work closely with the manufacturers’ representatives, elec­ tronic repairers, or electricians who set up the electronic controller. Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers and electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook. A millwright often is called a “jack of all trades” because of the variety of skills the job entails. In addition to installing and disman­ tling machinery, many millwrights repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive maintenance, such as lubrication, and fixing or replacing wom parts. (For further information on machinery maintenance occupations, see the statements on industrial machinery me­ chanics and general maintenance mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Millwrights employed by contract installa­ tion and construction companies must know how to do a variety of installation work. Those employed in factories usually need to be fa­ miliar with only the particular types of ma­ chinery used by their employers. Working Conditions Millwrights employed by factories ordinarily work year round. Those employed by construc­ tion companies may experience periods of un­ employment; however, they usually are com­ pensated with a higher hourly wage rate. Millwrights who work for companies that man­ ufacture and install machinery may travel a lot. Millwrights are subject to the usual shop haz­ ards, such as cuts and bruises, associated with working around machinery. Injury from falling objects or machinery that is being moved, and from falls from scaffolding and catwalks, can be avoided or reduced by the use of protective devices such as safety belts and hard hats.  Millwrights must be able to spot minor prob­ lems and correct them before they become major ones.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment Millwrights held about 86,000 jobs in 1986. About 3 out of 10 worked in manufacturing, primarily in durable goods industries such as blast furnaces and basic steel products, motor  vehicles and equipment, and fabricated metal products; those in nondurable goods manufac­ turing were concentrated in industries produc­ ing paper and chemicals. Most of the rest were employed by firms involved in construction and those providing millwright services on a con­ tract basis. Although millwrights work in every State, employment is concentrated in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade informally on the job. This process can take from 6 to 8 years. Others learn through 4-year formal appren­ ticeship programs that combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Appren­ ticeship programs include training in disman­ tling, moving, erecting, and repairing machin­ ery. Apprentices also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheet-metal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop math­ ematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, elec­ tricity, and safety. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. Courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop prac­ tice are useful. Because millwrights often take apart complicated machinery, mechanical ap­ titude is important. Strength and agility also are important, because the work can require a considerable amount of lifting and climbing. Advancement for millwrights usually takes the form of higher wages. Some advance to supervisor. Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is expected to in­ crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In order to remain competitive in world markets, U.S. firms can be expected to continue introducing more automated production machinery. Millwrights will be needed to dismantle existing equipment and to install and maintain new machines. This rise in demand will be offset somewhat by the generally lower maintenance requirements of the new industrial equipment. In addition to job openings resulting from increased demand, others will arise annually as experienced mill­ wrights transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of millwrights is somewhat sensitive to changes in economic conditions. In the construction industry, for example, em­ ployment fluctuates with the level of com­ mercial and industrial building activity. When construction activity falls, jobs are scarce, and even experienced millwrights may face layoffs or shortened workweeks. They are also subject to seasonal layoff caused by snow, rain, and other bad weather conditions. Millwrights who work in manufacturing plants are not subject to seasonal layoffs and are not as likely to be laid off in downturns in the economy because, even though employers are not installing new equipment, existing machinery still needs to  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/317  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of millwrights, selected areas, 1986 Area  Hourly rate  Indianapolis ......................... Portland .............................. Chicago................................ Cincinnati............................ Baltimore ............................ Detroit.................................. Buffalo ................................ Milwaukee ........................... St. Louis.............................. Pittsburgh .............................  ........ $15.81 ........ 15.59 ......... 15.09 ......... 14.98 ......... 14.55 ..........14.49 ..........14.30 .......... 14.20 .......... 13.96 ......... 13.46  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  be maintained and repaired. Some layoffs may occur, however, and new jobseekers may find few opportunities for employment. Efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity by contracting out for millwright services may limit opportunities in many indus­ tries. However, this should be offset by in­ creased demand by firms providing the service. Earnings Median hourly earnings of most millwrights were $12.55 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned between $9.85 and $15.30 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.20, and the top 10 percent earned more than $18.10. In contrast, the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75. Earnings for mill­ wrights in 10 areas that represent various re­ gions of the country appear in table 1. Many millwrights belong to labor unions. Most belong to the United Brotherhood of Car­ penters and Joiners of America. Others belong to the United Steelworkers of America; Inter­ national Union, United Automobile, Aero­ space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; United Paperworkers International Union; International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, mill­ wrights must know how to use hoisting de­ vices, and how to assemble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are industrial machinery mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechan­ ics, aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, diesel mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, ironworkers, and machine assemblers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on apprenticeship pro­ grams, write to the Apprenticeship Council of your State’s labor department, a local of one of the unions listed above, local offices of your State employment service, local firms that em­ ploy millwrights, or: Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-022, .281-042, and .381-014)  Nature of the Work Mobile heavy equipment is indispensable to construction, logging, surface mining, and other industrial activities. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics service and repair the engines, transmissions, hydraulics, electrical systems, and other components of equipment such as motor graders, trenchers and backhoes, crawl­ er-loaders, and stripping and loading shovels. (Mechanics who specialize in servicing only diesel engines are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics.) Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform routine maintenance on the diesel engines that power most heavy equipment, and, if an op­ erator reports a malfunction, they search for its cause. First, they inspect and operate the equipment to diagnose the nature of the repairs required. They may partially dismantle the en­ gine, examining parts for damage or excessive wear. Then they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate the parts as necessary, and reassemble and test the engine for operating efficiency. If repairs to the drive train are needed, mechanics may remove and repair the transmission or dif­ ferential. Many types of mobile heavy equipment use hydraulics to raise and lower movable parts such as scoops, shovels, log forks, or scraper blades. Repairing malfunctioning hydraulic components is an important responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. When the hydraulic apparatus loses power, mechanics examine it for hydraulic fluid leaks and replace ruptured hoses or worn gaskets on fluid res­ ervoirs. Occasionally more extensive repairs are required, such as replacing a defective hy­ draulic pump. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform a variety of other types of repairs. They di­ agnose and correct electrical problems and re­ place defective electronic components. They also may disassemble and repair crawler un­ dercarriages and track assemblies. Occasion­ ally, mechanics may weld broken body and structural parts, using electric or gas welders. Many mechanics work in small repair shops of construction contractors, logging and min­ ing companies, and local government road maintenance departments. They typically per­ form routine maintenance and minor repairs necessary to keep the equipment in operation. Mechanics in larger repair shops—particularly those of mobile heavy equipment dealers and the Federal Government—perform more dif­ ficult repairs, such as rebuilding or replacing engines, repairing hydraulic fluid pumps, or correcting electrical problems. Mechanics in some large shops specialize in one or two types of work, such as hydraulics or electrical sys­ tems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use com­  mon handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers, and power tools such as pneu­ matic wrenches. They use micrometers and gauges to measure wear on parts, and a variety of testing equipment. For example, they often use tachometers and dynamometers to locate engine malfunctions; when working on elec­ trical systems, they may use ohmmeters, am­ meters, and voltmeters. Working Conditions Most mobile heavy equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated. Many me­ chanics work mostly indoors in shops, but oth­ ers work as field service mechanics and spend much of their time away from the shop working outdoors. When mobile heavy equipment breaks down at a construction site, it may be too dif­ ficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so a field service mechanic is sent to the job site to make repairs. Generally, the most ex­ perienced mobile heavy equipment mechanics specialize in field service; they usually drive specially equipped trucks and sometimes must travel many miles to reach disabled machinery. For many mechanics, the independence and challenge of field work outweigh the occasional long hours or bad weather, but other mechanics are more comfortable with the routine of shop work and the opportunity to work as part of a team. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and often work in awkward or cramped positions. They frequently must lift heavy tools and parts. Mechanics are subject to bums, bruises, and cuts from hot engine parts and sharp edges of machinery. However, serious accidents may be avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Mobile heavy equipment mechanics held about 102,000 jobs in 1986. Nearly half worked for mobile heavy equipment dealers and Federal, State, and local governments. The Depart­ ment of Defense is the primary Federal em­ ployer. Others worked for construction con­ tractors, surface mine operators, logging camps and contractors, and heavy equipment rental and leasing companies. Still others repaired equipment for machinery manufacturers, airlines, steel mills, utilities, and oil and gas field companies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 mobile heavy equipment mechanics was self-em­ ployed. These mechanics are employed in every sec­ tion of the country, but most work near cities and towns, where most construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are high school grad­ uates and at least 18 years of age. They seek persons knowledgeable about the fundamentals of diesel engines, transmissions, electrical sys­ tems, and hydraulics. Although some persons are able to acquire these skills through self­ study and by working as helpers to experienced  318/Occupational Outlook Handbook  their own tools as they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have thousands of dol­ lars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics may advance to field service jobs, where they have greater oppor­ tunity to tackle problems independently and earn overtime pay. Mechanics who have lead­ ership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some mechanics open their own repair shops.  m  1 m PSa/ilP?  L-_____if When hydraulic components lose power, mobile heavy equipment mechanics test them for fluid leaks. mechanics, most employers prefer graduates of forma] training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Training programs in diesel and heavy equipment mechanics are given by vocational and technical schools and community and jun­ ior colleges. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a certificate of completion; others lead to an associate degree, if they are supplemented with additional academic courses. They provide a foundation in the basics of diesel and heavy equipment technology, including hydraulics, and speed advancement to the journeyman, or experienced worker, level. Training in the fun­ damentals of electronics is also an asset to mechanics because new mobile heavy equip­ ment increasingly features electronic controls and sensing devices. High school courses in automobile mechan­ ics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics are a useful background. Good reading skills and a basic understanding of scientific principles can help a mechanic learn important job skills and keep abreast of new technology through the study of technical manuals. Experience working on engines in the Armed Forces also is valuable. Persons who leam the basics of mobile heavy equipment mechanics largely on the job start as helpers—cleaning parts, lubricating, fueling equipment, and cleaning up the shop. By studying training and technical manuals and observing and working with experienced me­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  chanics, they may earn promotion to a trainee mechanic position. Through a combination of formal and onthe-job training, trainee mechanics acquire the knowledge and skills to efficiently service and repair the particular types of equipment han­ dled by the shop. Beginners are assigned rel­ atively simple service and repair tasks. As they gain experience and become more familiar with the equipment, they are assigned increasingly difficult jobs, and are exposed to a greater va­ riety of equipment. Many employers send trainee mechanics to training sessions conducted by heavy equip­ ment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to a week, provide intensive instruction in the repair of a manufacturer’s equipment. Some sessions focus on particular components found in all of the manufacturer’s equipment, such as diesel engines and trans­ missions or electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawler-loaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodically attend ad­ ditional training sessions. Experienced me­ chanics also occasionally attend training ses­ sions to update their knowledge of new technology or to become familiar with types of equipment they may never have repaired. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although em­ ployers furnish power tools and test equipment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate  Job Outlook Employment of mobile heavy equipment me­ chanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increasing numbers of mechanics will be required in repair shops of construction con­ tractors, equipment dealers, and rental and leasing companies. Growing numbers of me­ chanics also will be needed by all levels of government to service construction equipment and, at the Federal level, defense-related equipment. Nevertheless, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should generally be best for persons who have com­ pleted formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. As the economy grows, growth of construc­ tion activity should result in more mobile heavy equipment requiring periodic service and re­ pair. Various kinds of equipment will be needed in growing numbers to grade construction sites, excavate basements, lay water and sewer lines, and put in streets. In addition, construction of new highways and bridges and repair or re­ building of existing ones will also require more mechanics. Since construction and mining are sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity, mobile heavy equipment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is traditionally the slack season for construction activity, par­ ticularly in colder regions. Fewer mechanics may be needed during periods when equipment is used less intensively, but employers usually try to retain experienced workers. However, employers may be reluctant to hire inexperi­ enced workers during slack periods. Earnings Median hourly earnings of mobile heavy equip­ ment mechanics were about $11 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned from around $8.50 to $14 an hour; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.90 an hour, while the top 10 per­ cent earned over $16 an hour in 1986. Some mobile heavy equipment mechanics are members of unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Operating Engineers; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware­ housemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and service diesel-powered vehicles and equipment  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/319  include railcar repairers and diesel, farm equip­ ment, and mine machinery mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for mo­ bile heavy equipment mechanics may be ob­ tained from local mobile heavy equipment dealers, construction contractors, surface min­ ing companies, and government agencies. Lo­ cal offices of the State employment service may also have information on work opportunities and training programs. For general information about the work and training of mobile heavy equipment mechan­ ics, contact: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Council, 300 Sylvan Ave., En­ glewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638.  Motorcycle, Boat, and Small-Engine Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-054 and .684-026; 623.261, .281-038 and -042; 625.281-018, -026, -030, -034, and .381; and 721.281-022)  Nature of the Work Although the gasoline engines that power mo­ torcycles, boats, and lawn and garden equip­ ment are usually smaller than those that power automobiles and trucks, they have many things in common, including breakdowns. Motor­ cycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics repair and service power equipment ranging from chain saws to yachts. Small engines, like larger engines, require periodic servicing to minimize the possibility of breakdowns and keep them operating at peak efficiency. At routine intervals, mechanics ad­ just, clean, lubricate, and, when necessary, replace worn or defective parts such as spark plugs, ignition points, valves, and carburetors. Routine maintenance is normally a major part of the mechanic’s work. When breakdowns occur, mechanics diag­ nose the cause and repair or replace the faulty parts. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimum of time. A quick and accurate diagnosis re­ quires problem-solving ability as well as a thorough knowledge of the equipment’s op­ eration. The mechanic first obtains a descrip­ tion of the symptoms of the problem from the owner, and then operates the equipment to ob­ serve the symptoms. The mechanic may have to use special testing equipment and disassem­ ble some components for further examination. After pinpointing the cause of the problem, the needed adjustments, repairs, or replacements are made. Some jobs require only the adjust­ ment or replacement of a single item, such as carburetor or fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, a complete engine overhaul may require a number of hours,  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  because the mechanic must disassemble and reassemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine me­ chanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as power tools such as drills and grinders. Engine analyzers, compression gauges, ammeters and voltmeters, and other testing devices help me­ chanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Hoists may be used to lift heavy equipment such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, or boats. Mechanics often refer to service manuals for detailed directions and specifications while performing repairs. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products. Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul mo­ torcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and all­ terrain vehicles. Besides engines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition systems, and make minor body repairs. Be­ cause many motorcycle mechanics work for dealers that only service the products that they sell, mechanics may specialize in servicing only a few of the many makes and models of mo­ torcycles. Motorboat mechanics repair and adjust the engines and electrical and mechanical equip­ ment of inboard and outboard marine engines. Most small boats have portable outboard en­ gines that can be removed and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats, are powered by diesel or gasoline inboard or inboard-outdrive engines, which are only removed for major overhauls. Motorboat mechanics may also work on propellers, steering mechanisms, marine toilets, and other boat equipment. Small-engine mechanics service and repair the motors, water pumps, and generators of outdoor power equipment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. They also  may occasionally work on go-carts and snow­ mobiles. Working Conditions Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics usually work in repair shops that are well lighted and ventilated, but which are sometimes noisy when engines are being tested. However, motorboat mechanics may work outdoors in all weather when repairing inboard en­ gines aboard boats; they may have to work in cramped or awkward positions to reach a boat’s engine. In northern States, motorcycles, boats, lawnmowers, and other equipment are used less during the winter, and mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week; a relatively small number are laid off. Some of the winter slack is taken up by scheduling time-consuming en­ gine overhauls and working on snowmobiles and snowblowers. Many mechanics work con­ siderably more than 40 hours a week when the weather is warmer in the spring, summer, and fall. Employment Motorcycle, boat, and small engine mechanics held about 49,000 jobs in 1986. About 11,000 were motorcycle mechanics, while the re­ mainder specialized in the repair of boats or outdoor power equipment such as lawnmow­ ers, garden tractors, and chain saws. More than one-third of all motorcycle, boat, and smallengine mechanics worked for boat, motorcy­ cle, and miscellaneous vehicle dealers. Others were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boat yards, and hardware and lawn and garden stores. About one-third were selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most motorcycle, boat, and small-engine me­ chanics pick up their skills on the job. For f - ^*1  Skilled motorcycle mechanics must be able to diagnose mechanical and electrical problems quickly and make repairs.  320/Occupational Outlook Handbook  trainee jobs, employers hire persons with me­ chanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of small engines. Many train­ ees develop an interest in mechanics and ac­ quire some basic skills through working on automobiles or small engines as a hobby, or through mechanic vocational training in high school. Some also prepare for their careers by completing training programs in motorcycle, marine, or small-engine mechanics, but only a relatively small number of such specialized programs exist. Trainees begin by learning routine service tasks under the guidance of experienced me­ chanics, such as replacing ignition points and spark plugs, or taking apart, assembling, and testing new equipment. Equipment manufac­ turers’ service manuals are an important train­ ing tool. As trainees gain experience and pro­ ficiency, they progress to more difficult tasks, such as diagnosing the cause of breakdowns or overhauling engines. Up to 3 years of train­ ing on the job may be necessary before an inexperienced beginner becomes skilled in all aspects of the repair of some motorcycle and boat engines. Employers sometimes send mechanics and trainees to special training courses conducted by motorcycle, boat, and outdoor power equip­ ment manufacturers and importers. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker’s skills and provide information on repairing new models. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the summer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small-engine repair, auto­ mobile mechanics, science, and business arith­ metic. Many motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics are required to furnish their own handtools. Employers generally provide tools and test equipment, but beginners are expected to gradually accumulate handtools as they gain experience. Some experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Some mechanics are able to use skills learned through repairing motorcycles, boats, and out­ door power equipment to advance to higher paying jobs as automobile, truck, or heavy equipment mechanics. In larger shops, me­ chanics with leadership ability can advance to supervisory positions such as shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who are able to raise enough capital may open their own repair shops or equipment dealerships. Job Outlook Employment of motorcycle, boat, and smallengine mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although relatively slow growth is expected in the employment of motorcycle mechanics, it will be more than offset by average growth in the greater number of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  mechanics needed to work on boats and the small engines of lawn and garden equipment. In addition, many job opportunities are ex­ pected because a large number of experienced motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics leave each year to transfer to other occupa­ tions, or retire or stop working for other rea­ sons. Growth of personal disposable income over the 1986-2000 period should provide con­ sumers with more discretionary dollars to buy boats, lawn and garden power equipment, and motorcycles—requiring more mechanics to keep the growing amount of equipment in op­ eration. However, growth in the number of motorcycles will be limited due to the shrinking number of persons between the ages of 18 and 24, the age group with the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Recreational boat­ ing is expected to continue to be popular, and construction of new single-family houses will result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increasing the need for mechanics. The continuing shift of the Na­ tion’s population to the South and West where warm weather seasons are longer—and equip­ ment use greater—should also contribute to an increase in demand for mechanics. In addition, more mechanics may be required if the growing complexity of the engines of motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment forces more con­ sumers to turn to professional mechanics for maintenance and repair services. Earnings Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics who usually worked full time had median earn­ ings of about $7.50 an hour in 1986. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $5.40 and $10.90 an hour. The lowest paid 10 percent earned around $4 an hour or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned about $14 an hour or more. Related Occupations The work of motorcycle, boat, and small-en­ gine mechanics is closely related to that of mechanics and repairers who work on other types of mobile equipment powered by internal combustion engines. Related occupations in­ clude automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, farm equipment mechanic, and mobile heavy equipment mechanic. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcycle, boat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, and boat yards and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information about em­ ployment and training opportunities. Information about motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanic training is available from: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Council, 300 Sylvan Ave., En­ glewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. ’  Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners (D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010, .684­ 022, -026, and -094)  Nature of the Work Whether they are used to perform the classics or contemporary rock, musical instruments are a source of entertainment and recreation for millions of people. Maintaining these instru­ ments so they perform properly is the job of musical instrument repairers and tuners. The five largest of these occupations are piano tu­ ner, piano technician, pipe-organ tuner and re­ pairer, brass instrument repairer, and wind in­ strument repairer. Piano tuners adjust piano strings so that they will be in proper pitch. When a piano key is struck, a felt-covered wooden hammer strikes one or more strings, causing them to vibrate. The number of times a string vibrates in a second is called its pitch. For the piano to sound right, all its strings must be set at their proper pitch. Tuners begin by adjusting the pitch of the “A” or “C” string. Striking the key, the tuner compares the string’s pitch with that of a tuning fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of all the other strings is set in relation to the “A” or “C” string. The standard 88-key piano has about 230 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. The sound of the piano also can be affected by problems in any of the thousands of wooden, steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts in its works. Piano technicians locate and correct these prob­ lems. Technicians also tune pianos. To get an idea of what is wrong with the piano, technicians talk with the customer. They also may play the instrument or partially dis­ mantle it to inspect the parts. When technicians discover the problem, they make repairs or adjustments. They may realign hammers that do not strike the strings properly or may replace worn felt or broken strings or rebuild or replace the wooden sounding board that amplifies the string’s vibrations. Sometimes technicians completely rebuild pianos. To dismantle and repair pianos, technicians use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regulating, repinning, and restringing tools. Although organs and pianos may look some­ what alike, they work differently, and few tu­ ners and repairers work on both instruments. Moreover, people who service organs spe­ cialize in either pipe or electronic organs. (Re­ pairers who service electronic organs are in­ cluded in the statement on electronic home entertainment equipment repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, and install organs that make music by forcing air through one of two kinds of pipes—flue pipes or reed  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/321  pipes. The flue pipe sounds when a current of air strikes a metal lip in the side of the pipe. The reed pipe sounds when a current of air vibrates a brass reed inside the pipe. To tune an organ, repairers first match the pitch of the “A” pipes with that of a tuning fork. The pitch of other pipes is set by com­ paring it with that of the “A” pipes. To tune a flue pipe, the technician moves the metal slide that increases or decreases the pipe’s “speaking length.” To tune a reed pipe, the technician alters the length of the brass reed inside the pipe. A day or more may be needed to finish one of these jobs, because most organs have hundreds of pipes. Like piano technicians, pipe-organ repairers must locate and correct problems in the organ’s components that affect its sound. This may involve replacing worn parts of the pipes, the console, or other components. Repairers also do maintenance work, such as cleaning the pipes, on a regular schedule. Occasionally, pipe-organ repairers assemble organs onsite in churches and auditoriums. They follow the designer’s blueprints and use a va­ riety of hand and power tools to install and connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes, and other components. Technicians may work in teams or be assisted by helpers. A job may take several weeks or even months, depending on the size of the organ. Violin repairers adjust and repair bowed in­ struments, such as violins, violas, and cellos, using a variety of handtools. They find defects by close inspection and by playing the instru­ ment. They remove cracked or broken sections with heated knives so that the delicate instru­ ment is not damaged. The defective parts are replaced, and the instrument is restrung. In order to restore an old or severely damaged instrument to its original condition, the repairer must fill in scratches with putty, sand the rough spots, and apply paint or varnish. Brass and wind instruments include trum­ pets, comets, tubas, clarinets, flutes, and sax­ ophones. Brass and wind instrument repairers clean, adjust, and repair these instruments. They may move mechanical parts or play scales to find any defects in the instrument. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, and pis­ tons, and may remove soldered parts by using gas torches. These repairers remove dents in metal instruments by using mallets or burnish­ ing tools. They fill cracks in wood instruments by inserting pinning wire into the cracks and covering them with filler. Working Conditions The work of musical instrument repairers and tuners is relatively safe, although they may suffer small cuts and bruises when making re­ pairs. Work is performed in shops, music stores, homes, and public buildings, such as churches and schools, where working conditions usually are good. Employment Musical instrument repairers and tuners held about 8,100 jobs in 1986. Most worked on pianos. Eight of every ten worked in music  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ,  TV', I  .  Piano tuners adjust strings to their proper pitch. stores. Most of the rest worked in repair shops or for musical instrument manufacturers. About half of all musical instrument repair­ ers and tuners are self-employed. Most re­ pairers and tuners work in large metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Musical instrument repairers and tuners gen­ erally learn their trade on the job. Some music stores, large repair shops, and self-employed technicians hire inexperienced people as train­ ees. Trainees do general cleanup work, help move and install instruments, and do other rou­ tine tasks. Trainees tune and repair instruments under the supervision of experienced workers. Usually 2 to 5 years of training and practice are needed to become a competent musical instrument repairer. For those people who are interested in piano tuning and repair, a small number of technical schools and colleges offer courses in piano technology that last 6 months to 2 years. Home study (correspondence school) courses in piano technology also are available. These courses emphasize practice tuning and piano repair. Graduates of these courses generally are en­ couraged to refine their skills by working for a time with an experienced tuner or technician. Employers generally prefer to hire workers with some knowledge of the trade. For those who are interested in other types  of instrument repair, a few music repair schools offer a 1- or 2-year course in complete over­ hauling and refinishing of brass, woodwind, and string instruments. Beginners may also learn these skills as apprentices under the supervision of experienced technicians. Employers prefer high school graduates for beginning jobs in musical instrument repair. Music courses help develop the student’s ear fortonal quality. Courses in woodworking also may be useful because many of the moving parts of some instruments are made of wood. People interested in a career in these fields should have good hearing, mechanical apti­ tude, stamina, and manual dexterity. Because work frequently is done in the customer’s home—especially piano repair—a neat ap­ pearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner also are important. Ability to play the instru­ ment is sometimes helpful. Musical instrument repairers keep up with new developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and manufacturers’ service manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its members improve their skills through train­ ing programs conducted at local chapter meet­ ings and at regional and national seminars. Guild members also can take a series of tests to earn the title Registered Piano Tuner-Tech­ nician. The title is an acknowledgment of the technician’s skills. Repairers and technicians who work for large dealers or repair shops can advance to super­  322/Occupational Outlook Handbook  visory positions. Some people in this field, however, go into business for themselves. Opening a repair business is fairly easy because only a small investment in tools is required. Basic musical instrument repair tools cost only a few hundred dollars. Because the musical instrument repair business is so competitive, training in small business management, cus­ tomer relations, and accounting can mean the difference between success and failure. Selfemployed tuners and repairers operate out of their own homes and use either a car or a small truck for service calls. They also may work at another job until their clientele is large enough to support a repair business. Job Outlook Employment of musical instrument repairers and tuners is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Since this is a very small occupation, the overall number of job openings will be small. Millions of musical instruments already are in use, and the number will increase as the population grows and as people have more lei­ sure time. The large number of instruments in use will assure a demand for repair work. How­ ever, opportunities for untrained workers in these occupations are few. Most music store owners and self-employed tuners and repairers are reluctant to train persons who do not have at least a basic understanding of instrument repair. Training such people requires time that could be more profitably spent doing tuning or repair work. Individuals who have some fa­ miliarity with the trade may find it easier to get a trainee job. Because musical instrument tuning and re­ pair are a luxury for most consumers, these occupations are sensitive to downturns in the economy. During poor economic conditions, tuners and repairers may lose income because their customers put off tuning and repairing instruments. People wishing to enter the trade usually find music store owners and self-em­ ployed repairers and technicians especially re­ luctant to hire trainees when business is slow. Earnings According to the limited data available, ap­ prentices generally earned from $8,000 to' $10,000 a year in 1986; beginning repairers earned from $12,000 to $18,000. Those with several years’ experience earned between $20,000 and $40,000, and highly successful musicial instrument repairers may earn up to $50,000 annually. Earnings of the self-em­ ployed depend on their ability to attract and keep customers, their operating expenses, and the amount of competition from other tuners and repairers. Related Occupations Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are qualities that are needed in musical instrument repair. Other workers who possess these traits are electronic home entertainment equipment  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  repairers, vending machine servicers and re­ pairers, pinsetter mechanics, home appliance and power tool repairers, and office machine and cash register servicers. Sources of Additional Information Details about job opportunities may be avail­ able from local music instrument dealers and repair shops. For general information about piano tech­ nicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano technology, write to: Piano Technicians Guild, 9140 Ward Pky., Kansas City, MO 64114.  For general information on musical instru­ ment repair, write to: Allied Music Corporation, P.O. Box 288, Elkhom, WI 53121. National Association of Professional Band Instru­ ment Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761.  Office Machine and Cash Register Servicers (D.O.T. 633.261-014, .281 except -026; 706.381-010 and -030)  Nature of the Work Office machine and cash register servicers maintain and repair the machines that are used to process paperwork in business and govern­ ment. These machines include typewriters, adding and calculating machines, cash regis­ ters, dictating machines, postage meters, and duplicating and copying equipment. (Techni­ cians who work on data processing equipment and word processing systems are discussed in the statement on computer service technicians presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Servicers (often called field engineers, cus­ tomer engineers, or service technicians) reg­ ularly visit the offices and stores of customers in their assigned area to do preventive main­ tenance. The frequency of service calls de­ pends upon the type of equipment being serv­ iced. For example, an electric or electronic typewriter may require preventive maintenance only three or four times a year, while a complex copier probably would require much more fre­ quent attention. During these calls, the servicer inspects the machine for unusual wear and re­ places any worn or broken parts. Then the machine is cleaned, oiled, and adjusted to en­ sure peak operating efficiency and to prevent future breakdowns. The servicer also may ad­ vise machine operators on how to use the equipment more efficiently and how to spot a problem in its early stages. Despite frequent maintenance, business ma­ chines do break down. When notified of a mal­ function, a servicer goes to the customer’s place of business, examines the machine, and de­ termines the cause of the problem. Technicians can correct most minor problems on the spot  because they usually carry a sufficient number of replacement parts for such repairs; more serious problems, however, may require that a component or the entire machine be taken to the repair shop. When this occurs, the tech­ nician usually will arrange for a replacement to be delivered. Servicers generally specialize in one type of machine. Those employed by manufacturing companies or dealers usually are familiar only with the brand produced or sold by their em­ ployer. Those who work for small independent repair shops, however, must be able to work on equipment from several different manufac­ turers. Servicers use common handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, as well as other tools especially designed to fit certain kinds of business machines. In addition, they use meters, oscilloscopes, and other types of testing equipment to check for malfunctions in electronic circuits. Working Conditions Servicing office machines and cash registers is cleaner and less strenuous than the work in most other mechanical trades. Servicers gen­ erally wear business clothes and do most of their work in the customer’s place of business. Servicers generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week. They travel a great deal because they usually visit a number of customers each work­ day. They generally use their own cars and are reimbursed on a mileage basis, but major equipment manufacturers usually provide ve­ hicles for their workers. Injuries are uncom­ mon. Employment Office machine and cash register servicers held about 56,000jobs in 1986. Most servicers work on typewriters, copiers, postage and mailing equipment, and cash registers. Others service proof machines in banks, accounting-book­ keeping machines, optical character readers, and microfilm and microfiche readers. A small number repair dictating machines and calcu­ lators. About 3 out of 4 servicers work for whole­ sale distributors of business machines. The re­ mainder work for retail establishments, inde­ pendent repair shops, and for organizations large enough to employ their own staff of full-time servicers. Servicers work throughout the country. Even relatively small communities usually have at least one or two repair shops. Most servicers, however, work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The amount of formal education required for entry jobs varies. Some employers hire appli­ cants with a high school education, while many others require at least 1 year of technical train­ ing in basic electricity or electronics. Employ­ ers agree that electronics training received in the Armed Forces is valuable. A large proportion of job openings for office machine and cash register servicers are filled  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/323  by experienced workers who transfer from other occupations, most probably from a related job where they serviced mechanical and electronic equipment. Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass tests that measure mechanical aptitude, knowl­ edge of electricity or electronics, manual dex­ terity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight, including color vision, is needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts. Persons consid­ ering this type of work should have good hear­ ing to detect malfunctions that may be revealed by sound. Employers seek applicants who have a pleas­ ant, cooperative manner. Because most ma­ chine servicing is done on customers’ prem­ ises, the ability to work without interrupting the business routine is very important. A neat appearance and the ability to communicate ef­ fectively are essential. Office machine and cash register servicers must be trustworthy because they sometimes are exposed to money and other valuables in places like banks and securities offices. Some employers require that they be bonded. They must work without direct supervision and must be able to set up maintenance schedules for their customers’ equipment and arrange their own schedules so that they can meet service deadlines and also handle emergency repairs. Trainees who work for a franchised dealer usually attend a school sponsored by the man­ ufacturer. Training programs at company schools usually last several weeks to several months, depending on the type of machine the repairer will service. Trainees then receive from 1 to 3 years of practical experience and onthe-job training before they become fully qual­ ified repairers. These workers generally learn to service only the company’s line of equip­ ment. Because small repair shops usually do not specialize in the more sophisticated types of equipment, they frequently offer less formal training, consisting of a self-study course plus on-the-job instruction under the supervision of an experienced worker. Office machine and cash register servicers frequently attend training seminars sponsored by equipment manufacturers for special in­ struction in new business machines. They also are encouraged to broaden their technical knowledge during nonworking hours. Many companies pay the tuition for work-related courses in colleges and technical schools. Because of their familiarity with equipment, servicers are particularly well qualified to ad­ vance to jobs as manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers who show managerial ability also may become service managers or supervisors. Ex­ perienced workers sometimes open their own repair shops; those who work in manufacturers’ branch offices may become independent deal­ ers or buy sales franchises from the company. Job Outlook Employment of office machine and cash reg­ ister servicers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, as business and government buy  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  » '•»'»•« V * « 1 ”s 4 4 * '  ■y  5 T 1  | ~j -Jj Tt '■£ -.£ ~i 'ty*. * -- , - i 'cpTt1' * ■ "  ,  ■  Office machine and cash register servicers need manual dexterity more office equipment to handle a growing volume of paperwork. Despite this increase in demand for repair services, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who stop working or transfer to other occupations such as computer service techni­ cian or manufacturers’ sales worker. As employers strive to raise productivity in their offices, they are expected to purchase more business equipment. With prices drop­ ping on most models, more small businesses should be able to afford a broader selection than in the past. Copiers, for example, will be used in many more offices. Postage meters will continue to be used widely, as will microfilm and microfiche readers. Despite the trend to­ ward word processing, many typewriters, es­ pecially electronic ones, will still be in use. These machines and others—optical character recognition equipment, facsimile machines, and offset printers, for example—will require maintenance from office machine servicers. In recent years, many technological changes have occurred in business machines. Electronic calculating machines have replaced mechanical models, for example. Many cash registers now are electronic and are linked to computers. This general trend toward electronic equipment and away from mechanical is narrowing the dif­ ference between the job duties of office ma­ chine servicers and those of computer service technicians. Opportunities, therefore, will be better for those servicers who have training in electronics. Office machine and cash register servicers have steadier employment than many other skilled workers. Office machines must be maintained even when business slackens be­ cause records must be kept, correspondence processed, and statistical reports prepared. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time office ma­ chine and cash register servicers were about $19,600 in 1986; the middle 50 percent earned  between $14,900 and $25,900. Ten percent earned less than $11,400, and 10 percent earned more than $31,800. Trainees in 1986 usually started at about $12,000 to $15,000 a year, according to the limited information available. Their salaries, however, often are increased during training as they advance to more complicated assign­ ments. People who have previous electronics training in the Armed Forces or civilian tech­ nical schools generally receive somewhat higher beginning wages than high school graduates. Servicers who can work on more than one type of equipment may earn substantially more than those who are familiar with only one type of machine. Top level servicers earned as much as $40,000 a year in 1986. In many areas, earnings for office machine and cash register servicers are comparable to those of computer service technicians with sim­ ilar skills, responsibilities, and experience. (See the statement on computer service technicians, a closely related occupation, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Other workers who service complicated elec­ tronic and mechanical equipment include home appliance and power tool repairers, electri­ cians, computer service technicians, instru­ ment repairers, communications equipment mechanics, and electronic home entertainment equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about job opportunities, con­ tact local firms that manufacture, sell, or ser­ vice business machines and the local office of your State employment service. The State de­ partment of education in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institu­ tions offering postsecondary training in basic electronics.  324/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Telephone Installers and Repairers tD.O.T. 822.261-022 and .281-018)  Nature of the Work Telephone installers and repairers install, serv­ ice, and repair telephones, switchboard sys­ tems, and other communications equipment on customers’ property. Frequently referred to as service technicians, they generally travel to customers’ homes and offices in vehicles equipped with telephone tools and supplies. Before making any installations or repairs, they read and interpret service orders, technical manuals, and circuit wiring diagrams. They also keep detailed and accurate records of all work activity. When customers move or re­ quest new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes on existing equip­ ment. For example, they may install a pay telephone in a store, or change a two-party line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers also may add an extension in another room or replace an old telephone with a new model. After installation, they test the equipment to make sure that it is working properly. In some areas, these workers may handle special cases such as public service commission complaints, illegal or unauthorized use of equipment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Many installers and repairers promote improved customer service by demonstrating various kinds of telephone equipment or services. Telephone installers, sometimes called sta­ tion installers, install, rearrange, and remove telephones in homes and business places. They assemble equipment and install wiring at the customers’ premises using a variety of handtools. They connect telephones to outside ser­ vice wires and sometimes must climb poles or ladders to make these connections. Occasion­ ally, especially in apartment buildings, the ser­  vice wires or terminals are in the basement of the building. In many large building com­ plexes, these wires or terminals are located in wire closets. Telephone repairers test, clean, fix, or re­ place faulty equipment or wiring. Working closely with trouble locators in the central of­ fice, they locate and analyze trouble on cus­ tomers’ equipment and in outdoor public fa­ cilities. A repairer finds the source of the problem by connecting a test set to the cus­ tomer’s telephone line and then testing in con­ junction with the trouble locator in the central office. Working Conditions Telephone installers and repairers work in many kinds of places, both indoors and outdoors, and in all kinds of weather. Their work involves lifting, climbing, reaching, stooping, crouch­ ing, and crawling. They must not be afraid to work in high places such as on rooftops, lad­ ders, and telephone poles. Because they work around electrical circuits, they must take pre­ cautions to avoid shocks. Because telephone service must be maintained at all times, these workers are subject to 24-hour call, as are all telephone company employees. Often this means working under adverse weather condi­ tions. Workers also may be required to work evening and night shifts. Because breakdowns in lines or equipment can occur at any time, work on holidays and on nonscheduled days may be required. Employment Telephone installers and repairers held about 58,000 jobs in 1986. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time for telephone companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers’ preferences are changing markedly in the telephone industry. Before the breakup of the American Telephone and Telegraph Com­  Installers spend most of their time away from the central office.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pany (AT&T), most trainees were chosen from the ranks of telephone company employees. This was viewed as a good way to build employee loyalty and to increase morale. With divesti­ ture, however, competition has forced compa­ nies to reduce costs. As a result, companies in­ creasingly are looking for applicants who already possess the required skills. Instead of testing for aptitude, as they traditionally have, companies are moving toward a policy of testing for skills. They seek persons who have developed these skills in another job or in military service as well as graduates of associate degree or postsecond­ ary vocational school programs in telecom­ munications technology or in electronics. When sufficient numbers of such applicants are not available, some companies still promote from within and provide training on company time. However, companies are trying to cut operating costs by minimizing in-house training, and the trend is clearly toward phasing out such training altogether. When jobs are filled from within, telephone companies look for workers who have the potential to learn the job; a large proportion of these workers come from the ranks of line installers and repairers. Regardless of back­ ground, applicants must have good eyesight and the ability to distinguish colors. Physical ex­ aminations may be required because the work may involve strenuous activities such as climb­ ing poles and lifting and carrying heavy objects. Good balance is necessary in order to work in high places and for crouching or stooping in cramped areas. Practical problem-solving abil­ ity is essential, as in all repair jobs. Because these workers deal with the public, a pleasant and patient disposition is an advantage. Applicants for telephone installer or repairer jobs must have the ability to learn a craft, and may have to take a mechanical aptitude test as well as tests that measure mathematical skills. Workers in these jobs must be adept at handling small tools, such as pliers and screwdrivers, and be able to read blueprints, interpret work orders and circuit diagrams, and understand company manuals and directions for telephone installation and repair. Most employers require a high school diploma or the equivalent. Some trainees receive formal instruction in subjects such as electrical and electronic the­ ory. Practical instruction is provided in training facilities equipped with telephone poles, lines and cables, terminal boxes, and other equip­ ment. There, in a simulated work environment, trainees practice installing telephones and con­ necting wires just as they would on the job. When ready, new employees are assigned to assist experienced workers before going out alone to install telephones. Because many small telephone companies, especially in rural areas, do not have training facilities, they use community colleges and vo­ cational technical schools in these areas to train telephone installers and repairers. If travel is re­ quired during training—to a regional training school, for example—the company pays the cost. Many telephone companies now use modular training programs for their workers. Modular training is used to supplement or replace other,  Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers/325  more traditional forms of training. Training modules may include some or all of the follow­ ing: Entry tests; video modules such as com­ puter terminals, movies, and video cassettes; programmed workbooks; exit tests; and skill mastery tests where the trainee demonstrates the skills he or she has learned. Workers using train­ ing modules can learn various aspects of their craft at their own convenience and pace. Telephone installers and repairers receive training throughout their careers in order to qualify for more responsible assignments and to keep up with technological changes. Courses are offered by colleges, universities, private firms, and State telephone associations, as well as by the telephone companies themselves. With further training, telephone installer-repairers can advance to supervisor, to sales and customer service jobs or, with additional study of elec­ tronics, to more advanced technical jobs such as PBX installer or switching equipment tech­ nician. Job Outlook Employment of telephone installers and re­ pairers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Employment will fall as technological improvements make this work less labor in­ tensive. For example, changes such as pre­ wired buildings that enable customers to select telephones, take them home, and plug them in have effectively eliminated the functions of the installer. The modular assembly of telephones, where components plug in and out, also has reduced the time and skills needed for repair. Also, fewer repairs are being made because it often costs as much to fix a phone as it does to buy a new one. Productivity also has been increased by mea­ sures taken to eliminate downtime. The use of computers has enabled companies to schedule installers’ and repairers’ service calls so that travel time is minimized. In addition, they have equipped many of these workers with portable electronic terminals so that they can hook di­ rectly into the company’s electronic testing system and test the telephones automatically. With employment projected to decline, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace persons who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force. Tradition­ ally, most openings for telephone installers and repairers have been filled by workers in other telephone jobs, with the remainder being filled by persons without telephone company expe­ rience. This mix has shifted in recent years and will continue to change as companies curtail their training activities and put more of the burden of training on their workers. As tech­ nology continues to displace telephone work­ ers, competition for available openings should intensify, making it more difficult for telephone workers without additional training and vir­ tually impossible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to compete for jobs. Earnings Pay scales vary greatly across the country; spe­ cific information may be obtained from local telephone companies. Earnings also depend on  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  length of service. Generally, it takes about 5 years to progress from the beginning rate to the top of the pay scale. Telephone installers and repairers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average weekly salary of $609 in 1986. Most telephone installers and repairers be­ long to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Union con­ tracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to progress from one grade to the next. Contracts stipulate extra pay for work performed beyond the normal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, as well as for that performed on holidays and Sundays. Most contracts provide a pay differential for nightwork. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service. Nor­ mally, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the locality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other benefits include the following: Paid sick leave; group life, med­ ical, and dental insurance; vision care; sickness and accident benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Related Occupations Other skilled workers whose jobs require man­ ual dexterity and technical knowledge of tools and machines include communications equip­ ment mechanics, biomedical equipment tech­ nicians, electricians, sound technicians, line installers, and cable splicers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportun­ ities, contact the telephone company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent telephone workers. For general in­ formation on telephone installer and repairer jobs, write to: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is Itfor You? A Career in the Independent Telephone Industry from: United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20006.  Vending Machine Servicers and Repairers (D-O.T. 319.464-014 and 639.281-014)  Nature of the Work Coin-operated vending machines have become a familiar sight in places of recreation, work, and education. These machines dispense many  types of refreshments, from a cold soft drink to a hot meal as well as different kinds of entertainment. Vending machine servicers and repairers install these machines and keep them in good working order. Before new machines are placed in use, serv­ icers make sure they operate correctly. When checking complicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks prop­ erly and that refrigeration and heating units work correctly. On microwave ovens, they make sure there are no radiation leaks. On the relatively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check handles, springs, plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When installing the machines, they make the necessary water and electrical connections and recheck the ma­ chines for proper operation. If a machine breaks down, repairers must determine the cause of the trouble. They first inspect it for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, they may refer to trouble­ shooting manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as electrical circuit testers to find defective parts. Repairers may fix faulty parts at the site, but they often install replace­ ments and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. When servicing electronic ma­ chines, repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of these work­ ers. For example, they periodically clean elec­ trical contact points, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust machines to perform properly. In repair and maintenance work, repairers use pipe cutters, soldering guns, wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, and other handtools. In the repair shop, they may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers must know State and local public health and sanitation standards as well as local plumbing and electrical codes. Vending machine servicers and repairers also must do some clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, and ordering parts. Those employed by small com­ panies may fill machines on a regular basis. These combination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and keep daily records of merchan­ dise distributed. Working Conditions Some servicers and repairers work in company repair shops, others work in the field, but many do both. Because vending machines can be operated around the clock, repairers sometimes work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending machine repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing machines on location, the work may have to be done where  326/Occupational Outlook Handbook  -£ JJg»:<5  b52&1  ■ 'S— " *ISB—  Wm^*k  “5§sfsli  11#?  mm.  Some servicers stock machines and perform related tasks. pedestrian traffic is heavy, such as in a busy supermarket. Repair work is relatively safe, although repairers and servicers are subject to hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. They also must know and follow safety procedures, especially when lifting heavy objects and working with electricity and radiation from microwave ovens. Employment Vending machine servicers and repairers held about 27,000 jobs in 1986. Most repairers work for vending companies that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coin-operated machines. Some work for com­ panies who engage in operating coin-operated services such as pinball machines, juke boxes, and similar types of mechanical amusement equipment. Although vending machine servi­ cers and repairers are employed throughout the country, most are located in areas with large populations where there are many coin and vending machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most vending machine repairers enter the oc­ cupation as general shop helpers or route driv­ ers, where they learn informally on the job by observing, working with, and receiving in­ struction from experienced repairers. Trainees usually start out by doing simple jobs such as cleaning, painting, or refurbishing machines. They then learn to rebuild machines—remov­ ing defective parts, repairing, adjusting, and   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  testing the machines. Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on service calls, and then go out on their own. They call upon the expertise of other repairers, when necessary. This learning process takes from 6 months to 3 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous education, types of machines, and the quality of instruction. Many beginners are high school graduates, but employers may not require a diploma. High school or vocational school courses in elec­ tricity, refrigeration, and machine repair help beginners to qualify for entry jobs. Some vo­ cational high schools and junior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training programs for vending ma­ chine servicers and repairers. Many schools offer training in basic electronics, which is now almost mandatory for these workers. There are some programs set up to retrain some em­ ployees in electronics. The National Automatic Merchandising As­ sociation has established an apprenticeship program to help employers train selected em­ ployees. Apprentices receive 144 hours of in­ struction each year in subjects such as basic electricity and electronics, blueprint reading, customer relations, and safety. The appren­ ticeship program lasts 3 years; at the end of the program, the employee can earn certifi­ cation by passing performance and written tests. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes attend manufacturersponsored training sessions in repair shops, or in manufacturers’ service facilities. Employers usually pay wages and expenses during these sessions, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Some employers encourage both trainees and experienced workers to take evening courses in subjects related to vending machine oper­ ation and repair—for example, basic electric­ ity, electronics, microwave, and refrigeration. Employers often pay for at least part of the tuition and book expenses for these courses. Employers require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. Because vending machine serv­ icers and repairers sometimes handle thousands of dollars in merchandise and cash, employers want applicants who have a record of honesty and respect for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is important. A com­ mercial driver's license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repairer jobs. Skilled servicers and repairers may be pro­ moted to supervisory jobs. Job Outlook Employment of vending machine servicers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than  the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment will rise as more vending machines are installed in industrial plants, hos­ pitals, stores, and other business establish­ ments to meet the public demand for vending machine items as well as for the convenience of their employees. In addition, the range of products and services dispensed by machine also can be expected to increase. However, the rise in demand will be moderated somewhat by the greater reliability of modem machinery. With the increased use of electronic parts, the number of breakdowns has decreased, which in turn decreases the demand for repairers. Some job openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with some background in electronics should have excellent job prospects, because electronic components increasingly are being used in vending machines. If firms cannot find trained or experienced workers, they are likely to train qualified route drivers or hire inex­ perienced people who have acquired some me­ chanical, electrical, or electronic aptitude by taking high school or vocational courses. Earnings Wage rates for vending machine servicers and repairers ranged from $3 to $14 an hour in 1986, depending on the size of the firm and the region of the country. Apprentices start at 50 percent of the rate paid experienced workers and receive periodic increases. Most vending machine repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stip­ ulate higher pay for nightwork and for emer­ gency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Many vending machine repairers and serv­ icers are members of the International Broth­ erhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse­ men and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with elec­ trical and electronic components include bowl­ ing-pin-machine mechanics, home appliance and power tool repairers, laundry machine re­ pairers, maintenance mechanics, office ma­ chine and cash register servicers, and sewing machine repairers. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportunities in this field can be obtained from local vending ma­ chine firms and local offices of the State em­ ployment service. For general information and a list of schools offering courses in vending machine repair, write to: National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Bricklayers and Stonemasons (D.O.T. 779.684-058, 861.361-010 and -014, .381-010 through -042, except -034, .684-010 and -014, and 899.364-010)  Nature of the Work Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely related trades, each producing attractive, du­ rable surfaces. Bricklayers build walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, and other structures with brick, cinder or concrete block, and other ma­ sonry materials. They also install firebrick lin­ ings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone— natural cut, such as marble, granite, and lime­ stone; and artificial stone made from cement, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Be­ cause stone is expensive, stonemasons work mostly on high-cost buildings, such as churches, hotels, and office buildings. In putting up a wall, bricklayers usually use plumblines and a level to build the comers. They then stretch a line from comer to comer to guide each course or layer of brick. Brick­ layers spread a bed of mortar (cement mixture) with a trowel (a flat, metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and then tap it into place. As blueprints specify, they cut bricks with a hammer and chisel to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools to leave a neat and uniform appearance. Although bricklayers generally use steel supports at win­ dow and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches that enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or helpers, who supply bricks and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move scaffolding. (See the statement on construction trades help­ ers that appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Stonemasons often work from a set of draw­ ings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and bring the prenumbered stones to the masons. A der­ rick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They align the stones with plumblines and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and stone. As   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the work progresses, they fill the joints between stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an at­ tractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt them to anchors within the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleans­ ing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often con­ sist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. To make various shapes and sizes, masons use a special hammer to cut each stone along the grain. Valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is similar to setting large pieces of other types of stone. Bricklayers and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks or replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Refractory repairers or masons are bricklay­ ers who install firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establish­ ments. Most work in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Many masons are qualified to work with a variety of materials and, in areas that experi­ ence little demand for full-time stone and mar­ ble masons, bricklayers also will install these materials. Working Conditions Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work out­ doors, but not when exposed to rain or freezing conditions. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and may have to lift heavy ma­ terials. They also are subject to injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds. However, these workers are less likely to be injured than other construction workers. Employment Bricklayers and stonemasons held about 161,000 jobs in 1986. The vast majority were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts are em­ ployed primarily by special trade, building, or general contractors. Some work in industrial plants. A relatively small number of bricklay­ ers work for government agencies or businesses that do their own construction and alteration. Workers in these trades are employed  “*  0  Bricklayer plumbs cinder block pier. throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. About 1 out of 4 bricklayers and stonema­ sons is self-employed. Many of the self-em­ ployed specialize in contracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bricklayers and stonemasons pick up their skills informally by working as helpers or hod carriers and by observing and learning from experienced workers. The remainder learn their skills through apprenticeship, which generally provides the most thorough training. Individuals who learn the trade informally usually start as helpers or laborers. They carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity occurs, they are taught to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they make the transition to full-fledged craft workers. The learning period generally lasts much longer than an apprenticeship program, however. Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stone­ masons usually are sponsored by local con­ tractors or by local union-management com­ mittees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training in addition to 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathe­ matics, layout work, and sketching. 327  328/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Apprentices often start by working with la­ borers, learning the basics of supplying ma­ terials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes them with job routines and ma­ terials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Apprentices often learn to work with stone, plaster, and concrete. Sub­ sequently, they may be certified to work with more than one masonry material. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical con­ dition. A high school education is preferable, with courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop helpful. Experienced workers can advance to super­ visory positions or become estimators. They also can open contracting businesses of their own. Job Outlook Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Pop­ ulation and business growth will create a need for new homes, factories, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating demand will be the increasing use of brick for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Em­ ployment of bricklayers who specialize in re­ fractory repair will decline, along with em­ ployment of other occupations in the primary metal industries. Although some jobs will be created by an increase in demand for these workers, most openings will result from the need to replace bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, trans­ fer to other occupations, or leave the trades for other reasons. Employment of bricklayers and stonema­ sons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the econ­ omy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. Earnings Median weekly earnings for bricklayers and stonemasons were about $410 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $305 and $555 weekly. The highest 10 percent earned more than $680 weekly. Earnings for workers in these trades may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and downturns in con­ struction activity limit the time they can work. In each trade, apprentices or helpers start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to ex­ perienced workers. The rate increases as they gain experience. A large number of bricklayers and stone­ masons are members of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons combine a thor­ ough knowledge of brick, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect very attractive yet highly durable structures. Workers in other oc­ cupations involving similar skills include con­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  crete masons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble setting contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Crafts­ men, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Brick Institute of America, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091.  Carpenters (D.O.T. 860.281-010 through .684-014 except .381-010, .664-014, and -018, 863.684-010. and 869.361-018,.381­ 010, and -034)  Nature of the Work Almost all construction projects employ car­ penters, the largest group of building trade workers. Carpenters perform a variety of jobs. In home building, carpenters build the house framework, frame the roof and interior parti­ tions, and install doors, windows, flooring, cabinets, wood paneling, and molding and trim. Other construction jobs done by carpenters in­ clude building forms for placing concrete, erecting scaffolding, and building bridges, piers, trestles, tunnel supports, temporary shelters, and cofferdams. The duties of carpenters vary by type of employer. A carpenter employed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in setting forms for concrete construction, while one who is employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, and installing paneling. Although each carpentry task is somewhat different, most tasks involve the following steps. Working from blueprints, instructions from supervisors, or both, carpenters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials according to the plan. Local building codes often dictate where certain materials can and cannot be used, and carpenters have to know these requirements. Carpenters cut and shape materials, such as wood, plastic, fiber­ glass, and drywall with hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, and drills. Car­ penters then join the materials with nails, screws, or glue. They check the accuracy of  their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares. Carpenters may work in teams or be assisted by a helper. In all assignments, carpenters must work quickly, accurately, and economically. Taking too much time can delay other steps in the project, and careless mistakes waste time and materials. Some carpenters are employed outside the construction industry in installation and main­ tenance work. For example, school districts employ carpenters to replace glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, and to repair desks, cabinets, and other furniture. Some work in industries which manufacture products made of wood, such as prefabricated houses, boats, and furniture. Other carpenters may install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and assist in moving or installing machinery in factories. (Millwrights, who usually install mach­ inery, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As in other building trades, the work is active and sometimes strenuous. Prolonged stand­ ing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are necessary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from contact with sharp or rough ma­ terials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Many carpenters work out­ doors. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a construction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs. Employment Carpenters held about 1,010,000 jobs in 1986. Most carpenters work for contractors who con­ struct, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Some work for government agen­ cies, utility companies, and manufacturing firms. About 1 out of 3 is self-employed. ngjgjj  -  "'  Carpenters cut and shape materials to en­ sure a proper fit.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/329  Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters leam their trade through on-the-job training and through formal training programs. Many pick up skills informally by working under the supervision of experienced workers. Some acquire skills through vocational edu­ cation. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships. Most training authorities recommend an ap­ prenticeship as the best way to leam carpentry. Because the number of apprenticeship pro­ grams is limited, however, only a small pro­ portion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., and local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, as well as by local joint union-management committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Join­ ers of America and the Associated General Contractors or the National Association of Home Builders. The programs consist of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction. Ap­ prenticeship applicants generally must be 17 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some locals test an applicant’s ap­ titude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. On the job, apprentices leam elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs such as form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finish­ ing. They also leam to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Ap­ prentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading and freehand sketch­ ing, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they leam the relationship between car­ pentry and the other building trades. Informal on-the-job training usually is less thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small con­ tractor who specializes in homebuilding may only provide training in rough framing. In con­ trast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. A high school education is desirable, in­ cluding courses in carpentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, good phys­ ical condition, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately is helpful. Working well with others is an important asset. Carpenters may advance to carpentry su­ pervisors or general construction supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to be­ come general construction supervisors because they are exposed to the entire construction pro­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  cess. Some carpenters become independent contractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpenters is expected to in­ crease as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and industrial plants and the need to renovate and modernize existing structures. In addition to the jobs resulting from in­ creased demand for carpenters, many openings will occur as carpenters transfer to other oc­ cupations or'leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters each year usually is greater than for other craft oc­ cupations because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Since there are no strict train­ ing requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but even­ tually leave the occupation because they find they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment. Although employment of carpenters is ex­ pected to grow over the long run, people en­ tering the occupation should expect to expe­ rience periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term nature of many construc­ tion projects and the cyclical nature of the con­ struction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, job openings for carpenters are reduced. The introduction of new and improved tools, equip­ ment, techniques, and materials has vastly in­ creased carpenters’ versatility. Therefore, car­ penters with all-round skills will have better opportunities than those who can only do rel­ atively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and businesses and reflects differences in local economic condi­ tions. Therefore, the number of job opportun­ ities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings of carpenters who were not self-employed were $348 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $265 and $490 per week. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpenters were more than $660. Earnings may be reduced on occasion be­ cause carpenters lose work time in bad weather and when jobs are unavailable. Maintenance carpenters, who generally have more steady employment, averaged $12.93 an hour in 1986, according to a survey of selected metropolitan areas. A large proportion of carpenters are mem­ bers of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occu­  pations include bricklayers, cement masons, electricians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprentice­ ships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, a local of the union mentioned above, a local joint unioncontractor apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this trade, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Associated General Contractors of America. Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Home Builders Institute, Educational Arm of the National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Carpet Installers (D.O.T. 864.381-010)  Nature of the Work Carpet installers lay carpets or rugs in homes, offices, stores, restaurants, and other build­ ings. Installers inspect the floor to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any im­ perfections that could show through the carpet. Then they plan the layout of the carpet, allow­ ing for expected traffic patterns and placing seams for best appearance and long wear. For wall-to-wall carpet, installers lay and tack or tape an underlay—usually a foam rub­ ber pad !4 to !/2 inch thick. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of extra carpet on each side for the final fitting. Workers then lay the carpet, stretch it to fit evenly against the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold, and trim the excess. To hold the carpet in place, it is attached to tackless stripping placed around the room’s perimeter. Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall installations require installers to sew or tape sections together for large rooms. They hand-sew seams with a large needle and special thread or use heat-taped seams (a spe­ cial plastic tape made to join seams, activated with heat). For precut, edge-bound carpet, installers lay out a base pad, roll the carpet over it, and may then apply tape with adhesive on both sides to hold the pad and carpet in place. Carpet installers use common handtools, such as hammers, drills, staple guns, and rubber mallets. They also use carpet-laying tools, such as carpet knives, knee kickers, and power stretchers.  330/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most installers are paid by the hour. Some receive a monthly salary or are paid according to the amount of carpet they install. Some installers belong to the United Broth­ erhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Carpet installers measure, cut, and fit carpet materials. Workers in other occupations in­ volving different materials but which require similar skills include carpenters, concrete ma­ sons, drywall installers, floor layers, lathers, painters and paperhangers, roofers, sheet-metal workers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters.  Carpet must be stretched and secured for a uniform and lasting appearance. Working Conditions Installers work under better conditions than most other construction workers. Because car­ pets are installed in finished or almost finished structures, work areas usually are clean, lighted, safe, and comfortable. Installers generally work regular daytime hours. However, when recarpeting stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet. Despite continual movement and frequent use of hand and power tools, installers experience fewer injuries than most other construction workers. Employment Carpet installers held about 66,000 jobs in 1986. Many worked for flooring contractors or floor covering retailers. Many carpet installers are self-employed. Installers are employed throughout the Na­ tion, but are concentrated in urban areas that have high levels of construction activity. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally on the job as helpers to ex­ perienced installers. Others learn through for­ mal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training programs usually are spon­ sored by individual contractors and generally last about 1 Vi to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments, such as installing tackless stripping and padding, and helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as mea­ suring, cutting, and fitting materials. Apprenticeship programs and some contrac­ tor-sponsored programs provide comprehen­ sive training in all phases of carpet laying. Helpers and apprentices should be at least  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  16 years old and have manual dexterity. For some work, employers also want individuals who are courteous and tactful. A high school education also is preferred, though not nec­ essary. Courses in general mathematics and shop may be helpful. Carpet installers may advance to supervisors or installation managers for large floor-laying firms. Some installers become salespersons or estimators. Installers also may go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of carpet installers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000—keeping pace with the expected expansion in construction. The use of carpet as a floor covering is in­ creasing. Because many houses have plywood rather than hardwood floors, wall-to-wall car­ pet will be a necessity. Similarly, offices, ho­ tels, motels, and shopping centers often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall carpet. Carpet also will continue to be used extensively in renovation work. Moreover, new fabrics, in­ cluding some that are stain resistant, and fash­ ionable colors will contribute to the growing demand for carpeting and, consequently, for carpet installers. However, most openings will arise as experienced installers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. This occupation is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than most other con­ struction crafts. Because much of their work is done in existing buildings, employment gen­ erally remains stable even when new construc­ tion activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time carpet installers were about $330 in 1986. One-half earned between $225 and $495 a week; the top 10 percent earned over $655. Starting wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually are about half of the experienced worker’s rate.  Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work op­ portunities, contact local flooring contractors or retailers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers, contact: Carpet and Rug Institute, P.O. Box 2048, Dalton, GA 30722.  Concrete Masons and Terrazzo Workers (D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, .461-010, .684-010; and 861.381-046, and -050)  Nature of the Work Concrete masons place and finish concrete— a mixture of portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—for many types of construction projects. The projects range from small jobs such as patios and floors, requiring a mason assisted by one or two laborers, to huge dams or miles of concrete highway requiring a crew of several masons and many laborers. Among other tasks, concrete masons may color con­ crete surfaces, expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. Terrazzo workers create attractive walk­ ways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. However, much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of concrete masons. In preparing a site for placing concrete, ma­ sons make sure the forms for holding the con­ crete are set for the desired pitch and depth and are properly aligned. Masons direct the placing of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread the concrete. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to level the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the concrete, ma­ sons carefully sweep the concrete surface with a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches (called  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/331  a bull float) to cover coarser materials and bring a rich mixture of fine concrete to the surface. After the concrete has been placed, finishers press an edger between the forms and the con­ crete and guide it along the edge and the sur­ face. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. Finishers use a special tool to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help control cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface with a pow­ ered trowel or by hand with a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. This troweling embeds the heavier material deeper into the concrete, removes most imperfections, and brings the finer material—sand and cement—to the surface. As the final step, masons retrowel the con­ crete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the sur­ face with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they sprinkle on a powdered dye which they work into the surface with float and trowel. On concrete surfaces that will remain ex­ posed after forms are stripped, such as col­ umns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete ma­ sons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large inden­ tations with a mortar mixture, and smooth the surface with a rubbing brick. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich cement mixture using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Attractive, marble-chipped terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, concrete ma­ sons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foun­ dation, workers place a 1-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, ter­ razzo workers partially embed metal ferrule strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the different designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-dyed into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the ferrule strips. While the mixture is soft, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier). Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo work­ ers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a rich, lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and strenuous. Since most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel. Some jobs are outdoors; however, work generally is halted  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Masons often finish concrete with hand trowels. during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chemical bums from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers usually wear waterrepellent boots while working in wet concrete. Employment Concrete masons and terrazzo workers held about 118,000 jobs in 1986; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion. Most concrete masons work for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways or large buildings. A small number are employed by municipal public works de­ partments and firms that manufacture concrete products. Most terrazzo workers work for spe­ cial trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. About 1 out of 13 concrete masons and ter­ razzo workers is self-employed, a smaller pro­ portion than in other building trades. Most selfemployed masons specialize in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 2- or 3-year apprentice­ ship programs. Many masons first gain expe­ rience as construction laborers. On-the-job training programs consist of in­ formal instruction from experienced workers  in which helpers learn to use the tools, equip­ ment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and joint­ ing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they progress, assignments be­ come more complex, and trainees usually can do finishing work within a short time. Two- and 3-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly sponsored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in ad­ dition to 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics and safety. Ap­ prentices generally receive special instruction in layout work and estimating costs. When hiring helpers and apprentices, em­ ployers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and licensed to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons work in teams. High school courses in shop mathematics and blueprint reading or me­ chanical drawing provide a helpful back­ ground. Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to supervisors or contract estimators. Some open concrete contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow about as fast as  332/Occupational Outlook Handbook  the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the population and the economy grow, more masons will be needed to help build high­ ways, office buildings, hotels, shopping cen­ ters, and other structures. The greater use of concrete as a building material—particularly in nonresidential construction—also will add to the demand for these workers. Although many job openings will be created by increased demand for concrete masons and terrazzo workers, most openings will arise as experi­ enced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of concrete masons and ter­ razzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresi­ dential construction falls. On the other hand, temporary shortages of these workers may oc­ cur in some areas during peak periods of build­ ing activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for concrete masons were about $345 in 1986. The middle 50 per­ cent earned between $275 and $490 weekly. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Earnings for concrete masons and terrazzo workers can be reduced on occasion because work time is lost when jobs are unavailable or weather is bad. Concrete masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Many concrete masons and terrazzo workers belong to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Concrete masons and terrazzo workers com­ bine skill with knowledge of building materials to construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklayer, form builder, marble setter, ironworker, plasterer, stonemason, and tilesetter. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or ter­ razzo contractors; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap­ prenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or appren­ ticeship agency. For general information about concrete ma­ sons and terrazzo workers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Crafts­ men, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Inter­ national Association of the United States and Can­ ada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Des Plaines, IL 60018.  Drywall Workers and Lathers (D.O.T. 842.361-010 and -014, .381-010, .664-010, and .681-010; and 869.684-050)  Nature of the Work Developed as a substitute for wet plaster, drywall consists of a thin layer of plaster sand­ wiched between two pieces of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings of most buildings because it saves both time and money compared to traditional construction using a plaster material. Two occupations have emerged from the widespread use of this construction material: Drywall installers and drywall finishers. In­ stallers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the framework inside houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, prepare panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes—usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet— installers must measure and cut some pieces to fit around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electric outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper assists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. When placing ceiling panels, a lift often is used to assist the crew. After installing the drywall, finishers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, and brush­ like strokes, they spread the joint compound into and along each side of the joint. Immediately, finishers use trowels to press a perforated paper tape into the wet compound and to scrape away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound. On large com­ mercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools to apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats to fill any depressions and to make a smooth surface. Sanding makes patched areas as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. Some finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Finishers also repair imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. Some finishers specialize in sanding, taping, or repair work. Lathers, an occupation involving similar work, apply metal or gypsum lath to walls, ceilings, or ornamental frameworks to form the  support base for plaster coatings. Gypsum lath is similar to a drywall panel, but smaller. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water, or for curved or irregular surfaces in which drywall is not a practical material. Lathers usually nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the struc­ tural framework. Working Conditions As in other construction trades, drywall and lathing work sometimes is strenuous. Appli­ cators, tapers, and lathers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some finishers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include the possibility of falls from ladders and scaffolds, and injuries from power tools. Be­ cause sanding joint compound to a smooth fin­ ish may create a great deal of dust, some fin­ ishers wear masks for protection. Employment Drywall workers and lathers held about 154,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for contractors who specialize in drywall or lathing installation; others worked for contractors who do all kinds of construction. Most installers, finishers, and lathers are em­ ployed in urban areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall worker or lather employed full time, the work is usually done by carpenters and painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most drywall and lathing workers start as help­ ers and learn most of their skills on the job. Installer and lather helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Finisher helpers begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes and scrapes. They soon learn to install comer guards and to conceal openings around pipes. Near the end of their training, both applicator helpers and taper help­ ers learn to estimate costs of installing and finishing drywall. Some installers and lathers learn their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an apprenticeship program in car­ pentry that includes instruction in drywall and lath installation. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors con­ duct a similar training program for nonunion workers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades conducts a 2-year apprenticeship program for drywall finishers. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they fre­ quently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpen­ try provide a helpful background for drywall  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/333  ■ ■ -  Drywall finishers apply compound to cover taped joints. work. Installers must be good at simple arith­ metic. Drywall workers and lathers with a few years’ experience and leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own con­ tracting businesses.  Related Occupations Drywall workers and lathers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities in­ clude insulation workers, floor covering in­ stallers, plasterers, and form builders.  Job Outlook Employment of drywall workers and lathers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the level of construction activity increases. Employment should grow faster in commercial construction than in residential construction. Besides workers hired to fill openings arising from increased demand, many will be needed to replace those who transfer to jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Drywall installation, finishing, and lathing are usually completed indoors. Unlike some other construction trades, these workers sel­ dom lose time because of bad weather. How­ ever, they may be unemployed between con­ struction projects and during downturns in construction activity.  Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing, contact local drywall installation contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Build­ ers and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprentice­ ship agency. For details about job qualifications and train­ ing programs in drywall application and fin­ ishing, write to:  Earnings Median weekly earnings for drywall workers and lathers were about $375 in 1986. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $290 and $535 weekly. Trainees start at about half the rate paid to experienced workers. Some contractors pay these workers accord­ ing to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40-hour week is standard, but sometimes the workweek may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Some installers and lathers are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Join­ ers of America, and some finishers are mem­ bers of the International Brotherhood of Paint­ ers and Allied Trades.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington DC 20006. National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Apprenticeship and Training Committee, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information on training programs in drywall application and lathing, write to: United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (AFL-CIO), 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.  Electricians (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 806.381-062; 822.361-018, -022; 824.261, .281-010, -018, .381, .681; 825.381-030, -034; 829.261-018; and 952.364 and .381)  Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for heating, light, power, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Electri­  cians are responsible for assembling, install­ ing, and maintaining electrical systems on which we rely. They generally specialize in either construction or maintenance, although a grow­ ing number do both. To install the electrical systems in factories, homes, and other structures, electricians follow blueprints as well as instructions from super­ visors. To install wiring in factories and of­ fices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside partitions, walls, or other concealed areas as designated by building plans. Workers also fasten to the wall small metal and plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. To complete circuits between these boxes, they then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit. In lighter construction, such as hous­ ing, plastic-covered wire usually is used rather than conduit. Regardless of the type of wire being used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, trans­ formers, or other components. Wires are joined by twisting ends together with pliers and cov­ ering the ends with special plastic connectors. When additional strength is desired, they may use an electric “soldering gun” to melt metal onto the twisted wires, then cover them with durable electrical tape. When the wiring is fin­ ished, they test the circuits for proper connec­ tions. In addition to wiring a building’s electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and telecommuni­ cations equipment. As part of the deregulation of the telephone industry, individuals and busi­ nesses now can install and maintain the phone lines in their own buildings. As a result, a growing number of electricians install tele­ phone wiring and equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electri­ cians who specialize in residential work may install a new circuit breaker in a home. Those who work in large factories may repair partic­ ular items, such as motors or electronic con­ trollers for machine tools and robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all kinds of electrical equipment. Electricians spend much of their time doing preventive mainte­ nance—periodic inspection of equipment to locate and correct defects before breakdowns occur. When trouble occurs, they must find the cause and make repairs. Electricians may re­ place items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex elec­ tronic devices, they may work with engineering technicians or engineers. They also may advise management whether continued operation of equipment would be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. Electricians use handtools such as screw­ drivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools, testing equipment, and oscilloscopes. Working Conditions Electricians’ work is active and sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods. In addition, they frequently work on ladders  334/Occupational Outlook Handbook  prenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowl­ edge of all aspects of the trade and generally is considered to improve their ability to find a job. Although a larger proportion of electri­ cians are trained through apprenticeship than workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored and supervised by local union-management com­ mittees, by company management committees, or by a local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors. Because of the comprehen­ sive training received, those who complete ap­ prenticeship programs qualify to do both main­ tenance and construction work. The typical program provides 160 hours of classroom in­ struction each year and 8,000 hours of on-thejob training over the course of the apprentice­ ship. In the classroom, apprentices learn blue­ print reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electricians, ap­ prentices must demonstrate mastery of the elec­ trician’s work. At first, apprentices drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, bend, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Those who do not enter a formal appren­ ticeship program can pick up the trade infor­ mally by working as helpers for experienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also are taught safety practices. Many helpers gain additional knowledge through trade schools or correspondence courses, or through special training in the Armed Forces. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. Applicants for apprentice positions must be at least 18 years old and have a high school or  Good color vision is essential. and scaffolds, as well as in awkward or cramped positions. Electricians risk injury from elec­ trical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Employment Electricians held about 556,000 jobs in 1986. Slightly more than half were employed in the construction industry. Others worked as main­ tenance electricians and were employed in vir­ tually every industry. In addition, about 1 out of 11 electricians was self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend the com­ pletion of a 5-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn the electrical trade. Ap­  The unemployment rate for electricians generally is lower than the rates for other construction workers. Percent unemployed, 1986 0  2  Electricians Plumbers and pipefitters All construction trades Carpenters Painters  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  4  6  8  10  12  14  16  18  20  vocational school diploma or its equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, electric­ ity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. For those interested in becoming maintenance electri­ cians, a background in electronics is increas­ ingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manufacturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be li­ censed. Although lisencing requirements vary from area to area, electricians generally must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Experienced electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or a local union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code or of new materials or methods of installation. Experienced electricians can become super­ visors. Those with sufficient capital and man­ agement skills may start their own contracting businesses. In many areas, however, a con­ tractor must have an electrical contractor’s li­ cense. Job Outlook Employment of electricians is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. As the pop­ ulation and the economy grow, more electricians will be needed to maintain the electrical sys­ tems used by industry and to install electrical devices and wiring in new homes, factories, offices, and other structures. In addition, build­ ings will increasingly be prewired during con­ struction to accommodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase sharply, should stimulate many job opportun­ ities for electricians. In addition to jobs created by increased de­ mand for electricians, many openings will oc­ cur as electricians transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, because of their lengthy training and relatively high earn­ ings, a smaller proportion of electricians than of other craft workers leave their occupation each year. Although the employment outlook for elec­ tricians is expected to be good over the long run, people wishing to become construction electricians should expect to experience pe­ riods of unemployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of con­ struction declines. Apprenticeship opportuni­ ties also are limited during these periods. Although employment of maintenance elec­ tricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automotive, metalworking, and other industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, efforts to reduce operating costs and increase produc­ tivity through the increased use of contracting out for electrical services may limit opportun-  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/335  ities for maintenance electricians in many in­ dustries. However, this should be partially off­ set by increased demand by electrical contracting firms. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by geographic area. Employment opportunities follow the movement of people and businesses among States and local areas and reflect dif­ ferences in local economic conditions. The number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time electri­ cians who were not self-employed were $473 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $336 and $602 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $256, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $758. Electricians in metropolitan areas earned about $14 an hour in 1986 compared to $8.75 an hour for all production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Those who work in the Midwest and West generally earn more than those in the Northeast and South. Annual earnings of electricians also tend to be higher than those of other building trades workers because electricians are less af­ fected by the seasonal nature of construction. Depending on experience, apprentices start at 35 to 50 percent of the rate paid to expe­ rienced electricians. As they become more skilled, they receive periodic increases through­ out the course of the apprenticeship program. Electricians receive a variety of employerprovided benefits. Although unionized electri­ cians usually receive more generous packages, most have health and welfare insurance and some type of pension plan. Many employers also provide training opportunities for expe­ rienced electricians to improve their skills. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing mainte­ nance electricians are the International Broth­ erhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Work­ ers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (Ind.); and the United Steelworkers of Amer­ ica. Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, elec­ tricians combine manual skill and a knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include air-conditioning mechanics, cable in­ stallers and repairers, electronics mechanics, and elevator constructors. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local elec­ trical contractors; local chapters of the Inde­ pendent Electrical Contractors, Inc., the Na­ tional Electrical Contractors Association, or the Associated Builders and Contractors; a lo­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  cal union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; a local union-management apprenticeship committee; local firms that em­ ploy maintenance electricians; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of electricians, contact; Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 Con­ necticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. National Electrical Contractors Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Glaziers (D.O.T. 865.361 and .381)  Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modem buildings. Insulated glass keeps in warmed or cooled air; tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure; and large glass panels give skyscrapers a distinctive look while re­ ducing the need for artificial lighting. Glaziers select, cut, install, and remove all types of glass as well as plastics and similar materials used in place of glass. Some glaziers replace glass in automobiles and may also install mirrors, tempered glass doors, the metal hardware used in setting glass, and automatic doors. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a factory or a contractor’s shop. It arrives at the job site ready to be positioned and secured in place by glaziers. Glaziers may use a crane or hoist with suction cups attached to lift large, heavy pieces of glass and then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Glaziers secure glass in place with materials such as mastic—a pastelike cement—bolts, rubber gaskets, glazing compound, metal clips, and metal or wood molding. When using a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half­ tube with a split running its length—to secure window glass, they first position the gasket around the window opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When metal clips and molding are used to secure window glass, glaziers secure the mold­ ing to the window opening, place the glass in the molding, and force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When using glazing compound, workers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the window opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the compound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the mold­  ing and the glass with glazing compound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or Aframe or flat against a cutting table. They then measure and mark the glass for the cut. Glass is cut with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about !A inch in di­ ameter. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glasscutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as hoists, saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors—sometimes in inclement weather. Occasionally they must work on scaffolds at great heights, but not when weather conditions pose a safety problem. In addition, the job requires a considerable amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, or from lift­ ing heavy glass panels. Employment About 47,000 glaziers held jobs in 1986. Most worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, alteration and repair, or for wholesale glass distributors and glass shops that install or replace glass. Others worked for government agencies or businesses that do their own construction. Glaziers work throughout the country, but jobs are concentrated in met­ ropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training authorities recommend that glaziers learn the trade through an apprenticeship pro­ gram that lasts 3 to 4 years. However, many glaziers learn the trade informally on the job by assisting experienced workers. Those learning the trade informally on the job usually start by carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops, then assisting expe­ rienced glaziers on simple installation jobs. Work experience may not provide training as complete as an apprenticeship program, how­ ever, and may take longer. Apprenticeship programs, which are admin­ istered by local union-management committees or local contractors’ associations, consist of on-the-job training as well as 144 hours of classroom instruction and/or home study each year. • On the job, apprentices learn to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut  336/Occupational Outlook Handbook  '¥■  '  iter**W«!8#£SSSr  r-'-.-V.  jfftjM  Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of construction materials and techniques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, floor lay­ ers, painters, paperhangers, stucco masons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier appren­ ticeships or work opportunities, contact local glazing or general contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Al­ lied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State appren­ ticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades (AFL-CIO), 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For information concerning training for gla­ ziers in wholesale or retail glass shops, contact: Membership Services. National Glass Association, 8200 Greensboro Dr.. McLean, VA 22102.  Insulation Workers (D.O.T. 863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, and .664-010) “•iffilp  Glaziers often work in pairs to handle heavy glass. and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching, general construction techniques, safety prac­ tices, and first aid. Local apprenticeship administrators deter­ mine how apprentices are recruited and se­ lected. Applicants for apprenticeships gener­ ally must be in good physical condition and at least 17 years old. In some areas, applicants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Persons applying for helper positions will find that em­ ployers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in general mathematics, blueprint reading or mechanical drawing, gen­ eral construction, and shop provide a helpful background. For most glaziers, advancement consists of increases in pay; some may advance to super­ visory jobs. Some glaziers become contractors or estimators.  Job Outlook Employment of glaziers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Besides jobs created by increased demand for glaziers, openings will arise as experienced glaziers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, because this occupation is fairly small, only a limited number of openings will become avail­ able. Employment opportunities should be  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors and glass shops are located. Over the long run, population and business growth will create a rising demand for new residential and commercial buildings, such as hotels, hospitals, offices, and stores. More gla­ ziers will also be needed to install replacement glass. Even though employment prospects will generally be good, glaziers may experience periods of unemployment between construc­ tion projects and during downturns in construc­ tion activity. People wishing to enter glazing apprentice­ ships may face competition for the limited openings because high wages and all-round training opportunities attract many people to these programs. Earnings In 1986, according to the limited information available, average weekly earnings for glaziers were about $360. Glaziers in construction, who are heavily unionized, generally earn consid­ erably more than glaziers in retail and whole­ sale trade. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced glaziers and increase every 6 months. Earnings of glaziers can be adversely affected by poor weather and fluctuations in construction activ­ ity. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades (AFL-CIO).  Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keeping heat in during the win­ ter and out in the summer. Meat storage rooms, steam pipes, vats, tanks, vessels, and boilers also are insulated to prevent the wasteful trans­ fer of heat. Installing insulating material is the responsibility of insulation workers. Insulation workers paste, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers measure and cut a tube of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the tube, and slip it over the pipe. They wrap and fasten wire bands around the insu­ lation, tape it, or wrap a cover of tar paper, cloth, or canvas over it and sew or staple the cover in place. Sometimes insulation workers weld sheet metal around insulated pipes to waterproof the insulation. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insu­ lation onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh pro­ vides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may apply a final coat for a finished appearance. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers blow in loose-fill insula­ tion. A helper feeds a machine with shredded fiberglass cellulose or rock wool insulation, while another worker sprays the insulation from the compressor hose into the attic or between the interior and exterior walls. In new construction or major renovations, insulation workers staple fiberglass batts in ex­  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/337  terior walls and ceilings before dry wall, panel­ ing, or plaster walls are put in place. Insulation workers use common handtools— trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, sewing equipment, and stapling guns. They use pow­ ersaws to cut insulating materials, welding ma­ chines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors for blowing or spraying in­ sulation. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Sometimes they work from ladders or in tight spaces. However, the work is not strenuous; it requires more co­ ordination than strength. Insulation work is of­ ten dusty and dirty. The minute particles from insulation materials, especially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Removing cancer-causing asbestos insula­ tion—at one time the most common form of in­ sulation but rarely used today—is a hazardous task and is done by specially trained workers. To protect themselves from the dangers of as­ bestos and irritants, workers follow strict safety guidelines, wear protective masks and clothing, and keep work areas ventilated. Employment Insulation workers held about 62,000 jobs in 1986; most worked for insulation or other con­ struction contractors. Others worked in ship­ building and in other manufacturing industries, such as chemicals and petroleum refining, that have extensive installations for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In other areas, insulation work may be done by carpenters, heating and air-conditioning in­ stallers, or drywall installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade on the job. Trainees are assigned to experienced  Insulation work is often dusty and dirty.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  insulation workers for instruction and super­ vision. They begin with simple tasks, such as supplying insulation to experienced workers or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the work. Learning to install in­ sulation in homes generally requires less train­ ing than insulation application in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experi­ ence, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in apprenticeship pro­ grams receive in-depth instruction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship programs are provided by a joint committee of local insu­ lation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost In­ sulators and Asbestos Workers, to which many insulation workers belong. Programs consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheetmetal layout, and general construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking ap­ prenticeship positions must have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop superintendent, insulation contract estimator, or set up their own insu­ lation business. Job Outlook Employment of insulation workers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. The need to in­ sulate boilers and pipes in new factories, powerplants, and office and apartment buildings will stimulate employment growth. Moreover, existing buildings that need extra insulation and the need to remove and replace asbestos in­ sulation will add to employment requirements. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for insulation work, openings will arise as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Insulation workers in the construction in­ dustry may experience periods of unemploy­ ment between jobs and during downturns in construction activity. Workers employed in in­ dustrial plants generally have more stable em­ ployment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Unlike other construction occupations, in­ sulation workers usually do not lose work time when weather conditions are poor. Most in­ sulation is applied after buildings are enclosed. Earnings Median weekly earnings for insulation workers working full time were about $370 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $275 and $505 a week. Insulation workers doing commercial and industrial work earn substan­ tially more than those working in residential  construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine a knowledge of insulation materials with their skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in oc­ cupations involving similar skills include car­ penters, carpet layers, drywall applicators, floor layers, roofers, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportunities in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor; a local of the Interna­ tional Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprentice­ ship agency, or: National Insulation Contractors Association, 1025 Vermont Ave. NW„ Suite 410, Washington DC 20005.  Painters and Paperhangers (D O T. 840.381, .681. and .684; 841.381: and 845.681)  Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make surfaces more attractive and bright. In addition, paints and similar coverings protect outside walls from wear caused by weather and aging. Although some people do both painting and paperhang­ ing, each requires different skills. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to buildings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account durability, ease of handling, method of application, and customers' wishes. They prepare surfaces to be covered so paint will adhere properly, some­ times removing the old coating by stripping with solvents, sanding, wire brushing, burn­ ing, or sand blasting. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to make a suitable surface for the finish coat. Painters mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint com­ position and color harmony. Painters use brushes, rollers, and spray guns to apply paint, depending on their suitability for the surface to be covered. When working on tall buildings and similar structures, painters erect scaffolding, including "swing stages" (scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables attached to roof hooks). When paint­ ing steeples and similar conical structures, they use a “bosun chair” (a device somewhat like a swing). Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall coverings made of fabric, vi­ nyl, or paper. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying "sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better.  338/Occupational Outlook Handbook  In redecorating, they may remove the old cov­ ering by soaking, steaming, or applying sol­ vents. When necessary, they patch holes and other imperfections before applying the new wall covering. Next, paperhangers measure the area to be covered, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, check the covering for flaws, and closely examine the pattern so it can be matched when the strips are hung. Paperhangers prepare paste or other adhe­ sives according to manufacturers' directions, and brush or roll it on the covering. They place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure they match adjacent patterns, are hung straight, and with the edges butted together to make tight, closed seams. Paperhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles and trim the top and bottom with a razor knife. Working Conditions Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These work­ ers must have stamina because much of the work is done with arms raised overhead. Paint­ ers and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. Painters often work outdoors, but seldom in wet. cold, or inclement weather. Some painting jobs can leave a worker cov­ ered with paint; some can be hazardous if masks are not worn or ventilation is poor. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 412,000 jobs in 1986; most were held by painters. Many painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restora­ tion, or remodeling work. In addition, organ­ izations that own or manage large buildings, such as hotels, offices, and apartment com­ plexes, employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, and factories. More than 2 of every 5 painters and paperhangers are self-employed, compared to 1 out of 4 other building trades workers. Some paint­ ers work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruc­ tion. Most training authorities recommend completion of an apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger. However, many learn on the job. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers be­ cause most paperhangers do not have a need for helpers. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 years of on-the-job train­ ing, in addition to 144 hours of related class­ room instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use of tools, sur­ face preparation, application of coating, paint mixing and matching, care of tools and equip­ ment, staining, glazing, gold leafing, blueprint reading, use of ladders and scaffolding, wood finishing, and safety.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Many painters and paperhangers are self-employed. On-the-job instruction covers similar skills for apprentices and helpers. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry sup­ plies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting tasks while they learn about paint and painting equipment. Within 2 or 3 years, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paper­ hanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating tech­ niques. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical con­ dition. A high school education that includes courses in mathematics is generally required to enter apprenticeships. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or estimating jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many establish their own painting and decorating businesses.  available as painters transfer to other occu­ pations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as paint­ ers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Because the number of paperhangers is rela­ tively small, fewer openings will exist in this occupation. Painters and paperhangers may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical and seasonal nature of construction activity. However, remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new con­ struction activity declines. The most versatile painters and paperhangers are most apt to be kept on the payroll during downturns in the economy. As in most other building trades occupa­ tions, there is competition for apprenticeships.  Job Outlook Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the level of new construction activity increases and the stock of structures that require maintenance and repair grows. Replacement needs will account for most of the job openings for painters and paperhangers. Each year, thousands of jobs will become  Earnings Median weekly earnings for painters who were not self-employed were about $300 in 1986. Most earned between $225 and $410 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $590, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $165 a week. In general, paperhangers earn more than paint­ ers. The hourly rate for painters who do primarily maintenance tasks was about $12.90 in 1986.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/339  In comparison, the average rate for all nonsupervisory or production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75 an hour. Earnings for painters and paperhangers may be reduced on occasion because some work time is lost due to bad weather and unemployment. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate for exper­ ienced workers and increase periodically. Many painters and paperhangers are mem­ bers of the International Brotherhood of Paint­ ers and Allied Trades. Some maintenance painters are members of other unions.  A?  ws  Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various cov­ erings to decorate and protect wood, metal, and other surfaces. Other occupations in which workers apply paints and similar finishes in­ clude billboard posterers, shipyard painters, metal sprayers, undercoaters, and transporta­ tion equipment painters. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors; a lo­ cal of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-man­ agement apprenticeship committee; or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or State em­ ployment service. For general information about the work of painters and paperhangers, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Plasterers (D.O-T. 842,361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014)  Nature of the Work Plasterers finish interior wails and ceilings with plaster materials that form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces, and they apply durable cement plasters, polymer-based fin­ ishes, and stucco to exterior surfaces. They also cast ornamental designs in plaster. To interior surfaces such as cinder block and gypsum lath, plasterers apply a brown coat that provides a base; and a second or finish coat (also called white coat) which is a lime-based plaster. When applying materials on metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, plasterers apply a preparatory or scratch coat, using a spray gun or a trowel (a flat, 4-inch by 10-inch metal plate with a handle), in wavelike motions to spread a rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, workers scratch its surface with a rake-like tool, pro­ ducing ridges so the brown coat will cling tightly. For the brown coat, laborers prepare a thick but smooth plaster. Plasterers spray or trowel  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  A plasterer applies the brown coat. this mixture onto the surface, and smooth it to an even, level surface for finishing. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mix­ ture of lime, plaster of pads, and water. They quickly apply it onto the brown coat using a hawk (a light, metal plate with a handle), trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. Thin-coat or veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of paris and is mixed with water on the job site. It provides a smooth, durable finish on interior masonry surfaces, special wallboard, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers create decorative surfaces as well. For example, they press a brush or trowel firmly against the soft plaster surface and use a cir­ cular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, plasterers usually apply a mixture of white cement and sand—stucco— over cement, concrete, and masonry. Some­ times stucco is applied directly to a wire lath scratch coat. As an alternative, they embed mar­ ble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a uniform, pebblelike, decorative finish. Some plasterers apply insulation systems to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with insulation board and fiberglass cloth and then trowel on a polymerbased scratch coat. They then apply an addi­ tional coat of this material, often with a dec­ orative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect’s blueprint, they pour a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and place it according to the plan. Working Conditions Plasterers work outside when applying stucco, but most jobs are indoors. Because plaster can  freeze, heat is usually necessary to complete plastering jobs in cold weather. Sometimes plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground to finish walls and ceilings. Plastering is physically demanding—re­ quiring considerable standing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty; plaster materials also soil shoes and clothing and can irritate skin and eyes. Employment Plasterers held about 28,000 jobs in 1986. Most plasterers work on new construction, particu­ larly where special architectural and lighting effects are part of the work. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plasters with dec­ orative finishes are very popular. Most plasterers work for independent con­ tractors. About 1 out of every 7 plasterers is self-employed. TVaining, Other Qualification, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend an ap­ prenticeship as the best way to leam plastering. However, most people leam the trade by work­ ing as helpers, observing and learning from experienced plasterers. Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by lo­ cal joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of at least 2 years of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work. In class, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster de­ signs. On the job, they leam about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plastering, blueprint reading, and safety from experienced plaster­ ers. Some apprenticeship programs allow in-  340/Occupational Outlook Handbook  dividuals to obtain training in related occu­ pations such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying materials, set­ ting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Then they learn to apply the scratch and brown coats and the finish coat. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs gen­ erally must be at least 17 years old, be in good physical condition, and have manual dexterity. Applicants who have a high school education are preferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. Plasterers may advance to supervisors, su­ perintendents, or estimators for plastering con­ tractors, or may become self-employed con­ tractors. Job Outlook Employment of plasterers is expected to in­ crease more slowly than the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In recent years, employ­ ment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plas­ terers may rebound somewhat as a result of greater appreciation for the durability and hard­ ness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering, in particular, may gain greater ac­ ceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, and quality of finish. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plaster work in older structures and create spe­ cial architectural effects such as curved sur­ faces, which are not practical with drywall ma­ terials. Most plasterers work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because most work is indoors. On ex­ terior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers may lose time because materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Earnings According to the limited information available, average weekly earnings for plasterers who worked full time were about $375 in 1986. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers. However, earnings for plasterers and apprentices may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity limit their work time. Many plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, or the Inter­ national Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as the primary tool include bricklayers, cement  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  masons, marble setters, stonemasons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap­ prenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Crafts­ men, 815 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Inter­ national Association of the United States and Can­ ada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 806.261-018; 862.261, .281-010, -014, and -022, .361-014, -018, and -022, and .381 except -010 and -038, .681, .682-010, and .684-034)  Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with the plumber who comes to their home to repair a break in a water line or unclog a drain. In addition to these tasks, however, plumbers and pipefitters install, maintain, and repair all types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water from a river, reservoir, or other water source to a municipal water treatment plant, and then to local homes and businesses. Others dispose of waste, provide water to fight fires, and trans­ port water and steam for cooling and heating. Pipe systems in powerplants play an essential role in producing electricity by carrying the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move ma­ terial through the production process. Although plumbing and pipefitting some­ times are considered a single trade, workers generally specialize in one craft. Plumbers in­ stall and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and com­ mercial and industrial buildings. They also in­ stall plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters install and repair both high- and low-pressure pipe systems that are used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling build­ ings. Some pipefitters specialize in one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Because the purpose, size, and operation of pipe systems differ, the materials and construc­ tion techniques used by plumbers and pipefit­ ters vary by the type of project. Water systems in homes, for example, use copper, plastic, and galvanized steel pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal  sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast iron pipe; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these dif­ ferences, all plumbers and pipefitters must be able to follow building plans and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. The following example illustrates how plumbers use their skills to install piping in a house. Working from blueprints or shop drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumb­ ing fixtures, and appliances, plumbers lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material and within the confines of the structure. They mea­ sure and mark areas where pipe will be installed and connected. They also check for obstruc­ tions, such as electrical wiring, and if neces­ sary, plan how to install pipe around the prob­ lem. To install the piping, plumbers may saw holes in walls, ceilings, and floors. For some systems, they may have to hang steel supports from ceilings to hold the pipe in place. To assemble the system, plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the method depends on the type of pipe used. For copper pipe, plumbers slide fittings over the end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place with a torch. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections with ad­ hesives. When the piping is in place, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside water and sewer lines. Using pressure gauges, they check the system to insure that the plumbing works properly. Working Conditions Physical stamina is required for plumbing and pipefitting work because these workers fre­ quently must lift heavy pipes and stand for long periods. Plumbers and pipefitters in construc­ tion generally work a standard workweek; maintenance workers, including those that pro­ vide maintenance services under contract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, and some may be on call. Plumbers and pipefitters frequently work in cramped and dirty places and may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. They can be injured by falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes or from soldering equipment. Employment Plumbers and pipefitters held 402,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for mechanical and plumb­ ing contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government em­ ployers. For example, pipefitters were em­ ployed as maintenance personnel in the petro­ leum, chemical, and food-processing industries, where manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. About 1 out of 7 plumbers and pipefitters is self-employed.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/341  Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are dis­ tributed across the country in about the same proportion as the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers consider an apprenticeship to be the best way to learn all aspects of the plumbing and pipefitting trades. Nevertheless, many still acquire their skills by working for several years as a helper to experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Apprenticeship programs for plumbers and pipefitters are administered by local unionmanagement committees comprised of mem­ bers of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefit­ ting Industry of the United States and Canada, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, Inc., the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc. Ap­ prenticeship programs also are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship committees require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, and physics are helpful. Apprenticeships consist of 5 years of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 216 hours annually of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blue­ print reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unloading of materials. As ap­ prentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. People learning the trade as helpers acquire their skills by observing and assisting experi­ enced workers. Those who acquire their skills in this fashion may not get the comprehensive training that those in apprenticeship programs do because they may not be exposed to as wide a variety of materials or projects or receive as much classroom training. Most communities require plumbers to be licensed, but licensing requirements vary from area to area. For licensure, most localities re­ quire workers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. Some plumbers and pipefitters may become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing con­ tractors. Others go into business for them­ selves. Job Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is ex­ pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in re­ sponse to anticipated growth in residential, in­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  dustrial, and commercial construction. Reno­ vation and maintenance of powerplants, water and wastewater treatment plants, pipelines, of­ fice buildings, factories, and other projects that have large, complex pipe systems as well as maintenance of existing residential systems also are expected to spur the demand for these work­ ers. In addition, legislation mandating the in­ stallation of sprinkler systems in existing struc­ tures should create job opportunities for those experienced in this area. Traditionally, many organizations with pipe systems have employed their own plumbers and pipefitters in order to maintain their equip­ ment and keep everything running smoothly. In order to control costs, a growing number of these firms are relying on workers provided, under service contracts, by plumbing and pi­ pefitting contractors. As competitive pressures mount, an increasing number of organizations are expected to adopt this policy. As a result, employment of plumbers and pipefitters is ex­ pected to grow more rapidly in contracting firms than in other types of firms. In addition to jobs created by increased de­ mand for plumbers and pipefitters, many open­ ings will occur each year from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Relatively few plumbers and pipefitters transfer to other oc­ cupations—reflecting the lengthy investment in training and relatively high wages and ben­ efits in this trade. Nevertheless, most job open­ ings will stem from replacement needs. Because of the temporary nature of construc­ tion projects, plumbers and pipefitters may ex­ perience short bouts of unemployment when the project on which they are working ends. Since construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. Despite these fluctuations, how­ ever, employment of these workers generally is less sensitive to changes in economic con­ ditions than some of the other construction trades. Maintenance of existing piping systems provides jobs for many plumbers and pipefitters even when construction activity declines. Because of relatively high wages and ex­ tensive training opportunities, competition for plumbing and pipefitting apprenticeships is ex­ pected to remain keen. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plumbers and pipefitters who were not self-employed were $470 in 1986. Most earned between $330 and $614 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $246; the highest 10 percent earned $774. In 1986, hourly wage rates for maintenance pipefitters in metropolitan areas were about $14.35. In comparison, the average wage for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75. In general, wage rates tend to be higher in the Midwest and West than in the Northeast and South. Plumbers and pipefitters enjoy a variety of benefits provided by their employers or union.  Typical benefits include health insurance, pen­ sion plans, and training opportunities. Apprentices usually begin at 40 to 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced plumbers or pipefitters. This increases periodically as they improve their skills. After an initial wait­ ing period, apprentices receive the same ben­ efits as experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Many plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers, electricians, elevator construc­ tors, environmental control system installers and servicers, hot air furnace installers and repairers, millwrights, oil burner servicers and installers, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in plumbing and pipefitting, con­ tact local plumbing, heating, and air-condi­ tioning contractors; a local chapter of the Me­ chanical Contractors Association; a local of the union mentioned above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, con­ tact: National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, 180 S. Washington St., Falls Church' VA 22046. Associated Builders and Contractors. 729 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000 Patterson. NY 12563. Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 5410 Grosvenor Ln.. Suite 120, Bethesda, MD 2081.  imp  Most plumbers learn through formal appren­ ticeship programs.  342/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Roofers (D.O.T. 866.381-010. -014. and .684-0101  Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To keep out water, roofers repair and install roofs of tar or asphalt and gravel, rubber, plastic, metal, and shingles made of slate, asphalt, fiberglass, wood, or tile. Repair and reroofing—installing new roofs on existing buildings—provide substantial work oppor­ tunities for these workers. Roofers also may waterproof foundation walls and floors. There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched (slanted). Most commercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have flat or slightly sloping roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Some roofers work with both types; others specialize. Most flat roofs are covered with several lay­ ers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. They then spread a coat of hot molten bitumen (a tar-like sub­ stance) over the insulation. Next, they lay roof­ ing felt (fabric saturated in bitumen) over the surface and use a mop to spread hot bitumen over and under it. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps, alternating the direction of each layer of roofing felt, to build up the desired number of layers (called plies). The top layer  is sometimes glazed to make a smooth finish, or gravel is embedded in the hot bitumen. An increasing number of flat roofs are cov­ ered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or plastic. Roofers roll these sheets over the roof’s insulation and seal the seams. Ad­ hesive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballast hold the sheets in place. The roof must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. Most house roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shingles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, they nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherever two roof sur­ faces intersect or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail flashing (strips of metal or sh ingle) over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with cement to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and concrete walls and floors. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots or remove them with a rubbing brick before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing compound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a water­ proofing material or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usually spray a bitumen-based coating on interior or exterior surfaces.  Apply ing a built-up roof system requires a team effort  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Roofers’ work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and bums from hot bitumen. In fact, of all construction industries, the roofing industry has one of the highest accident rates. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when mak­ ing repairs. Roofs are extremely hot during the summer. Employment Roofers held about 142,000 jobs in 1986. Most roofers work for roofing contractors. About 1 out of 4 roofers is self-employed. Many selfemployed roofers specialize in residential work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for experienced roofers. They start by carrying equipment and material and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months they are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing materials and then to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. It can take 5 years or more to get experience installing all types of roofing materials, because some materials are not used frequently. Some roofers train through 3-year appren­ ticeship programs administered by local unionmanagement committees. The apprenticeship program generally consists of a minimum of 1.400 hours of on-the-job training annually, plus 144 hours of classroom instruction in sub­ jects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job training for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and water­ proof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential. A high school education or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in me­ chanical drawing and basic mathematics. Ap­ prentices must be at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or es­ timator for a roofing contractor or become con­ tractors themselves. Job Outlook Employment of roofers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Roofs deteriorate faster than most other parts of buildings and period­ ically need to be repaired or replaced. About 70 percent of roofing work is repair and re­ roofing, a higher percent than in most other construction work. The stock of existing build­ ings is expected to grow substantially over the period, and therefore more roofers will be needed for repair and reroofing. Because turnover is high, the need to replace experienced roofers who leave the occupation will account for most job openings. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer, when most roofing is done.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/343  Earnings Median weekly earnings for roofers working full time were about $305 a week in 1986. One-half earned between $235 and $430 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $605 weekly. Earnings for roofers can be reduced on occasion because poor weather limits the amount of time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers. Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, sin­ gle-ply plastic or rubber sheets, or other ma­ terials to waterproof budding surfaces. Work­ ers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special materials for protection and dec­ oration include carpenters, concrete masons, drywall applicators, floor covering installers, glaziers, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about roofing apprenticeships or work opportunities in this trade, contact lo­ cal roofing contractors; a local of the union previously mentioned; a local joint union-man­ agement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: National Roofing Contractors Association. 6250 River Road, Rosemont, IL 60018. United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington DC 20036.  Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.684-046 and 939.687-018}  Nature of the Work Much of the routine physical labor and main­ tenance in and around oil fields and pipelines is performed by roustabouts. They dig ditches or trenches for foundations or for drainage, load and unload trucks and boats, mix concrete, paint equipment, cut down trees and brush, and connect pipes and hydraulic hoses using handtools. They also may assemble and per­ form minor repairs on oil field machinery and equipment—such as pumps, boilers, valves, and steam engines. With increasing mecha­ nization in recent years, roustabouts now op­ erate motorized lifts, power tools, and elec­ tronic testers, and have time to assume more maintenance responsibilities. Most roustabouts work with crews around existing oil wells. Others work for companies engaged in drilling wells, almost all of which is done by specialized companies known as drilling contractors. Roustabouts frequently assist skilled work­ ers such as welders, electricians, and mechan­ ics. They generally work under the supervision of a maintenance superintendent.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  WWKT? K M  Roustabouts perform a wide variety- of unskilled and semiskilled tasks. tasks Working Conditions Working outdoors in all kinds of weather, roustabouts on offshore rigs and platforms can experience strong ocean currents, tides, and storms. Because roustabouts work around heavy materials and equipment such as drill rigs and cranes, their work is fairly strenuous and re­ quires frequent bending, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting. They also are subject to falls from rigs or derricks and other platforms, in­ juries from falling objects, cuts and abrasions from various tools and equipment, and sore or strained muscles from heavy lifting. Those who work on offshore drilling rigs generally work 7 days a week, 12 hours a day, and then have 7 days off. They live on the drilling platform for a week at a time and return to shore by helicopter or crewboat. In com­ parison, those who work onshore in oil pro­ duction operations generally work regular 5day, 40-hour weeks. Many drilling operations continue 24 hours a day until oil is discovered or the location is abandoned as a dry hole. This requires three 8-hour shifts or “tours,” 7 days a week. Roustabouts working with drilling crews may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in a few weeks or months. Those who work on production wells usually remain in the same location for long periods. Employment Roustabouts held about 56,000 jobs in 1986. About 70 percent of all jobs were in the oil and gas field services industry. The remaining jobs were in the crude petroleum and natural gas industry. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in a large number of States, about 85 percent of all workers are employed in eight States. Texas leads in the number of oil field jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklahoma, Cal­ ifornia, Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and New Mexico. Most jobs are tull-time, permanent posi­  tions. However, some roustabouts are tem­ porary workers, such as students during the summer. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People with little or no formal training or work experience can get jobs as roustabouts. How­ ever, with extremely keen competition for jobs in recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupation have previous work experience as a roustabout or a 2-year degree in petroleum technology—providing knowl­ edge of oil field operations and familiarity with automated equipment. Applicants must be physically fit and able to pass a physical examination. Employers also seek candidates who have mechanical ability, agility, coordination, and good eyesight. Some companies also administer aptitude tests to pro­ spective employees. Roustabouts usually are hired in the field by the maintenance superintendent or by a local company representative. Companies generally hire workers who live near the work site. Employers are often reluctant to invest in training because ot the relatively high turnover rate among roustabouts. However, some em­ ployees are offered an opportunity to take basic self-study courses offered by the American Pe­ troleum Institute or courses offered by various junior colleges. In some companies, roust­ abouts participate in educational assistance programs that pay for job-related courses taken on the employee’s own time. New hirees without postsecondary training or previous work experience learn through onthe-job training under the supervision of a more skilled worker. Roustabouts start by perform­ ing basic laborer tasks such as unloading trucks and digging trenches. As they gain experience, they progress to more complex tasks such as fixing a motor or repairing a pump. During their training, they learn about the safety and  344/Occupational Outlook Handbook  maintenance of equipment and machinery and general oil field operations. Roustabouts on maintenance and operation crews can advance to jobs as switcher, gauger, pumper, lease operator, or, for those who dem­ onstrate leadership qualities, to chief operator or maintenance superintendent. Those on drill­ ing crews may advance to roughneck, floor hand, or rotary helper in 3 to 6 months. (Roughnecks guide pipe sections to and from oil well openings and help operate drilling ma­ chinery.) Roughnecks and other crew members may advance to derrick operator and, after sev­ eral years, to driller. A driller can advance to tool pusher in charge of one or more drilling rigs. Roustabouts who are graduates of petroleum technology programs—generally 2 years long— can advance to engineering technician or re­ lated jobs. Some attend company schools where they receive specialized training in electricity, welding, or other subjects, and later advance to various craft jobs—electrician, welder, or pipefitter, for example. During periods of rapid growth in the oil industry, advancement opportunities are plen­ tiful for capable workers. Because new jobs have been scarce in recent years, however, advancement opportunities have been limited. Job Outlook Job opportunities for roustabouts are expected to be very limited. Employment of roustabouts is expected to decline through the year 2000 as a result of reduced exploration and produc­ tion in the domestic oil industry and the in­ creasing automation of oil field operations. Replacement needs will account for virtually all job openings in this occupation. Charac­ teristic of entry level occupations, turnover among roustabouts is relatively high, partic­ ularly for those workers involved in offshore drilling. Some roustabouts find the work too strenuous or dirty and leave the occupation. Many people take roustabout jobs to earn money for a specific purpose—for example, a college education—and quit after a short time. Still others stay only long enough to acquire the minimum skills to advance into more highly skilled jobs. During the middle to late 1970’s, a world­ wide shortage of oil gave U.S. firms the in­ centive to increase the supply of oil and resulted in massive hirings of new workers. However, more recent years have been characterized by a worldwide surplus of oil. Major oil finds around the world and increased production by key oil producers such as the Middle Eastern and North Sea nations have increased the sup­ ply of oil while conservation of oil by industry and the public has reduced the demand for oil. This surplus has resulted in falling oil prices and a reduced incentive for exploration and drilling. In addition, many “stripper” oil wells— labor-intensive operations that employ many roustabouts—have been forced to close down, resulting in layoffs of some roustabouts. Few, if any, new roustabout jobs are ex­ pected in the foreseeable future, and employers can continue to be selective in hiring. Job op­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  duct work, counter tops, and other custom products. In many shops, workers use com­ puterized metalworking equipment. This en­ ables them to determine the layout that would result in the least waste of material. Sheetmetal workers then cut or form the parts with computer-controlled saws, shears, and presses. In some shops, workers cut parts with com­ puter-controlled lasers. In shops without computerized equipment and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheet-metal workers use hand cal­ Earnings In 1986, estimated earnings for roustabouts culators to do the required mathematics and averaged $11.14 an hour. Roustabouts in the use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices oil and gas field industry averaged $12.44 an when performing layout work. They then cut hour. Those working offshore had an hourly or stamp the parts with machine tools. Before any piece is assembled, each part is rate of $13.41, while onshore workers earned checked for accuracy and, if necessary, fin­ $11.69 an hour. Roustabouts working in the ishing work is done with handtools such as contract drilling industry averaged $9.21; those working onshore earned $9.87 and offshore snips and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, sheet-metal workers fasten the seams workers earned $9.06. and joints together with bolts, cement, drive Most roustabouts are not members of unions. Only about one-fourth of all firms employing slips, rivets, solder, or by welding. At the construction site, sheet-metal workers field operation workers and less than 5 percent of firms employing contract drilling workers assemble and install pieces fabricated at the shop. They also use hammers, shears, and drills were covered by union contracts. Workers in establishments with collective bargaining to make parts by hand at the worksite and to agreements were represented either by inde­ alter parts made in the shop. Workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by pendent unions such as the Associated Petro­ leum Employees Union or by the Oil, Chemical joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. and Atomic Workers International Union. To hold the pieces together, workers may bolt, weld, rivet, or solder, or use specially formed Related Occupations sheet-metal drive clips or other connecting de­ Roustabouts assist skilled oil field workers. Other laborers who assist skilled workers in­ vices. Molded and pressed sheet metal, such as clude blacksmith helper, construction laborer, roofing and siding, usually is measured and cut dockhand, and material handler. on the job. After securing the first panel in place, workers interlock and fasten the grooved Sources of Additional Information edge of the next panel into the grooved edge Information on job opportunities as a rousta­ of the first. They nail or weld the free edge of bout is available from local offices of the State the panel to the structure. This two-step process employment service or oil companies and drill­ is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, ing contractors. The names and addresses of at joints, along comers, and around windows oil companies are listed in either the U.S.A. and doors, workers fasten machine-made Oil Industry Directory or the Time Oil and Gas molding for a neat, finished effect. Directory. In addition to installation, some sheet-metal workers may specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-condition­ ing and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency.  portunities will be best for persons with pre­ vious experience as a roustabout or formal training in petroleum technology. Job oppor­ tunities are expected to be better on offshore rigs than in onshore activities. Employment of roustabouts is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, particularly to the level of activity in the oil industry. During a slowdown in activity, roustabouts are subject to layoffs.  Sheet-Metal Workers  (D.O.T. 804.281-010 and -014)  _______________  Nature of the Work Air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and pollution control duct systems; kitchen equip­ ment; roofs; siding; rain gutters; skylights; and outdoor signs are some of the many products that sheet-metal workers make, install, and maintain. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. (This statement does not in­ clude workers employed in the mass production of sheet-metal products.) Sheet-metal workers usually fabricate their products at a shop away from the construction site. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, they measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make  Working Conditions Sheet-metal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabricate sheet-metal prod­ ucts work in shops that are well lighted and well ventilated. They stand for long periods and may have to lift heavy materials and fin­ ished pieces. In addition, working around high­ speed machines can be dangerous, and workers must follow safety practices. They often wear safety glasses and must be careful not to wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could eas­ ily get caught in a machine. Those doing installation work do consider­ able bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quarters or in awkward positions. Because they often have  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/345  to adjust the fabricated pieces, they may get cuts and bums from materials and tools. Although installing duct systems and kitchen equipment is done indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much out­ door work. Employment Sheet-metal workers held about 93,000 wage and salary jobs in the construction industry in 1986. Construction employers include air-con­ ditioning and heating, roofing, and sheet-metal contractors and general contractors engaged in residential, industrial, and commercial build­ ing. Unlike many of the other construction trades, very few sheet-metal workers are selfemployed. Jobs for sheet-metal workers are distributed throughout the country in about the same pro­ portion as the total population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sheet-metal contractors consider apprentice­ ship the best way to learn this trade, although some workers learn informally on the job. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training and at least 144 hours per year of classroom instruction. It provides comprehensive instruction in both sheet-metal fabrication and installation. The programs are administered by joint committees of locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International As­ sociation and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, or by local chapters of the As­ sociated Builders and Contractors. On the job, apprentices use the tools, ma­ chines, equipment, and materials of the trade. They learn to measure, cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin with basic duct work and gradually advance to more dif­ ficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, fittings, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as pressed fiberglass, plastics, and acoustical tile which may be substituted for metal on some jobs. In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, blueprint reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of comput­ erized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the pro­ gram. In addition, apprentices learn the rela­ tionship between sheet-metal work and other construction work. Workers who pick up the trade informally usually begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Then, as employers permit, helpers learn to operate ma­ chines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the job site to learn instal lation. Those who acquire their skills on the job often take vocational school courses in mathematics or sheet-metal fabrication to supplement their work experience. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical aptitude. Local apprenticeship  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sheet-metal workers spend much of their time away from the construction site. committees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in trigonometry, ge­ ometry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade. Some experienced sheet-metal workers take additional training to improve or to acquire new skills. Often this training is provided by the union or their employer. Sheet-metal workers may advance to super­ visory jobs. Some take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Others go into the contracting business. Because a sheet-metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Job Outlook Employment of sheet-metal workers in con­ struction is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Demand for sheet-metal installation should increase as more commercial, indus­ trial, and residential structures are built. Grow­ ing demand for more energy-efficient air-con­ ditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in existing buildings and other types of renovation and maintenance work also should boost em­ ployment opportunities. In addition, the in­ creased use of decorative sheet-metal products and increased architectural restoration is ex­ pected to increase demand for sheet-metal workers. Despite this growth, most job open­ ings will arise as experienced workers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although employment of sheet-metal work­ ers is expected to increase over the long run, workers may experience periods of unemploy­ ment when construction projects end and when economic conditions reduce the amount of con­ struction activity. However, employment of sheet-metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is  less affected by economic fluctuations than new construction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheet-metal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also continues during con­ struction slumps as individuals and businesses seek more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. In addition, a large proportion of sheet-metal installation and maintenance is done indoors; therefore, these workers usually lose less work time than other construction workers due to bad weather. As the construction industry expands, ap­ prenticeship opportunities should be good. However, when construction activity falls, ap­ prenticeship opportunities often decline and, as a result, the outlook for apprentices may vary from year to year and by geographic area. Earnings According to data from the sheet metal national training fund, union sheet-metal workers' total compensation averaged $17.50 per hour in 1986. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, they receive periodic increases as they acquire the skills of the trade. In addition to their hourly wage, sheet-metal workers usually receive fringe benefits sup­ plied by either the local union or their em­ ployer. Typical benefits include health and life insurance, pension plans, and training oppor­ tunities. In addition, in some areas, union workers receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened workweeks. A large proportion of sheet-metal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ In­ ternational Association. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheet-metal products, sheet-metal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materials  346/Occupational Outlook Handbook  and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include layout workers, machinists, metal fab­ ricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and tool-and-die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration in­ stallers; glaziers; and insulation workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local sheetmetal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the union mentioned above; a local joint union-manage­ ment apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or ap­ prenticeship agency. For general information about sheet-metal workers, contact: National Training Fund for the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Industry, Edward F. Carlough Plaza, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. Associated Builders and Contractors of America, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.  Structural and Reinforcing Metal Workers  and stack the steel so it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, the ironworkers attach cables from the crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope attached to the steel to prevent it from swinging. The steel is hoisted into place in the framework, where several workers position it with connecting bars, jacks, and handtools. Workers use driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—to align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Then they bolt the piece in place temporarily, check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs, laser equipment, or levels and then bolt or weld it permanently in place. Reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or wire mesh—is an important ma­ terial in buildings, bridges, and other struc­ tures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Reinforcing metal workers set the bars in the forms that hold concrete, following blue­ prints that show the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars required. They fasten the bars together by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks or metal chairs under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the deck. These workers sometimes cut the bars with acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc-welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire mesh. Workers  cut and fit the mesh and, while a concrete crew pours the slab, ironworkers use hooked rods to position it in the concrete. Ironworkers also install metal stairways, cat­ walks, floor gratings, ladders, metal cabinets, and window frames, as well as lampposts, rail­ ings, fences, and decorative ironwork. In ad­ dition, they bolt or weld prefabricated alumi­ num, brass, and bronze frames and panels to buildings. Most ornamental metal is fabricated away from the construction site; ironworkers align and assemble it. They make sure ornamental pieces fit correctly and hold firmly. They may cut oversized pieces to size and drill holes. For secure connections, they bolt, braze, or weld the metals. These workers also erect metal tanks used to store petroleum, water, or other fluids; place post tensioning cables in the fabrication of prestressed concrete components; and assem­ ble prefabricated metal buildings according to plans or specifications.  Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing metal workers usu­ ally work outside in all kinds of weather. How­ ever, those who work at great heights do not work when it is wet, slippery because of snow or ice, or extremely windy. Ironworkers may be injured in falls. How­ ever, they use safety devices such as safety  (D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018, -022, .381-010, and .684­ 026)  Nature of the Work Structural and reinforcing metal workers, also known as ironworkers, erect the steel frame­ work of buildings, bridges, and other struc­ tures, and position steel bars and wire mesh to reinforce concrete structures. They also set up hoisting equipment for raising and placing structural steel and moving other ma­ terials and equipment. In addition, they install steel stairs, window guards, curtain and win­ dow walls, and railings on buildings, and repair metal work. Bridges, power transmission towers, and many large buildings have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. Structural metal workers erect these steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other materials and equipment around the construction site. The hoisting equipment arrives at the construction site in sections, where it is lifted into position by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect the sections and set up the cables that do the hoist­ ing. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, these workers connect steel col­ umns, beams, and girders. The steel is deliv­ ered to the construction site ready for as­ sembly—cut to the proper size with holes drilled for bolts, and numbered to indicate how pieces fit together. Ironworkers unload  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Jm *  .  S Is  Reinforcing metal workers wire-tie reinforcing bars for a concrete column.  Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations/347  belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce the risk of injuries. Ironworkers may have to travel long dis­ tances to their worksite when work is not avail­ able near home.  Employment Structural and reinforcing metal workers held about 86,0(X) jobs in 1986. Most of these work­ ers are employed in the construction industry by general contractors and steel erection con­ tractors. Some are employed by large steel companies engaged in the construction of bridges, dams, and large buildings. Very few are self-employed. Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where most commercial and industrial con­ struction takes place.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend an ap­ prenticeship as the best way to learn this trade. However, a large number of ironworkers learn informally on the job. Apprenticeship programs are administered by joint union-management committees made up of representatives of local unions of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers and local chapters of contractors’ associations. The apprentice­ ship consists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours a year of class­ room instruction. In the classroom, apprentices study the basics of structural erecting, rigging, reinforcing, welding and burning, and ornamental assem­ bling, as well as blueprint reading, the care and safe use of tools and materials,, and math­ ematics for layout work. On the job, appren­ tices get experience in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, connecting structural steel, and welding. Ironworkers who learn the trade informally generally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive training programs. Nonapprentice trainees re­ ceive on-the-job training similar to the training of apprentices, but they are not guaranteed ex­ perience in all aspects of the trade. Ironworkers generally must be at least 18 years old. A high school diploma may be pre­ ferred by employers and is required by most local apprenticeship committees. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Because materials used in ironworking are heavy and bulky, ironworkers must be in good physical condition. Agility and balance also are required in order to work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Experienced workers can become supervi­ sors. Ironwork offers relatively few opportun­ ities for self-employment because the work re­ quires large expenditures for materials and equipment.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Job Outlook Employment of structural and reinforcing metal workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 to meet rising demand for nonresidential buildings, power transmission towers, and highway and bridge construction and main­ tenance—types of construction that require ex­ tensive use of structural steel and reinforced concrete. However, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced iron­ workers who transfer to other fields of work or leave the labor force. The number of job openings fluctuates from year to year as economic conditions and the level of construction activity change. Simi­ larly, job opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Job openings for ironworkers usually are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Many people are attracted to ironworker ap­ prenticeship programs by the high wages, caus­ ing stiff competition for positions.  Earnings Median weekly earnings for ironworkers were about $465 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $350 and $635 weekly. Ap­ prentices start at 40 to 60 percent of the wages paid to experienced workers. Earnings for iron­ workers may be reduced on occasion because work can be limited by bad weather and the lack of jobs. Many workers in this trade are members of the International Association of Bridge, Struc­ tural and Ornamental Iron Workers. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing metal workers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, highways, powerlines, and other structures. Other workers important in these types of con­ struction are operating engineers, carpenters, concrete masons, and welders.  Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Asso­ ciation of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Con­ tractors, or the nearest office of the State em­ ployment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about ironworkers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. National Erectors Association, 1501 Lee Hwy., Ar­ lington, VA 22209. National Association of Reinforcing Steel Contrac­ tors, P.O. Box 225, Fairfax, VA 22030.  Tilesetters (D.O.T. 861.381-054. -058. and .684-018)  Nature of the Work In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for mosaics—an art form using small, decorative ceramic squares. Tile also has been a popular building material over the years because it is durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean. It is used today, for instance, in lobbies of buildings, restrooms, food preparation areas, hospitals, and tunnels. Tilesetters, in a fashion similar to that of the ancient artists, apply tile to floors, walls, and ceilings.To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1 inch to 6 inches square, workers use cement or mastic (a very sticky paste). When using cement, tilesetters tack a support of metal mesh to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement plaster, called a scratch coat, onto the metal screen and a small tool, similar to a rake, to scratch the surface of the soft plaster. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply a rich coat of cement to the back of the tile and place it onto the surface. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive (called ‘‘thin set”), tilesetters need a flat, solid surface such as drywall, concrete, plaster, or wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive to the back of the tile and properly position it. Since tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This al­ lows workers to examine the pattern and make changes. Some tiles are cut with a machine saw or a special cutting tool to fit into comers and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins. Once the tile is placed, tilesetters gently tap the surface with their trowel handle or a small block of wood so the tiles seat evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tileset­ ters fill the joints with grout—a very fine ce­ ment. They then scrape the surface with a rub­ ber-edged device called a squeegee to dress the joints and remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance.  Working Conditions Tilesetters generally work indoors. Since most of the structure has been completed, the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. Much of the workday is spent bending, kneeling, and reaching, activities that require endurance but not exceptional strength. To protect their knees, some workers wear kneepads. Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as haz­ ardous as some other construction occupations.  Employment Tilesetters held about 32,000 jobs in 1986. Most were employed by tilesetting contractors  348/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Tilesetters are employed throughout the country but are found largely in urban areas.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement  mm  Tilesetters finish joints with a cement grout. who work mainly on nonresidential construc­ tion projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. Nearly half of all tilesetters are self-employed compared to about a quarter of all construction workers.  Most training authorities recommend comple­ tion of a 3-year apprenticeship program, which consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as blue­ print reading, layout, and basic mathematics. Although recommended, apprenticeship pro­ grams are difficult to enter because of the small number of training slots available. In practice, therefore, most tilesetters ac­ quire their skills informally by working as help­ ers to experienced workers. They begin by familiarizing themselves with the tools of the trade. They are taught to mix and apply cement and to apply mastic. Then they learn to cut and install tile, apply grout, and do finishing work. When hiring apprentices or helpers, em­ ployers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, manual dexterity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Skilled tilesetters may become supervisors or estimators or may start their own contracting businesses.  Job Outlook Employment of tilesetters is expected to in­ crease faster than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Population and business growth, which results in an increase in construction of buildings, stores, hospitals, restaurants, and other structures where tile is used extensively, will stimulate demand for tilesetters. Tile is also more likely to be used in more expensive homes, and construction of these homes is expected to increase. Although growth in demand will provide some new job opportunities, most will result from the need to replace tilesetters who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of tilesetters, like that of many construction occupations, is sensitive to changes in the economy. Workers in this trade can ex­ perience periods of unemployment when con­ struction activity is down.  Earnings According to the limited information available, average weekly earnings for wage and salary tilesetters were about S425 in 1986. Self-em­ ployed tilesetters generally earn more. The principal union organizing workers in this trade is the International Union of Brick­ layers and Allied Craftsmen. In addition, the Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and Granite Cutters International Union organizes tilesetters’ helpers.  Related Occupations Self-employment in construction craft occupations is highest among tilesetters. Percent self-employed, 1986 0  10 I . A • . . .  20 1 :  Tilesetters : ' v . Painters and —11 paperhangers Carpenters ■......;... .....:...:...;..:..ii:.......... Drywall workers and lathers Roofers ..*........ *. ..*«*i ■* Bricklayers and ....... ................... 1 stonemasons Plumbers and .... '.. L:’... ... 1 pipefitters Plasterers ..... ...........J ......1 Glaziers ........ : .~~i Electricians  1  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  30 I  40 1  50 :  \ :  I ]  .  1  .1  Tilesetters use their knowledge of tools and masonry materials along with skill and dex­ terity to produce attractive, durable surfaces. Other workers with similar abilities include bricklayers, cement masons, marblesetters, plasterers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers.  Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeship or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tile­ setting contractors; locals of the unions pre­ viously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprentice­ ship agency. For general information about the work of tilesetters, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Crafts­ men, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and Granite Cutters International Union, 801 N. Pitt St., Suite 116, Alexandria, VA 22314.  Production Occupations Apparel Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 425.)  Nature of the Work Fabrics made from natural or synthetic fiber, as well as leather and fur, are used to make a wide array of consumer goods—primarily ap­ parel but also toys, furniture, and homefurnishings. Those involved in the production and care of these and related products are called apparel workers. Some apparel products, such as hosiery and sweaters, are produced in knit­ ting mills. Workers who are employed in these factories are classified as textile rather than apparel workers. (A separate statement on tex­ tile machinery operatives is presented else­ where in the Handbook.) Apparel production begins with a design, created by a designer, that has been made into a sample product by a custom tailor or a hand sewer, also known as a sample maker. (A sep­ arate statement on designers is presented else­ where in the Handbook.) Because these goods are to be mass produced, a master pattern must be developed. This is the responsibility of pat­ ternmakers. From the sample, they create pat­ tern pieces that will complement the fabric and minimize the number of sewing operations. In many instances, different sizes of a shirt or other product are required. Instead of creating several patterns, the patternmaker or grader reduces or enlarges the master pattern for dif­ ferent sizes. In many large firms, this now is done with the aid of a computer. Once the pattern has been created, layout workers begin the production process. Spread­ ers, one type of layout worker, spread out lay­ ers of material on the cutting table. The number of layers depends on the number of products needed, as well as on the weight and quality of the material. Material must be laid out evenly and to a specified length on the table or prob­ lems will arise when cutting begins. Special­ ized spreading machines enable layout workers to accomplish this with a high degree of pre­ cision. Other layout workers known as markers must determine the best arrangement of the pattern pieces to minimize waste. In most plants, this step depends on the judgment of the layout worker. Increasingly in large firms, however, computers are used to determine the optimum arrangement of the pattern pieces. After the pattern has been positioned, its outline is drawn with chalk on the top layer of material. Using an electric knife or other cutting tool, portable machine cutters cut out the various pieces of material following the outline of the pattern. On especially delicate or valuable items   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  this may be done by hand cutters. These work­ ers must pay close attention to detail because a mistake in the cutting process can ruin many yards of material. Once the material has been cut, it is ready to be assembled into a shirt, knapsack, dress, or other product. Before being sent to the sew­ ing room, the products’ parts and accessories are bundled together. Colors, sizes, and fabric designs are matched, and chalk or another sub­ stance is used to mark locations for pockets, buttonholes, and trimmings. Most sewing is done on a machine by sewing machine operators, who are classified by the type of machine and the type of product on which they work. Because each product re­ quires a variety of sewing operations, all of which cannot be done on the same machine, companies producing apparel must have sev­ eral different types of sewing machines. Sew­ ing machine operators’ skills vary by the type of machine on which they work. Sewing machine operators also can be cat­ egorized by the specific product they produce, such as women’s outerwear or men’s suits. The most basic division, however, is between those who produce clothing and those who produce nonapparel items. Garment sewing machine operators sew clothing for men, women, and children. They usually specialize in a single operation, such as shoulder seams, cuffs, or hems. Like garment sewing machine operators, nongarment sewing machine operators spec­ ialize in a single operation, but they sew other products, such as towels, sheets, or curtains. Because of the value and delicate nature of some materials, sewing may be done by hand rather than on a machine. Hand sewers are highly skilled workers who may specialize in a particular operation, such as sewing button­ holes or adding lace or other trimming. They also may work with the designer to make a sample of a new product. When all sewing operations have been com­ pleted, hand cutters and trimmers remove loose threads, basting stitching, and lint from the finished product. The shape and appearance of certain finished products depend, to a large extent, on the press­ ing that is done at different stages of produc­ tion. Pressing may be done by hand pressers using a hand iron or on pressing machines that are monitored by pressing machine operators. Some pressers specialize in a particular garment part; others are responsible for the final press­ ing before the product is shipped to the store. Not all apparel goods are mass produced. Some people prefer or require clothing made especially for them. Custom tailors and sewers make garments from start to finish—including taking measurements and helping the customer  select the right fabric—and must be knowl­ edgeable in all phases of clothing production. Many work in retail outlets, where they make alterations and adjustments to ready-to-wear clothing. Inspectors are found in all stages of the pro­ duction process. (For a more detailed discus­ sion of inspectors, see the statement on in­ spectors elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may mark defects in uncut fabric so that layout workers can position the pattern to avoid them, or they may mark defects in semifinished gar­ ments, which they may repair themselves or send back to be mended by a hand sewer. Many apparel workers are employed by small firms that lack the capital resources to invest in new, more efficient equipment. Because of this, the nature of the work for the majority of apparel workers has not been affected by the increased use of technology. Nevertheless, in larger firms that have modernized their facil­ ities, some operations are computerized, and some of the product-moving operations are done by automated material handling systems.  Working Conditions Working conditions in apparel production vary by establishment and by the type of job being done. Older factories tend to be congested and poorly lit and ventilated, but more modem fa­ cilities are usually better planned, have more work space, and are well lighted and ventilated. In either case, conditions in the pattemmaking and cutting areas tend to be better than those in the sewing and pressing areas. Sewing and pressing areas usually are crowded and noisy, whereas pattemmaking and spreading areas are quieter because they often are separate from the production floor. Laundries and dryclean­ ing establishments often are hot and noisy; re­ tail stores, on the other hand, generally are relatively quiet and comfortable. Apparel production work can be taxing. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend a lot of time on their feet, leaning over cutting tables or operating pressing machines. Those who work on a piece rate basis are under con­ stant pressure to improve their rate of produc­ tion. The work is not especially dangerous, but workers must be attentive when operating their machines. Those who operate machines that run at high speeds, such as sewing machine operators, must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, those in the cutting areas must be careful with electric knives and other sharp instruments.  Employment Apparel operatives held 1,081,000 jobs in 1986. Production jobs are concentrated in New York, 349  350/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Pennsylvania, California, North Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia. Most work in the pro­ duction of apparel or textile products, except for pressers and custom tailors and hand sew­ ers. Although pressing operations are an in­ tegral part of the apparel production process, the largest employer of pressers is the laundry and dry cleaning industry. In addition, over 60 percent of custom tailors and hand sewers work in retail clothing establishments. For both of these occupations, jobs are found in every part of the country. The following tabulation shows the distribution of apparel workers by occu­ pation:  Percent Total................................................. 100 Garment sewing machine operators........... 59 Nongarment sewing machine operators ..13 Custom tailors and sewers ......................... 10 Pressing machine operators and tenders ... 8 Hand cutters and trimmers.......................... 5 Hand pressers ..................................................2 Portable machine cutters ............................ 2 Hand sewers ................................................. 1 Patternmakers and layout workers ............. 1  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, few employers required a high school diploma for apparel production work, and finding a job was relatively easy. This is still true in many laundries and retail clothing stores. Although training in the field seldom is required, entrants with secondary or post­ secondary vocational school training or pre­ vious work experience in the industry may have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to supervisory positions. Regardless of back­ ground. the majority of workers learn on the job by helping and observing experienced workers. The length of required training varies by occupation and the amount of previous ex­ perience. Apparel workers need good eye-hand co­  Pe  ordination and the ability to perform a very repetitious task for long periods. Workers usually begin by performing some of the simpler operations. As they gain ex­ perience, they may be assigned more difficult operations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some production workers may be­ come first-line supervisors, but the majority remain on the production line. Occasionally, a patternmaker may advance to designer, but usually only after additional training at a design school. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring shop. This can be done fairly easily because it does not require a large capital investment. Custom tailoring is a very competitive field, however, and training in small business operation can mean the difference be­ tween success and failure. Skill improvement training is not common for these operatives, but when new machinery is introduced, workers must be trained in its operation. Training usually is conducted by a machinery manufacturer’s representative or another employee who has been trained in the operation of the machine. However, as ma­ chinery in the industry continues to become more complex, apparel workers will need more training, especially in the areas of computers and electronics.  Job Outlook Employment of apparel workers is expected to decline through the year 2000. The job outlook depends largely on conditions in the apparel industry, where most apparel workers are em­ ployed. Increased imports, use of offshore as­ sembly, and greater productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery should reduce demand for these workers. Because of the large size of this occupation, however, many thousands of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the oc­ cupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic apparel indus­  "is  try has declined in recent years as foreign pro­ ducers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. In the face of this growing competi­ tion, some domestic producers have had to cut production and lay off workers. If the level of imports continues to rise, as is expected, there will be further cuts in production, and more jobs will be lost. One strategy that domestic manufacturers have adopted to reduce costs is the use of off­ shore assembly. For example, a manufacturer may cut the pieces of fabric in the United States and ship them to a Carribean country for as­ sembly. This enables the most labor-intensive step in the production process—sewing—to be done at much lower wage rates. This trend is expected to continue, and should curtail job opportunities for hand sewers and sewing ma­ chine operators. Despite advances in technology, extensive use of automated equipment is difficult because of the variety of items produced and the fre­ quent style and seasonal changes. However, some of the larger firms and those that produce a standardized item have been able to automate their facilities. Technological developments such as computer-aided marking and grading, laser cutters, semiautomatic sewing and press­ ing machines, and automated material handling systems have increased output while reducing employment demand. Opportunities should be better for those in­ terested in a job as a custom tailor or pressing machine operator. Many of these workers are employed by retail establishments and by laun­ dries and dry cleaners, employers that are un­ affected by imports and are unable to move operations abroad.  Earnings Earnings of apparel workers vary by occupa­ tion and by industry. In 1986, sewing machine operators and pressing machine operators— who fill 8 of every 10 apparel production jobs— had median weekly earnings of $179 and $199, respectively. Data on the earnings of other ap­ parel workers are limited. However, table 1 presents hourly wage rates for selected occu­ pations in two apparel production industries. Because many production workers in apparel manufacturing are paid according to the num­ ber of pieces they produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accuracy. Benefits also vary. Those offered by large employers usually include paid holidays and vacations as well as health and life insurance coverage. In addition, some of the larger man­ ufacturers operate company stores, where em­ ployees can purchase apparel products at sig­ nificant discounts. Some small firms, however, may offer only limited benefits. In addition to employer-sponsored benefits, the two principal unions, the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union, provide benefits to their members.  Related Occupations Pressing determines the shape and appearance of the final product.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Other workers who operate production ma­ chinery or perform handwork are textile op-  Production Occupations/351  Table 1. Average hourly earnings for selected occupations in men’s and boys’ clothing manufacturing, 1986 Hourly rate  Occupation  Men’s and boys’ suits and coats  Men’s and boys’ shirts and nightwear  $9.14 7.49 7.42  __ __ $5.89  Cutters, cloth.......... . Tailors, all-round .. . Markers................... . Presscrs, finish machine............. . Spreaders............... . Hand sewers........... . Sewing mahcine operators............. . Thread trimmers ... .  7.17 6.65 6.51  5.17 5.56  6.25 5.92  4.85 4.26  'I,-' sscsyi xj  __  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  eratives, shoe and leather workers, and metal­ working and plastic-working machine operators.  Sources of Additional Information Information regarding careers in apparel may be obtained from numerous colleges and uni­ versities that have specialized textile and ap­ parel programs. A list of these can be found in college guides. In addition, the local office of the State employment service or an apparel manufacturer can provide information on job opportunities in a specific area. For general information on the apparel in­ dustry, write to: American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 301, Arlington, VA. 22201.  Bindery Workers (D O T. 640.682-018, .685-010; 641.682-014; 649.685­ 066, -090; 653.360-010, -014 and -018, .380-010, .382­ 010, .562-010, .585-010, .662-010, .680-010, .682-010, -014, -018, -022, .685-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030, .686-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, .687-010; 659.686­ 010; 692.685-146; 794.687-026; 795.684-010, -022, .687-010; 977,381-010, -014, .684-018, -022, ,687-010)  Nature of the Work The process of transforming printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, or directories is known as “binding.” Binding involves operations such as folding, gathering, gluing, stitching, trim­ ming, sewing, and wrapping. Depending on the kind of material being bound, job duties may vary. In firms that do edition binding, for example, workers bind books produced in large numbers or “runs,” while job binding workers bind books produced in smaller quantities. In firms that specialize in library binding, workers repair books and provide other specialized binding services to libraries. Pamphlet binding workers produce leaflets and folders, while manifold binding  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Bindery workers must know how to adjust their workers bind business forms such as ledgers and books of sales receipts. Blankbook binding workers bind blank pages to produce note­ books, checkbooks, address books, diaries, calendars, and note pads. Bindery work consists of one or more steps. Some binding jobs—preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example—require only a single step such as folding. Binding of books, on the other hand, requires a number of steps. These are summarized below. Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat, printed sheets of paper. Skilled bookbinders operate machines that first fold printed sheets into units known as “signatures" so that the pages will be in the proper order. They then insert illustrations that have been printed sep­ arately, gather and assemble signatures in proper order, and sew them together. They shape the book bodies with presses and trimming ma­ chines and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers, which are created separately, are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Many skilled book­ binders also bind magazines. Bookbinding workers seldom perform all the different binding tasks, although some have training in all of them. Some workers specialize in adjusting and preparing equipment to per­ form a particular job. Others operate specific equipment such as folding or gathering ma­ chines. In large shops, bookbinding workers may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated ma­ chines, such as a large papercutter or a folding machine. When necessary, they repair and ad­ just bindery equipment. In many shops, much of the work is done by bindery workers who are trained to perform tasks assigned by an experienced worker. For example, semiskilled bindery workers perform such tasks as fastening sheets or signatures  equipment. together using a machine stapler and feeding signatures into various machines for stitching, folding, or gluing. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creative ability, knowledge of mate­ rials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding is perhaps the only kind of binding that gives the individual an opportunity to work at a variety of jobs.  Working Conditions The job can be fairly strenuous, as bindery workers do considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. Bindery work may also require stooping, kneeling, and crouching. Binderies are often noisy.  Employment Bindery workers held about 83,000 jobs in 1986, and were distributed as follows: Bindery machine operators, setters, and setup operators ........................ 72,000 Bookbinders......................................... 11,000 Although some bindery workers are em­ ployed by large libraries and others work for book publishers, most jobs are in commercial printing plants. Since few publishers maintain their own manufacturing facilities, the printing and assembly of books are often contracted out to commercial printing plants or bindery trade shops. Bindery trade shops, which specialize in binding, are the second largest employer of bindery workers. Firms in this industry sector serve printers without binderies as well as firms whose printing capabilities outstrip their bind­ ing capabilities. Most bindery workers are employed full time. Although bindery workers are found in all parts of the country, employment is concen­ trated near large metropolitan areas such as  352/Occupational Outlook Handbook  New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bindery workers learn the craft through on-the-job training. Inexperienced workers usually start by doing simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. At this stage, workers learn the basics, including the characteristics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into dif­ ferent sizes with the least amount of waste. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and may learn how to operate one or more pieces of equipment. A 1- to 3month training period generally is needed to learn how to operate a new piece of equipment. As in most occupations, employers prefer hiring experienced individuals, so those with some knowledge of binding operations are likely to have an advantage in being accepted for employer-provided training. High school stu­ dents interested in bindery careers can gain some exposure to the industry by taking shop courses or attending a vocational-technical high school. Occupational skill centers also provide an introduction to the industry. Postsecondary programs in the graphic arts are offered by vocational-technical institutes, skill updating or retraining programs, and com­ munity and junior colleges. Four-year college programs help prepare people who may even­ tually move into management positions in the graphic arts industry. Some updating and re­ training programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are for union members. Formal apprenticeships, while not as com­ mon as they used to be, are still available and enable workers to acquire the high levels of specialization and skill needed for some jobs. A 4-year apprenticeship usually is necessary to teach workers how to restore rare books and to produce valuable collectors’ items. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eye­ sight are among qualities needed by bindery workers. Finger dexterity is essential for those who count, insert, paste, and fold, while me­ chanical aptitude is required of individuals op­ erating the newer, more automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are required for hand bookbinding. Employers look for in­ dividuals with basic mathematics and language skills. Advancement opportunities are limited. In large binderies, experienced bookbinders may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of bindery workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2(X)0 in response to anticipated growth in the printing industries. Commercial printers are expected to hire more bindery workers as the volume of printed ma­ terial grows due to economic expansion and increased reliance on catalogs, newspaper in­ serts, and direct mail advertising to spur con­ sumer demand. Continued growth in book pub­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  lishing is expected as school enrollments swell and the burgeoning middle-aged and older pop­ ulation does more leisure reading. As in other occupations, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change jobs or leave the labor force. Emphasis on improving productivity is ex­ pected to continue in bindery operations. While no radical technological changes are on the horizon, the binding process is becoming in­ creasingly mechanized. New equipment per­ forms a number of operations in sequence and permits shorter periods of preparation and faster production speeds. As a result, labor require­ ments have been reduced, and the jobs of many bindery workers who assisted skilled book­ binders in the past have already been elimi­ nated. Opportunities for hand bookbinders are lim­ ited by the small number of establishments that do this highly specialized work. Earnings The basic wage rate for skilled bookbinders varies across the country. According to the Graphic Communications International Union, hourly wage rates for bookbinders in unionized firms in 1986 were S12.20 for journeyman level I and $8.85 for level II. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate pro­ duction machinery include papermaking ma­ chine operators, press operators, and precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other train­ ing opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on bindery occu­ pations, write to: Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213. Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Binding Industries of America, 70 East Lake St., Chicago, IL 60601.  Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work In any organization, someone has to be boss. For the millions of workers who assemble man­ ufactured goods, service motor vehicles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thou­ sands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervisors direct the activities of other employees and ensure that equipment and materials are used properly  and efficiently. While blue-collar worker su­ pervisors are most commonly known as fore­ men or forewomen, they also have many other titles. In the textile industry, they are referred to as second hands; on ships, they are known as boatswains; in the construction industry, they are called superintendents or crew chiefs; and in oil drilling, they are called toolpushers. Although titles may differ, the job of all blue-collar worker supervisors is essentially the same. They tell other employees what work has to be done and make sure the work is done correctly. For example, manufacturing super­ visors may inspect products during and after the production process to make sure that they conform to customer specifications and com­ pany standards. Loading supervisors at truck terminals assign workers to load trucks, and then check that the material is loaded correctly and that each truck is fully used. They may mark freight bills and record the load and weight of each truck. Mine car dispatchers control the transport of coal through underground mines. Because they are responsible for the output of other workers, supervisors make work schedules and keep production and employee records. They plan employees’ activities and must allow for unforeseen problems such as absent workers and machine breakdowns. Su­ pervisors teach employees safe work practices and enforce safety rules and regulations. They also may demonstrate timesaving or laborsav­ ing techniques to workers and insure that new employees are properly trained. They often as­ sign trainees to work with experienced workers to learn different aspects of the job. As factories become more complex, super­ visors increasingly are using computers to stay on top of their areas of responsibility. For ex­ ample, supervisors may enter data into the computer on the amount of raw materials used in order to update the centralized inventory control system. Using sophisticated programs, they also can schedule work flow in their unit, monitor the quality of their workers’ output, and perform other supervisory tasks. In addition to their other duties, blue-collar worker supervisors tell their subordinates about company plans and policies; recommend good performers for wage increases, awards, or pro­ motions; and deal with poor performers by re­ training them in proper methods, issuing warn­ ings, or recommending that they be disciplined. In companies where employees belong to labor unions, supervisors meet with union represen­ tatives to discuss work problems and griev­ ances. They must know the provisions of labormanagement contracts and run their operations according to these agreements. Working Conditions Although working conditions vary from in­ dustry to industry, most blue-collar worker su­ pervisors work in a normal shop environment. They may be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates and may be subjected to the noise and grime of ma­ chinery. Construction supervisors may work outdoors. Because these supervisors are responsible  Production Occupations/353  for the work of other blue-collar workers, they may work longer hours in order to be on the job before other workers arrive and after they leave. Although many supervisors work a 5day, 40-hour week, others work in plants that operate around the clock and may have to work any one of three shifts as well as on weekends and holidays. In some cases, supervisors work all three shifts on a rotating basis; in others, shift assignments are made on the basis of sen­ iority. Supervisors sometimes are caught in the middle between the work force and manage­ ment. New supervisors who are hired from outside the firm also may face initial hostility from workers who feel they should have been promoted to the job. For many supervisors, these problems are offset by the satisfaction that they may find in having more challenging and prestigious jobs than most blue-collar workers. Employment Blue-collar worker supervisors held 1.8 million jobs in 1986. Although they are found in almost all businesses and government agencies, about half worked in manufacturing, supervising the production of industrial machinery, motor ve­ hicles, appliances, and thousands of other products. Most of the rest worked in the con­ struction industry, wholesale and retail trade, public utilities, transportation, and government agencies. Employment is distributed in much the same way as the population, and jobs are located in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When choosing supervisors, employers gen­ erally look for experience, job knowledge, or­ ganizational skills, and leadership qualities. Employers emphasize the ability to motivate employees, maintain high morale, command respect, and get along with people. The ability to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, also is essential. Completion of high school often is the minimum educational re­ quirement, and 1 or 2 years of college or tech­ nical school can be very helpful to workers who want to become supervisors. Most supervisors rise through the ranks— that is, they are promoted from jobs where they operated a machine, worked on an assembly line, or at a construction craft. This work ex­ perience gives them the advantage of knowing how jobs should be done and what problems may arise. It also provides them with insight into employee attitudes towards management policies. Supervisors are sometimes former union representatives who are familiar with grievance procedures and union contracts. To supplement this work experience, many com­ panies have training programs to help develop supervisory skills. Although few blue-collar worker supervisors are college graduates, some employers hire trainees with a college or technical school background. This practice is most prevalent in industries with highly technical production processes, such as the aerospace, oil, and elec­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  jm  m  VI' " -  :  mm  Construction supervisors frequently work outdoors. tronics industries. Employers generally prefer a background in engineering, business admin­ istration, industrial relations, mathematics, or science. Whatever their background, new em­ ployees undergo on-the-job training until they are able to accept supervisory responsibilities. Because the work environment is more com­ plex than ever, blue-collar worker supervisors should bring to the job the skills of a technician as well as those of a manager. They must have the ability to relate to people and to motivate them; they must be effective communicators. Outstanding supervisors, particularly those with a college education, may move up to higher management positions. In manufacturing, for example, they may advance to jobs such as department head or an executive position. Some supervisors, particularly in the construction in­ dustry, use the experience and skills they gain to go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although rising incomes will stimulate demand for goods such as air-conditioners, home entertainment equipment, personal com­ puters, and automobiles, employment in man­ ufacturing industries will decline, due in part to increasing foreign competition. The pro­ duction-related occupations in manufacturing, including blue-collar worker supervisors, will be the ones most adversely affected. Offsetting the decline in the number of supervisors in manufacturing, however, will be an increase in jobs in nonmanufacturing industries, espe­ cially in the trade and service sectors. In addition to the jobs resulting in increased demand for supervisors, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Supervisors have a rel­ atively strong attachment to the occupation, but because the occupation is so large, turnover results in a large number of openings.  Because blue-collar worker supervisors are so important to the successful operation of a firm, they are often protected from layoffs dur­ ing a recession. Supervisors in the construction industry, however, may experience periodic layoffs when construction activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings for blue-collar worker supervisors were about $485 in 1986. The mid­ dle 50 percent earned between $350 and $630. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $210, and the highest 10 percent earned over $790. Supervisors receive a salary determined by the wage rates of the highest paid workers they supervise. For example, most companies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordinates. Some supervisors receive overtime pay. Related Occupations Other workers with similar supervisory duties include those who supervise professional and technical, sales, clerical, and service workers. Some of these are retail store or retail depart­ ment managers; bank officers and head tellers; hotel managers, housekeepers, and assistants; postmasters and line supervisors; head cooks; head nurses; and surveyors. ■ Sources of Additional Information A bibliography of literature on management occupations is available from: American Management Association. 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020.  Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.261 .361, and .381)  Nature of the Work Boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases are essential to many indus-  354/Occupational Outlook Handbook  tries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam that drives the huge turbines in electric utility plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Boilermakers make, assemble, erect, and repair these vessels and related equipment. Boilermakers follow blueprints and tem­ plates in marking off lines, curves, holes, and dimensions on metal plates and tubes used to make the various parts of a boiler, vat. or tank. Markings must be planned and measured care­ fully, allowing for the curvature and thickness of the metal. Because errors in size or shape may be difficult or impossible to correct after the metal is cut, these workers use instruments, such as compasses, protractors, gauges, and scales, to make precise measurements. After they cut and shape the metal to spec­ ifications, boilermakers use bolts or temporary welds, called tackwelds, to hold the parts in place while they check to see that parts line up according to the blueprints. They use grinders or cutting torches to remove excess metal, and welding machines to fill in small gaps. A new piece may have to be cut for large gaps. Small boilers may be assembled at the plant where they are made; however, once the pieces for a larger boiler or tank have been cut out and checked for proper fit, they are transported to the site for installation. There, boilermakers assemble and erect the vessels using rigging equipment such as hoists and jacks to lift heavy metal parts into place, and then weld or rivet the parts together. Because installation work must meet statutory safety standards, boilers are carefully tested for leaks and other defects. Boilermakers also install auxiliary equip­ ment on boilers and other vessels. For example. they install vapor barriers on open-top oil, gas, and chemical storage tanks to prevent fumes from polluting the air, and air pollution control equipment, such as precipitators and smoke scrubbers, in electric plants that burn highsulfur coal. Some highly skilled boilermakers (called mechanics) also maintain and repair boilers to insure that they remain safe and in good work­ ing condition. For example, when boilers oc­ casionally develop leaks, boilermaker me­ chanics may dismantle the boiler, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sec­ tions, or strengthen joints.  Employment Boilermakers held about 30,000 jobs in 1986. More than 4 of every 10 boilermakers work in the construction industry, mainly assembling and erecting boilers and other pressure vessels. About 1 out of 4 work in manufacturing, pri­ marily in boiler shops, maintenance and repair departments of iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, railroads, shipyards, and chemical plants. Large numbers also work for boiler repair firms and in Federal Government in­ stallations, principally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants.  Working Conditions When laying out, fitting, assembling, or re­ pairing boilers, workers often use potentially dangerous equipment, such as acetylene torches and power grinders, and handle heavy mate­ rials. Work may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks, that often are damp and poorly ventilated. Because workers occasionally work at great heights on top of large vessels, this occupation is more hazard­ ous than many other metalworking occupa­ tions. To reduce the chance of injuries, many workers wear protective equipment, such as harnesses, safety glasses and shoes, and hel­ mets. Boilermakers usually work a 40-hour week; in order to meet construction or pro­  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities agree that a formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. Nevertheless, many people become boil­ ermakers by working for several years as help­ ers to experienced boilermakers. Apprentice­ ship programs are administered by joint unionmanagement committees and usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by about 48 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, shop mathematics, and welding. Helpers who learn the craft by working with experienced boilermakers generally reach the level of an experienced worker after at least 4   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  +  I  Boilermakers may install auxiliary equipment on boilers and other vessels. duction deadlines, they occasionally may have to work nights or weekends.  years on the job. They generally lack the wide range of skills acquired through the appren­ ticeship process, however. When hiring apprentices or helpers, em­ ployers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. A high school diploma usually is required to participate in a formal appren­ ticeship program. Courses in shop, mathema­ tics, blueprint reading, welding, and machine metalworking provide a useful background for all boilermaking jobs. Most firms require ap­ plicants to pass a physical examination because good health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these jobs. Mechanical apti­ tude and the manual dexterity needed to handle tools also are important qualifications. Advancement for boilermakers usually takes the form of higher pay. Some advance to su­ pervisory positions; because of their more in­ depth training, apprentices generally have an advantage in competing for these limited slots. Job Outlook Employment of boilermakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most open­ ings will arise each year from the need to re­ place experienced workers who leave the oc­ cupation. Demand for boilermakers will rise as general economic expansion increases the number of boilers and other containers to be installed and maintained. However, employment will not  Production Occupations/355  grow as fast as in previous years. Efforts to conserve energy in recent years have lowered the amount of electricity generated by electric powerplants. In turn, the boilers in many of these plants have gotten less wear and tear and are lasting longer—moderating the need for boilermakers to repair or replace them. When boilers in electric powerplants can no longer be operated safely, they increasingly are being replaced with smaller, more efficient boilers. Demand will be dampened because both con­ struction and assembly can be done with sig­ nificantly fewer workers than for conventional boilers. Employment for boilermakers also will be constrained by the trend in all industries to repair rather than to replace defective boilers. In almost all cases, repairing a boiler requires many fewer mechanics than manufacturing and assembling a new one. Most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to economic conditions. There­ fore, during economic downturns some boil­ ermakers may be laid off, and some may have to move from one area of the country to another to find employment. Because existing boilers must be maintained and repaired even during economic downturns, boilermaker mechanics generally have more stable employment. When economic activity declines, some experienced construction boilermakers move into mechanic positions.  Earnings According to the limited data available, hourly wage rates for many union boilermakers em­ ployed in the basic steel, fabricated structural metal products, petroleum refining, and ship­ building industries ranged from about $9.50 to $15.50 in 1986. In contrast, the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75. Most boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Broth­ erhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuild­ ers, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Other workers are members of the International As­ sociation of Machinists and Aerospace Work­ ers; United Automobile, Aerospace, and Ag­ ricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America.  Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations as­ semble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These include assemblers, black­ smiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, ma­ chinists, millwrights, patternmakers, plumbers, sheet-metal workers, tool-and-die makers, and welders.  Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions previously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manufacturers, or the local office of the State employment office.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Butchers and Meatcutters (D.O.T. 316.681-010, .684-018. -022; 525.361-010, .381, .664-010)  Nature of the Work Butchers and meatcutters reduce animal car­ casses into small pieces of meat suitable for sale to consumers. In meatpacking plants, they cut the carcasses into large wholesale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks to facilitate handling, distribution, and marketing. In gro­ cery stores and wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants and institutional food service facilities, butchers and meatcutters sep­ arate the wholesale cuts into retail cuts or in­ dividual size servings. They use knives and saws to cut the meat into steaks, chops, roasts, and filets. Boneless cuts are prepared using knives, sheers, or power cutters, while band­ saws are required on bone-in pieces. Meat trim­ mings are ground up to prepare hamburger meat, sausages, and luncheon meats. Meatcutters in retail food stores also arrange and display meat items in refrigerated cases and prepare special cuts of meat ordered by customers. This statement does not include processing operatives in meatpacking plants who cut up poultry or who prepare only one cut of meat, such as round steaks. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by type and size of establishment. In large meatpacking plants and retail food establishments, butchers and meat­ cutters work in large, modem meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail food establishments, the meatcutter may work in a space behind the meat counter. Butchers and meatcutters work in cold rooms to help prevent meat from spoiling. The low temperature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time, makes the work tiring. Butchers and meatcutters have a greater inci­ dence of injury than most other workers. To avoid injury, butchers and meatcutters must be careful when working with knives, cleavers, and power tools. Health and safety standards require that work areas be clean and sanitary. Employment Butchers and meatcutters held about 248,000 jobs in 1986. About half of the butchers and meatcutters were employed in retail food stores. Others were employed in meatpacking houses, meat and fish markets, and wholesale estab­ lishments. A few were employed by restau­ rants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Jobs are located in almost every city and town in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most butchers and meatcutters acquire their skills informally on the job or through ap­ prenticeship programs. A few learn their basic  skills by attending trade and vocational schools. However, graduates of these schools may need additional on-the-job training and experience to work as butchers and meatcutters. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing minor jobs, such as removing bones. Under the guidance of skilled butchers and meatcut­ ters, they learn the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual por­ tions. Trainees may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those in retail food establishments may learn marketing op­ erations such as inventory control, meat buy­ ing, and recordkeeping. Butchers and meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship programs generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training supplemented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices must pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, ap­ prentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Skills important in meatcutting are manual dexterity, good depth perception, color dis­ crimination, and good eye-hand coordination. Also, strength is needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Butchers and meatcutters who wait on customers must have a pleasant per­ sonality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. A health certificate may be required for employment. Butchers and meatcutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat department managers in supermarkets. A few become meat buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some become grocery store managers or open their own meat markets. In meatpacking plants, meatcutters can move up to supervisory po­ sitions. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employ­ ment of butchers and meatcutters through the year 2000. Nevertheless, thousands of jobs will be available each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s population grows, the de­ mand for meat should increase. However, this increase in demand will be offset by more meat­ cutting being performed at the meatpacking plant. Most meat in these plants is processed by operatives, rather than by meatcutters, so that fewer meatcutters will be needed. At present, most red meat arrives at the grocery store par­ tially cut up. The retail meatcutter only has to perform the final processing—cutting whole­ sale meat cuts into steaks, chops, and roasts and packaging it for sale. In the future, even more cutting is expected to be shifted from retail gro­ cery stores to meatpacking plants. More meat will be completely processed and packaged at the meatpacking plant and arrive at the grocery store ready for sale to the consumer. Automatic equipment is continually being developed and used to mechanize cutting, fab-  356/Occupational Outlook Handbook  nesting, packaging, boxing, and storage of meat at meatpacking plants. Automation has pro­ gressed rapidly in plants that specialize in pro­ cessing animal carcasses that are within a standardized size and weight range. However, each carcass is different, and automatic meat­ cutting and fabricating equipment cannot yet adapt to wide differences in size and weight. Although it is unknown to what extent meat­ packing plants will be automated by the year 2000, it is likely that use of automatic equip­ ment and employment of processing operatives will continue to increase. Earnings Experienced meatcutters earned between $9.35 and $14.96 an hour in early 1987, ac­ cording to a survey of union wage rates for grocery store employees in 25 of the Nation’s largest cities. Earnings of meatcutters in meat­ packing plants were generally lower but they varied widely, depending on the size of plant, geographic location, and union contract. Many butchers and meatcutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers  International Union. Related Occupations Butchers and meatcutters must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require similar skills and knowledge include bakers, cooks, and kitchen supervisors. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For infor­ mation on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  SflPtSi  Meatcutters in retail food stores often pre­ pare special cuts of meat ordered by cus­ tomers.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Compositors and Typesetters (D.O.T. 203.362-018, .382-018 and -026, .582-042, -046, -062 and -074; 208.382-010; 650.582-010, -014. -018 and -022; 652.585-010, .685-106; 654.382-010; 973.381- 010, -014, -018, -022 and -030, .681-010; 979.381- 018 and -022)  Nature of the Work In small shops, one person may do everything needed to complete a printing job. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists. Among these are compositors and typesetters, who put written text into a form that printers can use to produce printed matter. There are several ways of setting and pro­ ducing printed material. In the method known as hot type, workers operate machines that use molten lead to form individual letters into “slugs,” or lines of type which, when arranged into sentences and paragraphs, create a product ready for printing. Typesetters usually operate the machines which create the slugs. These individuals read from copy clipped to the ma­ chine and operate a keyboard to select letters and other characters. As they press the keys, metal molds of the letters are assembled into lines of words. After completing a line, op­ erators touch a lever, and the machine auto­ matically fills the molds with molten lead, forming the slug. Compositors in hot type op­ erations assemble the slugs into type frames from which printers print or from which other printing plates are made. Compositors may also proof the slugs, checking them for spelling and punctuation errors. Hot type equipment is no longer manufac­ tured, and this printing method is well along the road to extinction. Hot type requires that typesetting machine operators with special training retype the entire manuscript and pro­ vide for correct hyphenation, spacing, and text width as well. Computer-aided machines do these things automatically, enabling reporters, authors, and others with word processing skills to assume the role of typesetter. In addition to eliminating hot type methods, new printing technologies have changed the role of compositors. Today, virtually all com­ position work is done with computers and “cold type” technology. Most cold type, which refers to any method used to create type without mol­ ten lead, uses photographic principles to create positive images on paper. The images are as­ sembled into page format and then used to create film negatives from which the actual printing plates are made. This process of ready­ ing text for printing is called phototypesetting. In a common form of phototypesetting, text is entered into a computer that is programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Keyboarding of text may be done by type­ setters or data entry clerks at the printing es­ tablishment or, increasingly, by the author be­ fore the job is sent out for composition. The computer stores the text on magnetic tape, floppy disk, or hard disk. The magnetically encoded text is then transferred to a typesetting  machine which uses photography, a cathoderay tube, or a laser to create an image on type­ setting paper or film. Once it has been devel­ oped, the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate. In another type of composition, a computer produces text on special paper in the desired format. In newspapers, for instance, text is printed in long columns. Workers called “paste­ up artists” cut and arrange the columns of text and illustrations onto a special illustration board called a “mechanical.” The special paper ad­ heres easily to the board, yet is designed to allow easy removal and recentering. Once the text is arranged in final form, the board is sent to the camera department where a photographic negative used to create printing plates is pro­ duced. The most advanced method of typesetting, called electronic pagination, is in limited com­ mercial use at present. Using phototypesetting equipment, an operator uses a keyboard to se­ lect the size and style of type, the column width, and appropriate spacing, as well as to enter and store each character in a computer. The computer then displays and arranges col­ umns of type on a screen that is similar to a TV screen. An entire newspaper page—com­ plete with artwork and graphics—can be made up on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators visually check the text and make any required corrections. The informa­ tion is then transmitted for production into film and then into plates, or directly into plates, eliminating the role of paste-up artists. Emerging technologies are also affecting the roles of other composition workers. Laser printers, for instance, are likely to play an everincreasing role in the printing process. These devices essentially read text from computer memory and then “beam" it directly onto film, paper, or plate, bypassing the slower photo­ graphic process now being used. The individ­ uals who operate these machines need good technical skills. After arranging all the pages of a particular job in proper sequence, compositors make page proofs to review the entire job. Page proofs are checked with the original copy for errors and returned to the editor for final changes. After final changes have been put into the type, the plate is sent to the pressroom, where pro­ duction printing plates are made. Working Conditions Compositors are on their feet most of the time and do some fairly heavy lifting. Typesetting machine operators sit for long periods of time. Old Monotype and Linotype machines are very noisy and, because they use molten lead, pre­ sent spillage hazards. The work environment may be hot and dirty. However, phototype­ setters usually work in clean, air-conditioned offices with little noise. Workers may be sub­ ject to eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, as well as musculo­ skeletal problems, such as backaches. The average workweek is about 37.5 hours, but this can vary considerably. All compositors may be required to work overtime to meet pub-  Production Occupations/357  lication deadlines; some regularly work eve­ ning or night shifts. Compositors employed by newspapers may work holidays and weekends. Employment Composing room workers held nearly 96,000 jobs in 1986. Employment was distributed as follows: Typesetting and composing machine operators and tenders ..................... 37,000 Compositors, typesetters, and arrangers .................................. 30,000 Data entry keyers, composing .......... 29,000 About 39 percent of all jobs were in news­ paper plants, and 27 percent were in com­ mercial printing plants. The remainder were in other kinds of printing and publishing firms; in business firms, including mailing, repro­ duction, commercial art, and stenographic ser­ vice establishments; and in a wide range of firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are located in al­ most every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large printing cen­ ters such as New York, Los Angeles, Wash­ ington, D.C., Philadelphia, Chicago, and Dal­ las. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, almost all compositors were trained through some type of apprenticeship program. This has changed with the introduction of new technologies which have lowered skill require­ ments. Today, most compositors bypass the traditional apprenticeship and learn the craft on the job. Employers prefer to hire and train individ­ uals already familiar with the industry. If an experienced worker cannot be found, employ­ ers may promote from within, selecting for training such workers as messengers or stock clerks, provided their work attitude and past performance suggest they can master the nec­ essary printing skills. Formal graphic arts programs, offered by community and junior colleges and some 4year colleges, provide an introduction to the industry. Such programs provide job-related training, and enrolling in one of them dem­ onstrates interest in the graphic arts industry, a factor likely to impress an employer favor­ ably. Bachelor’s degree programs in graphic arts generally enroll students who may even­ tually move into management positions. Courses in various aspects of printing are also available at vocational-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retraining pro­ grams, private trade and technical schools, and community and junior colleges. Job applicants should be high school grad­ uates with good communications skills, both oral and written. Applicants also need basic skills in arithmetic. In small shops, workers may help take customer orders. The ability to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios is important in order to properly estimate job costs. Individuals interested in working for firms that utilize advanced printing technology  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Compositors discussing the positioning of a newspaper article. need sufficient knowledge of electronics and computers to indicate an aptitude for mastering computerized photocomposition equipment. Manual dexterity and the ability to pay atten­ tion to detail and to work independently are important qualities for compositors who do lay­ out work. Good eyesight, including visual acu­ ity, depth perception, field of view, color vi­ sion, and the ability to focus quickly, is an asset. Persons with good typing skills can learn to be keyboarding machine operators in a rela­ tively short period of time. These workers need not be trained as skilled compositors, but they must be familiar with printing terms and mea­ sures. Job Outlook Employment of compositors and typesetters is expected to grow more slowly than the average through the year 2000 despite anticipated ex­ pansion of the printing industry. Productivity gains associated with new technologies are the principal reason: Fewer workers will be needed as computerized equipment simplifies or elim­ inates many of the time-consuming tasks tra­ ditionally performed by compositors and type­ setters. The number of jobs would shrink still more were it not for the prospect of greatly increased demand for printed materials in the years ahead. Job prospects for compositors and typeset­ ters vary by industry. For example, changes in technology have shifted many employment opportunities away from the traditional printing plant into advertising agencies or public rela­ tions departments. Nonetheless, most future openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. In the area of commercial printing, greatly increased demand for newspaper inserts, cat­ alogs, and direct mail advertisements is ex­ pected to help sustain employment in the com­ position area. By introducing equipment that reduces the time needed to complete a printing  job, commercial printers have begun to make inroads into new markets, in particular those that require fast turnaround because of the timesensitive nature of their business. The ex­ panding market for print advertising should spur growth in the number of small commercial printing plants, each of which will offer some composition jobs. Newspapers, currently the largest employer of compositors and typesetters, will continue to be hard hit by changes in printing technol­ ogy. Computerized equipment that allows re­ porters and editors to create text at a desktop computer terminal has already eliminated many typesetting and composition jobs, and more are certain to disappear in the years ahead. Re­ structuring of the newspaper industry due to mergers, closings, and consolidation will also cause the number of composing room jobs to shrink. Compositors and typesetters whose jobs are adversely affected face the prospect of stiff competition for any available openings, or of retraining for another printing job or leaving the industry altogether. Inexperienced workers will have difficulty finding a composition or typesetting job in this industry. The printing trade services industry is an­ other area where new technology has reduced labor requirements. Establishments in this in­ dustry typically perform custom typesetting and composition work for printers who lack the time or equipment to do their own work. As newer technologies become cheaper to acquire, more printing establishments will begin to do their own work. Competition for composition and typesetting jobs is expected to intensify through the year 2000. Opportunities should be best for expe­ rienced workers. New entrants can improve their chances by completing postsecondary programs in printing technology such as those offered by community colleges and vocationaltechnical institutes. When hiring inexperienced applicants, many employers prefer individuals who have completed these programs because  358/Occupational Outlook Handbook  the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and techniques more rapidly. Earnings Earnings of compositors and typesetters vary widely, reflecting differences in industry, skill level, and region of the country. Median annual eamings of full-time compositors and typeset­ ters were about $8.61 an hour in 1986. The average wage rate for photocompositors in the composing rooms of newspapers orga­ nized by the Graphic Communications Inter­ national Union was $15.06 an hour in 1986, while photocompositors in establishments spe­ cializing in printing on items like pens, bags, and T-shirts made $12.39 an hour. Computer typists earn considerably less than composing room workers—45 to 50 percent of the jour­ neyman rate, according to a limited number of union contracts. Related Occupations Other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards include clerk-typists, computer terminal system operators, keypunch opera­ tors, and telegraphic-typewriter operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local em­ ployers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the International Typograph­ ical Union, or the local office of the State em­ ployment service. For general information on composing room occupations, write to: Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213. National Composition Association of the Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Ar­ lington, VA 22209. Printing, Publishing, and Media Workers Sector of the Communications Workers of America, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, CO 80901. Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036.  Dental Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 712.281-010 and .381-014, -018. -022. -026 and -030)  Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians are skilled craft workers who make and repair a wide variety of dental restorations and appliances, such as dentures, partial dentures, bridges, crowns, and orthodontic appliances. All work is done ac­ cording to written prescriptions submitted by the dentist. Technicians make appliances from acrylics, ceramics, composites, and metals. They use models of dental stone or plaster pourings made from impressions of a patient’s teeth or mouth taken by the dentist. Sometimes these models are made by the dentist or an assistant, but most often by the technician.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Although the nature of the work varies from one dental laboratory to another, most tech­ nicians specialize in one of the following areas: Crowns and bridges, partial and complete den­ tures, ceramics, and orthodontics. For exam­ ple, a removable partial denture technician makes and repairs contoured metal frames and retainers for teeth used in partial dentures; an orthodontic technician makes appliances for straightening teeth and treating speech impe­ diments; and some technicians fabricate and repair crowns and bridges, appliances for den­ tal implants, and complete dentures. Job duties change as workers gain experi­ ence and develop expertise in a particular spe­ cialty. Trainees in beginning jobs usually mix and pour plaster into impression molds and perform other simple tasks. As they gain ex­ perience, they do more precise laboratory work such as arranging artificial teeth on dentures, working with dental ceramics (porcelain), or making wax models and casting gold and other metal alloys. Technicians use small hand instruments such as wax spatulas and wax carvers, as well as special electric lathes and high-speed drills, high-heat furnaces, metal-melting torches, and other specialized laboratory equipment. Technical advances affect the materials and equipment used in the dental laboratory. For example, it is now possible to cast porcelain crowns and tooth facings in a mold without physically bonding the porcelain to a metal framework. This has dramatically changed the work performed by dental ceramists. Computer-aided equipment that can measure a patient's mouth and automatically fabricate dentures has recently been invented, but this technology is still in its infancy; no significant impact on the work of dental laboratory tech­ nicians is foreseen by the year 2000. Working Conditions Whether they are employed in independent commercial laboratories, dental offices, or in home laboratories, dental technicians work in typical laboratory surroundings. Work areas are generally clean, well lighted, and well venti­ lated. Technicians usually have their own work­ benches which are equipped with Bunsen burn­ ers, grinding and polishing machines, and various handtools. Where many power tools are operating, noise levels may be considerable. The work is not strenuous, although there may be pressure to meet dentists’ deadlines. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 46,000 jobs in 1986. Most jobs were in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than 10 employees. However, a few laboratories are much larger and employ over 50 technicians. Dental laboratories are located throughout the country, but large laboratories mainly are found in cities and populous States. Many labora­  tories receive work through the mail from den­ tists who work a considerable distance away. About 9,000 dental laboratory technicians worked in dentists’ offices. Others worked for hospitals that provide dental services and for the Federal Government, chiefly in Veterans Administration hospitals and clinics. More than 1 technician in 5 is self-employed, a higher proportion than in most other occu­ pations. Some of these jobs are held by tech­ nicians who work in home dental laboratories in addition to their regular job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job, usually in 3 to 4 years. High school graduates are preferred, and courses in art, metal shop, and science are helpful. Many of those hired as trainees already have some knowledge of dental laboratory work, usually because they have taken courses or completed formal training programs. Training in dental laboratory technology is available through community and junior col­ leges, vocational-technical institutes, and trade schools; high school vocational education pro­ grams; apprenticeships; and the Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and the level of skill they impart. Ac­ credited programs generally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree, al­ though some lead to a certificate or diploma. In 1986, 58 programs in dental laboratory technology were approved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjuction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide classroom in­ struction in dental law and ethics, materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in the school or an associated dental laboratory. Although formal training has become more widespread in recent years, informal on-thejob training also is important. Each dental lab­ oratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not necessarily ex­ pose students to techniques and procedures fa­ vored by individual laboratory owners. Stu­ dents who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft generally are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed the formal pro­ gram. However, even graduates of 2-year training programs need about 3 additional years of practical experience to become fully qual­ ified in the craft. Military personnel who re­ ceive dental laboratory training in the Armed Forces qualify for civilian jobs as dental lab­ oratory technicians. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the National Board for Certification in five specialty areas: Crown and bridge, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and ortho­ dontics. Certification is increasingly important as evidence of a technician’s competence. Depending upon their skill, experience, and education, dental technicians may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Contin-  Production Occupations/359  uing education in the field is increasingly im­ portant for advancement. For some techni­ cians, career advancement means moving into a related job within the dental field; well-qual­ ified technicians with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in education may become instructors in dental lab training programs. Others may find jobs in the development of dental materials or as sales representatives for dental products companies. In larger dental laboratories, tech­ nicians may advance by moving into super­ visory positions. Still, for many technicians, advancement in this field means running one’s own laboratory and enjoying the higher earn­ ings that can accompany ownership. Among the personal traits important in this occupation are a high degree of manual dex­ terity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings. These attributes must be combined with the ability to follow instruc­ tions and an inclination for detailed and precise work. High school students interested in ca­ reers in this occupation are advised to take courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy, and sciences. Those wishing to operate their own businesses also should consider manage­ ment and business courses. Job Outlook Employment of dental laboratory technicians is expected to grow much faster than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to rising incomes, population changes, and relatively widespread dental in­ surance coverage. The population will include a larger proportion of elderly people, a group with a high level of need for the crowns, bridges, and dentures produced by dental laboratory technicians. The growing popularity of ortho­ dontic work well beyond adolescent years may further heighten demand for dental laboratory services. Emphasis on orthodontic and cos­ metic work may be spurred through techno­ logical advances or by dentists’ marketing ef­ forts, as competition among practitioners intensifies, not only for clientele, but for in­ come-maximizing services. Because dental laboratory technicians ex­ hibit relatively strong attachment to the field, replacement needs are less important as a source of jobs than is the case for most other workers. However, some experienced workers leave dental laboratory technology each year to trans­ fer to other occupations, and some retire. Despite the trend toward corporate owner­ ship of medical and dental laboratories, op­ portunities should be good for experienced technicians who wish to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a com­ munity will have the best prospects of building a successful business. Earnings Dental laboratory technicians who worked full time in commercial laboratories earned about $360 a week in 1986, according to the limited data available. Generally, education and ex­ perience, along with a specialized skill, bring higher earnings. Large dental laboratories em­  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  wm,  Dental laboratory technicians are skilled craft workers. ploy supervisors or managers, who usually earn more than technicians. In general, earnings of self-employed technicians exceed those of sa­ laried workers. Many technicians in commercial laborato­ ries receive paid holidays and vacations, and some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits including continuing education opportunities. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians fabricate artifi­ cial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and in­ structions provided by the dentist. Other work­ ers who make medical devices include arch­ support technicians, orthotics technicians (braces and surgical supports), prosthetics technicians (artificial limbs and appliances), opticians, and ophthalmic laboratory techni­ cians. Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, Division of Educational Measurement, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.  Information on scholarships is available from dental technology schools. For information on career opportunities in  commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, contact: National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305.  Electric Power Generating Plant Operators and Power Distributors and Dispatchers (D.O.T. 820.662-010; 952.167-014, .362 except-010; .367-014; .382-010 and -018)  Nature of the Work Electricity is generally taken for granted, but it takes more than turning on a switch to pro­ duce it. Powerplant operators control the ma­ chinery that generates electricity. Power dis­ tributors and dispatchers oversee the flow of electricity through substations and over a net­ work of transmission and distribution lines to users. Power generating plant operators, also called switchboard operators, and nuclear power op­ erators regulate and monitor boilers, turbines, generators, auxiliary equipment, switching  360/Occupational Outlook Handbook  •  M  f  w*  i_.  .... i.. rr  <rf. «€?■  ^ * *** .IT  Control room operators regulate the flow of electricity to powerlines. gear, and nuclear reactors used to generate electricity from a central control room. They operate switches to distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and regulate the flow of electricity into powerlines. When power needs change, they start or stop generators and con­ nect or disconnect them from circuits. Oper­ ators monitor instruments to see that electricity is flowing through the plant properly and that voltage is maintained. They also keep records of switching operations and loads on genera­ tors, lines, transformers, and power levels within reactors, and prepare reports of unusual incidents or malfunctioning equipment during their shift. A control room crew generally con­ sists of a watch engineer or a shift supervisor, junior and seniorplant operators, and assistants who patrol the plant checking equipment. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatchers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through trans­ mission lines to users. They operate current converters, voltage transformers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers monitor equipment and record readings at a pilot board, which is a map of the transmission system showing the status of transmission circuits and connections with substations and large industrial users. Dispatchers anticipate power needs such as those caused by changes in the weather; they call control room operators to start or stop boilers and generators to bring production in balance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with needs. They handle emergencies such as transformer or transmission line failures and route current around affected areas. They also operate and monitor equipment in substations which step up or step down voltage and operate switchboard levers to control the flow of elec­ tricity in and out of substations. Working Conditions Powerplants are typically well lighted and ven­ tilated, clean, and orderly, but there is some noise from equipment. Workers generally sit or stand at a control station. The work is not physically strenuous, but requires constant attention. Electricity is provided around the clock so operators, dis­ tributors, and dispatchers often work nights and weekends, usually on rotating shifts. Employment Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers held about 45,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked for electric utility companies and government agencies that produced electricity. Some worked for man­ ufacturing establishments that produce elec­ tricity for their own use. Jobs are located throughout the country, mostly in urban areas. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally seek high school gradu­ ates for entry level operator, distributor, and  dispatcher positions. New entrants help ex­ perienced workers and become familiar with the equipment, routines, and operations of a powerplant. Most employers provide struc­ tured on-the-job and classroom training. Work­ ers advance to more responsible jobs as they gain knowledge and skill and as openings oc­ cur. Where a utility system has generating plants of different size, powerplant operators usually get their initial experience in the smaller sta­ tions and then are promoted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. In many instances, how rapidly a worker advances may depend on the availability of openings. Power distributors and dispatchers are se­ lected from experienced switchboard operators and from control room operators of large sub­ stations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience in control room operations or substation op­ eration are required for promotion to dis­ patcher. To qualify, an applicant must have a thorough knowledge of the entire utility sys­ tem. Those dispatchers who start in substation operations generally begin as assistant or junior operators. Advancement to the job of operator in a large substation requires from 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant operators. At least 5 to 10 years of experience as a first-class op­ erator usually are required to qualify for a watch engineer’s job. Nuclear powerplant operators must have special training beyond that required for con­ ventional plant operators and must be licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). To be licensed, operators must take a 40-week course and pass a NRC examination. They also receive periodic training after they are licensed. Job Outlook Employment of electric power generating plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers is ex­ pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The demand for electric power should grow sub­ stantially as the economy expands. However, with the increasing use of automatic controls and more efficient equipment, employment needs will not grow as rapidly. Because of concerns over the safety of nuclear power, few if any nuclear power plants are likely to be ordered before the year 2000. However, some additional operators will be needed to staff plants now under construction. Most job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. People hired by electric power compa­ nies generally have relatively secure jobs. Even during downturns in the economy, these com­ panies seldom lay off employees. Earnings Earnings in the electric utility industry are rel­ atively high. According to the limited infor­ mation available, median weekly earnings for power plant operators were about $560 in 1986. Many electric power generating plant op­ erators, distributors, and dispatchers belong to  Production Occupations/361  the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America, both AFL-CIO affiliates. Some be­ long to independent unions. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and systems equipment include stationary engineers, water and sewage treatment plant operators, waterworks pump-station op­ erators, chemical operators, and refinery op­ erators.  W***  Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportun­ ities, contact local electric utility companies, locals of unions previously mentioned, or an office of the State employment service. For general information about powerplant and nuclear reactor operators and power dis­ tributors and dispatchers, contact: Edison Electric Institute, 1111 19th St. NW., Wash­ ington, DC 20005. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  Inspectors, Testers, and Graders  Si  (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, and graders ensure that products and services meet the standards of quality established by the organization man­ ufacturing the products or providing the ser­ vices. They compare products and services to formal specifications, such as blueprints, to make sure that the products and services are free from defects or other problems. These workers may get involved in different stages of the production process. For example, some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them on to the production line. Others inspect subassemblies and assemblies before sending them on to the next stop in the production or assembly pro­ cess. Still others perform a final check on the finished product. Inspection, testing, and grading activities cover a vast array of jobs that range from the relatively simple to the highly complex and demanding. Some jobs only involve a visual inspection that can be done rather quickly. In apparel companies, for example, inspectors ex­ amine finished garments for crooked seams and other flaws. Other jobs require more special­ ized knowledge and a much closer inspection, but not necessarily the use of tools. Loading inspectors check loaded railroad freight cars to ensure that materials and goods are securely braced and blocked according to loading speci­ fications. Food graders examine poultry, eggs, cheese, and other foods for quality and grade it according to size, texture, flavor, or color.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Inspection activities include many different tasks. The most complex and demanding inspector jobs are those that involve great accuracy and precision. Machine shop inspectors measure dimensions between reference points to ensure that the piece conforms to the engineering specifications. Similarly, aircraft inspectors inspect and test subassemblies such as engine control panels, wings and tail assemblies, and landing gear. In order to do this kind of pre­ cise inspecting and testing, inspectors may use dial indicators, micrometers, calipers, height gauges, surface plates, and other measuring devices. Some inspectors monitor electrical and electronic instruments that make these precise measurements. When inspectors find a defective item, they can reject the item outright, send it back for rework, or, in the case of a minor problem, fix it themselves. When the product checks out, they may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp a serial number, or, in some other way, certify that the item has been inspected. Inspectors also may calibrate precision instruments as part of the final inspection. Inspectors, testers, and graders record the results of their inspections on a worksheet and compute the percentage of defects, as well as a distribution by type of defect. This infor­ mation can then be used as a basis for making improvements in the production run. It also can be helpful in identifying workers who need additional training to improve their perfor­ mance on the job.  Working Conditions Although working conditions vary from in­ dustry to industry, most inspectors, testers, and graders work in a normal production shop en­ vironment. They may be on their feet much of the time and frequently are exposed to the noise and grime of machinery. Some may have to lift heavy objects. Some inspectors, testers, and graders may have to work evenings, nights, or weekends because many factories operate around the clock. In these cases, shift assignments gen­ erally are made on the basis of seniority. Over­ time may be required in some work settings to meet production goals. Employment Inspectors, testers, and graders held about 694,000 jobs in 1986. Over 8 of every 10 worked in manufacturing industries including motor vehicles and equipment; electronic com­ ponents and accessories; communications equipment; apparel; aircraft and parts; plastic products; and office, computing, and account­ ing machines. Although they are employed throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in large metropolitan areas where many large factories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generalizations about training requirements are difficult because this occupation covers such a  362/Occupational Outlook Handbook  wide variety of skill levels. For some complex jobs, employers may require completion of a postsecondary vocational program. For many jobs, however, employers generally promote experienced production workers to inspector, tester, and grader positions. A high school di­ ploma is helpful and may be required for some jobs. New workers usually receive several weeks of in-house training on quality control tech­ niques, blueprint reading, and reporting re­ quirements. They also learn how to use special meters, gauges, computers, or other instru­ ments. Inspectors, testers, and graders need me­ chanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision. For some jobs, it is essential that they not be color blind. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. However, highly skilled workers also may advance to inspector of more complex products as well as inspector supervisor.  Job Outlook Employment of inspectors, testers, and graders is expected to remain unchanged through the year 2000. Because the occupation is large, however, tens of thousands of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment change will vary with the for­ tunes of the industries where inspectors are employed. In many manufacturing industries, employment of inspectors is expected to de­ cline as U.S. firms introduce more efficient production methods, including use of flexible machining systems—automated materialshandling equipment, numerical-control ma­ chine tools, robots, and other sensing devices. These machines can manufacture items to higher standards of quality than less sophisticated equipment. Because these machines turn out products with greater uniformity and fewer de­ fects, employers feel they need fewer inspec­ tors . This trend should continue as further tech­ nological advances make this equipment more affordable and as competitive pressure from foreign producers continues to mount. Many manufacturing jobs have been lost to foreign firms in recent years. Pressed by for­ eign competition, a growing number of man­ ufacturers are setting up production and as­ sembly operations in countries with lower wage rates. Employment demand for production workers, including inspectors, testers, and graders, will be limited by the increasing use of this “outsourcing.” Employment of inspectors, testers, and graders in the nonmanufacturing sector is ex­ pected to rise as population growth and general economic expansion increase the volume of goods and services to be inspected. More of these workers will be needed in wholesale and retail trade establishments, research and de­ velopment labs, photofinishing labs, commer­ cial testing labs, government agencies, and other establishments that provide goods or services.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings Inspectors, testers, and graders had median weekly earnings of S340 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $240 and $475 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $180 a week; the highest 10 percent earned more than $590. \ • i 1t \ #y  Related Occupations Other workers who inspect products or services are construction and building inspectors and a variety of regulatory and compliance inspec­ tors, including agricultural commodity grad­ ers, food inspectors, and consumer safety in­ spectors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact:  mgr**'  The National Tooling and Machinery Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. lIXiiiB  Jewelers (D.O.T. 700.281-010, -014, -022. and .381-030, -042, and -046)  Nature of the Work For thousands of years, people have worn and admired jewelry made from precious metals and stones, such as gold and diamonds. Jew­ elers use such materials to make, repair, and adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry using a variety of tools and ma­ terials. They use pliers, soldering irons, saws, and a variety of other handtools to mold and shape metal and to set precious and semipre­ cious stones. They also may use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as flux for solder­ ing and tripoli and rouge for finishing. Jewelers’ work varies by the type of estab­ lishment in which they are employed. Regard­ less of the work setting, however, their work requires a high degree of skill and attention to detail. Those working in retail stores and repair shops spend much of their time repairing or adjusting jewelry. Typical work includes en­ larging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings. Some jewelers also may design, make, and sell their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those created by designers, they begin by shap­ ing the metal or by shaping wax to make a mold for casting the metal. The individual parts are then soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other stone or may engrave a design into the metal. A small number of jewelers are qualified gemologists, who ap­ praise the quality and value of diamonds and other gemstones. Those who own or manage stores or shops hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other manage­ rial duties. Most of those in manufacturing specialize in a single operation. For example, some make molds to cast jewelry or dies to stamp it. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones or  Jewelers need good eye-hand coordination, hand dexterity, and patience. engraving. A growing number of jewelers use lasers to engrave letters and designs into gold, silver, or other metals. Working Conditions Jewelers usually work in comfortable sur­ roundings, and the trade involves few physical hazards. However, caution must be taken by those working with chemicals to prevent bums and other injuries. In addition, doing delicate work while trying to satisfy demands for speed and quality from customers and employers can cause stress, and bending over a workbench for long periods can be uncomfortable. Because many of the materials with which they work are very valuable, those working in retail stores must observe strict security pro­ cedures. These may include locked doors that are only opened by a buzzer, barred windows, and armed guards. The additional responsibil­ ity also may create stress. In repair shops, jewelers generally work alone with little supervision. However, in retail stores, they may talk with customers about repairs and even do some sales work. In some plants manufacturing precious jew­ elry, the workweek is 35 hours. During slack periods, however, jewelers may have short­ ened workweeks or be laid off. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week, including evenings and Saturday. Dur­ ing peak sales seasons, such as Christmas, they often work longer hours, but are compensated for overtime. Employment Jewelers held 36,000 jobs in 1986. About 42 percent of all jewelers are self-employed; many operate their own store or repair shop, and some specialize in designing and creating cus­ tom jewelry. Employment of jewelers is concentrated in jewelry stores, jewelry manufacturing plants, and jewelry repair shops. Although jewelry  Production Occupations/363  stores and repair shops can be found in every city and many small towns, most job oppor­ tunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Those employed in manufacturing are likely to work in New York, California, or Rhode Island, States where production is concentrated.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills usually are learned in technical schools or informally on the job. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, technical schools are the best source of training. In these programs, which vary in length from 6 months to 3 years, students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry making and repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and pol­ ishing. Technical school courses also cover topics like blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. Store and shop owners prefer graduates of these programs because they already have the basic skills of the trade. Nevertheless, most employers feel that graduates need an addi­ tional 3 years or more of supervised on-thejob training to refine their repair skills and to learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as sample making, wax carving, or gemology. Many pay all or part of the cost of this addi­ tional training. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally have developed their skills through informal on-the-job training programs pro­ vided by their employer. This training may last 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stonesetting, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools have be­ gun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, those in manufacturing prefer grad­ uates of technical school programs because they are familiar with the production process and the in-house training can be shortened signif­ icantly. A high school education has become very important for those interested in learning the trade. To enter most technical school pro­ grams, a high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required. Courses in art, math, me­ chanical drawing, and chemistry are useful. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordination, patience, and concen­ tration. Artistic ability is a major asset, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent con­ tact with customers and should be neat and personable. In addition, almost all employers require a good character because jewelers work with very valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to su­ pervisory jobs, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  shops may become salaried managers; some open their own businesses. For those interested in starting their own business, a substantial financial investment is needed to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly com­ petitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business man­ agement. Courses in these areas often are avail­ able from technical schools and community colleges. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Job opportunities for jewelers depend largely on jewelry sales and on demand for jewelry repair services. The job outlook will be best in jewelry stores and repair shops. Increased retail jewelry sales can be expected to create additional job op­ portunities for retail jewelers. In addition, de­ mand for jewelry repair will increase as the stock of jewelry continues to rise. Maintaining and repairing this jewelry will create job op­ portunities for jewelry repairers. Job openings also will result from the need to replace ex­ perienced jewelers who transfer to other oc­ cupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Those interested in pursuing a career in jewelry manufacturing will face keen competition. Many jewelry manufacturers have curtailed their operations because of increased jewelry imports. Earnings Median yearly earnings of full-time jewelers in retail stores were about $20,000 in 1986. Depending on the employer, jewelers also may receive commissions on what they sell or bo­ nuses for outstanding work. For those in man­ ufacturing. earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers ranged from about $8.75 to $12.50 an hour, according to the limited in­ formation available. Beginners in jewelry fac­ tories generally start at considerably less than experienced workers; as they become more proficient, they receive periodic raises up to the minimum union wage for their job. Most jewelers enjoy a variety of fringe ben­ efits. For example, the majority of jewelers receive annual vacations, health insurance, and reimbursement from their employers for workrelated courses. In addition, some companies allow their employees to buy jewelry at cost or at substantially reduced prices. Related Occupations Other skilled workers in jewelry manufacturing or repair include polishers, lappers, gem cut­ ters, gemologists, hand engravers, model mak­ ers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities in jewelry stores, as well as information on training pro­ grams, contact: Jewelers of America, Time-Life Bldg., Suite 650, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.  Lithographic and Photoengraving Workers (D.O.T. 652.665-014. .685-022, -086; 970.281-026, .361-014. .381-030; 971.261-010, .381-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -038, -040, -050, -054, .382-014, -018. -022, .684-010, -014, .685-010; 972.281-010, -014, -018, .282-010, -014. .381-010, -014, -022, -026, .382­ 010, -014, .664-010, .682-010, -014; 976.684-010, -026; 979.281-018, .381-010. -018, -022, .382-018, -022, .682-014, .687-018)  Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset printing, is the dominant method of printing. In this process, lithographers photograph or scan the material to be printed and make a printing plate from the film which, when inked, is pressed against a rubber blanket. The rubber blanket in turn transfers the ink onto paper. In photoengrav­ ing, a similar process, photoengravers produce metal plates or gravure cylinders for repro­ duction of copy. The plates are carefully en­ graved with the image to be printed. Once the plates are installed in the press, ink collects in the engraved recesses and is held there until transferred onto paper. Lithography has re­ placed photoengraving for most purposes, al­ though the latter is still used for high-quality magazines and other specialty printing jobs. Lithographic and photoengraving workers are responsible for a variety of tasks, from photographing text and pictures to making the final printing plates. In small shops, a single worker may handle every step in the printing process. Otherwise, lithographic workers tend to specialize, and have job titles such as camera operator, stripper, etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker. Camera operators start the process of mak­ ing a lithographic plate by photographing and developing negatives of the material to be printed. Much of the camera work can be done electronically. These workers generally are classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photographers. Scanner operators use computerized equip­ ment to create film negatives of photographs or art. The operator reviews all work to de­ termine if corrections to the original are nec­ essary and adjusts the equipment accordingly. The operator then uses a densitometer to mea­ sure the density of the colored areas, and the scanner is adjusted to obtain the best results. Once the settings are entered, the scanner is started. When reproducing color, the photo­ graph is scanned four times. Each scan pro­ duces a dotted image of the original in one of four basic colors: Yellow, red, blue, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that will print each of these colors, one at a time. The printing is done with primary colors because, when combined in the proper order, they will produce all the colors and hues of the original photograph. The computer controls the scanning process, correcting for mistakes or compensating for deficiencies in the original.  364/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Negatives may need retouching. Litho­ graphic etchers take care of this by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Lithographic etchers must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce tine shades of color. Like camera op­ erators, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. Strippers cut the film to required size and arrange and tape the negatives onto “mechan­ icals,” or layout sheets, used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, me­ chanicals resemble large film negatives of the text in its final form. In large printing estab­ lishments like newspapers, arrangement is done automatically. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The mechanical, which closely resembles a photographic negative of the text, is placed on top of a thin metal plate treated with a light-sensitive chemical. Ex­ posure to a special light activates the chemical in those regions not protected by the film’s dark areas. The plate is then washed in a special solution that eats away the light-activated coat­ ing, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate protected from the light hard­ ens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text. In a growing number of printing plants, platemakers use machines that process the plates automatically. Entering, storing, and retrieving information from computer-aided equipment require technical skills. In addition to operating and maintaining the equipment, lithographic platemakers must make sure that plates meet quality standards. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal areas that were attacked by the light-activated chemical, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were not affected by the chemical. Next, the plate comes  Lithographers stand much of the time.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  in contact with a rubber roller covered with an oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text can now be trans­ ferred to paper. Working Conditions Although lithographic and photoengraving workers stand most of the time, the work is not physically demanding. Some light lifting may be required. Lithographic artists and strip­ pers may find working with fine detail tiring and fatiguing to the eyes. Platemakers, who work with toxic chemicals in both processes, face the hazard of skin irritations. Work areas usually are well lighted and air-conditioned. Lithographic and photoengraving workers generally work an 8-hour day but sometimes have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Some workers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employment Lithographic and photoengraving workers held 77,000 jobs in 1986. Employment was dis­ tributed as follows: Lithography and photoengraving workers, precision .......................... 48,000 Photoengraving and lithographic machine operators and photographers .................................. 29,000 Most jobs are in small commercial printing plants, newspapers, printing trade service firms, and “in-plant” operations. Although these workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington. D.C., and Dallas. Training and Other Qualifications Most lithographic and photoengraving workers begin as helpers or “gofers.” They may be hired to work on the loading dock, for example, or help clean up. When the need arises, helpers who have proved their reliability and interest may be selected for on-the-job training in li­ thography or photoengraving and begin their instruction with experienced craft workers. Advancement is based on an individual’s dem­ onstrated mastery of skills at each level of in­ struction. Years of on-the-job training are re­ quired to become a skilled worker, and frequent retraining will be needed to keep abreast of the latest technological advancements. Apprenticeship provides another way of be­ coming a skilled worker, although few ap­ prenticeships have been offered in recent years. Apprenticeship programs may emphasize a specific craft, such as camera operator, strip­ per, lithographic etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker, but the apprentice is introduced to all phases of the operation. Usually, applicants for training must be high school graduates, at least 18 years of age, and in good physical condition. Good oral and writ­ ing skills also are required. Applicants should  be able to compute percentages and be familiar with weights and measures. Those employed in small shops may be called upon to take customer orders or make cost estimates. In such cases, workers need enough mathematics skills to factor in such items as the costs of labor, paper, ink, and the time needed to do a job. A knowledge of color composition is an asset, as is evidence of an aptitude for mastering the computer-assisted equipment used in graphic preparatory work. Prospective camera opera­ tors should have an understanding of chem­ istry, optics, and the entire offset and photo­ graphic process. Precision, patience, good eyesight and color vision, artistic skills, and manual dexterity are desirable qualifications for prospective lithographic artists and strip­ pers. Vocational-technical institutes, community and junior colleges, and 4-year colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology which provide a valuable background for persons in­ terested in learning lithographic crafts. High school and vocational school training in print­ ing, photography, mathematics, chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing, and art also is helpful. Unions, industry groups, and equipment manufacturers also provide training in new techniques and equipment for individuals with some experience. As workers acquire experience and training, they may advance to positions of greater re­ sponsibility. Some become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment of lithographic workers is ex­ pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, but em­ ployment of photoengraving workers is ex­ pected to decline. These divergent trends re­ flect the fact that offset printing methods— which involve lithography—are replacing let­ terpress printing, which requires photoengrav­ ing skills. Rapidly rising demand for printed material is the principal factor underlying projected growth in employment of lithographic workers. Output of printed materials is expected to grow substantially by the year 2000 in response to demand generated by an expanding economy, increased school enrollments, and more mid­ dle-aged and older readers. In addition, new printing technologies are expected to spur de­ mand by creating new markets for printed mat­ ter, effectively capturing some of the adver­ tising dollars currently allotted to nonprint media. Work previously requiring a week or more can now be completed in several days. Much faster turnaround time will permit offset printers to compete with nonprint media for time-sensitive business, providing advertisers with specialty advertisements used to target specific market segments, for example. Although expansion of the printing industry is expected to create more jobs for lithographic workers, employment growth between now and the year 2000 is not likely to keep pace with future increases in the output of printed ma­ terials, given the laborsaving nature of new  Production Occupations/365  printing technologies. In addition to jobs cre­ ated by industry growth, many openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Most new jobs will be in commercial print­ ing establishments. These firms produce a wide variety of printed materials, including pam­ phlets, brochures, newspaper inserts, and di­ rect mail advertisements. Because small es­ tablishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for in­ experienced workers looking to gain a good background in all facets of lithography. Employment opportunities for inexperi­ enced individuals should be best for those who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these pro­ grams because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn lithography and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques.  'Cffcf  ! V“n;  Earnings The basic wage rate for a lithographic or pho­ toengraving worker depends on the job and location. The average hourly wage rate for pho­ toengravers was SI5.06 in 1986, according to the Graphic Communications International Union. Lithographers operating a scanner earned $14.77 an hour in 1986. Related Occupations Lithographic and photoengraving workers use artistic skills in their work. Artistic skills are also essential for sign painters, jewelers, dec­ orators, and engravers. Sources of Additional Information Details on apprenticeship and other training opportunities in lithography and photoengrav­ ing are available from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or the local office of the State em­ ployment service. For information on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213.  For general information on lithographic oc­ cupations, write to: Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  Machinists (D.O.T. 600.260-018, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -038, -042, .281-010, .380-010; 693.281-026; and 714.281­ 018)  Nature of the Work Precision metal parts are essential for the pro­ duction of industrial machinery, aircraft, au­ tomobiles, and other durable and nondurable goods. Machinists are skilled workers who pro­ duce metal goods that arc made in numbers too small to produce with automated machinery. They set up and operate most types of machine  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Machinists generally work independently. tools, and they also must know the working properties of metals such as steel, cast iron, aluminum, and brass. Using their skill with machine tools plus this knowledge of metals, machinists plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Machinists do much of their work indepen­ dently. First, they review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they select tools and materials for the job and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations. They also must calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then mark the metal stock to show where these cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, they perform the necessary machining operations. Machinists position the metal stock on the ma­ chine tool, set the controls, and make the cuts. They use precision instruments, such as mi­ crometers, to make sure their work meets spec­ ifications. After completing the machining op­ erations, machinists finish and assemble the pieces. Some machinists do maintenance work— repairing or making new parts for existing ma­ chinery. They also adjust and test these parts. Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and well ventilated. Working around high-speed ma­  chine tools, however, presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety practices. Ma­ chinists must wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against the noise from machinery. They cannot wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothes that might get caught in the machine. The job requires stamina because machinists stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces. In some shops, machinists may have to work evening or Sat­ urday shifts. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Employment Machinists held about 378,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in small machining shops or in manufacturing firms that produce durable goods such as industrial machinery, fabricated metal products, motor vehicles, aircraft, or primary metals. Maintenance machinists arc employed in just about every industry that uses production machinery. The Federal Government also em­ ploys machinists in Navy yards and other in­ stallations. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade. Typical machinist  366/Occupational Outlook Handbook  apprentice programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn chipping, filing, handtapping, dowel fitting, riveting, and the operation of various machine tools. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, apprentice­ ship programs have expanded training in this area. Classroom instruction, which is usually held 2 nights per week, includes blueprint read­ ing, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, and shop practices. Some machinists learn the trade informally on the job. Nonapprentice training varies by establishment. Although a few employers may have a structured training program, most have informal programs without any classroom in­ struction. Persons interested in becoming a machinist should have manual dexterity and be mechan­ ically inclined in order to use the tools and machines required to build complex parts. They also should be able to work independently and do highly accurate work that requires concen­ tration as well as physical effort. A high school or vocational school educa­ tion, including mathematics, blueprint reading, metalworking, physics, and drafting, is desir­ able. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Ex­ perience with machine tools also is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter the occu­ pation have previously worked as machine-tool operators or setters. Some companies send their experienced ma­ chinists for additional coursework in mathe­ matics and electronics at company expense to become familiar with newer metalworking technologies, such as numerically controlled machine tools. In addition, when new ma­ chinery is introduced, machinists receive train­ ing in its operation—usually from a repre­ sentative of the equipment manufacturer. Machinists may become supervisors. Others take additional training and become tool pro­ grammers or tool-and-die or instrument mak­ ers. A few skilled machinists open their own shops, but this requires a sizable investment in machinery. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of machinists through the year' 2000. As the economy expands, so will the demand for goods that traditionally have had machined metal parts. Despite this rising demand, increased imports of machined products, improvements in metal­ working technology, and growing substitution of nonmetal for metal parts should enable this demand to be met without having to hire many additional workers. Nevertheless, many open­ ings will arise each year from the need to re­ place experienced machinists who transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of machinists is more sensitive to imports than most other occupations. Unlike occupations that are affected by an increase in imports of a particular product, employment of machinists can be affected by import growth  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of a variety of products, from automobiles to machine tools, because the goods that ma­ chinists manufacture often are components of other products. In addition to growing import pressure, improvements in technology, such as the use of computer-controlled machine tools, reduce the time required for machining oper­ ations, thereby increasing machinists’ produc­ tivity. Finally, the increased use of plastics, ceramics, and composites is expected to further reduce demand for precision metal products and, thus, for machinists. Employment of machinists fluctuates with economic conditions. When demand for ma­ chined goods falls, machinists involved in pro­ duction may be laid off or be forced to work fewer hours. Apprenticeship opportunities also decline. In areas where demand for machined goods rises sharply, temporary shortages of skilled machinists may develop. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance is more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain vital con­ cerns even when production levels fall. Earnings In 1986, median weekly earnings for machin­ ists were about $420. Most earned between $310 and $515. Ten percent of all machinists had median weekly earnings of less than $240, while the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $620 a week. The eamings of machinists compare favor­ ably with those of other skilled workers. Main­ tenance machinists employed in metropolitan areas had estimated average hourly eamings of $13.38 in 1986. In comparison, the average hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.75. Average hourly rates in 10 areas, selected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying table. Machinists also have numerous opportunities for overtime work when demand for machined parts is high. Although many machinists are employed by small machining shops, benefits compare fa­ vorably with those of larger firms. Most em­ ployers offer paid holidays, vacations, and health insurance. Retirement plans also may be available, but larger firms generally have more generous plans. Many machinists are members of unions, including the International Association of Ma­ chinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna­ tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer­ ica; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Broth­ erhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to machinists are, of course, the other machining occupa­ tions. These include tool-and-die makers, metalworking and plastic-working machine operators, tool programmers, and instrument makers. Other occupations that require preci­ sion and skill in working with metal include  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of maintenance machinists, selected areas, 1986 Area  Hourly rate  San Francisco-Oakland ........................ $16.03 Milwaukee ............................................ 15.80 Kansas City .......................................... 14.96 Corpus Christi ...................................... 14.85 Baltimore .............................................. 14.13 Portland, OR ........................................ 13.81 Boston ................................................... 12.52 Miami ........................................ .......... 11.32 Chattanooga.......................................... 10.04 Greenville-Spartanburg ....................... 9.33 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, lock­ smiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For information about machinist apprentice­ ships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local machine shops, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this occupa­ tion, contact; The National MachineTool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. The National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckvilie. OH 44141. The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  Metalworking and Plastic-Working Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Think of the components of an automobile— the steel hood, the metal ball bearings, and the plastic knobs on the radio, just to name a few. These and many other metal and plastic parts are products on which most of us rely daily. Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators run the machines that produce these and thousands of other parts that are used in automobiles and nearly every other manufac­ tured product. Operators can be divided into three groups: Those who work in metalworking machine shops; those who work with primary metal products, such as iron and steel; and those who work in plastics production facilities. Opera­ tors usually are identified by the kind of ma­ chine they run, such as furnace operator, screw  Production Occupations/367  machine operator, or plastic-molding machine operator. Although some operators are quali­ fied to work with a variety of machines, most specialize in one or two types. Operator duties vary by the type of machine on which they work. Skilled metalworking ma­ chine operators, for example, plan and set up the correct sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper instruments or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. They also may select coolants to keep the workpiece from getting too hot, and lubricants to keep the ma­ chine tools running smoothly. Although there are many different types of metalworking machine tools that perform a wide spectrum of operations, operators perform many similar tasks. For example, some workers tend grinding machines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products, others operate drill presses that are used to drill holes in a variety of products, while still others over­ see machines that extrude metal through a die to form slugs or wire. Other metalworking and plastic-working machine operators tend machines that produce primary metal products, such as iron and steel. For example, furnace operators oversee the production of iron from iron ore, coal, and limestone, and steel from iron. Before steel can be produced, the furnaces must be charged to extremely high temperatures. Furnace op­ erators must periodically check gauges, take temperature readings, and monitor and adjust the level of inputs. Because many mills have been automated, this also may require moni­ toring a master control board and periodically checking computer printouts. Once production has begun, sensors monitor the temperature level and the amount and type of raw materials being used. Periodically, samples of the molten metal must be collected to determine the me­ tallurgy and quality of the output. Operators spend much of their time adjusting the controls that regulate the production process. Because they are working with such large quantities of molten metal, they must exercise great care and caution. Heaters, another type of metalworking and plastic-working machine operator, also work with primary metal products. These workers tend the machines that reheat the steel prior to rolling. Following instructions from supervi­ sors, they control the temperature level of the soaking pit or reheating furnace.During this process, they must read the gauges and dials on the machines they are operating, observe the temperature of the steel, and make any necessary adjustments to the controls. Some metalworking machine operators are responsible for machines that coat metal or plastic products with other types of metal. Like other operators, they must follow specific in­ structions, but also must check the tempera­ ture, concentration level, and quality of the coating material and the product being coated;  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  monitor the production rate and the amount produced; and, if necessary, make any ad­ justments to the controls. Plastic-working machine operators tend ma­ chines that produce plastic products through a variety of methods, the most common of which is injection molding. During the molding pro­ cess, plastic pellets are heated until they be­ come liquid. Then this molten material is forced into a mold where it is cooled to form the part. Plastic-working machine operators feed plastic pellets into the machine, monitor the temper­ ature and the molding time, and remove the finished piece. The molds that are produced are quite costly, and operators must exercise proper care and maintenance. In addition, be­ cause certain types of plastics can be recycled, operators must conserve scrap so that it can be reused. Some metalworking and plastic-working machine workers, called setters or setup op­ erators, prepare the machines for production or a new job and make adjustments to the ma­ chines during production. Because they must know how the machine operates, these workers are more highly skilled and have more training than machine operators or tenders.  Working Conditions Most metalworking and plastic-working ma­ chine shops are well lighted and well venti­ lated. Older steel mills and other primary metal production facilities, on the other hand, tend to be hot, poorly lit, and not well ventilated. However, modem mills are well designed and are equipped with the most advanced engi­ neering and computer-controlled operations. Regardless of setting, all of these workers op­ erate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not ob­ served. Operators must wear protective equip­ ment that varies by the work setting. For ex­ ample, operators in most settings wear safety glasses and earplugs to protect against flying particles of plastic or metal and noise from the machines. In addition, metalworkers in the steel industry wear protective thermal and burn-re­ sistant clothing to shield them from the intense heat, and steel-toed shoes with a reinforced sole to protect their feet from the materials and machinery with which they work. Workers in the plastics industry who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes must wear face masks. Because all of these machines run at very high speeds, operators cannot wear loose-fit­ ting clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the machine. The work requires stamina because operators are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Most metalworking and plastic-working ma­ chine operators work a 40-hour week, but over­ time may be common during periods of in­ creased production. Factories producing primary metal and plastic products usually op­ erate around the clock. As a result, operators work one of three shifts—day, evening, or night. Those working the night shift may re­ ceive a shift differential. Metalworking ma­  chine shops, on the other hand, tend to be small and usually operate only one shift. Employment Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators held about 1.3 million jobs in 1986. The distribution of employment among specific operator occupations is presented in the fol­ lowing tabulation: Percent Total............................................... 100 Machine forming operators and tenders .. 13 Machine tool cutting operators and tenders ............................................ 13 Plastic molding machine operators and tenders, setters, and setup operators ... 11 Lathe machine tool setters and setup operators ............................................... 7 Combination machine tool setters, operators, and tenders ........................ 7 Grinding machine setters and setup operators ...................................... 7 Drilling machine tool setters and setup operators ...................................... 5 Punching machine setters and setup operators ...................................... 5 Electrolytic plating machine operators and tenders, setters, and setupoperators .. 4 Metal molding machine operators and tenders, setters, and setupoperators .. 3 Furnace operators and tenders ................ 2 Heat treating machine operators and tenders ............................................ 2 Nonelectrolytic plating machine operators and tenders, setters, and setup operators ........................ 1 As shown below, most operators worked in factories that produce fabricated metal prod­ ucts, nonelectrical machinery, primary metal products, and plastics products in large quan­ tities: Percent Fabricated metal products .......................... 23 Machinery manufacturing, except electrical ........................................20 Primary metal products.............................. 12 Electrical and electronic machinery and equipment ....................................... 9 Motor vehicles and equipment ................. 8 Employment of those producing primary metal products is concentrated in Pennsylva­ nia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. Those working in metalworking machine shops are most likely to be found in the midwestem, northeastern, and far west sections of the coun­ try, where such manufacturing activity is cen­ tered. Because plastics production is located throughout the country, employment of plastic­ working machine operators is distributed much like the population as a whole. If-aining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most operators learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually start by observing experi­ enced operators at work. When trainees first operate a machine, they are supervised closely  368/Occupational Outlook Handbook  iUtSl  «aapjWimH|r Sgjg*L  m  I  proved computer controls and tools that cut metal faster. Another factor that is expected to reduce demand for metalworking machine operators is the increased substitution of nonmetal for metal products in the production of both du­ rable and nondurable goods. Although this will benefit those working in industries producing plastic, ceramic, and composite materials, job opportunities are expected to decline for those in the primary metal and metalworking indus­ tries. Workers with a thorough background in ma­ chine operations, mathematics, blueprint read­ ing, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to the changing job requirements that will result from technological advances. In addition, those skilled in the setup of metal­ working and plastic-working machines should fare better than those whose responsibilities solely include tending and operating machin­ ery.  Job opportunities will vary by industry. by more experienced workers. After gaining some experience, beginners take over more of the duties of operating the machines. For ex­ ample, they learn to adjust feeds and speeds and sharpen cutting edges, instead of calling upon other workers to perform these tasks. They also learn to read blueprints, plan the sequence of work, and learn to use measuring instruments to check work. Individual ability and effort largely deter­ mine the time required to become an operator. Most operators learn the basic machine oper­ ations and functions in a few months, but be­ coming a skilled operator often requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees that com­ bine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Although no special education is required, persons interested in this occupation can im­ prove their opportunities by completing high school courses in shop, mathematics, and blue­ print reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons with mechanical aptitude and some experience in working with machin­ ery; a working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics is highly prized. Physical stamina also is important because much time is spent standing. In addition, those in primary metal production often are required to pass a physical examination. Advancement opportunities in these occu­ pations are limited. Some workers advance to supervisory jobs or transfer to trainee jobs for skilled occupations such as setup operator, ma­ chinist, or mold maker. Job Outlook Employment of metalworking and plastic­ working machine operators as a whole is ex­ pected to decline through the year 2000. The outlook for individual occupations depends in large measure on the economic conditions af­ fecting the industries where they are concen­ trated. For example, employment of these  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  workers in primary metal industries is likely to decline at a faster rate than that of all metal­ working and plastic-working occupations be­ cause of further declines in domestic steel pro­ duction and increasing automation, while employment of those in the plastics industry should increase as this industry continues to expand. Because the occupation is large, many job openings will be created as operators transfer to other fields of work or leave the labor force. The demand for primary metal products and metal and plastic parts is expected to increase as the economy expands. However, foreign competition and improvements in manufactur­ ing technology will prevent employment from keeping pace with this demand. Many of the industries that employ metalworking and plas­ tic-working machine operators face increasing competition from foreign firms. In industries such as motor vehicle and steel manufacturing, foreign firms have captured a significant pro­ portion of the market, and U.S. firms have had to cut production capability and lay off work­ ers. In addition, many U.S. firms have moved production operations to other countries in or­ der to reduce costs. Such moves have lowered employment opportunities in these occupa­ tions. In order to remain competitive, many U.S. firms are adopting technologies that increase productivity. Increasingly, computer-con­ trolled machine tools, robots, and automated material handling equipment are being used together in flexible machining systems. In these systems, the workpiece is moved automatically through a series of work stations. At each work station, a robot loads the piece onto a computercontrolled machine and removes it when the processing is complete. The workpiece is then moved to the next work station for further pro­ cessing. In such systems, operators can tend several machines at the same time. Other im­ provements that are expected to increase op­ erators’ productivity include the use of im­  Earnings Earnings of metalworking and plastic-working machine operators vary significantly by indus­ try. In 1986, for example, those working in the production of motor vehicles and equip­ ment had average hourly wages of $13.52, while those who produced plastics products averaged $8.14 per hour. Table 1 presents wage data for the industries that accounted for over 85 percent of employment in 1986. Benefits also vary by industry in which the operators work. Those who work in primary metal production usually receive a generous benefits package that includes health and life insurance, pension plans, supplemental un­ employment insurance, and paid vacation and sick leave. In other industries, many work for small machine shops or plastics producers whose benefits are not as generous as those of the large employers. However, most still receive paid holidays, vacations, sick leave, and med­ ical insurance. Many metalworking and plastic-working machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of production workers in selected manufacturing industries, 1986 Industry  Hourly rate  Motor vehicles and equipment ........... $13.52 Aircraft and parts ................................ 12.90 Primary metal industries..................... 11.93 Machinery manufacturing, except electrical .............................. 10.56 Fabricated metal products ................. 9.87 Electrical and electronic machinery and equipment ........................................ 9.67 Miscellaneous plastics products ........ 8.14 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Production Occupations/369  Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im­ plement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Work­ ers; and the International Brotherhood of Elec­ trical Workers. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to metal­ working and plastic-working machine opera­ tors are other production occupations. These include numerical-control machine-tool oper­ ators, machinists, tool-and-die makers, ex­ truding and forming machine operators pro­ ducing synthetic fibers, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in these occupations, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about this occupa­ tion, contact:  HhnHN  *clH ..  *■  ...  "m  /  ctpi  The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. The National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, OH 44141. The Society of Plastics Engineers, 14 Fairfield Dr., Brookfield Center, CT 06805.  i’- /  The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068.  Numerical-Control Machine-Tool Operators (D.O.T. 604,362; 605.360, .380, .382-046; 606 362 .382-014, -018; 609.662; and 617.280)  Nature of the Work People generally associate manufacturing with mass production. However, the manufacture of industrial equipment, aircraft, and many other products involves machining—cutting or forming metal or plastic workpieces into parts for final products—that is done in small batches. For decades, batch production was done by skilled workers using machine tools such as milling machines and lathes. Today, numeri­ cally controlled machine tools—machine tools that can be programmed to make parts of dif­ ferent dimensions automatically—bring the benefits of automation to batch production. Numerically controlled machine tools have two major components: An electronic con­ troller (a type of computer) and a machine tool. The controller directs the mechanisms of the machine tool through the positioning and ma­ chining described in the computer program for the job. A program, forexample, could contain commands that cause the controller to move a drill bit to certain spots on a workpiece and drill a hole at each spot. Many types of machine tools—milling machines, lathes, punch presses, and others—can be numerically controlled.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  MBmcb ■  Operators must check to make sure machines are set up properly. Each can do certain types of machining. A workpiece might have to be worked on by sev­ eral machines before it is finished. Although the machining is done automatically, numer­ ically controlled machine tools must be set up and used properly in order to obtain the max­ imum benefit from their use. These tasks are the job of numerical-control machine-tool op­ erators. The duties of these operators vary. In some shops, operators merely tend one machine. In others, they might program and tend machines, operate more than one machine at a time, or operate more than one type of machine. Al­ though there are many variations in operators’ duties, they generally involve the tasks de­ scribed below. Working from written instructions or direc­ tions from supervisors, operators must load the program into the controller, attach the neces­ sary tools, and position the workpiece. The way a program is loaded into a controller de­ pends on how it is stored. If the program is stored on a paper or magnetic tape, the tape must be run through a tape reader that transmits the program to the controller. Increasingly, machine-tool controllers are connected to mini­ computers. Operators load programs that are stored on disks or tapes directly into the con­ troller via the computer. During the setup and running of a job, op­ erators must install the proper tools in the ma­ chine. Many numerically controlled machines  are equipped with automatic tool changers, so operators have to load several tools in the proper sequence. Because the machine tool cannot see the workpiece—it moves and operates in relation to a fixed starting point on the piece— it is critical that operators position the work­ piece correctly or all subsequent machining will be wrong. Operators also must secure the workpiece to the worktable correctly, so the piece does not move while it is machined. The time an operator needs to load the tools and position and secure the workpiece may be only a few minutes or several hours, depending on the size of the workpiece and complexity of the job. The first time a program is run, it must be “debugged,” or corrected. If the tool moves to the wrong position or makes a cut that is too deep, for example, the program must be changed so the job is done properly. Some employers have numerical-control machine-tool operators debug the program. Others have tool program­ mers handle the first run. (For more infor­ mation about this occupation, see the statement on tool programmers, numerical control, else­ where in the Handbook.) The level of operator involvement depends on the type of job as well as the type of equip­ ment being used. Some numerically controlled machine tools have adaptive controls—sensors that automatically monitor and adjust machine operations—that enable operators to tend more than one machine. When the job has been prop­  370/Occupational Outlook Handbook  erly set up and the program has been checked, the operator may only need to monitor the ma­ chine as it operates. In these cases, the operator may set up and monitor other machines, finish or inspect completed parts, or do other tasks. Other jobs require frequent loading and un­ loading, changing of tools, or constant atten­ tion to insure that the machining is proceeding properly. Regardless of the type of run, op­ erators check the finished part using microm­ eters, gauges, or other precision inspection equipment to insure that it meets specifications. Because the initial investment in numerically controlled machine tools is extensive, opera­ tors must always be on the lookout for situa­ tions that could result in costly downtime.  Because programming languages may vary by machine, operators usually receive addi­ tional training when new equipment is intro­ duced. Most often, this is conducted at the plant by a representative of the machinery manu­ facturer. Numerical-control machine-tool operators may advance to supervisory jobs. Operators who get sufficient training in numerical-control programming can move to the higher paying job of tool programmer.  Job Outlook Although employment of numerical-control machine-tool operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000, many job openings are expected to arise from the need to replace Working Conditions Numerical-control machine-tool operators work operators who retire or transfer to other oc­ in machine shops where they are on their feet cupations. Although numerically controlled machine most of the day and may have to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Machine shops usually are tools have been available since the 1950’s, few well lighted and ventilated, and the machines companies used them until the late 1970’s. Few firms were willing to invest in an unfamiliar on which they work have guards and shields that minimize the operators’ exposure to mov­ technology. Increasing competition from for­ ing parts. Nevertheless, because of flying bits eign companies, however, has forced Ameri­ of metal and noise from the machinery, safety can manufacturers to install numerically con­ trolled machine tools and other equipment that glasses and earplugs must be worn. In addition, operators cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or enables them to control costs and improve qual­ ity. In addition to being used alone, numeri­ jewelry that might get caught in the machines. Although numerical-control machine-iool cally controlled machines increasingly are being used as part of flexible machining systems. In operators generally work 40 hours a week, these systems, automated materials handling overtime is common during periods of high equipment moves workpieces through a series manufacturing activity. of work stations. At each work station, a robot loads the piece onto a numerically controlled Employment Numerical-control machine-tool operators held machine and removes it when the machining is complete. The workpiece is then moved to about 56,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in industries that manufacture durable goods, such the next work station for further processing. as metalworking machinery, aircraft, and con­ The increased use of numerically controlled struction equipment. Jobs are concentrated in machines is expected to increase the demand metropolitan areas in the northeastern and mid­ for operators. However, employment of nu­ merical-control machine-tool operators is not western parts of the country, where durable expected to increase as fast as the use of nu­ goods manufacturing is centered. merically controlled machine tools because of advances in technology, such as the use of Training, Other Qualifications, adaptive controls, which make operators more and Advancement This generally is not an entry level job. Em­ productive. Improvements in the controllers ployers prefer to promote machine-tool oper­ and in the software used for programming them also are likely to increase operator productivity ators or to hire those with technical school training. Occasionally, they select shop helpers and limit the rate of employment growth some­ who have some experience in machine-tool op­ what. Another factor limiting employment growth eration and have demonstrated good work hab­ its and mechanical aptitude. Courses in shop of numerical-control machine-tool operators will be economic conditions in the industries math, plane geometry, and blueprint reading may improve an employee’s chances of getting in which they work. In recent years, many of these industries have faced increased import selected for an operator job. Working under a supervisor or an experi­ competition. As the level of imports continues enced operator, trainees learn to set up and run to rise, growth in domestic production will one or more kinds of numerically controlled slow which, in turn, will reduce job oppor­ machine tools. Trainees usually learn the basics tunities. of their job within a few months. However, the length of the training period varies with the Earnings number and complexity of the machine tools In 1986, numerical-control machine-tool op­ the operator will run and with the individual’s erators earned about $10 an hour, according ability. If the employer expects operators to to a survey by the National Tooling and Ma­ write programs, trainees may attend program­ chining Association. This rate is about 15 per­ ming courses offered by machine-tool manu­ cent higher than the average hourly earnings facturers or technical schools. These courses for all production workers in manufacturing but lower than the hourly rates of skilled ma­ usually last 1 to 2 weeks.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  chining workers such as machinists and tooland-die makers. Because many numerical-control machinetool operators work for medium-size and large firms, they usually receive a wide variety of benefits—including health and life insurance, pension plans, and vacation and sick leave. Related Occupations Numerical-control machine-tool operators use their skill and knowledge of machines and pro­ cesses to set up and operate one or more types of automatically controlled machine tools. Other occupations in which workers use machines to cut or form metal and plastic include bending machine operators, brake operators, drill press operators, grinder operators, milling machine operators, punch press operators, and shear operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities in this occupation, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about this occupa­ tion, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, 1L 60068.  Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 711.381-010; 713.261-010 and -014, .381-010, .681-010; 716.280-008, -010, and -014, .381-014, .382­ 010, -014, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-010, and -018, and .682-018)  Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical me­ chanics, or optical goods workers—are the people who make prescription eyeglass lenses. Corrective lenses are pieces of glass or plastic, convexly curved on both front and back, which bend incoming light, forcing it to focus onto the retina correctly. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dis­ pensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthal­ mologists, and then assemble the lenses with frames to produce finished glasses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and op­ tometrists are the “eye doctors” who examine patients’ eyes, diagnose vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Dispensing opti­ cians help patients select suitable frames and adjust finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physicians, which includes ophthalmolo­ gists, and the statements on optometrists and  Production Occupations/371  dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Hand­ book). When an order for a pair of prescription glasses reaches the laboratory, the technician first reads the specifications. A standard lens blank is then selected and marked to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription should be ground. Next, the blank is placed on a block and then in the lens grinder. The technician sets the dials of the lens grinder for the correct degree of curvature and starts the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished.” The technician removes the lens from the lens grinder and places it on an oscillating machine, which rotates the lens against a fine abrasive to fine grind the lens and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine where the tech­ nician applies finer abrasives, and shines the lens to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician looks at the lens through a lensmeter, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, which measures the degree and placement of the curve on the lens. The degree of curvature and placement must fit the pre­ scription exactly. If not, another lens must be prepared. Once the technician has verified that the lens meets prescription specifications, it is ready to be fitted into the frame. The technician cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame. If the prescription calls for tinted lenses, the technician dips each lens into dye. Finally, the lenses and frame parts are assembled into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians generally handle every phase of the operation—grinding, beveling, tinting, and finishing the lenses, then assembling them in frames. Since they are re­ sponsible for making a pair of glasses from start to finish, these technicians must be well versed in every stage of the process. In large laboratories, the production process is broken down into a number of steps, and technicians generally specialize in one or more tasks, as­ sembly-line style. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in rel­ atively clean and well-lighted surroundings. At times they need to wear goggles to protect their eyes. The laboratory is relatively quiet despite the humming of the machines used by the tech­ nicians. Because technicians may spend a great deal of time standing, they may be subject to fatigue. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Some overtime may be necessary. Some ophthalmic laboratory workers work part time. Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 24,000 jobs in 1986. About half of these jobs were in retail stores that manufacture prescrip­ tion glasses and sell them directly to the public— mostly stores in optical goods chains or the optical departments of department stores and large drug stores. The rest of the jobs were mostly in optical laboratories. These labora­ tories manufacture eyewear for dispensing by  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ophthalmologists, optometrists, and retail stores that do not fabricate prescription glasses on the premises. Some ophthalmic laboratory tech­ nicians work for optometrists or ophthalmol­ ogists who dispense glasses directly to patients. TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling entry level jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science and math­ ematics are valuable, and the ability to do pre­ cision work is essential. Entry level workers start out as technician trainees. At first, trainees perform simple tasks such as marking or blocking the lenses for grinding. As they gain experience and become familiar with the laboratory and the processes, they progress to operations such as lens grind­ ing, lens cutting, edging, beveling, and eye­ glass assembly. When trainees have acquired experience in all the principal phases of the work, they are considered all-round techni­ cians. This usually takes 6 to 18 months, de­ pending on the individual’s aptitude. Some technicians become proficient in only one phase of the operation, such as lens grind­ ing. Learning a single skill takes less time than training to become an all-round technician. Some ophthalmic technicians leant their trade in the Armed Forces. Others attend one of the small number of formal programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical in­ stitutes or trade schools. In these programs, students study optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and how to read and apply pre­ scriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, and graduates earn certifi­ cates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can be­ come supervisors and managers. Some tech­ nicians become dispensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Job Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory tech­ nicians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to rising demand for corrective len­ ses. Nonetheless, most job openings will come from the need to replace experienced techni­ cians who retire or leave the job for other rea­ sons. Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will wear glasses in the years ahead. Not only is the population growing, but the number of middle-aged and older adults is expected to rise substantially between now and the year 2000. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and older persons require appreciably more vi­ sion care than the rest of the population. Other factors that point to increased demand for corrective lenses include health promotion efforts aimed at heightening public awareness of the importance of vision care; lessening of the stigma associated with wearing glasses; and the emergence of eyewear as a fashion item.  l r* V  Ophthalmic lab technicians make the lenses used in prescription eyeglasses. Attractive frames and a variety of colors en­ hance the appearance of eyewear, and today many people own two or three pair of glasses rather than just one. Most new jobs for ophthalmic laboratory technicians will be in retail optical chains that manufacture prescription glasses on the prem­ ises. Catering to consumers’ desire for fast and convenient service, these stores are experienc­ ing rapid growth and are expected to play an increasingly prominent role in the production of eyewear. Demand for corrective eyewear is projected to be so strong, however, that job opportunities in optical laboratories should continue to be very good. Earnings According to the limited information available, ophthalmic laboratory technicians earned be­ tween $10,000 and $15,000 a year in 1986. Trainees are generally paid the minimum wage, with periodic salary increases as they develop proficiency in the trade. Some technicians earned $25,000 a year or more in 1986. Related Occupations Other precision production occupations include biomedical equipment technicians, calibrators, dental laboratory technicians, orthodontic technicians, orthotics technicians, prosthetics technicians, instrument repairers, and lock­ smiths. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as an ophthalmic laboratory technician, contact: National Association of Manufacturing Opticians, 13140 Coit Rd., Dallas, TX 75240. Optical Laboratory Association, P.O. Box 2000, Merrifield, VA 22116-2000.  For a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic laboratory technology, contact: Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr., Hwy., Suite 110, Bowie MD 20715.  372/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Painting and Coating Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Paints and coatings are an important part of most products. In manufacturing, everything from cars to candy is covered by paint, plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some special coating so­ lution. Often the paints and coatings are merely intended to enhance the products’ appeal to consumers, as with the chocolate coating on candy. More often, the protection provided by the paint or coating is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating material cov­ ering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Many paints and coatings have dual purposes, such as the paint finish on an automobile, which heightens the visual impact of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Painting and coating machine operators control the machinery and equip­ ment that applies the many types of paints and coatings to a wide range of manufactured products. Workers use several basic methods to apply paints and coatings to manufactured articles. For example, dippers or impregnators immerse racks or baskets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions using a power hoist. Tumbling barrel painters deposit articles of porous materials in a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating, which is then rotated to insure thorough coverage. The most common method of applying paints and coatings is by spraying the article with the solution. Spray-machine operators use equip­ ment with spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and even food products  Many painting and coating machine opera­ tors are exposed to dangerous fumes.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  with paint and other coating solutions. Follow­ ing a formula, operators fill the equipment’s tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts or proportions. They screw nozzles onto the spray guns and adjust them to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray, and hold or position the guns to direct the spray onto the article. The pressure of the spray is regulated by adjusting valves. Oper­ ators check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution, and visually inspect the quality of the coating. They may also regulate the tem­ perature and air circulation in drying ovens. Spray machines used in manufacturing are often highly automated. Operators position the spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the speed of the conveyor carrying articles through the machine with the action of the guns and drying ovens. The machine automatically mixes the paint or coating solution. During operation, the operator attends the machine, observing gauges on the control panel and ran­ domly checking articles for evidence of any variation of the coating from specifications. Painting and coating machine operators use various types of spray machines to coat a wide range of products. Often their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or coating they apply. For example, paper coating ma­ chine operators spray “size,” a coating mix­ ture, on the surface of paper to give it its gloss or finish. Silvering applicators spray silver, tin. and copper solutions on glass in the manufac­ ture of mirrors. Enrobing machine operators coat, or “enrobe,” confectionery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, and other substances. Although the majority of painting and coat­ ing machine operators are employed in man­ ufacturing, the largest, best known group of them work in automotive body repair and paint shops repainting old and damaged cars, trucks, and buses. Automotive painters are among the most highly skilled painting and coating ma­ chine operators, because when painting only the repaired portions of a vehicle, they often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, automo­ tive painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and fill small nicks and scratches with body putty. They also remove or mask parts they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray machine to apply several coats of paint. They apply lacquer or, in most cases, enamel primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Aiming the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats of paint until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original un­ damaged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted ve­ hicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irregularities and to help the next coat adhere better. Final sanding  of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and allowed to dry, followed by the final top­ coat. When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface after the final coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and usually is not polished. Working Conditions Painting and coating machine operators work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. However, most operators wear masks or respirators which cover their nose and mouth, and painting is usually done in special ventilated booths that protect the operators from these hazards. Op­ erators have to stand for long periods of time and, when using a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomfortable positions to reach all parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week. Employment Painting and coating machine operators held about 100,000 jobs in 1986. The great majority worked in manufacturing establishments; the largest number were employed in the produc­ tion of motor vehicles and related equipment, fabricated metal products, household and office furniture, and plastics, wood, and paper prod­ ucts. The remainder were mostly automotive painters employed by independent automotive repair shops and body repair and paint shops operated by retail automotive dealers. Fewer than 1 painting and coating machine operator in 10 was self-employed; most were automo­ tive painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating machine operators acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping experienced operators. For most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months. However, becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job train­ ing. Most automotive painters start as helpers and gain their skills informally by working with experienced painters. Beginning help­ ers usually remove trim, clean and sand sur­ faces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Instructional programs in automotive paint­ ing are offered at a growing number of com­ munity and junior colleges and vocational and technical schools. Completion of such a pro­ gram enhances one’s employment opportuni­ ties and can speed promotion to the journeyman level. The quality of formal automotive paint­ ing programs varies greatly, however. Better programs provide a thorough background in the latest automotive painting technology, such  Production Occupations/373  as the use of acrylic paints, and include sub­ stantial practical experience essential to be­ coming proficient as an automotive painter. Painters should have good health, keen eye­ sight, and a good color sense. Courses in au­ tomobile-body repair offered by high schools, vocational schools, and community colleges are helpful. Completion of high school gen­ erally is not required but usually is an advan­ tage. Voluntary certification by the National In­ stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is recognized as the standard of achievement for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or com­ munity or junior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating machine operators with leadership ability may advance to supervisory jobs. Some automotive painters open their own shops.  diversity of vehicles that automotive painters repaint makes their work unsuitable to auto­ mation. The number of job openings for painting and coating machine operators may fluctuate from year to year due cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manufactured goods slackens, production may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. However, auto­ motive painters can expect relatively steady work because automobiles damaged in acci­ dents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy.  the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about training programs. For general information about a career as an automotive painter, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, [L 60611. Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929. Bedford, TX 76021-0929.  Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from: National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­ lence, 1920 Association Dr., Suite 400. Reston VA 22091.  Earnings Painting and coating machine operators who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $310 in 1986. The middle 50 per­ cent had usual weekly earnings between $226 and $430, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $523 weekly in 1986. Experienced automotive painters employed (D.O.T. 962.361-010; 970.281-010 and -018; .381-010 by automobile dealers in 24 large metropolitan and -034; 976.361-010. .380-010, .381-010. -014, and areas had estimated average hourly earnings of -018, .382-010 through -026, .385-010, .487. .564, .665, .681, .682, .684-014 through -026, and .685) $16 in 1986. Their average hourly earnings were highest in the Eastern and Midwestern Job Outlook States and lowest in the Southern and North­ Little or no change is expected in the employ­ eastern States. Beginning automotive painter Nature of the Work If the developing of film and printing of pic­ ment of painting and coating machine operators apprentices usually start at about half the hourly tures were left to the average photographer, through the year 2000. A decline in the em­ rate of fully qualified painters. As they prog­ ployment of operators in manufacturing is ex­ ress, their wages gradually approach those of few photographs would be taken. Instead, professionals and amateurs alike generally rely pected to be offset by growth in the employ­ experienced automotive painters. Helpers start on photographic process workers in photofin­ ment of automotive painters in the body repair at lower wage rates. ishing or custom photo laboratories to develop and paint shops of retail automotive dealers Many automotive painters employed by au­ film, make prints and slides, and do related and independent automotive repair establish­ tomobile dealers and independent repair shops tasks such as enlarging and retouching pho­ ments. Most job openings for painting and receive a commission based on the labor cost tographs. Some photographic process workers coating machine operators are expected to arise charged to the customer. Under this method, as experienced operators transfer to other oc­ earnings depend largely on the amount of work operate machinery that automatically develops and prints film; others perform intricate tasks cupations or retire or stop working for other a painter does and how fast it is completed. that cannot be automated. reasons. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned Developing and printing film are processes Employment of operators is expected to de­ painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and that vary according to the type of film. De­ cline in manufacturing due to the increasing apprentices usually receive an hourly rate until automation of the application of paints and they become sufficiently skilled to work on a veloping black-and-white negative film, forexcoatings. The advent of industrial robots has commission basis. Trucking companies, bus­ ample, requires five steps: Developer, stop bath, greatly expanded the variety of manufactured lines, and other organizations that repair their fixing bath, washing, , and drying. Workers known as all-round darkroom technicians tra­ articles that can be painted or coated using own vehicles usually pay by the hour. ditionally periormed each step of the process automatic equipment. Automation of the paint­ Many painting and coating machine opera­ ing and coating of many articles that formerly tors belong to unions, including the Interna­ by hand. The work still is done by hand in many photographic studios, but in commercial could not be adequately covered by traditional tional Association of Machinists and Aero­ laboratories and photofinishing establishments, machines is now possible due to the ability of space Workers; the International Union, United robots to move and aim spray guns much like Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im­ technicians operate machines that automati­ cally develop film. a human operator. Increasing use of robots, plement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal The darkroom technician makes a photo­ particularly in spray painting, is expected to Workers’ International Association; and the In­ graph by transferring the image from a negative reduce the requirements for operators in many ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­ to photographic paper. Printing frequently is manufacturing industries. feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. performed on a projection printer, commonly Employment of automotive painters should Most union operators work for manufacturers known as an enlarger, which consists of a fix­ grow as the number of cars, trucks, and buses and the larger automobile dealers. ture for holding negatives and photographic damaged in traffic accidents increases with the paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. motor vehicle population. Automotive painters Related Occupations The technician places the negative between the also will be needed to repaint older vehicles Other occupations in which workers apply paints which have rust or faded paint. Also expected and coatings include construction and main­ lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp, light to contribute to growth of employment of au­ tenance painters, electrolytic metal platers, and tomotive painters will be the continuing em­ hand painting, coating, and decorating occu­ passes through the negative and lens and rec­ ords a magnified image of the negative on the phasis on building lighter weight cars that pations. paper. achieve high gasoline mileage, but which are During printing, the technician may vary the prone to greater damage in major collisions. Sources of Additional Information contrast ot the image or remove unwanted However, job growth will be limited by the For more details about work opportunities, background either by using paper patterns to increased use of plastic body panels that greatly contact local manufacturers, automotive-body reduce minor collision damage. In general, the repair shops, and automotive dealers; locals of shade part ot the photographic paper from the projected image or by adjusting the height of   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Photographic Process Workers  374/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ' *  ; rn  *  Hi/  Most photo process workers learn their skills on the job. the lens above the paper. After removing the exposed photographic paper from the printer, the technician develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. Some darkroom technicians specialize in precision photographic processing work. For example, airbrush artists restore damaged and faded photographs. They also color drawings to simulate photographs. Photographic re­ touchers alter photographic negatives and prints to accentuate the desired features of a subject or remove undesirable ones. Colorists apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create a natural, lifelike appearance. Photographic spotters cover or spot out imperfections on photographic prints, taking care to protect the print from oil or acid by making changes with a gloved finger, brush, or pencil. Color laborators technicians produce color prints, neg­ atives, and slides by hand, or operate auto­ mated machines. In addition to working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians in photographic studios may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist photographers. Many technicians, par­ ticularly those in portrait studios who aspire to become professional photographers, divide their time between taking and processing pictures. In commercial laboratories and photofinish­ ing minilabs where film developing is largely automated, darkroom technicians supervise operators whose assignments require only a limited knowledge of developing and printing. Included are film developers, who operate equipment that develops still or motion picture film automatically; color-printer operators, who control the equipment used to produce color prints from negatives; automatic print devel­ opers, who operate machines that develop rolls of exposed photographic paper; takedown sort­ ers, who sort processed film; and automatic mounters, who tend the automatic mounting presses that cut film into individual transpar­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  encies and seal them in mounting frames. Be­ cause photo processing equipment typically in­ corporates microelectronic components, it is easy to operate and requires only routine main­ tenance. Working Conditions Photographic processing is performed in clean, appropriately lighted, and air-conditioned pho­ tofinishing laboratories. However, many work­ ers, especially in large laboratories, do repe­ titious work at a rapid pace. Some photographic process workers are exposed to fumes from the chemicals used to develop film. Workers such as airbrush artists and photographic spotters, who perform detailed tasks, may be subject to eye fatigue. Most photo laboratory employees work a 40hour week. In laboratories that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, employees may work a considerable amount of overtime, at premium pay, during peak sea­ sons such as summer and after Christmas. Employment Photo process workers held about 56,000 jobs in 1986. About half worked in large photofin­ ishing laboratories that process film for amateur and professional photographers and in minilabs that process film at the customer’s conven­ ience. Many others worked in photo labora­ tories operated by portrait and commercial stu­ dios and for motion picture producers, photo equipment manufacturers, and other organi­ zations. Darkroom technicians also work in commercial laboratories that specialize in pro­ cessing the work of professional photogra­ phers. Photo process workers are employed in all parts of the country but are concentrated in large population centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although schools offer courses in photo pro­ cessing and large photo labs often have formal  training programs, most workers leam their skills on the job. Beginners start as helpers and gradually learn to develop and print film by assisting experienced technicians. It generally takes 2 to 3 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some helpers specialize in a particular activity, such as printing or de­ veloping. Generally, less training time is re­ quired to become a specialist than to become an all-round darkroom technician. When hiring darkroom technician helpers, employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in chemistry and mathe­ matics are helpful to people interested in this field. Some high schools and trade schools of­ fer courses in photography that include training in film processing. Experience gained through processing film as a hobby is helpful. Several community colleges offer 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in pho­ tographic technology. Formal training also is available from vocational schools and technical institutes. Completion of postsecondary courses in this field is helpful to people who are in­ terested in supervisory and managerial jobs in photo labs. On-the-job training for workers in special­ ized photo process occupations ranges from a few weeks for print developers and automatic mounters, for example, to several months for photo retouchers and spotters. For many jobs, manual dexterity, good vision, including nor­ mal color perception, and good hand-eye co­ ordination are important qualifications. Photo process workers generally advance by moving from entry level jobs as machine op­ erators to more skilled technician positions. Some darkroom technicians eventually become professional photographers. (See the statement on photographers and camera operators else­ where in the Handbook.) Others advance to supervisory positions in laboratories.  Job Outlook Employment of photo process workers is ex­ pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated growth in photofinishing labora­ tories and photographic studios. Many addi­ tional openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change oc­ cupations or stop working. Demand for film processing is expected to rise very rapidly due to an increased interest in amateur photography, spurred by greater affluence as well as by technical advances that make still cameras easier to load and operate. Businesses and government also are expected to contribute to the demand for film processing through expanded use of photography to illus­ trate printed materials. Increased amateur and commercial interest in photography will generate jobs for photo process workers at all skill levels. The in­ creased volume of film to be processed should insure continued job growth for machine op­ erators despite laborsaving advances in pho­ tographic processing machinery. Continued automation of photo laboratory operations will  Production Occupations/375  permit fewer workers to process the same vol­ ume of film. Technological change is unlikely to affect demand for precision photo process workers; the fine adjustments they make to photographs do not lend themselves to mechanization. De­ spite improvements in the performance of cam­ eras, none of them is able to produce the perfect shot of a wedding or a scene for an advertise­ ment without some precision work. Photographic services are luxuries, and job prospects may fluctuate with the business cy­ cle. Generally, however, prospects for pho­ tographic process workers are expected to be good—reflecting projected industry employ­ ment growth as well as replacement needs, which are relatively high in machine operator jobs.  experience and training. Some experienced as­ semblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling prototypes or test products. Pre­ cision assemblers involved in product devel­ opment must know how to read blueprints and engineering specifications and how to use a variety of tools and precision measuring in­ struments. Precision assemblers may work on sub­ assemblies or the complete final assembly of finished products or components of products such as electronic equipment, machinery, or aircraft. For example, precision electrical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify prototypes or final assemblies of items such as missile control systems, radio and test equipment, computers, machine-tool numerical controls, radar, sonar, telemetering systems, and appliances. Precision electro­ Earnings mechanical equipment assemblers prepare and Earnings of photo process workers vary greatly test equipment or devices such as dynamom­ depending on skill level, experience, and geo­ eters, ejection seat mechanisms, magnetic graphic location. Median earnings for full-time drums, and tape drives. Precision machine photo process workers in 1986 were about $250 builders construct, assemble, or rebuild en­ a week. The middle 50 percent earned between gines, turbines, office machines, and construc­ $190 and $340 a week. The lowest 10 percent tion, oil field, rolling mill, textile, woodwork­ earned less than $160 a week, the highest 10 ing, paper, printing, and food wrapping percent, more than $480. machinery. Precision aircraft assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes such as Related Occupations wings or landing gear. Precision structural metal The more highly skilled photo process work­ fitters align and fit structural metal parts ac­ ers—all-round darkroom technicians and color cording to blueprints prior to welding or riv­ laboratory technicians, for example—need a eting. specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping The manufacturing process is changing. process. Other laboratory workers who apply Flexible manufacturing systems, which include specialized technical knowledge include chem­ the manufacturing applications of robotics, ical laboratory technicians, crime lab analysts, computers, and various sensing technologies, food testers, medical laboratory assistants, me­ are changing the way goods are made and af­ tallurgical technicians, and quality control fecting the jobs of those who make them. As technicians. manufacturing firms strive for greater produc­ tivity, jobs that can be performed more eco­ nomically or more accurately by automated Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportun­ equipment will be restructured; many of them will disappear. Often, these are low-skilled and ities in photographic laboratories and schools repetitive jobs. As in the case of automobile that offer degrees in photographic technology, spray painting and welding, they may be un­ write to: pleasant or even hazardous. Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Until recently, relatively few precision as­ Picture Place, Jackson, MI 49201. sembly jobs have been eliminated by auto­ mation. The need for precision, independent judgment, and knowledge has placed many jobs beyond the capabilities of robots. However, recent advances in robotics and in vision and touch sensing systems have made automation (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.) of many precision assembly a viable alterna­ tive. Completely automated assembly lines al­ Nature of the Work ready exist. Because much precision assembly Workers who put together the parts of manu­ work is done in difficult-to-reach locations un­ factured articles are called assemblers. Some­ suited for robots, such as inside airplane futimes hundreds of assemblers work on a single silages or inside gear boxes, replacement of finished product. Assembly work varies from these workers by automated processes will be simple, repetitive jobs that are relatively easy slower and less complete than replacement of to learn to those requiring precision and many welders and painters. months of experience and training. It is this latter group that this statement describes. Working Conditions The work of precision assemblers requires The conditions under which precision assem­ a high degree of accuracy. Workers must be blers work depend on the industry in which able to interpret detailed specifications and in­ they are employed. Electronics and watch as­ structions and apply independent judgment, as semblers sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well as have the knowledge gained through well lighted, and free from dust. Assemblers  Precision Assemblers   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Precision assembly requires a high degree of accuracy. of aircraft and industrial machinery, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Employment Virtually all of the 351,000 precision assembler jobs in 1986 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. About 4 of every 10 jobs in­ volved assembly of electronic and electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies including electrical switches, welding equipment, elec­ tric motors, lighting equipment, household ap­ pliances, and radios and television sets. More than 1 out of 4 involved assembly of non­ electrical machinery (diesel engines, steam tur­ bine generators, farm tractors, mining and con­ struction machinery, computers, and window air-conditioners). The following tabulation lists the industries that provided most wage and salary jobs for precision assemblers in 1986: Percent  Total..............................................100 Electrical and electronic machinery and equipment ...................................... 40 Machinery, except electrical ................... 26 Transportation equipment........................ 16 Professional and scientific instruments .. 10 Fabricated metal products ....................... 5 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision assemblers often are promoted from the ranks of workers in less skilled jobs in the same firm. Sometimes, outside applicants may be hired if they possess suitable experience. The ability to do accurate work at a fast pace  376/Occupational Outlook Handbook  is a key job requirement. A high school di­ ploma is helpful but usually is not required. For some precision assembly jobs, appli­ cants may need special training. For example, employers may require that applicants for elec­ trical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and elec­ tronic products, which may contain many dif­ ferent colored wires, applicants often are tested for color blindness. As precision assemblers become more ex­ perienced, they may progress to jobs that re­ quire more skill and be given more responsi­ bility. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly operations and under­ stand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles that inspectors have identified as de­ fective. Assemblers also may advance to in­ spector or be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Job Outlook Employment of precision assemblers is ex­ pected to remain unchanged through the year 2000 as increased use of automation and “out­ sourcing"—the practice of moving assembly operations to countries where labor is cheaper— takes its toll on assembly jobs in manufactur­ ing. Virtually all job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. The effect of automation on precision as­ sembler employment will depend on how rap­ idly and extensively new manufacturing tech­ nologies are adopted. Certainly, not all precision assemblers can be replaced efficiently by au­ tomated processes. Flexible manufacturing systems are expensive and a large volume of work is required to justify their purchase. They may not be economical in small operations with perhaps only one shift per day. Also, where the assembly parts involved are small or ir­ regular in size, technology is only now begin­ ning to make inroads. For example, robot as­ sembly works best where products are designed specifically to be assembled by robots. In ad­ dition, manufacturers are seldom willing to in­ vest in product and equipment redesign as long as existing operations are profitable. Although technological change can be ex­ pected in a growing number of industries, the impact of automation should be greatest in mo­ tor vehicle, electronics, communications, and computer equipment manufacturing industries, where firms are best suited for automation. Given the characteristics of these industries, electrical and electronic assembly jobs are ex­ pected to be more adversely affected than jobs of other precision assemblers. An alternative to automation for many firms is to “outsource” their assembly functions to countries where labor is cheaper. Many firms that could not compete in the marketplace have chosen this alternative. If this trend continues,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  outsourcing of assembly work may well cost more jobs than robots or other automated man­ ufacturing systems. Earnings Median earnings for all assemblers working full time were about $299 a week in 1986. Precision assemblers typically earn 5 to 10 per­ cent more than entry level assemblers. Wage rates for precision assemblers working under union contracts ranged from about $10.60 to $16.85 an hour in 1986, according to limited information. Beginners earned wages around the lower rate and, after 2 years, typically earned about $10 to $14 an hour. Some highly skilled assemblers, such as certain aircraft assemblers, earned $17 an hour or more. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piecework rates, and, therefore, can earn more by working faster. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the United Au­ tomobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple­ ment Workers of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating ma­ chines and tools and assembling things are welders, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and operators of drill presses, laminating machines, and riveting machines. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is available from local offices of the State employment service.  Printing Press Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare and operate the printing presses in a pressroom. Before starting the press, operators set it up and adjust it to produce distinct and uniform printing impressions. Press operators first insert and lock type setups or plates into the press bed or cylinders and tighten the locking attachment with a wrench. Then they level the pressplates by placing paper of varying thickness under­ neath low areas of the plates to raise them up, thereby ensuring even distribution of ink to plates. Press operators make sure that paper and ink meet specifications, and they adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders, and adjust feed and tension controls. Press operators monitor the presses as they run, correcting uneven ink distribution, speed, and temperatures in the drying chamber, if the  press has one. If, as in the case of web offset, the paper should jam or tear, the press stops. The operator then quickly corrects the problem to minimize downtime. Similarly, operators working with other high-speed presses con­ stantly look for problems, making quick cor­ rections to avoid expensive losses of paper and ink. In some shops, press operators oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Press operators’ jobs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops generally have relatively small presses oper­ ated by one individual and capable of printing only one or two colors at a time. Large news­ paper, magazine, and book printers use giant “in-line web” presses that require a crew of several press operators and press assistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls called “webs” up to 50 inches or more in width. Workers print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the finished sections as they come off the press. Many modern plants have installed printing presses that use computers and sophisticated instrumentation which control press opera­ tions, making it possible to set up for another job in much less time. With this equipment, the press operator operates a control panel that monitors the printing process. To adjust the press, the operator pushes the proper button on the control panel. Press operators are generally designated according to the type of press they operate: Letterpress, gravure, offset, or flex­ ography. Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and men­ tally demanding. Press operators are on their feet most of the time. Most printing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and ad­ justments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Because press op­ erators are subject to hazards when working near machinery, employers emphasize safe work habits. Often, operators work under pres­ sure to meet deadlines. Many press operators work evening, night, and overtime shifts. Employment Press operators held about 222,000 jobs in 1986. Most jobs were in newspaper plants or in firms that handle commercial or business printing. Commercial printing firms print newspaper in­ serts, catalogs, pamphlets, and the advertise­ ments found in your mailbox, while business form establishments print items such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Addi­ tional jobs were in the “in-plant” section of organizations and businesses that do their own printing—among them, banks, insurance com­ panies, and government agencies. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geographically dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are  Production Occupations/377  concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadel­ phia, Washington, D.C., and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement As is the case in other printing occupations, entry level workers, even those with formal training, generally start at the bottom and work their way up. Beginning duties may include loading, unloading, and cleaning the presses. With time, workers move up to operating onecolor sheet-fed presses and may eventually ad­ vance to multicolor presses. Operators are likely to gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Apprenticeship, once the dominant method of preparing for this occupation, is becoming less prevalent as formal programs of retraining and skill updating for experienced operators take on greater importance. In the future, it is expected that workers will need to retrain sev­ eral times during their career. The apprentice­ ship period in commercial shops is 4 years for press operators. In addition to on-the-job in­ struction, the apprenticeship includes related classroom or correspondence school courses. Courses in printing provide a good back­ ground. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and physics are help­ ful. Postsecondary education is increasingly important because of the theoretical knowledge needed to operate advanced equipment. Press operators need good mechanical ap­ titude in order to make press adjustments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essential for work on color presses. Oral and writing skills also are required. Applicants should be able to compute percentages, weights and measures, and possess enough mathematics skills to calculate the amount of ink and paper needed to do a job. Technological changes have had a tremen­ dous effect on the skills needed by press op­ erators. Printing plants that change from sheet­ fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain the entire press crew because the skill requirements for the two types of presses are very different. Web-offset presses, with their faster operating speeds, require faster deci­ sions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Press operators may advance in pay and re­ sponsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press. For example, a onecolor sheet-fed press operator may, through experience and demonstrated ability, become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and be responsible for the work of the entire press crew. Job Outlook Employment of press operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000 because of anticipated growth in the demand for printed materials. Many additional openings will result from replacement needs.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  '•'f&A  er=3 S  ■  A printing press operator removes a plate. Most new openings will result from industry expansion due to rising demand for printed material associated with demographic trends, U.S. expansion into foreign markets, and use of print media by advertisers. Changes in the age structure of the population are expected to spur demand for books and magazines as school enrollments rise, even as substantial growth in the middle-aged and older population spurs adult education and leisure reading. Additional growth should stem from increas­ ing foreign demand for domestic trade publi­ cations, professional and scientific works, and mass-market books such as paperbacks. De­ mand for these publications may become even greater as a decline in the value of the dollar makes them cheaper for overseas customers to buy. Much of the growth in commercial print­ ing, however, will be spurred by increased expenditures for print advertising aimed at par­  ticular market segments. New market research techniques are expected to lead advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to spe­ cific audiences. This in turn will stimulate de­ mand for a wide variety of newspaper inserts, catalogs, direct mail enclosures, and other kinds of print advertising. Other areas such as the newspaper, book, and periodical industries will also provide jobs. Most of these, however, will be filled by ex­ perienced individuals. Major laborsaving technological advances, similar to those now affecting the prepress area, are not expected in the press area. Current efforts aimed at achieving higher press speeds and reduced setup time will likely produce la­ bor-reducing effects that are more evolutionary than revolutionary in nature. Apprenticeship training is more likely to be required of individuals entering this occupation than other printing occupations. They will face  378/Occupational Outlook Handbook  stiff competition for jobs from experienced workers and workers who have completed re­ training programs. Earnings The basic wage rate for a press operator de­ pends on the type of press being run and the area of the country in which the work is located. The average wage rate for one-color sheet-fed press operators in unionized firms located in large cities was $16.65 an hour in 1987, ac­ cording to data from the National Association of Printers and Lithographers. Press operators in medium-size cities earned $14.49 an hour; those in small cities, $12.60 an hour. Operators working on larger, multicolor presses earned more. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate pro­ duction machinery are papermaking machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, bindery machine operators, and precision ma­ chine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other train­ ing opportunities may be obtained from local newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press opera­ tors, write to: Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213.  Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers (D.O.T. 365.361; 780.381-030; 781.381-018; 783.361­ 010; 783.381-018 through 026; 788.261-010; 788.381)  Nature of the Work , At one time, leather and leather products were reserved for royalty. Today, people from all walks of life appreciate and value leather prod­ ucts. Among the many products produced from leather are shoes, jackets, boots, saddles, and luggage. Creating stylish and durable leather products is the job of precision shoe and leather workers; keeping them in good condition is the work of repairers. Among the workers who do leather work and repair are custom orthopedic shoe­ makers, saddlemakers, and harnessmakers, to name a few. Job duties of these workers are sim­ ilar, even though the finished products differ. Depending on the size of the factory or shop, a leather worker may perform one or many of the steps that it takes to complete the product. First, the worker checks the leather for texture, color, and strength. Then the worker places a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  pattern of the good being produced on the leather, traces the pattern onto the leather, cuts the pattern along the traced lines, and sews the pieces together. In very small factories, one worker may perform all of these tasks. More commonly, however, workers specialize in dif­ ferent steps. At times, they may move from one task to another in order to learn and master different skills in the production of the leather good. In the production of custom-made shoes, workers must first make the pattern. Then they cut the leather and sew the pieces together either by hand or with a sewing machine. The worker then attaches the insole to a shoe last and staples the shoe upper. Heels and outsoles are then applied using nails and cement. The heel is shaped with a knife and sanded for smoothness on a buffing wheel. Finally, the worker dyes the shoe, and polishes it by hold­ ing it against a rotating brush. Producing a saddle entails applying leather dyes and liquid top coats to produce gloss, and decorating the saddle surface either by hand stitching or stamping the leather with deco­ rative patterns and designs. Shoe and leather repairers use their knowl­ edge of leatherworking and shoe construction to give worn shoes and other leather goods a new lease on life. The most common type of shoe repair is replacing soles and heels. Re­ pairers place the shoe on a last (a block shaped like a foot) and remove the old sole and heel with a knife or pliers or both. New soles and heels are attached to the shoe either by stitching them in place or using cement or nails. Re­ pairers then sand the sides of the heel to smooth it, using a sanding or buffing wheel. Leather workers and repairers use handtools and machines. The most commonly used handtools are knives, hammers, awls (used to poke holes in leather to make sewing possible), and skivers (for splitting leather). Power-operated equipment includes sewing machines, heel nailing machines, hole punching machines, and sole stitchers. Self-employed shoe repairers and owners of custom-made shoe and leather shops have man­ agerial responsibilities in addition to their reg­ ular duties. They must maintain good relations with their customers, make business decisions, and keep accurate records. Working Conditions Working conditions of leather workers vary according to the type of work performed, the size of the factory or business, and the partic­ ular place of employment. Workers employed in relatively large custom leather goods manufacturing establishments (20 employees or more) work in large rooms. Re­ pairers generally work in smaller rooms. De­ pending on the establishment, the room may be crowded and noisy and have poor lighting and ventilation. Some establishments may be well lighted and ventilated, but, because ma­ chines are used both in preparing and repairing leather, the work environment is generally noisy. Odors from leather dyes and stains are often present. The work is not strenuous and  hazards are few if safety precautions are fol­ lowed. However, stamina is needed because leather workers and repairers must stand much of the time. Custom shoe manufacturing workers and shoe repairers may work more than 40 hours a week. Workers in other areas of the leather industry, however, average about 38 hours a week. Employment Shoe and leather workers and repairers held about 35,000 jobs in 1986. Self-employed in­ dividuals, who typically own and operate small shoe repair shops or specialty leather manu­ facturing firms, held about 11,000 of these jobs. The rest were employed in the manufac­ ture of leather goods, especially shoes. Other areas of employment include large shops doing shoe and leather repair and repair shops op­ erated by shoe stores, department stores, and drycleaning establishments. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision shoe and leather workers and repair­ ers generally learn their craft on the job, either in in-house training programs or working as helpers to experienced workers. Helpers gen­ erally begin by performing the simplest tasks, either in the creation or repair of a leather good. As the helper gains experience, the experienced worker allows the trainee to perform more dif­ ficult steps such as sewing, cutting, or stitching the leather. Trainees generally become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of train­ ing varies greatly according to the aptitude and dedication of the individual and the nature of the work (manufacture or repair). In 1986, only 13 schools nationwide offered vocational training in shoe repair and leather work, including saddlemaking. These pro­ grams last from 6 months to 1 year and impart basic skills including leather cutting, stitching, and dying. Students leam shoe construction  PPSfl  Many shoe and leather workers operate their own shops.  Production Occupations/379  and practice different types of shoe repair. They also study the fundamentals of running a small business. Graduates are encouraged to gain ad­ ditional training by working with an experi­ enced leather worker or repairer. Manual dexterity and the mechanical apti­ tude to work with handtools and machines are important in the shoe repair and leatherworking occupations. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom-made goods should have ar­ tistic ability as well. These workers must have self-discipline to work alone under little su­ pervision. In addition to being skilled craft workers, leather workers and repairers who own shops must have a pleasant manner when dealing with customers and a working knowl­ edge of business practices and management. Many individuals who begin as workers or repairers advance to managerial and supervi­ sory positions, eventually even becoming the owner of a shop or business. Job Outlook Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through the year 2000 in line with anticipated trends in the leather foot­ wear industry, which has been hit hard by im­ ports of inexpensive leather shoes. The pop­ ularity of nonleather athletic and casual shoes has also lowered demand for manufactured leather goods. A limited number of job open­ ings can be expected, however, due to the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or stop working. Prospects for workers employed in the man­ ufacture of custom-made molded or orthopedic shoes are better than those for most other leather workers. Substantial growth is expected in the population age 65 and above, the age group most likely to suffer from podiatric problems that require molded or orthopedic shoes. The number of jobs in this small specialty sector, therefore, is likely to remain stable. Employment of shoe repairers is projected to decline sharply, however. This occupation is subject to conflicting forces, but the overall employment trend clearly is down. Stimulating demand for shoe repair services is the intro­ duction of "while-you-wait” repair shops which cater to consumer desire for convenience. On the other hand, the widespread availability of low-cost shoes and the increase in cushionsoled footwear that is not practical to repair will continue to lower demand, so that em­ ployment of shoe repairers will fall. In custom shoe manufacturing and shoe re­ pair, prospects are expected to be good for people with knowledge of the trade or a dem­ onstrated aptitude for mastering the requisite skills. Once trained, workers arc likely to find employment with relatively little difficulty since there is little competition for these relatively low-paying jobs. Workers employed in areas other than custom shoe manufacture or repair may find job opportunities scarce. Earnings The median weekly salary of shoe and leather workers and repairers was about $300 in 1986, according to the limited information available.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Workers in custom shoe manufacturing may earn up to $480 a week in some establishments. Owners of shoe repair and custom shoe man­ ufacturing shops earned substantially more. Related Occupations Other workers who make or repair items using handtools and machinery include dressmakers, designers and patternmakers, rug repairers, and furriers. Sources of Additional Information For information about the shoe repair business and training opportunities in leather work and shoe repair, contact: Shoe Service Institute of America, 112 Calendar Ct., La Grange, IL 60525.  For information about the custom-made pre­ scription shoe business, and about training op­ portunities in this field, contact: Prescription Footwear Association, 9861 Broken Land Pkwy., Columbia, MD 21046.  Information about employment and training opportunities is available from State employ­ ment service offices. Shoe repair shops and shoe service wholesalers in the community are another source of information about job open­ ings.  Stationary Engineers (D.O.T, 950.362-014, 382 except -014 and -022)  Nature of the Work Every community relies on power-generating equipment to run industrial and other machin­ ery and provide heat, light, and ventilation to offices and homes. Stationary engineers op­ erate, maintain, and repair this equipment, in­ cluding boilers, diesel engines, turbines, gen­ erators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. Much of this equipment is similar to the equip­ ment operated by locomotive and marine en­ gineers. Stationary engineers start up and shut down equipment in order to meet demands for power and to insure that the equipment is operating economically and within established limits. They monitor meters, gauges, and other in­ struments attached to equipment and make ad­ justments whenever necessary. They also keep a log of all relevant facts about the operation and maintenance of the equipment. On a steam boiler, for example, they observe, control, and keep records of steam pressure, temperature, water level, power output, and the amount of fuel consumed. Stationary engineers control the flow of fuel to the boiler and the steam pressure by adjusting throttles, valves, or au­ tomatic controls. These workers must detect, identify, and correct any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to their machinery and routinely check safety devices. Stationary engineers often use hand or power tools to make repairs, ranging from a complete overhaul to replacing defec­ tive valves, gaskets, or bearings.  Stationary engineers also perform routine maintenance, such as removing soot and cor­ rosion that can reduce operating efficency. They also may test boiler water and add necessary chemicals to prevent corrosion and buildup of harmful deposits. Increasingly, computers are being used to help stationary engineers perform their duties better. Much of the instrumentation on the equipment they operate now is computer-con­ trolled. This allows the stationary engineer to monitor the system from a centralized location and reduces the time necessary to check each piece of equipment. The engineer must read the computer’s output to determine if the sys­ tem is operating properly. If the automated systems malfunction, the stationary engineer must manually control the equipment. In a large plant, the stationary engineer may be in charge of the powerplant or engine room and direct the work of assistant stationary en­ gineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechanics. In a small plant, the stationary en­ gineer may be the only person operating and maintaining the equipment. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady yearround employment. They usually work a 5day, 40-hour week. Most work one of three shifts, and weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, powerplants, and boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers are exposed to high tem­ peratures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. General maintenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, and fumes or smoke. Workers are on their feet a lot; they also may have to craw] inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work around boilers as well as electrical and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving parts. Employment Stationary engineers held 41,000 jobs in 1986. They worked in a wide variety of places, in­ cluding factories, hospitals, schools, office and apartment buildings, shopping malls, hotels, and power stations. Although employment of stationary engi­ neers is distributed throughout the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas, where large industrial and commercial establishments are usually located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most stationary engineers acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or through informal on-the-job training which usually is supplemented by courses at trade or technical schools. In addition, a good back­ ground can be obtained in the Armed Forces or in the Merchant Marine. Those interested  380/Occupational Outlook Handbook  be laid off while employment opportunities will expand in firms offering stationary engineering services. Nevertheless, the need to replace ex­ perienced workers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or leave the labor force will account for a significant number of job openings. Due to the increasing complexity of power­ generating systems, job opportunities will be best for those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses in computerized con­ trols and instrumentation.  '  'm  ■\  Stationary engineers must be licensed for the equipment they operate.  in this occupation should keep in mind that the increasing complexity of the equipment with which these operators work has made a high school diploma or its equivalent necessary. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operating Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, the principal unions to which sta­ tionary engineers belong. In selecting appren­ tices, most local labor-management appren­ ticeship committees prefer applicants who have received instruction in mathematics, com­ puters, mechanical drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices re­ ceive classroom instruction in practical chem­ istry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, instrumentation, electron­ ics, and other technical subjects. Those who acquire their skills on the job usu­ ally start as helpers to experienced stationary engineers or as boiler tenders. In addition, this practical experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in comput­ erized controls and instrumentation. However, becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal apprenticeship program usu­ ally requires many years of work experience. Skill-improvement training varies by the size and type of establishment. Most large and some small employers encourage and financially sup­ port additional training for their employes. Ad­ ditional training is almost always provided, usually by a representative of the machinery manufacturer, when new equipment is intro­ duced. Many States and cities have licensing re­ quirements for stationary engineers. Although requirements differ from place to place, ap­ plicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality, meet the experience requirements   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  for the class of license requested, and pass a written examination. Because of regional dif­ ferences in licensing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. Generally, there are several classes of sta­ tionary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equip­ ment the engineer can operate without super­ vision. The first-class license permits the sta­ tionary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this li­ cense may be required to have a high school education and an approved apprenticeship or on-the-job training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engineer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance to more re­ sponsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip­ ment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Ad­ vancement, however, is not automatic. Forexample, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as a boiler tender or an assistant to another first-class engineer be­ fore a vacancy occurs. Some stationary engi­ neers eventually advance to jobs as boiler in­ spectors, plant engineers, or building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jobs as exam­ ining engineers and technical instructors. Job Outlook Employment of stationary engineers is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Em­ ployment growth will result from increased commercial and industrial development. More and more apartment buildings, industrial plants, and other facilities are contracting with private firms to provide stationary engineering services in order to reduce their operating costs. As this trend continues, some stationary engineers may  Earnings According to a survey of metropolitan areas, stationary engineers had average hourly earn­ ings of $13.71 in 1986. This was about 50 percent higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average hourly rates in 10 areas, se­ lected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying table. In addition to wages, stationary engi­ neers usually receive a variety of benefits, such as health and life insurance, reimbursement for work-related courses, and vacation and sick leave. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate sta­ tionary machinery include nuclear reactor op­ erators, power station operators, water and wastewater treatment plant operators, water­ works pump-station operators, chemical op­ erators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportun­ ities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the Interna­ tional Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation should be addressed to: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 2350 East Devon St., Suite 115, Des Plaines, IL 60018.  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of stationary engineers, selected areas, 1986 Area  Hourly rate  San Francisco-Oakland ........................ $16.43 New York .......................................... 15.37 Seattle-Everett...................................... 14.60 Chicago................................................. 14.36 Salt Lake City-Ogden ......................... 13.63 Dallas-Fort Worth .............................. 13.20 New Orleans ........................................ 13.19 Cleveland .............................................. 12.77 Worcester .............................................. 11.70 Greenville-Spartanburg ....................... 9.50 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Production Occupations/381  Textile Machinery Operators (List of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page  425.)  Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the carpeting on our floors, and the fabric on our furniture are just some of the many end products made from fiber. The workers who transform natural or manmade fibers into textile products are textile machinery operators. They usually specialize in one part of the production process, and their duties and responsibilities depend on the type of machin­ ery they operate. Some workers oversee machinery that cre­ ates manmade fibers. These fibers, used to make clothing, home furnishings, and many indus­ trial products, are created from materials that, unlike cotton, wool, and silk, are not fibrous in their natural form. To make fiber, these materials—wood pulp or chemical com­ pounds—are dissolved in a liquid, and the re­ sulting liquid fiber base is extruded or forced through holes in a metal plate, called a spin­ neret. Because the shape imparts particular char­ acteristics to the fiber, the size and shape of the holes in the spinneret determine the form and the uses of the fiber. To give the fiber a particular quality, such as flame-resistance or color, chemicals are added to the fiber base before it is extruded. Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders maintain the machinery that pro­ duces manmade fiber. They may adjust the flow of fiber base through the spinneret, repair breaks in the fiber, or make minor adjustments to the machinery. Because creating manmade fiber is a chemical process, the majority of these work­ ers are employed in the chemical industries by companies whose primary products are plastics and manmade fibers. The textile production process begins with the preparation of manmade or natural fibers for spinning. Textile machine operators and tenders operate the machinery that opens, cleans, cards, combs, and draws the fiber; spins the fiber into yam; and weaves, knits, or tufts the yam into textile products. They are re­ sponsible for several machines that they must start, stop, clean, and monitor for proper func­ tioning. Fibers axe cleaned and aligned through card­ ing and combing. Particularly short fibers and any foreign matter are removed, and the fibers are drawn into a form called sliver. This is done to prepare the fiber for the spinning pro­ cess. Operators must constantly monitor their machines during this stage, checking the move­ ment of the fiber, removing and replacing can­ isters of sliver, repairing breaks in the sliver, and making minor repairs to the machinery. The full canisters of sliver are then taken to the spinning area. Spinning draws and twists the sliver through rotating rollers to create yarn. To create different yam qualities, producers  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  may combine cotton and polyester slivers dur­ vide it with a silky luster. Textile bleaching ing the spinning process. Once the yam has and dyeing machine operators also are respon­ been spun, it is wound onto conical structures sible for proper functioning of these machines. called bobbins. Depending upon its use, the yarn may then be treated to reduce breaks dur­ Working Conditions ing the weaving process. Most textile machine operators work in a textile When the yarn is ready, it is taken to be mill or a chemical plant. Working conditions woven, knitted, or tufted. Each of these pro­ depend upon the age of the mill or plant and cesses produces a different type of textile prod­ its degree of modernization. Newer buildings uct and requires a different type of machine. have better ventilation and temperature control For example, woven fabrics are made on looms equipment that reduces some of the problems that interlace the yam. On the other hand, knit caused by dust and fumes. Workers in areas products, such as socks or women’s hosiery, with high levels of dust or fumes use protective are produced by intermeshing loops of yam. glasses and masks that cover their nose and Carpeting is made through the tufting process, mouth. whereby the loops of yarn are pushed through Although some of the newer machinery has a material backing. Although the operators work reduced the level of noise, workers in some with various machines, many of their respon­ areas still must wear earplugs. Since many of sibilities are similar. Each operator oversees the machines operate at high speeds, workers several machines—repairing breaks in the yam, must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry monitoring the supply of yam, and making any that could get caught in moving parts. In ad­ minor repairs to the machinery. dition, extruding and forming machine oper­ Textile machine setters and setup operators ators may wear protective shoes and clothing prepare and make major repairs to the ma­ when working with some types of chemical chinery with which textile machinery operators compounds. and tenders work. They may adjust the timing Because these workers are performing the on machines, feed in the point paper that cre­ same tasks throughout their shifts, the work of ates patterns on towels and other textile goods, textile machinery operators can be very repe­ or repair a loom. titious. Because of the complexity of textile ma­ Physical stamina is required because oper­ chinery, workers usually specialize in one type ators are on their feet much of the time. of machine. Many of these workers have ad­ vanced from the ranks of textile machine op­ Employment erators and tenders, so they are familiar with Textile machinery operators held about 309,000 the production process and the machinery. They jobs in 1986. The following tabulation shows must work closely with textile machine oper­ the percent distribution of employment among ators and tenders to determine the cause of a specific operator occupations: problem and to correct it as quickly as possible. Percent Once the yarn has been woven, knitted, or tufted, the resulting fabric is ready to be dyed Total................................................. 100 and finished either at the textile mill or at a plant specializing in textile finishing. Textile Textile machine operators and tenders .. 71 bleaching and dyeing machine operators and Textile machine setters and setup operators ...................................... 18 tenders oversee machines that finish the textile Textile bleaching and dyeing machine product before it is shipped to the consumer. operators and tenders .......................... 7 Because of the variety of consumer prefer­ ences, manufacturers must print and dye tex­ Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders ........................................... 5 tiles in thousands of different designs and colors. Depending upon the end use of the yarn, it Nearly 60 percent of all those employed in may be dyed before or after it is woven, knitted, the textile industry work in North Carolina, or tufted. Some fabric is treated before it is South Carolina, and Georgia. dyed to remove other chemical additives that could affect the quality of the dyed product. Training, Other Qualifications, Dyeing and printing can be done by several and Advancement methods. For example, smaller dyeing jobs Good coordination and eyesight, physical may be done by submerging several bobbins stamina, and manual dexterity are important of yam into a vat of dye. One of the most requirements for these jobs. Although most common methods of printing is by rotary screen, textile employers prefer a high school educa­ whereby a porous cylinder (screen) holds the tion, it is not required. For jobs in manmade print design. Dye in the cylinder is forced fiber production, however, graduation from high through the screen as the cylinder rolls over school usually is required. Regardless of where the cloth, leaving the print. Consistency of they work, textile machinery operators learn color is very important in textile manufactur­ their skills on the job. Beginners start by ob­ ing. Dyers must check to see if the yam or the serving experienced workers either on the pro­ fabric has the same quality of color throughout. duction floor or in a specially designated train­ If not, they must make adjustments to correct ing area. Operators learn how to operate the the problem. machinery and the tasks they are to perform. In addition to dyeing and printing, finishing In mills that have computerized production sys­ often may involve treating the fabric to prevent tems, they are taught what the computer does excessive shrinkage, to strengthen it, or to pro­ and how to retrieve data from the terminal.  382/Occupational Outlook Handbook  '  ..  Si \ it  tically and there will be reduced demand for textile workers. The continued growth of im­ ports can be expected to prompt greater in­ dustry specialization. Also, manufacturers will concentrate on manufacturing products in which they have a competitive advantage, and nonprofitable operations will be eliminated. Technological innovations such as auto­ mated material-handling systems, shuttleless looms, and computerized machinery also are reducing employment. Many U.S. textile man­ ufacturers are investing every available dollar in new machinery to make the industry better able to compete with imports. Some firms un­ able to invest in new machinery or that are not highly specialized may be forced to go out of business.  \ S ' V  Earnings Average weekly earnings for production work­ ers in the textile and manmade fiber industries were $325 in 1986, compared to $396 for pro­ duction workers in all manufacturing indus­ tries. As shown in table 1, earnings vary sig­ nificantly depending upon the type of mill. In addition, earnings usually vary by job specialty and seniority. The average workweek for textile production workers is 40 hours. Manmade fiber production plants operate around the clock 7 days a week; most textile mills also operate around the clock, but 5 days a week. In either case, workers assigned to the third shift usually receive a shift differential. Benefits usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance, retirement plans, sick and funeral leave, and educational reimbursement. Additionally, most companies operate company stores in which employees can get discounts on the goods the company produces.  ilSBlfl!  Rising imports and greater automation are expected to dampen opportunities for operators. Once they have learned the basics of machine operation, they are put on the production floor, where they are closely supervised. As they master the job, they are given less supervision and more responsibility. Training periods vary significantly from job to job and from mill to mill. For example, training may be as short as a few days for a cleaner or as long as several months for a machine tender. Workers receive additional training when­ ever new machinery is introduced. An expe­ rienced worker usually will attend training classes sponsored by the machinery manufac­ turer, then will teach other employees through an in-house program. Some companies offer on-site training programs in which courses are taught by textile college faculty or machinery manufacturers either during or after shift hours. Textile machinery operatives can advance in several ways. Some workers become instruc­ tors and train new employees. Others advance  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  by taking positions requiring higher skills and greater responsibility. Since machine setters and setup operators are the most highly skilled operatives, first-line management positions usually are filled from their ranks. Most com­ panies have training programs to help inter­ ested employees advance; many pay all or part of the tuition for work-related courses. Job Outlook Employment of textile machinery operators is expected to decline through the year 2000. In­ creased imports and greater productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery will reduce the demand for these workers. The job openings that do arise will result from the need to replace persons who transfer to other oc­ cupations or who retire or stop working for other reasons. As foreign competition gains more of the textile market, less will be produced domes­  Related Occupations Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators perform similar duties and have the same entry and training requirements as ex­ truding and forming machine operators and tenders; textile machine operators and tenders; and textile bleaching and dyeing machine op­ erators. The work of repairers such as industrial  Table 1. Average weekly earnings of production workers in the textile and manmade fibers industries, 1986 Organic fibers, noncellulosic...................$490 Miscellaneous textile goods................... 341 Weaving and finishing mills, wool .... 308 Textile finishing, except wool ............. 306 Weaving mills, synthetics ..................... 305 Weaving mills, cotton............................ 304 Floor covering mills .............................. 303 Yarn and thread mills ............................ 274 Narrow fabric mills ................................ 268 Knitting mills .......................................... 252 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  Production Occupations/383  machinery mechanics is comparable to that of textile machine setters and setup operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile and manmade fiber production is available from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on careers in tex­ tiles, write to: American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc. 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036.  Tool-and-Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.280 except -054; .281-010, -014, and -026; .380-010; .381 except -018 and -038; and 739.381-018 and -022)  Nature of the Work Tool-and-die makers are highly skilled workers who produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that are used in machines that produce a variety of products—from plas­ tic containers to parts for airplanes and auto­ mobiles. Toolmakers produce jigs and fixtures (de­ vices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other measuring devices used in manufacturing pre­ cision metal parts. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for mold­ ing plastics or ceramics. Tool-and-die makers also repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and help design tools and dies. Tool-and-die makers must have a much broader knowledge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading than most other machining workers. They use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instrument. Because they work with all the metals and alloys commonly used in manu­ facturing, these workers must be familiar with the machining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of metals and alloys. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, tool-and-die makers plan the se­ quence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. They measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. They then do the cutting, boring, or drilling that is required. They check the accuracy of what they have done to insure that the final product will meet specifications. Then they assemble the parts and perform fin­ ishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and smoothing surfaces. Tool-and-die makers work with little direct supervision. Although they must produce ex­ tremely precise parts, tool-and-die makers also must work quickly and economically. Taking too much time or wasting materials can reduce their employer’s profit.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Working Conditions Tool-and-die makers usually work in “tool­ rooms,” which are quieter than the production floor because there are not as many machines in use at one time. Machines have guards and shields that minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts. Tool-and-die makers, how­ ever, must follow safety rules and wear pro­ tective equipment. For example, they must wear safety glasses in order to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against machine noise. In addition, they cannot wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that might get caught in the machines. These workers are on their feet most of the day and may do mod­ erately heavy lifting. Most companies employing tool-and-die makers operate one shift per day. However, overtime and Saturday work is common, es­ pecially during peak production periods. Employment Of the 160,000 tool-and-die makers employed in 1986, the majority worked for small firms. Most worked in industries that manufacture tools and dies, metalworking machinery, motor vehicles, aircraft, electrical machinery, and fabricated metal products. Although they are employed throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the midwestern and northeastern sections of the country, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A formal apprenticeship program is considered the best way to learn tool-and-die making. Many tool-and-die makers, however, learn the trade informally on the job. In selecting apprentices, most employers prefer persons with a high school or voca­ tional school education and mechanical ability. Courses in shop math, blueprint reading, metalworking, physics, and drafting may help applicants land an apprentice position. Expe­ rience operating machine tools also can be helpful. Some employers test apprentice ap­ plicants to determine their mechanical aptitude and their mathematical ability. Most of the 4 or 5 years of a tool-and-die ap­ prenticeship are spent in practical shop training. Apprentices learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assem­ bling tools, gauges, and other mechanical equipment, and they study heat treating and other metalworking processes. Classroom training consists of shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint reading. Several years of experience after apprenticeship often are necessary to qualify for the most dif­ ficult tool-and-die work. In addition, some companies have separate apprenticeship pro­ grams for toolmaking and diemaking. Workers who become tool-and-die makers without completing formal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through years of experience as skilled machinists. They also may take some vocational school training in shop math, blueprint reading, and related subjects.  A tool-and-die maker checks the accuracy of a finished product. Because tools and dies must meet strict spec­ ifications—precision to one ten-thousandth of an inch is not uncommon—the work of tooland-die makers requires a high degree of pa­ tience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. There are several ways for skilled tool-anddie makers to advance. Some move into su­ pervisory and administrative positions in their firms; others become tool designers. A few open their own tool-and-die shops, but this requires a significant capital outlay to get started as well as business skills in order to be suc­ cessful. Job Outlook Employment of tool-and-die makers is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the economy grows, the demand for motor ve­ hicles, aircraft, machinery, and other products that use machined metal parts will increase. Rising demand for these goods will increase the need for tools and dies and the workers who make them. Employment growth, how­ ever, will be limited by increased imports of machined products. Because precision metal products are a primary component of manu­ facturing machinery, increased imports of fin­ ished goods, as well as precision metal prod­ ucts, affect employment demand for tool-anddie makers. Most openings for tool-and-die makers will occur as workers retire or transfer to other oc­ cupations. However, the number of openings will be smaller than in other machining oc­ cupations because a smaller proportion of tooland-die makers than of other machining work­ ers leave their occupation each year. Tool-anddie makers have a strong attachment to their occupation because of their lengthy investment in training. Employers in some locations are finding it difficult to attract enough qualified candidates.  384/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Therefore, persons with the appropriate skills and background should find ample opportun­ ities. Employment of tool-and-die makers is less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than many other production occupations. Be­ cause these workers are highly skilled and not easily replaced, employers are reluctant to lay them off even when production is cut back. However, apprenticeship opportunities usually are limited during these periods because of the need to economize. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tool-and-die mak­ ers who worked full time were $510 in 1986. Most earned between $400 and $620 a week. Ten percent earned less than $290 a week, while the 10 percent with the highest weekly earnings made more than $800. In 1986, tool-and-die makers employed in metropolitan areas had average eamings of $14.27 an hour. In comparison, the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in­ dustry, except farming, was $8.75. Table 1 presents average hourly rates in 13 areas se­ lected to show how wage rates for tool-anddie makers differ in various parts of the coun­ try. Some tool-and-die makers are members of unions, including the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul­ tural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to tooland-die makers are, of course, the other ma­ chining occupations. These include machin­ ists, mold makers, instrument makers, metal­ working machine operators, and tool program­ mers. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers, and welders.  contact local tool-and-die shops or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this occupa­ tion, contact; The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge IL 60068.  Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381 except -030 and -034; 681-010; 684­ 122)  Nature of the Work Upholsterers are skilled craft workers who make new furniture and recondition old furniture. Whether making a new piece of furniture, re­ storing a treasured antique, or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, up­ holsterers combine knowledge of fabrics and other materials with artistic flair and manual skill. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with the bare wooden frame. Upholsterers who recondition old furniture must first remove the old cover, padding, and springs. Using ham­ mers and tack pullers, they remove tacks or staples that hold the old fabric to the wooden frame. After stripping the old fabric, they re­ move the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. Upholsterers ex­ amine the springs and remove broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat called webbing that is attached to the frame. If web­ bing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and all the webbing. Upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. I —  The first step in upholstering new furniture or reupholstering old pieces is to install web­ bing. Upholsterers tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Other webbing is woven across the first row of webbing and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they compress evenly, uphol­ sterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover each section of the furniture—seat, back, and arms—with filling material. After sewing the filling to the burlap, they cover it with a layer of felt and heavy cloth and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, upholsterers put on the fab­ ric cover, which has been cut to size for a section such as an arm or the-back and tem­ porarily stitched together for fitting. After as­ suring tight and smooth fit of the cover—or noting where adjustments are necessary—they remove the cover, sew it together, and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew, tack, or glue on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use a variety of common handtools, including hammers, staple guns, tack and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They also use sewing ma­ chines. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture or help customers select new furniture coverings. Those who manage an upholstery shop order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Working Conditions Most upholsterers work inside a shop or fac­ tory. Working conditions in these facilities vary—many are spacious, adequately lighted, well ventilated, and well heated; others are  Sources of Additional Information For information about tool-and-die apprentice­ ships or other work opportunities in this trade,  Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool-and-die makers, selected areas, 1986 Area  Hourly rate  San Francisco-Oakland ........................ $17.23 Los Angeles-Long Beach................... 15.15 Columbus ............................................. 14.88 Oklahoma City .................................... 14.65 Chicago................................................. 14.55 Huntsville............................................. 13.82 Denver-Boulder .................................. 13.73 Newark ................................................. 12.97 Hartford ............................................... 12.81 Greenville-Spartanburg ....................... 10.86 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ^__  rjm  V  1  About 3 to 5 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer.  Production Occupations/385  Two out of five furniture upholsterers are self-employed. Distribution of employment, 1986  Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (D O T. 954.382-010, -014; and 955.362. .382. and .585)  Wage and salary workers  Self-employed  Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics  small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stoop­ ing, bending, and heavy lifting. Employment Furniture upholsterers held about 74,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked in upholstery shops, either their own or someone else’s. Some up­ holsterers worked for furniture manufacturers, others were employed by furniture stores, and a few worked for businesses, such as hotels, that maintain their own furniture. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to enter this trade is through onthe-job training as a helper in an upholstery shop. Helpers learn by upholstering furniture under the direction of experienced workers. Much time and practice are needed to learn complex tasks such as measuring and cutting the new fabric and sewing and attaching it to the frame with a minimum of waste. Usually about 3 to 5 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer. When hiring helpers, employers generally prefer people with some knowledge of the trade. Inexperienced persons may get basic training in upholstery in high school, vocational and technical schools, and some community col­ leges. However, additional training and ex­ perience usually are required before these workers can perform as quickly and efficiently as experienced upholsterers. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail and flair for color and creative use of fabrics are helpful. The major form of advancement for uphol­ sterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because a small investment in handtools and a sewing machine are all that is needed. However, the upholstery business is extremely competitive, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. Experienced, highly  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  skilled upholsterers in large shops and factories may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa­ tions through the year 2000. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace ex­ perienced workers who transfer to other oc­ cupations or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. More upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal income, and business ex­ penditures grow. However, demand for up­ holsterers will not keep pace with this growth because, increasingly, consumers replace worn furniture rather than reupholster it. Each up­ holstery job is unique and therefore upholstery work does not lend itself to automation; con­ sequently, technology is not expected to have any impact on employment of upholsterers. Earnings In 1986, hourly pay rates ranged from $6 to $13 for experienced furniture upholsterers, ac­ cording to limited data from union contracts. Employers generally pay inexperienced train­ ees the minimum wage. Upholsterers usually buy their own handtools. Earnings of self-employed upholsterers de­ pend not only on the size and location of the shop but also on the number of hours worked. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and knowledge of materials such as fabrics and wood are fur cutters, furniture finishers, and pattern and model makers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for up­ holsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops, the local office of the State employment service, or a local of the Upholstery Division of United Steel Workers of America.  Nature of the Work Clean water is essentia! for many things: Health and recreation; the existence of fish and wild­ life; and the functioning of industries. Water treatment plant operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Wastewater treatment plant operators remove harmful domestic and in­ dustrial pollution from wastewater. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, and streams to water treatment plants. Waste ma­ terials are carried by water through sewer pipes to wastewater treatment plants. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equipment to remove solid materials, chemi­ cals, and micro-organisms from the water or to render them harmless. By operating and maintaining the pumps, pipes, valves, and pro­ cessing equipment of the treatment facility, operators move the water or wastewater through the various treatment processes. Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and pro­ cesses are working properly and adjust controls as needed. They operate chemical-feeding de­ vices; take samples of the water or wastewater and perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and test and adjust the level of chlor­ ine in the wastewater. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. They use gauges, wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause wastewater to flow into sewers that exceeds a plant’s treatment capac­ ity. Emergencies also can be caused by con­ ditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. Water and wastewater treatment plant op­ erators increasingly are relying on computers to help them monitor equipment and processes. They must be able to read and interpret the results to determine if the system is functioning properly. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, per­ form tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do repairs and maintenance. Some oper­ ators may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plant. In larger plants with many employees, operators may be as­ signed to one process or one station, and the staff may include chemists, engineers, labo­ ratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, super­ visors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become in-  386/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most water and wastewater .reatment plant operators are employed by local governments. creasingly stringent since adoption of the Fed­ eral Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. which implemented a national system of uniform con­ trols on the discharge of pollutants. Under the 1972 law and subsequent reauthorizations in 1977 and 1987, it is illegal to discharge any pollutant without a permit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and insure that these wastes have been ade­ quately pretreated so that they do not damage municipal treatment facilities. Municipal treat­ ment plants also must meet discharge stand­ ards. Working Conditions Water and wastewater treatment plant opera­ tors work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and un­ pleasant odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Persons with allergies might suffer due to dust and other substances in the air. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and often get their clothes dirty. Sometimes they are confronted with hazardous conditions, such as- slippery walk­ ways, dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equipment. Because plants operate around the clock, operators work one of three shifts and on a rotational basis, weekends and holidays. Whenever emergencies arise, operators are re­ quired to work overtime. Employment Water and wastewater treatment plant opera­ tors held 74,000 jobs in 1986. The vast ma­ jority worked for local governments; some worked for private water supply and sanitary services companies, many of which provide operation and management services to local governments on a contract basis. Others worked for chemical manufacturers. Water and wastewater treatment plant op­ erators are employed throughout the country. Geographically, employment is distributed  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Those who work in small towns may only work part time at the water or wastewater treatment plant—the re­ mainder of their time may be spent handling other municipal duties. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. They learn by observing the processes and equipment in operation and by doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also clean and maintain plant equipment and property. Larger treatment plants generally combine this on-the-job training with formal classroom or self-paced study programs. Operators need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Be­ cause of the introduction of computer-con­ trolled equipment and more sophisticated in­ strumentation, a high school diploma generally is required. In addition, employers prefer those who have had high school courses in chemistry and biology. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regu­ lations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary math­ ematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and gen­ eral intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they have to climb ladders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an asso­ ciate degree in wastewater technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowl­ edge of water pollution control as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Be­ cause plants are becoming more complex,  completion of such courses increases an ap­ plicant's chances for employment and pro­ motion. Most State water pollution control agencies offer training courses to improve operators’ skills and knowledge. These courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory procedures, odors and their control, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological oxidation, sludge treatment and dis­ posal, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects re­ lated to wastewater treatment, and some em­ ployers pay part of the tuition for related col­ lege courses in science or engineering. Some operators are promoted to plant su­ pervisor or superintendent, while others ad­ vance by transferring to a larger facility. Some postsecondary training in water and wastewater treatment coupled with increasingly responsi­ ble experience as an operator may be sufficient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superintendent also serves as an operator. However, educa­ tional requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. Superin­ tendents of large plants generally need an en­ gineering or science degree. A few operators get jobs with State water pollution control agencies as technicians, who monitor and pro­ vide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-technical school or com­ munity college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial waste­ water treatment plants, companies selling wastewater treatment equipment and chemi­ cals, engineering consulting firms, or voca­ tional-technical schools. In 46 States, operators must pass an ex­ amination to certify that they are capable of overseeing wastewater treatment plant opera­ tions. Voluntary certification programs are in effect in the remaining States. Water plant op­ erators must be certified in 44 States. Of the remaining States, three have voluntary certi­ fication programs and three do not have any certification requirements. Typically, there are different classes of certification for different size treatment plants, and certification require­ ments vary by State. Because the national re­ ciprocity program for operators has just started, relocation may mean getting certified in the new location. Job Outlook Employment of water and wastewater treat­ ment plant operators is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The expanding population and growth of the economy are expected to increase demand for water and wastewater treatment services. As new plants are constructed to meet this demand, employment of water and waste­ water treatment plant operators should in­ crease. In addition, many job openings will occur as experienced operators transfer to other occupations or le%ve the labor force. Although local government traditionally has  Production Occupations/387  been the largest employer of water and waste­ water treatment plant operators, increased reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and waste­ water treatment facilities should shift some em­ ployment demand to these companies. Workers with formal postsecondary training in waste­ water technology will have the competitive edge in being hired or advancing to supervisory po­ sitions because of the increasing complexity of the equipment. Water and wastewater treatment plant op­ erators generally have steady employment be­ cause the services they provide are essential even during economic downturns. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Water Pollution Control Federation, annual salaries of wastewater treatment plant operators aver­ aged $20,200 in 1986; salaries of supervisors averaged $22,400. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size of the plant, the com­ plexity of the operator’s job, and the operator’s level of certification. In addition to their annual salaries, water and wastewater treatment plant operators gen­ erally receive benefits that include health and life insurance, retirement plans, and educa­ tional reimbursement for job-related courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler operators, gascompressor operators, powerplant operators, power reactor operators, stationary engineers, and turbine operators. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training, contact: National Environmental Training Association, 8687 Via de Ventura, Suite 214, Scottsdale, AZ 85258.  For information on certification, contact: Association of Boards of Certification, P.O. Box 786, Ames, IA 50010.  Additional information is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314.  For information on jobs, contact State or local water pollution control agencies or local offices of the State employment service.  Welders, Cutters, and Welding Machine Operators (D.O.T. 553.684-010; 613.667-010; 614.684-010; 709.684- 086; 727.662, .684-022; 810; 811; 812; 813.684- 010; 814; 815; 816 except .482; 819.281-010, -014, -022, .361, .381, .384, .684, and .685)  Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of perma­ nently joining metal parts. Typically, heat is   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  applied to the metal pieces to be joined, melting the parts and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, auto­ mobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other products. Welding is also used to join beams and steel reinforcing rods in buildings, bridges, and highways. There are three common ways to create the heat that is applied to the parts being joined. In electric arc welding, the most frequently used process, heat is created as electric current flows through an arc between the tip of the welding electrode and the metal. In resistance welding, heat is created in the weld metal as current flows through the metal. In gas weld­ ing, the flame from the combustion of burning gases melts the metal. In arc and gas welding, filler materials, called welding electrodes or welding rods, are melted and added to the weld puddle to fill the joint, giving it greater strength. The welder controls the amount of heat and the size of the melted area and adds the proper amount of filler material to form a strong joint. Technological advances have resulted in faster, more efficient methods of welding— laser beam, electron beam, and inertia weld­ ing. It is expected that these methods will be increasingly used as they become less expen­ sive. Welding processes differ, and the equipment and skill levels of welders vary. Some welding operations require highly skilled manual weld­ ers who can use gas and electric arc welding equipment in a variety of positions and who are able to plan their work from drawings or specifications. Skilled welders know the char­ acteristics and properties of steel, aluminum, and other commonly used metals. Examples of skilled welders are maintenance welders; pres­ sure vessel welders, such as those working on submarines or nuclear reactors; pipe welders; and welders who construct ships and bridges. In ship construction, welders join the steel plates, beams, and pipes. Some joints to be welded are on the floor (deck), some are on the walls, and some are overhead. Each must be carefully welded to insure that the ship will not break apart in rough seas. Ship welders generally use manual arc weld­ ing equipment, although semiautomatic equip­ ment is becoming more widely used. After welders read instructions regarding which ma­ terials and welding method to use, they obtain supplies from the storage area. To form a joint by arc welding, they use an electrode attached to an electrical cable coming from a welding power supply. Another cable is attached to the metal being welded. Thus, electricity will flow through the welding electrode, through the arc to the metal being welded, and back to the power supply. The power supply can be adjusted to provide the correct amount of current. When the power is turned on, welders “strike an arc” by briefly touching the electrode to the metal to start the electricity flowing and then pulling the rod back to form a small arc gap through which the current must flow. If the distance between the electrode and the metal is correct, a stable elec­ tric arc will bridge the space; the heat from the  arc melts the electrode and the metal. Welders move the arc along the length of the joint. As the electrode melts and becomes shorter, they move the holder closer to the metal to keep the right distance from the arc. They replace very short electrodes with new ones. Maintenance welders repair tools, machines, and equipment. Often, they bring portable gas torches, hoses, and tanks to the job because electricity may not be available. When working on a broken pipe, for ex­ ample, maintenance welders examine the pipe and prepare the break for repair. They then select a welding filler rod appropriate for the job. Next, they light the torch and adjust reg­ ulators on the cylinders of fuel gas, such as acetylene, and oxygen to obtain the right gas mixtures and flame. Then they heat the edges of the break with the torch. As the metal begins to soften, welders melt the end of the filler rod in the hot liquid metal as they carefully move the torch and rod along the break. Welders must keep the torch the correct distance from the metal, apply heat correctly, and use appropriate filler material to repair the break. In many production processes—where the work is repetitive and the items to be welded are relatively uniform—welding machines are used. Welding machine operators set up and operate welding machines as specified by lay­ outs, work orders, or blueprints. Operators place the parts to be joined in fixtures on the machine and push a button. The machine then clamps the parts in place and positions them as nec­ essary to complete the welding cycle. When the welding operation is completed, operators remove the welded pieces from the machine. These workers may be designated according to the type of machine they operate, such as au­ tomatic arc, electron beam, resistance welding, gas welding, and laser beam machine operator. Workers who operate such machines to weld automobile mufflers and washing machines, for example, need little knowledge of welding. These workers do not need the skills required of welders and cutters. In fact, in applications having a high volume of repetitive welds—for example, in automotive manufacturing—man­ ufacturers increasingly are replacing welding machine operators with robot welding systems. The work of arc and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. Using heat from burning gases or an electric arc, cutters cut and trim rather than join metal. Some electrically and mechanically operated machines follow guidelines automatically. Working Conditions Welders frequently are exposed to potential hazards. They use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent bums and eye injuries. Although lighting and ventilation usu­ ally are adequate, some metals give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt. Workers often are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Skilled welders may be isolated for short intervals while they work in booths constructed to contain sparks and glare. Weld­ ing machine operators, however, are largely  388/Occupational Outlook Handbook  I|p  Skilled welders will have better job oppor­ tunities than welding machine operators. free from hazards associated with manual welding. A face shield or goggles generally provide adequate protection. Employment Welders, cutters, and welding machine oper­ ators held about 414,000 jobs in 1986. About 7 out of 10 jobs were held by skilled welders, while welding machine operators held about 3 out of 10. About 7 out of 10 jobs involved the man­ ufacture of durable goods, including boilers, bulldozers, trucks, and ships and consumer ap­ pliances such as refrigerators. Most of the re­ maining jobs were in metal products repair or in construction of bridges, large buildings, and pipelines. Skilled welders work in a wide range of industries, whereas welding machine op­ erators are more concentrated in manufacturing industries that are better suited to mass pro­ duction—for example, fabricated structural metal products and construction machinery manufacturing. Tlraining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it takes several years of on-the-job training to become a skilled welder, welding machine operators can learn their jobs in a few weeks or months. High schools, vocational-technical insti­ tutes, and community colleges throughout the country teach entry level welding skills. Private vocational schools also teach welding, in courses that take from 6 months to 1 year to complete. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Because the number of vo­ cational school programs offering training in welding has declined over the last several years, more welders are learning their craft through informal, on-the-job instruction while they work as welders’ helpers. Some transportation equipment manufacturers provide after-hours classes to enable company employees to qual­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  ify for welding jobs when openings occur. Other company-run welding schools teach advanced techniques to qualify welders for work on crit­ ical applications such as nuclear reactors or high-pressure boilers. Persons considering work as welders or cut­ ters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand coordination. They should have the ability to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be physically able, in order to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Most employers prefer applicants who have high school or vocational school training in welding. Courses in shop mathematics, me­ chanical drawing, blueprint reading, physics, and chemistry also are helpful. Before working on aircraft, buildings, bridges, pipelines, and other jobs where the strength of the weld is highly critical, welders may have to pass an examination given by an employer or government agency to become “certified welders.” Experienced welding machine operators who take additional courses in welding can advance to skilled welding jobs. Skilled welders may be promoted to welding inspectors, techni­ cians, or supervisors. Experienced workers who have obtained college training are in great de­ mand as welding engineers to develop new applications for welding. A small number of experienced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in employment of welders, cutters, and welding machine op­ erators through the year 2000. A significant number of job openings, however, will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or retire. Technological change will affect demand for this occupation. Advances in robotics and vis­ ual and other machine-sensing capabilities are expected to lead to a decline in employment of welding machine operators. Employment of welders and cutters, on the other hand, is ex­ pected to grow—although more slowly than the average for all occupations—as increases in population and income stimulate demand for buildings, heavy machinery, appliances, and thousands of other products that welders help make. In addition, the jobs of highly skilled welders should not be as adversely affected by automation. Skilled welders who are familiar with up-to-date welding techniques and the ma­ terials being welded should have good job pros­ pects. Robot welding systems have already elim­ inated many jobs in the automotive manufac­ turing industry. New automotive assembly plants are highly automated and require few welders, cutters, and welding machine oper­ ators. As more and more assembly plants are modernized, jobs for welders, cutters, and welding machine operators in this industry will continue to disappear. Widespread application of robotic welding in other durable goods in­ dustries is expected to further reduce demand for these workers.  Another technological change on the horizon is the use of high-strength composite materials and improved plastics in place of metal in a wide range of products—from automobiles and trucks to home appliances. As the use of sub­ stitutes for metal becomes widespread, fewer welds will be needed, and demand for welders, cutters, and welding machine operators will decline accordingly. Welders, cutters, and welding machine op­ erators are vulnerable to periodic layoffs due to factory retooling and to economic down­ turns. Thus, those seeking a first job in a com­ munity affected by a downturn may encounter competition from experienced welders who are not working. Those who have recently com­ pleted vocational training programs in welding will fill some openings, although graduates of these programs don’t always become welders. Welding skills are applicable in many occu­ pations. Earnings The limited wage data available indicate that in 1986 welding machine operators generally earned from $10 to $14 an hour, while welders and cutters generally earned from $12 to $16 an hour. Some welders and cutters who work under hazardous conditions—for example, on bridges or in coal mines—can earn higher wages. Welders belong to many different unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help­ ers; the International Union, United Automo­ bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb­ ing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America. Related Occupations Welders and cutters are highly skilled workers who must be very familiar with the properties of metal and who use hand-held equipment or machines to do their work. Others with similar duties are blacksmiths, forge shop workers, all­ round machinists, machine-tool operators, tooland-die makers, millwrights, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and metal sculptors. Welding machine operators are less skilled workers who operate machines that do weld­ ing. Other workers with similar duties include lathe and turning, milling and planing, punch­ ing and stamping press, and rolling machine operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welders, cutters, and welding machine operators in your community, contact local em­ ployers or the local office of the State em­ ployment service. A one-page brochure on welding is available free of charge from: American Welding Society, 550 NW. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.  Production Occupations/389  For a list of certified schools that offer train­ ing in welding, contact: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850.  A list of postsecondary programs in welding and cutting, arranged by city and State, may be found in Postsecondary Schools with Oc­ cupational Programs, a publication of the U.S. Department of Education’s Center for Edu­ cation Statistics. This publication may be avail­ able in counseling centers and large public li­ braries.  Woodworking Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page  425.)  Nature of the Work Woodworkers construct things out of wood, one of the oldest, most basic building mate­ rials. They take raw wood and cut and assemble it to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, molding, and trim that are components of most homes. They fash­ ion home accessories such as beds, sofas, ta­ bles, dressers, and chairs. They also make sporting goods items, including baseball bats, racquets, skis, oars, and surfboards, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool han­ dles, and thousands of other wooden items. Working from blueprints, shop drawings, and/or instructions from supervisors, wood­ workers determine the method of shaping and sequence of assembling parts. To begin, they do a layout—measuring and marking the ma­ terials to be cut. They set up and operate wood­ working machines, such as power saws, pla­ ners, sanders, lathes, jointers, and routers, to cut and shape components from woodstock. Woodworkers verify dimensions to adhere to specifications and may trim parts to insure a tight fit, using handtools such as planes, chis­ els, or wood files and sandpaper. Woodworkers may nail, glue, fit, and clamp parts and sub­ assemblies together to form a complete unit. They may stain or paint pieces after sanding and install hardware. Woodworkers may work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Precision woodworkers, such as cabinet­ makers, wood pattern and model makers, wood machinists, and furniture and wood finishers, normally need substantial training and an abil­ ity to work from detailed instructions and spec­ ifications. They often are required to exercise independent judgment when undertaking an as­ signment. Precision woodworkers generally perform a complete cycle of cutting, shaping, and assembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a finished wood product, for example, a piece of furniture. Another large group consists of less skilled woodworkers who set up, operate, or tend pro­ duction equipment or machinery. They gen­ erally operate a specific woodworking ma­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  chine, such as a lathe, router, planer, or cut­ off saw. For example, some wood machine operators set up their equipment, cut and shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, calipers, or rule. Other operators may press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor or tend the automatic operation. Wood machine operators work in sawmills in which they cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In planing mills, they may cut veneer sheets from logs for making plywood. And in furniture plants, they may make furniture com­ ponents such as table legs, drawers, rails, and spindles.  Working Conditions Work areas are usually well lighted, but noisy because of machinery and power tools being used nearby. Wood dust may be a problem, so workers often wear masks for protection. Rigid adherence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough woodstock, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment, such as chisels, routers, saws, pla­ ners, and lathes. Prolonged standing and lifting and fitting heavy objects are often necessary.  Employment Workers in woodworking occupations held about 351,000 jobs in 1986. About 10 percent, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture and wood finishers, were self-employed. About 85 per­ cent of salaried woodworkers worked in man­ ufacturing industries. About 30 percent were employed in establishments fabricating house­ hold and office furniture. About 20 percent were in establishments making millwork, ply­ wood, and structural wood members, used pri­ marily in construction, and nearly 15 percent worked in sawmills and planing mills manu­ facturing a variety of raw, intermediate, and finished woodstock. Others worked for whole­ sale and retail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture repair shops, and construction firms. Woodworking jobs are found throughout the country. However, manufacturing jobs are concentrated in the South and Northwest close to the supply of wood.  Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most woodworkers learn their jobs through onthe-job training, picking up skills informally from experienced workers. Some acquire skills through vocational education or by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Beginners usually help and observe expe­ rienced machine operators. They may supply material, remove fabricated products from the machine, and stack them. Trainees do simple machine operating jobs, supervised closely by experienced workers. As they gain experience, they perform more complex jobs with less su­ pervision. Some may learn to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the sequence of their work.  Most woodworkers learn the basic machine operations or job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 years or more. However, many firms hire workers to perform specialized tasks on a ma­ chine. These jobs may offer little opportunity to develop all-round skills. Although a high school education is seldom required, persons seeking woodworking jobs can improve their opportunities by completing courses in blueprint reading, woodworking, and shop mathematics. Employers often look for persons with mechanical ability, manual dex­ terity, and the ability to pay attention to detail. Experienced woodworkers may become in­ spectors or supervisors responsible for the work of a group of woodworkers. Those with all­ round skills may set up their own woodworking shops.  Job Outlook Employment in the woodworking occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the av­ erage for all occupations through the year 2000. As the Nation’s population, personal income, and business expenditures grow, the demand for wood products will increase. However, several factors will limit the growth of wood­ working occupations. Materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass are increasingly used as alternatives to wood in many products, pri­ marily because they are cheaper, stronger, or easier to shape. Some jobs may be lost to im­ ports. The use of improved machinery, tools, and other technological advances also will pre­ vent employment from rising as fast as the demand for wood products. Although employment growth will be mod­ est, thousands of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of woodworkers, like that of  Woodworkers shape and form raw wood into thousands of products.  390/Occupational Outlook Handbook many other manufacturing workers, is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy.  United Furniture Workers of America, and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.  Earnings Median weekly earnings for salaried full-time woodworkers were about $270 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between $200 and $350. Earnings were substantially higher in mills in the Northwest. Pay rates also depend on skill level or the type of machinery operated. Some woodworkers are members of the In­ ternational Woodworkers of America, the  Related Occupations Many woodworkers follow blueprints and work drawings and use machines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar functions working with other materials include precision metalwork­ ers, metalworking and plastic-working ma­ chine operatives, metal fabricators, molders and shapers, and leather workers.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Sources of Additional Information For information about woodworking occupa­ tions, contact local furniture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmaking or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about a wide variety of woodworking occupations, contact: International Woodworkers of America, U.S.. Re­ search and Education Department, 25 Cornell Ave., Gladstone, OR 97027.  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Aircraft Pilots (D.O.T. 196 except . 163; and 621.261-018)  Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained, skilled professionals who fly airplanes and helicopters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Most pilots transport passengers, cargo, and mail, while others dust crops, spread seed for reforestation, test air­ craft, and take photographs. Helicopter pilots are involved in firefighting, police work, off­ shore exploration for natural resources, evac­ uation and rescue efforts, logging operations, construction work, and weather station oper­ ations; some also transport passengers. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot (called captain) is in com­ mand and supervises all other crew members. The copilot or first officer assists in commu­ nicating with air traffic controllers, monitor­ ing the instruments, and flying the aircraft. Most large aircraft have a third pilot in the cockpit—the flight engineer or second offi­ cer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and sys­ tems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and more aircraft will fly with only two pilots in the future. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions enroute and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules, the pilot in command must file an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traf­ fic. Before taking off, pilots thoroughly check their planes to make sure that the engines, con­ trols, instruments, and other systems are func­ tioning properly. They also make sure that bag­ gage or cargo has been loaded correctly. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult and dangerous parts of the flight and require close coordination between the pilot and co­ pilot. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to be­ come airborne, pilots consider the altitude of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the copilot informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They continuously scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air-conditioning, hy­ draulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely com­ pletely on their instruments. Using the alti­ meter readings, they know how high above ground they are and can fly safely over moun­ tains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information which, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equip­ ment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind." Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their company and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Airline pilots have the services of large sup­ port staffs and consequently perform few non­ flying duties. Pilots employed by businesses that use their own aircraft, however, usually are the businesses’ only experts on flying and, consequently, have many other duties. They may load the plane, handle all passenger lug­ gage to insure a balanced load, and supervise refueling. Other nonflying responsibilities in­ clude keeping records, scheduling flights, ar­ ranging for major maintenance, and perform­ ing minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the principles of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes. A few specially trained pilots employed by the airlines are “examiners” or “check pilots.” They periodically fly with each airline pilot and copilot to make sure that they are profi­ cient.  Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 80 hours a month and work an additional 80 hours a month performing nonflying duties. The ma­ jority of flights involve layovers away from home. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations, trans­ portation between the hotel and airport, and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Based on sen­ iority, pilots generally have a choice of flights. Pilots employed outside the airlines often have irregular schedules; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Since these pilots frequently have many nonflying respon­ sibilities, they have much less free time than airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most pilots employed outside the airlines do not re­ main away from home overnight. They may work odd hours, however. Instructors, for ex­ ample, often give lessons at night or on week­ ends. Airline pilots, especially those on interna­ tional routes, often suffer jet lag—disorien­ tation and fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimental planes, may be dan­ gerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and often do not have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Heli­ copter pilots involved in firefighting or police work are particularly subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being re­ sponsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be tiring. Particularly during take­ off and landing, pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong. Employment Civilian pilots held about 76,000 jobs in 1986. Three-fifths worked for the airlines. Many oth­ ers worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that use their own air­ planes or helicopters to fly company cargo and executives. Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses per­ forming tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Fed­ eral, State, and local governments also em­ ployed pilots. Several thousand pilots were selfemployed. 391  392/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ' " ’ I  Before taking off, airplane pilots make sure that the engine controls and instruments are functioning properly. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by FAA. Heli­ copter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours or more of flight experience. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their per­ formance. Applicants must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regu­ lations. They also must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA examiners. To fly in bad weather, pilots must be rated by FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qual­ ify for this rating by having a total of 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of ex­ perience in flying by instruments; passing a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying; and demonstrating their ability to fly by instru­ ments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional require­ ments. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license. Captains must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instrument flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical examinations and tests of flying skills required by Government and company regulations. Flying can be learned in military or civilian flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies the flight experience requirements for licen­ sing. The FAA has certified about 1,000 ci­ vilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Military pilots gain substantial ex­ perience on jet aircraft and helicopters, which airlines and many businesses prefer. Having lost many pilots to the airlines in recent years, the Armed Forces are offering financial incen­ tives to curb the high rate of attrition. More pilots are expected to stay in military flying, forcing the airlines to hire a higher percent of general aviation pilots. Most recent entrants to this occupation have civilian training. Pilots hired by airlines must be high school graduates; however, most airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college grad­ uates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judg­ ments under pressure, airline companies reject applicants who do not pass required psycho­ logical and aptitude tests. New airline pilots usually start as flight en­  gineers. Although airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer's license, they may train those who have only the commercial license. All new pilots receive several weeks of intensive training in simulators and class­ rooms before being assigned to a flight. Companies other than airlines generally do not require as much flying experience. How­ ever, a commercial pilot’s license is required, and companies prefer applicants who have ex­ perience in the type of plane they will be flying. New employees generally start as copilots. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Most helicopter pilots are trained in the mil­ itary. Military pilots only have to pass the FAA “military competency” examination in order to be licensed as a commercial helicopter pilot. Because of insurance requirements, most com­ mercial companies require that helicopter pilots have 1,500 hours of flying time. If a pilot does not accumulate that time flying in the military, it is difficult to get a job in the commercial sector. Advancement for all pilots generally is lim­ ited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they be­ come more experienced, these pilots occa­ sionally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provisions of union contracts. After 2 to 7 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to copilot and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pi­ lots get the more desirable routes. In a non­ airline job, a copilot may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures.  Job Outlook Due to an expected shortage of pilots, the job outlook for pilots should be favorable in the coming years. Employment growth coupled with an expected wave of retirements will pro­ vide many job openings for pilots. Many pilots who were hired in the late 1960’s during the last major boom in the air trans­ portation industry will be subject to mandatory retirement soon. In addition, the military, which in the past provided the majority of pilots, has increased its benefits and financial incentives in an effort to retain pilots. Thus, the military is expected to be a diminishing source of supply in the future. Also, many pilots who were laid off because of the recession during the early 1980’s are now employed—further reducing the available supply of qualified pilots. As a result, the oversupply of qualified pilots that resulted in keen competition for jobs in the past is diminishing, and the developing shortage of pilots is expected to continue well into the future. College graduates who have experience flying jet aircraft and who have a commercial pilot’s license and a flight engineer’s license  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/393  are expected to have the best opportunities for jobs with the major airlines. Employment of pilots is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. While computerized flight engineering systems may reduce the de­ mand for flight engineers, the expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more airliners, pilots, and flight instructors. Employment of business pilots is expected to grow more slowly than in the past as more businesses opt to fly with regional and smaller airlines serving their area rather than buy and operate their own aircraft. Aircraft pilots understandably have a strong attachment to their occupation since it requires a substantial investment in specialized training and offers very high earnings. Generally, a relatively small proportion of pilots leave the occupation each year. However, because of the large number of retirements expected through the year 2000, replacement needs will be the primary source of job openings. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when declines in the demand for air travel force airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may temporarily furlough some pilots. Com­ mercial and corporate flying, flight instruction, and testing of new aircraft also decline during recessions, adversely affecting pilots employed in those areas. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Starting salaries for flight en­ gineers averaged about $ 18,000 a year in 1986, according to the Future Aviation Professionals of America. Overall, the average salary for airline pilots was about $80,000 a year; for flight engineers, $53,000; for copilots, $70,000; and for captains, $108,000. Some senior cap­ tains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $165,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay may be given for night and international flights. Generally, pilots working outside the air­ lines earn lower salaries. Average salaries for chief pilots ranged from about $40,000 to $65,000 a year in 1986, according to a survey conducted by the National Business Aircraft Association; for captains/pilots, $33,000 to $54,000; and for copilots, $26,000 to $38,000. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher salaries than nonjet pilots. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the air­ lines. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail the FAA physical examination, dis­ ability payments. Some airlines provide allow­ ances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of the Air­ line Pilots Association, International. Those employed by one major airline are members   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and dispatchers also play an im­ portant role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a par­ ticular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For addresses of airline companies and information about job oppor­ tunities and salaries, contact: Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 J. Memorial Dr., Atlanta, GA 30032. (This organi­ zation may be called toll free at 800-JET-JOBS.)  For information on airline pilots, contact; Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.  For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.  For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the clas­ sified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports.  Busdrivers (D-O.T. 909.663; 913.363, .463-010, .663-014 and -018)  Nature of the Work Busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers transport people between regions of a State or of the country; local transit busdrivers, within a metropolitan area; and school busdrivers, to and from schools. They follow time schedules and routes over highways and city and sub­ urban streets to provide passengers with an alternative to the automobile and other forms of transportation. Busdrivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they receive tickets and trans­ fers and prepare trip report forms. Drivers may check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, water, and safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. Drivers pick up and discharge passengers at bus stops or stations, or in the case of students, at corners or in front of houses. Intercity and local transit busdrivers collect fares, answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points, and sometimes announce stops. Busdriver days are run by the clock, as they must adhere to schedules. Drivers must try to  keep up when traffic is heavier than normal, yet operate safely. On the other hand, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of sched­ ule so that they miss passengers. Busdrivers must be alert to prevent acci­ dents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather and to avoid sudden stops or swerves which jar passengers. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off. Bus routes vary. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as frequently as every few blocks. School busdrivers also drive the same routes each day, stopping frequently to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. School busdrivers may also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day, stopping at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up groups, take them to their destination, and generally remain with them until they return. Trips frequently last more than 1 day. Busdrivers submit daily trip reports with a record of tickets and fares received, trips made, and significant delays in schedule, and report mechanical problems. They also fill out acci­ dent reports, when necessary. Intercity drivers record distances traveled and the periods of time they spend driving, performing other du­ ties. and off duty, as required by the U.S. Department of Transportation. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while deal­ ing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it can be stressful and fatiguing. On the other hand, many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for the bus and passengers. Some also like meeting the public. Intercity and transit busdrivers may work nights and weekends. Some drivers work part­ time shifts. Some must also work when called and must report on short notice. Intercity busdrivers may drive more than 40 hours a week. School busdrivers work only when school is in session. Most work 20 hours a week or fewer, driving one or two routes in the morning and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips or who also have midday kindergarten routes may work more hours a week. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accom­ modate commuters, many work "split shifts,” for example 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m. shifts, with time off in between. Employment Busdrivers held about 478,000 jobs in 1986. Most worked part time. About 7 out of 10 drivers worked for school systems or compa­ nies that provide school bus services under contract, as shown in the accompanying chart.  394/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some worked for intercity and charter buslines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Busdriver qualifications are established by State and Federal regulations. Most States require that drivers have a commercial driver’s license or a special school bus license. In addition, intercity busdrivers must meet U.S. Depart­ ment of Transportation qualifications or those of a State agency, if the driver works only within one State. School busdrivers must be at least 18 years old in most States, 16 in a few. Local transit and intercity busdriver must be at least 21 years old. Many intercity bus companies prefer ap­ plicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of bus or truck driving experience. Drivers should be in good health and have a good driving record. They need at least 20/ 40 vision with or without glasses, good hear­ ing, and normal use of their arms and legs. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a physical examination and a writ­ ten test of ability to follow complex bus sched­ ules. In addition, intercity busdrivers must pass written examinations on Department of Trans­ portation and State motor vehicle regulations, as well as a driving test in the type of bus they will operate.  Since busdrivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even tem­ perament and emotional stability because driv­ ing in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traf­ fic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “behind-the-wheel” instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. Depart­ ment of Transportation and company work rules, safety regulations. State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive up to 1 week of driv­ ing instruction plus classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driver-pupil relations; first aid; and fire emer­ gency procedures. School busdrivers must pass driving and written tests and—in some States— a background investigation to uncover a crim­ inal record or a history of mental problems. During training, busdrivers learn on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag ma­ neuvers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. Then they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passengers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes.  Whenforcollecting Digitized FRASERfares, busdrivers should be courteous. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Local transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned ga­ rage. New drivers begin with a “break-in” pe­ riod. They make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers ques­ tions, and evaluates the new driver’s perfor­ mance. New intercity and local transit drivers usu­ ally are placed on an “extra” list to substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation, drive charter runs or extra and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. Senior drivers can choose runs they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of intercity busdrivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited. However, experienced drivers may be­ come supervisors or dispatchers, who assign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, reroute buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail sys­ tems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants.A few drivers become man­ agers. Promotion in publicly owned bus sys­ tems is often by competitive civil service ex­ amination. Job Outlook Employment of busdrivers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000. Employment of local and intercity drivers will grow as em­ ployers substitute part-time drivers for full tim­ ers; bus ridership, itself, is not expected to grow. Employment of school busdrivers is ex­ pected to increase more slowly than average, reflecting the small growth in enrollments and a slight increase in the proportion of students who ride buses. Local and intercity travel is expected to in­ crease as population and labor force grow and incomes rise, but most growth will probably be in more expensive air and automobile trans­ portation rather than in bus travel. Some growth of ridership is expected, however, in rapidly growing Sunbelt States. The number of busdrivers will grow as com­ petition forces employers to replace full-time drivers with part timers. Part timers can often be used more efficiently and may also be paid less per hour, and so it is likely that part-time employment will grow faster than full-time em­ ployment. Due to the relatively high wages of local and intercity busdrivers, competition for these jobs is expected to be keen. School busdriving jobs should be easier to get, since earnings are lower and turnover is higher. Full-time local transit busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. However, part-time drivers may be if bus ridership decreases, since  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/395  Most busdrivers operate school buses. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1986  /  /60/0 \  School I__ busdrivers I  70%  V  ”i>'  18%  ■■  -.‘jr.'*  \  Source:  Intercity busdrivers  Local — transit busdrivers  6%y V/  Other  Bureau of Labor Statistics  fewer extra buses would be needed during rush hours. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity busdrivers with little seniority, forexample, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off; school busdrivers do not work during the sum­ mer or school holidays.  Earnings Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who worked full time were about S325 in 1986. The middle 50 percent earned between about $245 and $460 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $180 a week, while the highest tenth earned more than $550 a week. According to the American Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in areas with more than 1 million inhabitants had an average top rate of $ 11.11 an hour in 1986; in areas with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants, drivers had an average top rate of $8.48 an hour. The average starting rate in most cities was 75 percent of the top rate. Generally, driv­ ers could reach the top rate in 3 or 4 years. Intercity busdrivers had estimated average annual earnings of about $23,500 in 1986. Earnings of intercity busdrivers depend pri­ marily on the number of miles they drive. Be­ ginning drivers worked about 6 months out of the year and earned between $14,000 and $18,000, while many senior drivers who worked year round earned more than $30,000. According to a survey by the Educational Research Service, the average rate for school busdrivers employed by public school systems was $8.06 an hour during the 1986-87 school year, with most earning between $7 and $9 an hour. Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union and the International Brotherhood of  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are taxidrivers, truckdrivers, and chauffeurs. Sources of Additional Information For further information on employment op­ portunities, contact local transit systems, in­ tercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. General information on local transit bus­ driving is available from: American Public Transit Association, 1225 Con­ necticut Ave. NW„ Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036.  Material Moving Equipment Operators (List of D.Q.T. codes available on request. See p. 425.)  Nature of the Work Material moving equipment operators use ma­ chinery to move construction materials and other manufactured goods, earth, logs, petroleum products, grain, coal, and other heavy mate­ rials. Generally they move materials over short distances—around a factory, construction site, or on or off trucks and ships. Those who op­ erate bulldozers, cranes, loaders, and similar equipment are often called construction equip­ ment operators even though they work in the mining, logging, utilities, and other industries as well as the construction industry. Others operate industrial trucks and tractors and sim­ ilar equipment in manufacturing plants and warehouses. Some operate many kinds of equipment; others only one. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. They may  also set up and inspect equipment and make adjustments and minor repairs. Material mov­ ing equipment operators usually are classified by the type of machines they operate. Crane and tower operators operate mechan­ ical boom and cable or tower and cable equip­ ment to lift and move materials, machinery, or other heavy objects. Although many cranes are used on construction sites, others are used in manufacturing and other industries. Excavation and loading machine operators operate and tend machinery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets to excavate earth at construction sites and to load and move loose materials, mainly in the mining and construc­ tion industries. Grader, dozer, and scraper operators operate vehicles equipped with blades to remove, dis­ tribute, level, and grade earth. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench ex­ cavators, road graders, and similar equipment. Although many work in the construction in­ dustry, grader, dozer, and scraper operators also work for State and local governments, mainly in maintenance and repair work, and in the mining and logging industries. Hoist and winch operators operate or tend machines which lift and pull loads using poweroperated cable equipment. Most work in load­ ing operations in manufacturing, mining, or logging. Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control industrial trucks or tractors. A typ­ ical industrial truck, often called a forklift, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks. In­ dustrial truck operators use them to carry loads on a wooden skid or pallet around a factory or warehouse. Industrial tractor operators pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equip­ ment between factories, warehouses, and out­ door storage areas. Operating engineers are qualified to operate more than one type of the construction equip­ ment discussed above, although the term op­ erating engineer often is applied to many con­ struction machine operators. Other material moving equipment operators tend air compressors or pumps at construction sites. Some operate oil or natural gas pumps and compressors at oil and gas wells and on oil and gas pipelines, and others operate ship loading and unloading equipment, conveyors, hoists, and other kinds of specialized material handling equipment such as mine or railroad tank car unloading equipment. Material moving equipment operators may keep records of materials moved and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may clean and oil their equipment. Working Conditions Many material moving equipment operators work outdoors, in hot and cold weather, but do not usually work in rain or snow. Industrial truck and tractor operators work mainly in­ doors, in warehouses or manufacturing plants. Some machines, particularly bulldozers and scrapers, are noisy and constantly shake or jolt the operator. Operators can be injured by fall­ ing objects while operating a forklift truck or  396/Occupational Outlook Handbook  *  455 D Material moving equipment operators who operate bulldozers and similar equipment are often called operating engineers. be crushed by a bulldozer if it overturns on a steep slope. However, these jobs have become much safer with the adoption of overhead guards on forklift trucks and roll bars on construction machinery. As with most machinery, safety practices must be constantly observed. Employment Material moving equipment operators held about 998,000 jobs in 1986. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupational group. Crane and tower operators................. 58,000 Excavation and loading machine operators ........................... 70,000 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators ............................ 92,000 Hoist and winch operators ................. 19,000 Industrial truck and tractor operators ..............................426,000 Operating engineers.............................150,000 All other material moving equipment operators ....................... 182,000 The largest proportion (nearly two-fifths) of material moving equipment operators worked in manufacturing; most of these were industrial truck and tractor operators. More than one-fifth worked in the construction industry. Signifi­ cant numbers worked in State and local gov­ ernments and in the transportation, wholesale and retail trade, and utilities industries. Very few material moving equipment operators were self-employed. Material moving equipment operators work in every section of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers of material moving equipment op­ erators prefer to hire high school graduates, although for simpler equipment a high school  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  education may not be important. Courses in automobile mechanics or demonstrated me­ chanical ability and experience with tractors on farms and with heavy equipment in the Armed Forces are helpful. Most individuals learn to operate material moving equipment on the job. Mechanical ability is often important because workers may perform some mainte­ nance on their machines. Operators need to be alert and have a good sense of balance as well as good eye-hand-foot coordination. Beginning material moving equipment op­ erators handle light equipment under the guid­ ance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bull­ dozers and cranes. However, some construc­ tion equipment operators are trained in a 3year apprenticeship program administered by union-management committees of the Inter­ national Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Since apprentices leant to operate a wider va­ riety of machines than other beginners, they have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years of on-thejob training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or appren­ tice. However, persons considering such train­ ing should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area. Job Outlook Overall employment of material moving equip­ ment operators is expected to decline through the year 2000. Employment of industrial truck and tractor operators is expected to decline significantly, in part because 3 out of 5 workers in this oc­ cupation are concentrated in manufacturing— an industry sector that is expected to decline.  In addition, while the volume of goods to be moved will increase, more automated material handling systems in large factories and ware­ houses should result in fewer operator jobs. These computerized systems enable industrial truck and tractor operators to move greater quantities of goods more efficiently. In some plants, industrial trucks and tractors may even be replaced by conveyor belts and computercontrolled lift mechanisms. Employment of material moving equipment operators other than industrial truck and tractor operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average as industries such as construction and State and local government which employ these workers expand. Besides the job openings created in some areas by increased demand, many openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, many industrial truck operators who leave will not be replaced. Because the con­ struction and manufacturing industries are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, the number of job openings may fluctuate widely from year to year. Earnings Earnings for material moving equipment op­ erators vary considerably. In 1986, median earnings of all material moving equipment op­ erators were $375 a week; the middle 50 per­ cent earned between $275 and $493. Ten per­ cent earned less than $198 and 10 percent more than $618. In 1986, median weekly earnings of crane and tower operators were $459; ex­ cavation and loading machine operators, $368; grader, dozer, and scraper operators, $351; in­ dustrial truck and tractor operators, $325; op­ erating engineers, $410; and other material moving equipment operators, $381. Pay scales generally are higher in metropolitan areas. An­ nual earnings of some workers may be lower than weekly rates would indicate because the amount of time they work can be limited by bad weather. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equip­ ment include truck and bus drivers, manufac­ turing equipment operators, and farmers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportunities for construction equip­ ment operators, contact a local of the Inter­ national Union of Operating Engineers; a local apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may provide information about apprenticeship and other training programs. For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Associated General Contractors of America. Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006.  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/397 International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.  U.S. Department of Transportation. They must give a detailed report of any accident. Information on industrial truck and tractor Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of operators is available from: their working time behind the wheel. Drivers hauling some specialty cargo, though, often Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St. NW., Suite 210, Washington, DC 20006. load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only one at the destination familiar with this procedure. Auto transport drivers, for ex­ ample , drive and position the cars on the trailers and head ramps and remove them at the final destination. When picking up or delivering fur­ (D.O.T. 292.353, .363, .463, .483, and .667; 900.683 niture, drivers of long-distance moving vans through 905.683; 906; 909.663; 919.663-018, -022, -026' hire local workers to help them load or unload. and 953.583) When local truckdrivers receive assignments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pick­ Nature of the Work ups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Nearly all goods are transported by truck during Before the drivers arrive for work, material some of their journey from producers to con­ handlers generally have loaded the trucks and sumers. Goods may also be shipped between arranged the items in order of delivery to min­ terminals or warehouses in different cities by imize handling of the merchandise. train, ship, or plane. But truckdrivers usually At the customer’s place of business, local make the initial pickup from factories, con­ truckdrivers generally load or unload the mer­ solidate cargo at terminals for intercity ship­ chandise. If there are heavy loads or many ment, and deliver goods from terminals to stores deliveries to make during the day, drivers may and homes. have helpers. Customers must sign receipts for Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, goods and drivers may receive money for ma­ truckdrivers check their trucks for fuel and oil. terial delivered. At the end of the day, they They also inspect the trucks they will drive to turn in receipts, money, and records of deliv­ make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and eries made and report any mechanical problems lights are working and see that a fire extin­ they have discovered with their trucks. guisher, flares, and other safety equipment are The work of local truckdrivers varies, de­ aboard and in working order. Drivers adjust pending on the product they transport. Produce mirrors so that both sides of the truck are visible truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the from the driver’s seat, and make sure the cargo early morning and spend the rest of the day has been loaded properly so it will not shift delivering produce to many different grocery during the trip. Drivers report to the dispatcher stores. Lumber truckdrivers, on the other hand, any equipment that does not work, or is miss­ make several trips from the lumber yard to one ing, or cargo that is not loaded properly. or more construction sites. Gasoline tank truckOnce underway, drivers must be alert to pre­ drivers attach the hoses and operate the pumps vent accidents and to drive their trucks effi­ on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas ciently. Because drivers of large tractor-trailers stations’ storage tanks. sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they Some local truckdrivers have sales and cus­ can see far down the road. They seek traffic tomer relations responsibilities. These driv­ lanes that allow them to move at a steady speed, ers—called driver-sales workers or route driv­ and, when going downhill, they may increase ers—are primarily responsible for delivering speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill their firm’s products, but they also represent ahead. the company. Their reaction to customer com­ Long-distance runs vary widely. On short plaints and requests for special services can “turnarounds,” truckdrivers deliver a load to a make the difference between a larger order and nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and losing a customer. Route drivers also may use drive it back to their home base the same day. their selling ability to increase sales and to gain Other runs take an entire day, and drivers re­ additional customers. main away from home overnight. On longer The duties of driver-sales workers vary runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city according to the industry in which they are for a week before returning home. Some com­ employed, the policies of their particular panies use two drivers on very long runs. One company, and how strongly their sales drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind responsibilities are emphasized. Most have the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or wholesale routes—that is, they deliver to busi­ even weeks. nesses and stores rather than homes. A few Some long-distance drivers who have reg­ deliver various foods to homes, or pick up and ular runs transport freight to the same city on deliver drycleaning, but retail routes are now a regular basis. Because shippers request vary­ rare. ing amounts of service to different cities every Wholesale bakery driver-sales workers, for day, many drivers have unscheduled runs. Dis­ example, deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, patchers tell these drivers when to report for and other baked goods on display racks in gro­ work and where to haul the freight. cery stores. Paying close attention to the items After long-distance truckdrivers reach their that are selling well and those just sitting on destination, or at the end or their operating the shelves, they estimate the amount and va­ shift, they complete reports about the trip and riety of baked goods that will be sold. They the condition of the truck, as required by the may recommend changes in a store’s order or  Truckdrivers   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  may encourage the manager to stock new bak­ ery products. From time to time, they try to get the business of new stores along their route. Driver-sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other items visit businesses regularly to replace soiled laundry. Vending machine driver-sales workers ser­ vice machines in factories, schools, and other buildings. They check items remaining in the machines, replace stock, and remove money deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine each vending machine to see that merchandise and change are dispensed properly, make mi­ nor repairs, and clean machines. After completing their route, driver-sales workers order items for the next day which they think customers are likely to buy, based primarily on what products have been selling well, the weather, time of year, and any dis­ cussion they may have had with customers. Working Conditions Truckdriving has become less physically de­ manding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and im­ proved cab designs. However, making many deliveries during a day and driving in heavy traffic can be nerve-racking. Local truckdriv­ ers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually can return home in the evening. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Many who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bak­ eries drive at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have a regular route, some have different routes each day. Many local truckdrivers—particularly driver-sales workers—load and unload their own trucks, which requires considerable lifting, carrying, and walking. The U.S. Department of Transportation gov­ erns work hours and other matters of trucking companies engaged in interstate commerce. For example, a driver cannot be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and cannot drive more than 10 hours without being off duty at least 8 consecutive hours. Many driv­ ers, particularly on long runs, work close to the maximum hours permitted. Drivers on long runs may face boredom and fatigue. Although many drivers work during the day, night travel is frequently necessary in order to deliver cargo on time. In addition, traffic is usually less con­ gested at night. Employment Truckdrivers held nearly 2.5 million jobs in 1986. Jobs are concentrated in and around large cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all communities, however. Trucking companies employed over onefourth of all truckdrivers. Over one-third worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber yards, or distributors of food and gro­ cery products. The rest were scattered through­ out the economy, including government agen­ cies. Nearly 1 out of 10 truckdrivers is self-em-  398/Occupational Outlook Handbook  ?«* *•  3S .*>."} ■.** «*•  :  tJWfcr'.,  /ar#*- ......... “jsEf  Dump truck drivers use hydraulic equipment to unload their cargo. ployed; of these, a significant number are owneroperators, who either operate independently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications for truckdrivers vary consider­ ably, depending upon the type of truck and the nature of the employer’s business, in most States, applicants must have a commercial mo­ tor vehicle operator’s license. Information on how to get this license can be obtained from State motor vehicle departments. Applicants may have to pass a general physical exami­ nation, a written examination on driving reg­ ulations, and a driving test. They should have good hearing and at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, be able to lift heavy objects, and be in good health. The U.S. Department of Transportation es­ tablishes minimum qualifications for truckdrivers who are engaged in interstate com­ merce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/ 40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal blood pressure are the main physical requirements. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are prohibited, and drivers may not use any controlled substances unless prescribed by a  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  licensed physician. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many trucking operations have higher stand­ ards than those described. Many firms require that new drivers be at least 25 years old. Some companies employ only applicants who have driven trucks for several years. Driver-training courses are a desirable method of preparing for truckdriving jobs. High school driver-training courses are an asset, and courses in automotive mechanics help drivers make minor roadside repairs. A small number of private and public tech­ nical-vocational schools offer truckdriving courses. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to drive large vehicles in crowded areas and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regulations. Completion of a course, however, does not assure a job. Graduates of these schools who do get truckdriving jobs often start as local drivers. Persons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable to them. Employers prefer applicants with a good driving record and some previous experience driving a truck. Very few people enter truck­ driving directly from school. Consideration is given to driving experience in the Armed Forces. A person also may drive part of the day as a  truckdriver’s helper. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. New drivers often start on panel or other small “straight” trucks. As they gain experi­ ence and show good driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and fi­ nally to tractor-trailers. Local drivers with trac­ tor-trailer experience are good candidates for long-distance jobs. Training given to new drivers usually is in­ formal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, some­ times on the new employee’s own time. New drivers also may ride with and observe expe­ rienced drivers before being assigned their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some com­ panies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction which covers general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver-sales workers also receive training on the various types of products they carry so they will be more effective sales work­ ers and better able to handle customer requests. Although most new truckdrivers are as­ signed immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, who substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, they must get along well with people. For jobs as driver-sales workers, an ability to speak well and a neat appearance are particularly important, as are self-confi­ dence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver jobs, employers also look for responsible, selfmotivated individuals, since drivers work with little supervision. Local truckdrivers may advance to dis­ patcher, to manager, or to traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules. How­ ever, relatively few of these jobs are available. For the most part, a local truckdriver may ad­ vance to driving heavy or special types of trucks or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long­ distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. Most drivers may only advance to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. Some long-distance truckers purchase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are successful, others fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their trucks. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truckdriving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful.  Job Outlook Employment of truckdrivers is expected to in­ crease about as fast as the average for all oc­ cupations through the year 2000 as the econ­ omy grows and the amount of freight carried by trucks increases. Growth of local and long­ distance truckdriver employment should out­ weigh the decline in driver-sales worker jobs.  Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/399  The number of truckdrivers with sales respon­ sibilities is expected to decrease as companies shift sales, ordering, and customer service to sales and office staffs, and replace driver-sales workers with delivery drivers. This occupation has among the largest num­ ber of job openings each year. Although thou­ sands of openings will be created by growth in demand for drivers, the majority will occur as experienced drivers transfer to other fields of work or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Since driver earnings are high and no formal training is required, applicants can expect to face competition for available jobs. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are expanding, but few when these decline. During economic slowdowns, some truckdrivers are laid off and others have decreased earnings because of reduced hours. Those in industries such as wholesale food dis­ tribution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working over­ time, usually after 40 hours. The earnings of long-distance drivers vary, depending on mile­ age driven, number of hours worked, and type of truck. Most driver-sales workers receive a commission based on their sales, in addition to an hourly wage. However, straight-time pay rates are fairly uniform because truckdriving is highly unionized, and union contracts gen­ erally cover all drivers within a multistate re­ gion. In 1986, truckdrivers had average straight­ time hourly earnings of $10.95. Depending on the size of the truck, average earnings were as follows:  the Midwest had the highest earnings; those in the South had the lowest. Many truckdrivers are members of the In­ ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­ feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions that represent the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance driver, busdriver, chauffeur, and taxi driver. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver training schools and on career opportunities in the trucking industry may be obtained from:  Tractor-trailers ....................................$11.92 Medium trucks .................................... 11.07 Heavy straight trucks ......................... 10.18 Light trucks ......................................... 7 61  American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314.  Most long-distance truckdrivers operate tractor-trailers. Drivers employed by trucking companies had the highest earnings, averaging nearly $13 an hour in 1986. Truckdrivers in  For details on truckdriver employment op­ portunities, contact local trucking companies or the local office of the State employment service.  Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers Construction Trades Helpers (D.O.T. 709.687-018; 821.667, 684-014; 822.664, .684­ 014; 825.684-010; 829.684-022, -026; 840.687; 844.687; 850.684-014; 859.687; 860.664-014, -018; 861.664, .687; 862.684-018, -022; 864.687-010; 869.567-010, .664-014, .687-010, -026, -034, -042; 899.664-010; 911.667-018; 930.664-014, .666-010, .667-010, .687-010, -014; 939.364, .663:953.687)  Nature of the Work Construction trades helpers, also known as construction laborers, provide much of the rou­ tine physical labor at building sites. They sup­ ply tools, materials, and equipment to carpen­ ters, electricians, masons, plumbers, and other construction workers. They also dig trenches, set braces to support the sides of excavations, operate earth tamping equipment, and clean up rubble and debris. Some construction laborers have job titles that indicate the work they do. Bricklayers’ tenders and plasterers’ tenders, both commonly known as hod carriers, mix and supply ma­ terials for bricklayers and plasterers, set up and move scaffolding, and provide many other ser­ vices. Hod carriers must be familiar with the work of bricklayers and plasterers and know the materials and tools they use. Construction  A bricklayer helper uses brick tongs to move brick. 400   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  laborers also place concrete for cement ma­ sons, who do the finishing work.. Laborers may operate motorized equipment such as cement mixers, buggies, front-end loaders, “walk-behind” ditchdiggers, small mechanical hoists, and laser beam equipment to align and grade ditches and tunnels. Working Conditions Construction work is physically strenuous. It requires frequent bending, climbing, and heavy lifting. Much of the work is performed out­ doors. Construction helpers, like most other workers in construction, are subject to falls; cuts, burns, and abrasions from tools and equipment; and sore or strained muscles from heavy lifting. Employment Construction trades helpers held about 519,000 jobs in 1986. Construction contractors were their major employers.Construction laborers work throughout the country, but most jobs are concentrated in metropolitan areas. IVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most construction helpers’ jobs, little or no formal training or experience is needed. For some jobs, like plumbers’ and electricians’ helpers, experience and familiarity with con­ struction methods, materials, and operations are needed. Generally, helpers must be at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and willing to work hard. Beginners usually do simple jobs, such as unloading trucks orpicking up debris, and learn skills informally from craft workers and more experienced helpers. As laborers gain experi­ ence, job assignments become more complex. In order to better prepare laborers for job tasks, contractors and unions have established 4- to 8-week entry level training programs in many States to teach basic construction techniques, safety practices, and machinery operation. In addition, some programs offer training to help experienced laborers keep abreast of techno­ logical advances. For instance, two subjects currently being emphasized are asbestos re­ moval and abatement, and the handling, con­ trol, removal, and disposal of toxic and haz­ ardous wastes. Some laborers become supervisors and di­ rect the work of laborer crews. Job Outlook Employment of construction trades helpers is expected to grow more slowly than the average  for all occupations through the year 2000. Nevertheless, job openings should be plentiful because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Many people take laborer jobs in order to earn money for a specific purpose—for ex­ ample, a college education—and then quit. Others quickly move into construction trades jobs such as carpenter, bricklayer, or cement mason, or decide they don’t like construction work. Growth in population and economic activity will spur construction work in the years ahead. Employment of laborers will not grow as fast, however, as continued mechanization and technological advances limit the need for hu­ man labor. Mechanization has affected helpers more than construction trades occupations and will likely continue to do so. Employment of construction laborers is highly sensitive to cyclical swings in construc­ tion activity, and layoffs are common in down­ turns. Earnings Median weekly earnings for construction trades helpers working full time were about $275 in 1986. One-half earned between $200 and $390 weekly; the highest 10 percent earned more than $520 a week. Earnings for construction trades helpers may be reduced on occasion be­ cause poor weather and downturns in construc­ tion activity limit the amount of time they can work. Many construction laborers are members of the Laborers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Construction trades helpers need strength and stamina. Other occupations in which work is arduous are refuse collectors, machine feeders and offbearers, and hand freight, stock, and material movers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs, contact local build­ ing or construction contractors, local construc­ tion associations, a local of the Laborers’ In­ ternational Union of North America, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction laborers, contact: Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Laborers’—Associated General Contractors’ Edu­ cation and Training Fund, P.O. Box 37, Pomfret Center, CT 06259.  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces Nature of the Work The mission of the Armed Forces is national defense, one of the most important roles of government. Put simply, the military’s job is to provide for the defense of our country by being prepared for war. For an individual join­ ing the military, this means learning how to fight, how to take orders, and how to work as a member of a team—essential attributes of an effective fighting force. The Army prepares for land-based defense, while the Air Force provides for air and space defense. The Navy organizes and trains forces primarily for sea defense. The Marine Corps, a branch of the Navy, prepares for land and sea actions in support of naval operations or amphibious landings. The Coast Guard, under the Department of Transportation (except in wartime, when it serves with the Navy), has responsibility for enforcing Federal maritime laws, conducting rescues of distressed vessels and aircraft at sea, operating aids to navigation, and preventing smuggling. Together, the military services constitute the largest employer in the country. They offer training opportunities and work experience in a wide range of occupational specialties, in­ cluding managerial and administrative jobs, professional, technical, and clerical occupa­ tions, construction trades, electrical and elec­ tronic occupations, mechanic and repair oc­ cupations, and many others. The military provides job training and work experience for enlisted personnel, who typically enlist for 2 to 6 years, although some make a career of the military. Career opportunities are especially good for those in the officer corps. There are more than 2,000 basic and ad­ vanced military occupational specialties for en­ listed personnel and 1,600 for officers. Many have civilian counterparts. A brief discussion of the major military occupational groups fol­ lows. Human services occupations in the military, like those in civilian life, require suitable ac­ ademic preparation and effective interpersonal skills. Officers in this category work as recrea­ tion managers, equal employment opportunity managers, psychologists, social welfare ad­ ministrators, and chaplains. Enlisted personnel work as human relations counselors, religious program specialists, and recreation specialists. Experience in military media and public af­ fairs occupations is often directly transferable to civilian life. Officers in this field work as television and motion picture directors, public affairs officers, and band directors. Enlisted personnel work as musicians, photographers, graphic designers and illustrators, interpreters and translators, and motion picture camera op­ erators.  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Military health care occupations all have civilian counterparts. Holding the rank of med­ ical officer are physicians, dentists, optome­ trists, nurses, therapists, veterinarians, phar­ macists, and others in health diagnosing and treating occupations. Enlisted personnel work as medical laboratory technologists and tech­ nicians, radiologic technologists, emergency medical technicians, dental assistants, phar­ maceutical assistants, sanitation specialists, and veterinary assistants. Health professions train­ ing obtained in the military is usually recog­ nized in the civilian sector; service-trained health professionals are eligible to apply for certifi­ cation or registration, a hiring prerequisite in many civilian health settings. Engineering, scientific, and technical oc­ cupations in the military have civilian scientific and engineering counterparts. Officers serve as cryptologists, information analysts, science and engineering researchers, and in related intel­ ligence occupations.Enlisted personnel work as mapping technicians, computer program­ mers, air traffic controllers, and radio and radar operators. Administrative, clerical, andfunctional sup­ port jobs in military service require the same skills as similar jobs in private businesses and government agencies. Officers in this category work as directors, executives, adjutants, ad­ ministrative officers, personnel managers, training administrators, budget officers, fi­ nance officers, accountants, hospital admin­ istrators, inspectors, computer systems man­ agers, and lawyers. Enlisted personnel in this category work as accounting clerks, payroll clerks, personnel clerks, computer program­ mers, computer operators, electric accounting machine operators, chaplain assistants, coun­ seling aides, typists, stenographers, store­ keepers, and other clerks. Military personnel in service occupations handle food service, security, and personal services. Officers oversee these operations. Enlisted personnel include military police, cor­ rection specialists, detectives, firefighters, and food preparation and other service workers. Many of these skills can be transferred to ci­ vilian occupations. Those in vehicle and machinery mechanic occupations are charged with maintaining air­ craft, motor vehicles, and ships. Officers man­ age the maintenance of aircraft, missiles, con­ ventional and nuclear-powered ships, trucks, earth-moving equipment, and other vehicles. Enlisted personnel serve as mechanics. Skills obtained in these jobs are readily transferable to those in the civilian sector. Military personnel assigned to electronic and electrical repair occupations are responsible for maintaining and repairing many different  types of equipment. Officers manage those who repair avionic, communications, radar, and air traffic control equipment. Enlisted personnel repair radio, navigation, and flight control equipment as well as telephone, teletype, and data processing equipment. Many of these skills are directly transferable to jobs in the civilian sector. Military personnel in construction trades are responsible for all aspects of building and maintaining roads, airstrips, and buildings. Of­ ficers serve as civil engineers and architects, while enlisted personnel work as carpenters, construction equipment operators, metal­ workers, machinists, plumbers, electricians, heating and air-conditioning specialists, and others. Military personnel assigned to machine op­ erating and precision work occupations are skilled craft workers. Officers manage the work of enlisted personnel who perform as dental laboratory technicians, opticians, machinists, welders, and shipfitters. Those in military transportation and mate­ rial handling occupations manage the use of or operate transportation equipment such as trucks, ships, boats, airplanes, and helicopters, and act as quartermasters, supply specialists, and cargo specialists. Officers work as logistics officers, supply managers, transportation and traffic managers, procurement officers, ship of­ ficers, and airplane and helicopter pilots. En­ listed personnel serve as truckdrivers, aircrew members, seamen, and warehousing and equipment handling specialists. This is the largest of the military occupational categories. Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship spe­ cialists are the backbone of the Armed Forces. Officers plan and direct military operations, oversee security activities, and serve as combat troop leaders. Enlisted personnel serve as weapons specialists, armored vehicle opera­ tors, demolition experts, artillery crew, rocket specialists, special operations forces, and com­ bat engineers. Although these functions are unique to the Armed Forces, they involve skills that can be applied to a number of civilian occupations such as ammunition inspector and heavy equipment operator. In addition, per­ sonnel in this category can develop leadership and supervisory skills. Working Conditions Joining the Armed Forces is a big decision, one that should not be undertaken lightly. Mil­ itary life is more regimented than civilian life, and some people have trouble adapting to mil­ itary discipline. Many others adapt quite easily, and some of them make a career of military service. In any event, it is important to re­ member that once an enlistment contract has 401  402/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Teamwork is essential. been signed, there is no backing out. The con­ tract is a legal document that obligates you to serve in the military for a specified period of time. Dress and grooming requirements are more stringent than in most civilian occupations, and rigid formalities govern many aspects of every­ day life. For instance, officers and enlisted personnel do not socialize together, and su­ perior officers are saluted and addressed as “sir” or “ma’am.” These and other rules en­ courage respect for superiors whose commands during wartime must be obeyed immediately and without question. The needs of the military always come first. As a result, hours and working conditions can vary substantially. Ordinarily, however, most military personnel work 8 hours a day, 5 or 5­ 1/2 days a week. Some assignments, however, require night and weekend work, or require persons to be on call at all hours. All may require substantial travel. Many require long periods at sea, sometimes in cramped quarters, or lengthy overseas assignments in countries offering few amenities. Some jobs are in iso­ lated areas subject to extreme cold or heat. Others, such as carrier flight deck duty, are hazardous even in noncombat situations. During wartime, those in combat positions will of course fight. Noncombatants may also face danger, especially if their duties bring them close to the combat zone. Working conditions in the military have a   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  number of favorable aspects. All the services require their members to travel, for example, and this is a major attraction for many enlistees. Other benefits include free medical and dental care, vocational training that may lead to a good job in the civilian sector upon completion of military service, and generous educational and retirement benefits for veterans. Distribution of Military Personnel In 1986, nearly 2.2 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 781.000 in the Army; 605,000 in the Air Force; 568.000 in the Navy; 199,000 in the Marine Corps; and 36,000 in the Coast Guard. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. About 514,000 are stationed outside the United States. Over 350,000 of these are stationed in Europe (mainly in Germany); large numbers also are in the Western Pacific area. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of enlisted personnel in 1986. Nearly 3 out of 10 had jobs that involved electrical, electronic, mechanical, and related equipment, a reflection of the highly technical nature of the fighting forces today. Officers—who accounted for ap­ proximately 15 percent of all military person­ nel—are concentrated in administrative, med­ ical. and dental specialties, as well as combat activities, where they serve as ships' officers, aircraft pilots and crew members, and infantry or artillery officers.  Enlistment and Officer Qualifications, Training, and Advancement General enlistment qualifications. As it has since 1973, the military expects to continue to meet its personnel requirements through vol­ unteers. Enlisted members must enter a legal agreement called an enlistment contract. This obligates the service to provide the agreedupon options—job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education—and the enlistee to serve satisfactorily for the specified period of time. Specific requirements for each service vary, but general qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. Enlistees must be between the ages of 17 and 35 and must possess a birth certificate. Air Force enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birth­ day. Applicants between 17 and 18 years of age must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Both a written examination, the Armed Services Vo­ cational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), and a physical examination are required. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. In 1986, 97 percent of all enlisted personnel were high school graduates. Individuals thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. This is especially important for individuals thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Determine what the military can offer you—and what it will expect in re­ turn. Then talk to a recruiter, who can explain the various enlistment options and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings for trainees. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants  Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category, 1986 (Percent distribution) Occupational category All enlisted personnel (thousands) ....1,849 Percent ......................................................... 100 Transportation and material handling .... 23 Administrative......................................... 16 Combat specialty ........................................ 15 Vehicle and machine mechanics ................12 Electronic and electrical equipment repair .................................... 10 Service ......................................................... 8 Engineering, scientific, and technical.... 6 Health care............................................... 4 Machine operators and precision workers............................... 3 Construction ................................................ 1 Media and public affairs ........................... 1 Human services .......................................... '1 'Less than 0.5 percent  Source: U.S. Department of Defense  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces/403  into the military, so the information he or she gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life. Ask the recruiter to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation or occupations of your choice, or, better still, take the ASVAB to see how well you score. The military uses the ASVAB as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an in­ dividual’s chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Since all prospec­ tive recruits are required to take the ASVAB, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether or not they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the ASVAB without any obligation. Many high schools offer the ASVAB as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career. All services offer a “delayed entry program” by which an enlistee can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year. High school students can Women are eligible for the majority of military specialties. enlist during their senior year and enter a serv­ ice after graduation. Other enlistees choose this known as “basic” training, recruit training pro­ a tuition assistance program for personnel who program because the job training they desire vides a 6- to 11-week introduction to military wish to take courses during off-duty hours. is not currently available but will be within the life with courses in health, first aid, and mil­ These may be correspondence courses or classes coming year, or because they need time to itary skills and protocol. Days are carefully offered by local colleges or universities. Courses arrange personal affairs. structured and include rigorous physical ex­ also are available to help service personnel earn Enlistment options. A variety of enlistment ercises designed to improve strength and en­ high school equivalency diplomas. Each serv­ options, each involving different combinations durance. ice branch provides opportunities for full-time of active and reserve duty, is available. Most Following basic training, most recruits take study to a limited number of exceptional ap­ active duty programs range from 3 to 6 years, classroom training that prepares them for a plicants. Military personnel accepted into these although there are some 2-year programs; 3- particular military occupational specialty. The highly competitive programs receive full pay, and 4-year enlistments are the most common. formal training period generally lasts from 10 allowances, tuition, and related fees. Other very Selection depends on the individual’s general to 20 weeks, although training for certain oc­ selective programs enable enlisted personnel and technical aptitudes and personal preference cupations—nuclear powerplant operator is an to qualify as commissioned officers through as well as the needs of the service. example—may take as much as 1 year. Re­ additional military training. Women are eligible to enter 88 percent of cruits who are not assigned to classroom in­ Officer training. Officer training in the Armed all military specialties. Only fields involving struction receive on-the-job training at their Forces is provided through the Federal Service likely combat duty are excluded. first duty assignment. Academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and People planning to apply the skills gained In addition to on-duty training, military per­ Coast Guard); the Reserve Officer Training through military training to a civilian career sonnel may choose from a variety of educa­ Corps (ROTC); Officer Candidate School should obtain certain information before tional programs. Most military installations have (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Canchoosing a military occupation. First, they should determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Sec­ ond, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Many occupations require a license, certification, or a minimum level of * education. Those who are interested should find out whether military training is sufficient to enter the field or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook for civilian occupations for which mil­ itary training is helpful. Additional information often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associations, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. By finding this information before choosing a specific military occupation, young people en­ tering the Armed Forces will help ensure that the type of training they obtain will fit their career plans. Training programs for enlisted personnel. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo recruit training. Better Conditioning is an important part of military life.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  404/Occupational Outlook Handbook  iSsiS»  ■> ’ Http®  .•Sill  #J.„ ■M  pSftvsf •v-'l /Tfcp  ? .. The military services are the largest single employer in the country. didate School programs); the Uniformed Serv­ ices University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are very selective but are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor of sci­ ence degree. The midshipman or cadet is pro­ vided free room and board, tuition, medical care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates re­ ceive regular commissions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or longer if entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, most applicants obtain a nomina­ tion from an authorized source (usually a Mem­ ber of Congress). Candidates do not need to know a Member of Congress personally to re­ quest a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, col­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  lege aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a med­ ical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy are made on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 500 Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruc­ tion a week in addition to regular college courses. Students in the last 2 years of an ROTC program and all those on ROTC scholarships receive a monthly allowance while attending school and additional pay for summer training. After graduation, they serve as officers on ac­ tive duty for a stipulated period of time. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS programs in  the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons who have completed their training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of health professions students, financial assis­ tance and internship opportunities are available from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Prospective medical stu­ dents can apply to the Uniformed Services Uni­ versity of Health Sciences, which offers free tuition in a program leading to an M.D. degree to qualified applicants in return for 7 years of service in the military or the Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (le­ gal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Advancement opportunities. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, however, new enlistees are pro­ moted from the first to the third pay grade (see table 2) within the first year. Subsequent pro­ motions are based on a more competitive sys­ tem. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, proficiency in assigned duties, the evaluation and recommendation of the commanding officer, and written exami­ nations. Job Outlook Job opportunities should be excellent in all branches of the Armed Forces through the year 2000. Approximately 300,000 enlisted per­ sonnel must be recruited and trained each year to replace those who complete their enlistment or retire. Better educated applicants will be in particular demand as military jobs become even more technical and complex. For the immediate future, military personnel needs will be filled from a smaller pool of 18to 24-year-olds than in the past, reflecting the sharp decline in birth rates during the 1970’s. To avoid shortages, the military is expected to strengthen incentives for enlistment and re­ enlistment; enlistment bonuses, improved pay, better job training for recruits, and more gen­ erous veterans benefits are likely. More attention may be paid to the quality of military life as all branches of the Armed Forces look for ways to improve retention rates. Shorter periods at sea and childcare facilities for single parents are just two approaches under consideration. Active recruitment of women will continue, although their representation in the Armed Forces is not expected to expand significantly in the years ahead. The proportion of women in the military rose sharply during the 1970’s, and now stands at approximately 10 percent. By the year 2000, women may constitute 12 percent of all military personnel. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian counterparts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady employment and earnings.  Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces/405  Table 2. Military basic pay by grade for active personnel with less than 2 years of service, 1987 Pay grade  Basic monthly pay  Enlisted personnel: E-l1 ............................ E-l ............................ E-2 .......................... E-3 ........................... E-4 ......................... Warrant officers: W-l ................. W-2 ..................... Commissioned officers: O-l ....................... 0-2............................ 0-3.......................... 0-4....................... 'Less than 4 months of service Source: U.S. Department of Defense  Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits Starting salaries. Starting annual salaries of military personnel are shown in table 2. Most enlisted personnel started at Grade E-1 in 1986; however, those with special skills or above­ average education started as high as Grade E3. Most warrant officers started at Grade W-l or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of serv­ ice. Most commissioned officers started at Grade 0-1; highly trained officers—for example, physicians, engineers, and scientists—started as high as Grade 0-3 or 0-4. Allowances. In addition to basic pay, mili­ tary personnel receive free room and board (or a housing and subsistence allowance), medical and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military supermarket and department store   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year, and travel opportunities. Athletic and other recreational facilities— such as libraries, gymnasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, and movies—are available on many military installations. Help with personal or financial problems is available from personal affairs officers, legal assistance officers, coun­ selors, and chaplains, as well as supporting agencies. Special pay generally is awarded for unu­ sually demanding or hazardous duties, assign­ ment to duties in certain skills in which there is a shortage, assignments to certain areas out­ side the continental United States, and out­ standing proficiency in the performance of duty. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. Annual earnings. In 1987, the average com­ pensation of all military personnel was $20,328 (of which 26 percent was allowances paid in cash). Enlisted personnel averaged $17,609 (of which 29 percent was allowances paid in cash); warrant officers averaged $30,630 (of which 20 percent was allowances paid in cash); and commissioned officers averaged $36,842 (of which 18 percent was allowances paid in cash). Veterans' benefits. The Veterans Adminis­ tration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served in the Armed Forces for at least 2 years. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all service-connected dis­ abilities regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans are also eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran’s State of residence. In addition, job counseling, test­ ing, and placement services are available.  Veterans who participate in the New GI Bill Program receive educational benefits. Under this program. Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct from their pay $100 a month for 12 months to put towards their future ed­ ucation. Depending on the length of enlist­ ment, the Government will contribute up to $9,600, until the combined contributions reach a maximum of $10,800. This sum becomes the service member’s educational fund. Upon sep­ aration from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an education at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include vo­ cational, correspondence, business, technical, and flight training schools; community and jun­ ior colleges; and colleges and universities. Information on educational and other vet­ erans' benefits is available from VA offices located in each State, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Sources of Additional Information Each of the military services publishes hand­ books and pamphlets that describe entrance requirements, training and advancement op­ portunities, and other aspects of military ca­ reers. These publications are available at all recruiting stations, most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. For additional informa­ tion, write to: U.S. Army Recruiting Command, Fort Sheridan, IL 60037. ' USAF Recruiting Service, Directorate of Advertis­ ing and Publicity, Randolph Air Force Base, TX 78150. Director, Personnel Procurement Division, Head­ quarters, U.S. Marine Corps. Washington, DC 20380. Navy Opportunity Information Center, P O Box 5000, Clifton, NJ 07015. Commandant, (G-PMR), U.S. Coast Guard, Wash­ ington, DC 20593.  Appendix A. Summary Data for Occupations Not Covered in the Handbook Employment in the approximately 225 oc­ cupations that are discussed in the main body of the Handbook accounts for about 80 per­ cent of all jobs in the economy. Although occupations covering the full spectrum of work are included, generally those that re­ quire lengthy education or training are given the most attention. This appendix presents summary data on 125 additional occupations for which em­  Title  ployment projections are prepared but for which detailed occupational information is not developed. These occupations account for about 10 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, a brief description of the nature of work, the number of jobs in 1986, and a phrase describing the projected employment change from 1986 to 2000 are presented. For guidelines underlying this descriptive phraseology, refer to the How To Get the  Definition  Most From the Handbook section. The approximately 10 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupa­ tional descriptions in the main body of the Handbook or in the summary data pre­ sented in this appendix are mainly residual categories, such as managers and adminis­ trators, not specified, for which little if any meaningful information could be devel­ oped.  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  MANAGERIAL AND MANAGEMENT-RELATED OCCUPATIONS Loan officers and counselors  Evaluate, authorize, or recommend commercial or real estate loans and credit loans, or advise borrowers on financial status and methods of payment.  98,000  Faster than average  Postmasters and mail superintendents  Direct and coordinate operations, management, and support services of U.S. post offices within district area or coordinate activities of workers engaged in postal and related work in assigned post office.  28,000  Slower than average  Public administration— chief executives, legislators, and general administrators  Formulate and establish government policy and develop Federal, State, or local laws, rules, and regulations.  66,000  About as fast as average  Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents  Determine tax liability or collect taxes from individuals or business firms according to prescribed laws and regulations.  57,000  About as fast as average  PROFESSIONAL SPECIALTY OCCUPATIONS Directors, religious education and activities  Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students and plan, organize, and direct religious school programs designed to promote religious education. Provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, and religious problems.  46,000  Little change  Farm and home management advisors  Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture and related processes or home economics activities. Apply research findings and procedures to solve problems and provide instruction and training in the development of products, sales, and the use of machinery and equipment.  22,000  Expected to decline  406   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix A/407  Title  Definition  Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers  Judges'. Arbitrate, advise, and administer justice in courts of law. Sentence defendants in criminal cases according to statutes of State or Federal government. May determine liability of defendants in civil cases. Magistrates: Adjudicate criminal cases not involving penitentiary sentences, and civil cases concerning damages below sum specified by State law. May issue marriage licenses and perform wedding ceremonies. Adjudicators, hearings officers, and judicial reviewers: Conduct hearings to review and decide claims filed by the government against individuals or organizations. Review individual eligibility issues concerning social programs or disability or unemployment benefits. Determine the existence and the amount of liability and recommend the acceptance or rejection of claims or compromise settlements according to laws, regulations, policies, and precedent decisions. Confer with persons or organizations involved and prepare written decisions.  Teachers, preschool  Teach preschool pupils basic physical, mental, and developmental skills in public or private schools.  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  38,000  About as fast as average  176,000  Much faster than average  TECHNOLOGISTS AND TECHNICIANS Dietetic technicians  Teach principles of food and nutrition and provide dietary counseling in assigned areas of food service management.  17,000  Faster than average  Title examiners, searchers, and clerks  Title examiners'. Search public records and examine titles to determine legal status of property titles. Copy or summarize (abstract) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and contracts, affecting title to property. May prepare and issue policy that guarantees legality of title. Abstractors: Summarize pertinent legal or insurance details or sections of statutes or case law from reference books for purpose of examination proof or ready reference. Search out titles to determine if title deed is correct. Searchers: Compile lists of mortgages, deeds, contracts, judgments, and other instruments pertaining to titles by searching public and private records for real estate or title insurance company.  30,000  About as fast as average  36,000  Much faster than average  MARKETING AND SALES OCCUPATIONS Appraisers, real estate  Appraise improved or unimproved real property to determine its value for purchase, sale, investment, mortgage, or loan purposes.  ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL Adjustment clerks   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Investigate and resolve customer complaints concerning merchandise, service, billing, or credit rating. Examine pertinent information to determine accuracy of customer complaints and responsibility for errors. Notify customer and appropriate personnel of findings, adjustments, and recommendations, such as exchange of merchandise, refund of money, credit to customer’s account, or adjustment of customer’s bill.  136,000  About as fast as average  408/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  Title  Definition  Advertising clerks  Receive orders for classified advertising from customers in person or by telephone for newspapers or magazines. Examine and mark classified advertisements of newspapers according to copy sheet specifications to guide composing room in assembling type. Verify conformance of published advertisements to specifications for billing purposes.  13,000  Faster than average  Bill and account collectors  Locate and notify customers of delinquent accounts by mail, telephone, or personal visit to solicit payment. Duties include receiving payment and posting amount to customer’s account; preparing statements to credit department if customer fails to respond; initiating repossession proceedings or service disconnection; keeping records of collection and status of accounts.  126,000  Faster than average  Billing, cost, and rate clerks  Compile data, compute fees and charges, and prepare invoices for billing purposes. Duties also include computing costs and calculating rates for goods, services, and shipment of goods; posting data; and keeping other relevant records. May involve use of typing, adding, calculating, and bookkeeping machines.  307,000  Little change  Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators  Operate machines that automatically perform mathematical processes, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and extraction of roots, to calculate and record billing, accounting, statistical, and other numerical data. Duties also include operating special billing machines, generally combination typing and adding machines, to prepare statements, bills, and invoices, and the operation of bookkeeping machines to copy and post data, make computations, and compile records of transactions.  105,000  Slower than average  Brokerage clerks  Perform clerical duties involved with the purchase or sale of securities and determination of the value or changes in value of securities. Associated recordkeeping duties include writing orders for stock purchases and sales, computing transfer taxes, verifying stock transactions, accepting and delivering securities, informing customers of stock price fluctuations, computing equity, distributing dividends, and keeping records of daily transactions and holdings.  58,000  Faster than average  Court clerks  Perform clerical duties in court of law; prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information for judges; and contact witnesses, attorneys, and litigants to obtain information for court.  40,000  Faster than average  Credit authorizers  Authorize credit charges against customers’ accounts.  19,000  Expected to decline  Credit checkers  Investigate history and credit standing of individuals or business establishments applying for credit. Telephone or write given references to obtain information from credit departments of business and service establishments.  41,000  Slower than average  Customer service representatives, utilities  Interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or telephone service. Talk with customers by phone or in person and receive orders for installation, turn-on, discontinuance, or change in service.  102,000  Little change  Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance  Schedule and dispatch workers, work crews, equipment, or service vehicles for conveyance of materials, freight, or passengers or for normal installation, service, or emergency repairs rendered outside the place of business. Duties may include use of radio/telephone to transmit assignments and compilation of statistics and reports on the progress of work.  124,000  About as fast as average  /   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix A/409  Title  Definition  Dispatchers, police, fire, and ambulance  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  Receive information from public or police on crimes or emergencies and broadcast orders to police radio patrol units in vicinity to investigate. Operate radio and telephone equipment to receive reports of fires and medical emergencies and relay information or orders to proper officials.  61,000  Slower than average  Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators  Duplicating machine operators: Operate one or a variety of duplicating machines to make copies of data. Machines frequently used are Dualith, Multilith, Masterlith, Mimeograph, Dupligraph, Multigraph, Computype, and Xerox. Transit clerks: Sort, record, proof, and prepare transit items for mailing to or from out-of-city banks to insure correct routing and prompt collection.  166,000  Slower than average  Hotel desk clerks  Register and assign hotel rooms to guests, issue room keys, transmit and receive messages, keep records of rooms occupied and guests’ accounts, make and confirm reservations, and present statements to and collect payments from departing guests.  109,000  Much faster than average  Interview clerks, except personnel and welfare  Interview the public to obtain information. Duties include contacting persons by telephone, mail, or in person for the purpose of completing forms or questionnaires; asking specific questions, recording answers, and assisting persons with completing forms. May include sotting, classifying, and filing forms. Excludes workers whose primary duty is processing applications.  104,000  Much faster than average  Library assistants and bookmobile drivers  Compile records; sort and shelve books; issue and receive library materials, such as pictures, cards, slides, phonograph records, and microfilm; and handle tape decks. Locate library materials for loan and replace material in shelving area (stacks) or files according to identification number and title. Register patrons to permit them to borrow books, periodicals, and other library materials. Bookmobile drivers operate a bookmobile or light truck that pulls a book trailer to specific locations on a predetermined schedule and assist with providing services in mobile library.  102,000  Slower than average  Loan and credit clerks  Assemble documents, prepare papers, process applications, and complete transactions of individuals applying for loans and credit. Loan clerks: Review loan papers to insure completeness; operate typewriters to prepare correspondence, reports, and loan documents from draft; and complete transactions between loan establishments, borrowers, and sellers upon approval of loan. Credit clerks: Interview applicants to obtain personal and financial data, determine creditworthiness, process applications, and notify customers of acceptance or rejection of credit.  159,000  Faster than average  Mail clerks, except mail machine operators and postal service  Prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. Duties include time stamping, opening, reading, sorting, and routing incoming mail; sealing, stamping, and affixing postage to outgoing mail or packages; and keeping necessary records and completed forms.  136,000  Slower than average  Messengers  Run errands and sort and deliver messages, documents, packages, and other items to offices or departments within an establishment or to other business concerns. Travel on foot or by bicycle, motorcycle, automobile, or public conveyance. May use telephone to complete assigned tasks.  101,000  About as fast as average  Meter readers, utilities  Read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record volume used by residential and commercial customers.  48,000  Expected to decline  Municipal clerks  Duties include drafting agendas for town or city council, recording minutes of council meetings, answering official correspondence, keeping fiscal records and accounts, and preparing reports on civic needs.  18,000  Slower than average   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  410/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Title  Definition  New accounts clerks, banking  Interview persons desiring to open bank accounts. Explain banking services available to prospective customers, and assist them in preparing application form.  94,000  About as fast as average  Order clerks, materials, merchandise, and services  Receive and process incoming orders for materials, merchandise, or services such as repairs, installations, or rental of facilities. Inform customers of receipt of order, prices, shipping dates, and delays; prepare contracts; and handle complaints.  271,000  Little change  Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales  Fill customers’ mail and telephone orders from stored merchandise in accordance with specifications on sales slips or order forms. Duties include computing prices of items, completing order receipts, keeping records of outgoing orders, requisitioning additional material, supplies, and equipment, and other related tasks.  195,000  Slower than average  Payroll and timekeeping clerks  Compute wages and post wage data to payroll records and/or keep a daily record showing employees’ time of arrival and departure. Using calculator, compute earnings from time sheets and work tickets, Operate posting machine to compute and subtract deductions. Enter net wages on earnings record card, check stub, and payroll sheet.  204,000  Expected to decline  Personnel clerks, except payroll and timekeeping  Compile and keep personnel records. Record data for each employee such as address, weekly earnings, absences, amount of sales or production, supervisory reports on ability and on date of and reason for termination. Compile and type reports from employment records. File employment records. Search employee files and furnish information to authorized persons.  119,000  Slower than average  Procurement clerks  Compile information and records to draw up purchase orders for procurement of material.  41,000  Expected to decline  Production, planning, and expediting clerks  Duties involve coordinating and expediting the flow of work and materials within or between departments of an establishment according to production schedule. This includes reviewing and distributing production schedules and work orders, conferring with department supervisors to determine progress of work and completion dates, and compiling reports on progress of work and production problems. Duties may also include scheduling workers and estimating costs, routing and delivering parts to insure production quotas are met, and scheduling shipment of parts. May keep inventory of material in departments and insure that merchandise is shipped by vendor on promised date. May write special orders for services and merchandise.  213,000  Slower than average  Real estate clerks  Perform duties concerned with rental, sale, and management of real estate such as typing copies of listings, computing interest owed or penalty payments, holding collateral in escrow, and checking due notices on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans.  26,000  Much faster than average  Statement clerks  Prepare and distribute bank statements to customers, answer inquiries, and reconcile discrepancies in records and accounts.  43,000  Faster than average  Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping  Duties involve weighing, measuring, and checking materials, supplies, and equipment for the purpose of keeping relevant records. Also may collect and keep record of samples of products or materials.  40,000  Little change   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  Appendix A'411  Title  Definition  Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers  Interview and investigate applicants and recipients to determine eligibility for social programs. Duties include recording and evaluating personal and financial data obtained from individuals; initiating procedures to grant, modify, deny, or terminate eligibility for various aid programs; authorizing amount of grants; and preparing reports. These workers generally receive specialized training and assist social service caseworkers.  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  86,000  About as fast as average  SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Ambulance drivers and attendants  Drive ambulance or assist ambulance driver in transporting sick, injured, or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients and rendering first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid training certificate.  15,000  Slower than average  Amusement and recreation attendants  Perform one or more of the following duties at amusement or recreation facilities: Schedule use of recreation facilities, allocate equipment to participants in sporting events or recreational pursuits, collect fees, set pins, prepare billiard tables, provide caddying and other services for golfers, or operate carnival rides and amusement concessions.  184,000  Faster than average  Baggage porters and bellhops  Carry baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. Perform additional duties, such as assisting handicapped persons, running errands, delivering ice, and directing people to their desired destinations.  31,000  Faster than average  Crossing guards  Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as street and railroad crossings and construction sites.  52,000  Slower than average  Housekeepers, institutional  Supervise work activities of cleaning personnel to insure clean, orderly, and attractive rooms in hotels, hospitals, educational institutions, and similar establishments. Assign duties, inspect work, investigate complaints regarding housekeeping service and equipment, and take corrective action. May purchase housekeeping supplies and equipment and take periodic inventories. May screen applicants, train new employees, and recommend dismissals.  123,000  Faster than average  Occupational therapy assistants and aides  Assist occupational therapists in administering medically oriented occupational program to assist in rehabilitating patients in hospitals and similar institutions.  9,000  Much faster than average  Pest controllers and assistants  Spray or release chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechanical traps to kill pests and vermin, such as mice, termites, and roaches, that infest buildings and surrounding areas.  50,000  About as fast as average  Pharmacy assistants  Mix pharmaceutical preparations under direction of pharmacist. Duties include issuing medicine, labeling, and cleaning equipment and work areas.  64,000  About as fast as average  Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides  Prepare patients and/or administer physical therapy treatment, such as massages, heat, light and sound treatments, and traction. Instruct, motivate, and assist patients with learning and improving functional activities. Normally work under the direction of a physical or corrective therapist.  36,000  Much faster than average  Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers  Assist patrons at entertainment events, such as sporting events and motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating rest rooms and telephones. Collect admission tickets and passes from patrons.  42,000  Slower than average   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  412/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Title  Definition  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, FISHING, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Animal caretakers, except farm  Feed, water, groom, exercise, or otherwise care for small or large animals, fish or birds in zoos, circuses, pounds, laboratories, animal hospitals, aquariums, kennels, or stables. Clean and repair cages, pens, or fish tanks. May administer tests to experimental animals or give treatments to sick or injured animals. May keep records of feedings, tests, treatments, and animals received and discharged.  80,000  Faster than average  Farm workers  Perform a variety of the following duties: Plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops; tend livestock and poultry; operate and maintain farm machinery; and maintain structures. May haul livestock and produce to market or terminal shipping point.  940,000  Expected to decline  Fishers, hunters, and trappers  Captains and officers, fishing vessels: Supervise and navigate fishing vessels. Fishers: Catch or gather marine life with nets, seines, or lines. Clean equipment and make repairs. Hunters and trappers: Breed, raise, and protect game animals. Search for and catch wild birds and animals. Hunt predatory animals.  77,000  Faster than average  Forest and conservation workers  Develop, maintain, and protect forests and woodlands through such activities as raising and transporting tree seedlings; combating insects, pests, and diseases harmful to trees; and controlling erosion and leaching of forest soil. Includes occupations such as forester aides, seedling pullers, and tree planters.  36,000  About as fast as average  Gardeners and groundskeepers, except farm  Maintain grounds of public or private property using hand and power tools or equipment. May perform any combination of tasks, such as mowing, trimming, planting, watering, fertilizing, digging, raking, and sweeping. Additional duties may include minimal care and upkeep of buildings and equipment. May plan and execute small-scale landscaping operations. May dig and prepare graves.  Nursery workers  Work in nursery facilities planting, cultivating, harvesting, and transplanting trees, shrubs, or plants.  46,00  About as fast as average  Supervisors, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations  Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related workers. May supervise helpers assigned to these workers.  65,000  Little change  767,000  Faster than average  CONSTRUCTION TRADES AND EXTRACTIVE OCCUPATIONS Ceiling tile installers and acoustical carpenters  Apply or mount acoustical tiles, blocks, strips, or sheets of shock­ absorbing materials to ceilings and walls of buildings to reduce or reflect sound.  24,000  About as fast as average  Highway maintenance workers  Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way in safe condition by patching broken or eroded pavement or erecting and repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also clear brush or plant trees along rightsof-way.  167,000  Slower than average   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix A/413  * -  Title  Definition  Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations  Rock splitters, quarry: Separate blocks of rough dimension stone from quarry mass using jackhammer, wedges, and feathers. Roof bolters: Operate self-propelled machine to install roof support bolts in underground mine. Mining machine operators: Operate  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  21,000  Expected to decline  mining machines, such as self-propelled or truck-mounted drilling machines, continuous mining machines, channeling machines, and cutting machines to extract coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand from underground or surface excavation. Continuous mining machine operators: Operate self-propelled mining machine that rips coal from the face and loads it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. Mine cutting and channeling machine operators: Cut or channel along the face or seams of coal, quarry stone, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, separating, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth’s surface. Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators  Operate equipment used for applying concrete, asphalt, or other materials to roadbeds, parking lots, or airport runways and taxiways; or equipment used for tamping gravel, dirt, or other materials.  59,000  About as fast as average  Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters  Pipelayers: Lay glazed or unglazed clay, concrete, plastic, or  52,000  About as fast as average  cast-iron pipe for storm or sanitation sewers, drains, water mains, and oil or gas lines, performing any combination of the following tasks: Grade trenches or culverts, position pipe, or seal joints. Pipelaying fitters: Align pipeline section preparatory to welding. Signal tractor driver in placing pipeline sections in proper alignment and insert steel spacers.  MECHANICS, INSTALLERS, AND REPAIRERS Bicycle repairers  Repair and service bicycles using handtools.  12,000  About as fast as average  Camera and photographic equipment repairers  Repair and adjust cameras and photographic equipment, including motion picture cameras and equipment, using specialized tools and testing devices.  6,900  About as fast as average  Electric meter installers and repairers  Install electric meters on pole or customer’s premises, test meters, make necessary repairs, and turn current on/off by connecting or disconnecting service drop.  18,000  Slower than average  Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers  Test, adjust, and repair electromedical equipment.  7,100  About as fast as average  Precision instrument repairers  Install, test, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording, telemetering, and controlling instruments used to measure and control variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force, and chemical composition.  49,000  Slower than average  Rail car repairers  Repair and rebuild railway freight cars, tank cars, or locomotives, following Federal and company regulations and specifications.  24,000  Expected to decline  Riggers  Set up or repair rigging for ships and shipyards, manufacturing plants, logging yards, construction projects, and for the entertainment industry—for example, motion picture production. Select cables, ropes, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves according to weight and size of load to be moved. Coordinate and direct other workers and the movement of equipment to accomplish the task.  19,000  Little change   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  414/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Title  Definition  Tire repairers and changers  Repair and replace tires, tubes, treads, and related products on automobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Duties include mounting tires on wheels, balancing tires and wheels, and testing and repairing damaged inner tubes.  83,000  About as fast as average  Watchmakers  Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as watches, clocks, and timing switches.  10,000  Slower than average  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS Bakers, manufacturing  Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large quantities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Generally, high-volume production equipment is used.  38,000  Expected to decline  Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure  Operate or tend low-pressure stationary steam boilers and auxiliary steam equipment, such as pumps, compressors, and air­ conditioning equipment, to supply steam heat for office buildings, apartment houses, or industrial establishments; to maintain steam at specified pressure aboard marine vessels; or to generate and supply compressed air for operation of pneumatic tools, hoists, and air lances.  22,000  Little change  Cannery workers  Perform any of a variety of routine tasks in canning, freezing, preserving, or packing food products. Duties may include sorting, grading, washing, peeling, trimming, or slicing agricultural produce.  78,000  Expected to decline  Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders  Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join together items, such as veneer sheets into plywood; paper to glass-wool, cardboard, or paper; rubber and rubberized fabric parts; plastic; and simulated leather or other materials, to form completed product or to form product for further processing.  42,000  Little change  Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders  Controllers and operators: Control or operate equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing of industrial or consumer products. Typical types of equipment are reaction kettles, catalytic converters, continuous or batch treating equipment, saturator tanks, electrolytic cells, reactor vessels, recovery units, and fermentation chambers. Tenders: Tend equipment in which a chemical change or reaction takes place. Typical types of equipment are devulcanizers, batch stills, fermenting tanks, steam-jacketed kettles and reactor vessels, to process chemical substances into industrial or consumer products.  73,000  Expected to decline  Chemical plant and system operators  Control and operate an entire chemical process or system of machines, such as reduction pots and heated air towers, through the use of panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment.  33,000  Expected to decline  Coil winders, tapers, and finishers  Wind wire coils by the use of coil winding machines, used in the manufacturing of electrical components, such as resistors and transformers, and electrical equipment, such as field cores, bobbins, and armature cores, and by the use of coil making machines to form coils for electrical motors, generators, and control equipment.  34,000  Expected to decline   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix A/415  Title  Definition  Cooking, roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders  Cooking machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to prepare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain. Roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend roasting, baking, or drying equipment, such as hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment, to reduce moisture content of food or tobacco products such as tobacco, cocoa and coffee beans, macaroni, and grain; to roast grain, nuts, or coffee beans; to bake bread or other bakery products; or to process food preparatory to canning.  26,000  Expected to decline  Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders  Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine operators: Operate or  132,000  Expected to decline  82,000  Little change  Cutting and slicing machine operators, tenders, and setters  tend machines to crush or grind a wide variety of materials, such as coal, glass, plastic, dried fruit, grain, stone, chemicals, food, or rubber, or operate or tend machines that buff and polish materials or products, such as stone, glass, slate, plastic or metal trim, bowling balls, or eyeglasses. Mixing and blending machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to mix or blend any of a wide variety of materials such as spices, dough batter, tobacco, fruit juices, chemicals, livestock feed, food products, color pigments, or explosive ingredients. Cutting and slicing machine operators and tenders: Operate or  tend machines to cut or slice any of a wide variety of products or materials, such as tobacco, food, paper, roofing slate, glass, stone rubber, cork, and insulating material. Cutting and slicing machine setters and setup operators: Set up or set up and operate machines that cut or slice materials, such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, crepe, wallboard, and fibrous insulating board, to specified dimensions for further processing.  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders  Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment to process milk, cream, or other dairy products following specified methods and formulas.  16,000  Expected to decline  Electrical and electronics assemblers  Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes such occupations as electronics wirers, armature connectors, electric motor winders, skein winders, carbon brush assemblers, battery parts assemblers, electric sign assemblers, and electronics assemblers.  249,000  Expected to decline  Electronic semiconductor processors  Process materials used in the manufacture of electronic semiconductors; load semiconductor material into furnace; saw formed ingots into segments; load individual segment into crystal growing chamber and monitor controls; locate crystal axis in ingot using X-ray equipment and saw ingots into wafers; clean, polish, and load wafers into series of special-purpose furnaces, chemical baths, and equipment used to form circuiting and change conductive properties. May scribe or separate wafer into dice.  29,000  Expected to decline  Extruding and forming machine operators, tenders, and setters  Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders: Operate or  100,000  Little change   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  tend machines to shape and form any of a wide variety of manufactured products, such as glass bulbs, molded food and candy, rubber goods, clay products, wax products, tobacco plugs, cosmetics, or paper products, by means of extruding, compressing, or compacting. Extruding and forming machine setters and setup operators: Set up or set up and operate machines such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber machines, to manufacture any of a wide variety of products, such as soap bars, formed rubber, glassware, soft candy, brick, and tile, by extruding, compressing, or compacting operations.  416/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Title  Definition  Furnace, kiln, or kettle operators  Oven operators or tenders: Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal or plastic processing equipment. Perform such operations as baking fiberglass or painted products, fusing glass or enamel to metal products, carbonizing coal, or curing rubber or other products. Furnace operators or tenders: Perform such operations as annealing glass, roasting sulfur, converting chemicals, or processing petroleum. Kettle operators and tenders: Perform such operations as boiling soap or melting antimony or asphalt materials. Drier operators and tenders: Perform such operations as removing moisture from paper, chemicals, ore, clay products, or slurry. Kiln operators and tenders: Perform such operations as heating minerals, drying lumber, firing greenware, annealing glassware, or baking clay products.  58,000  Expected to decline  Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations  Gaugers: Gauge and test oil in storage tanks and regulate flow of oil into pipelines at wells, tank farms, refineries, and marine and rail terminals following prescribed standards and regulations. Petroleum refinery and control panel operators: Analyze specifications or follow process schedules to operate and control using panelboards and continuous petroleum refining and processing units. Gas plant operators: Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others. Distribute the gas for an entire plant or process, often using panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. Petroleum pump systems operators: Operate and control manifold and pumping systems to circulate liquids through petroleum refinery.  31,000  Expected to decline  Grinders and polishers, hand  Grind and polish, using handtools or hand-held power tools, a wide variety of metal, stone, clay, plastic, and glass objects or parts.  73,000  Expected to decline  Job printers  Set type according to copy and operate cylinder or automatic platen press to print job order. Read proof for errors and clarity of impression and correct imperfections. Job printers are often found in small establishments where work combines several job skills such as typesetting, printing, reading, and selecting of materials to reproduce copy.  18,000  About as fast as average  Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers  Operate and tend washing or drycleaning machines to clean or dryclean commercial, industrial, or household articles, such as suede, leather, and cloth garments, furs, blankets, draperies, fine linens, rugs, and carpets.  140,000  About as fast as average  Machine assemblers  Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Include such occupations as air-conditioning coil assemblers, ball bearing ring assemblers, fuel injection assemblers, and subassemblers.  50,000  Little change  Meat, poultry, and fish cutters  Perform a wide variety of food cutting and trimming tasks, using handtools, that require skills less than that of the precision level. Includes such occupations as meat boners, carcass slitters, poultry eviscerators, fish cleaners and butchers, skinners, and stickers.  101,000  Little change  Metal fabricators, structural metal products  Fabricate and assemble structural metal products such as frameworks or shells for machinery, ovens, tanks, stacks, and metal parts for buildings and bridges according to job orders or blueprints.  37,000  Little change  Metal pourers and casters, basic shapes  Pour and regulate the flow of molten metal into molds to produce castings or ingots of specified quality and size by operating handcontrolled mechanisms adjunctive to specialized machinery and equipment.  11,000  Expected to decline  Motion picture projectionists  Set up and operate motion picture projection and soundreproducing equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen.  13,000  Expected to decline   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  Appendix A/417  Title  Definition  Packaging and filling machine operators  Operate or tend machines such as filling machines, casing running machines, ham rolling machines, preservative filling machines, baling machines, wrapping machines, and stuffing machines to prepare industrial or consumer products, such as gas cylinders, meat and other food products, tobacco, insulation, ammunition, stuffed toys and athletic equipment, and upholstered pads, as end products or for storage and shipment.  299,000  Little change  Painting, coating, and decorating workers  Paint, coat, and decorate, using handtools or hand-held power tools, a wide variety of manufactured items such as furniture, glass and plateware, lamps, jewelry, books, or leather products.  42,000  Slower than average  Paper goods machine setting and setup operators  Set up or set up and operate paper goods machines that perform a variety of functions, such as converting, sawing, corrugating, banding, wrapping, boxing, stitching, forming, or sealing paper or paperboard sheets into products such as toilet tissue, towels, napkins, bags, envelopes, tubing, cartons, wax rolls, and containers.  60,000  Little change  Screen printing setters and setup operators  Set up or set up and operate screen printing machines to print designs onto articles and materials such as glass or plastic ware or containers, cloth, and paper.  14,000  Little change  Separating and still machine operators and tenders  Operate or tend machines, such as filter presses, shaker screens, centrifuges, condensor tubes, precipitator tanks, fermenting tanks, evaporating tanks, scrubbing towers, and batch stills, to extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solid materials from other materials in order to recover a refined product or material.  26,000  Expected to decline  Sheet-metal workers (outside construction industry)  Set up and operate fabrication machines to cut, bend, and straighten sheet metal; shape metal over anvils, blocks, or forms using hammer; operate soldering and welding equipment to join sheet-metal parts; inspect, assemble, and smooth seams and joints of burred surfaces.  129,000  Little change  Shipfitters  Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates, bulkheads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for fabrication of nonstandard parts.  13,000  Expected to decline  Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders  Operate or tend single, double, or multiple-needle stitching machines to join or decorate shoe parts, reinforce shoe parts, or attach buckles.  27,000  Expected to decline  Solderers and brazers  Join together metal parts, components of metal products, or fill holes, indentations, and seams of fabricated metal products using hand soldering and brazing equipment according to specification of job order, work layout, or blueprint.  25,000  Slower than average  Soldering and brazing machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators  Operators and tenders: Operate or tend soldering and brazing machines that braze, solder, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate soldering or brazing machines to bronze, solder, heattreat, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications.  17,000  Little change  Tire building machine operators  Operate machines, such as collapsible drum devices, to build pneumatic tires from rubber components, such as beads, ply stock, tread, and sidewalls.  13,000  Expected to decline   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  418/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Title  Definition  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  TRANSPORTATION AND MATERIAL MOVING OCCUPATIONS Able seamen, ordinary seamen, and marine oilers  Able seamen: Stand watch at bow or on wing of bridge to look for  Captains and pilots, ship  Captains: Command vessels such as tugboats, ferryboats, or  Locomotive engineers  22,000  Expected to decline  16,000  Expected to decline  Drive electric, diesel-electric, steam, or gas-turbine-electric locomotives, interpreting train orders, block or semaphore signals, and railroad rules and regulations to transport passengers or freight.  17,000  Expected to decline  Mates, ship, boat, and barge  Supervise and coordinate activities of crew aboard ships, boats, barges, or dredges.  5,800  Expected to decline  Parking lot attendants  Park autos for customers in parking lot or storage garage.  30,000  About as fast as average  Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators  Operate railroad track switches or couple/uncouple rolling stock to make up or break up trains. Signal engineers and set warning signals. May inspect couplings, air hoses, journal boxes, and hand brakes.  42,000  Expected to decline  Railroad conductors and yardmasters  Conductors: Coordinate activities of train crew engaged in  29,000  Expected to decline  Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers  Drive switching or other locomotive or dinkey engines within yard of railroad, industrial plant, quarry, construction project, or similar location.  11,000  Expected to decline  Service station attendants  Service automobiles, buses, trucks, boats, and other automotive or marine vehicles with fuel, lubricants, and accessories. May lubricate vehicle and change motor oil, replace lights, windshield wiper blades, or fan belts, or install antifreeze. May repair or replace tires and collect payment for services and supplies.  299,000  Expected to decline  Ship engineers  Supervise and coordinate activities of crew engaged in operating and maintaining engines, boilers, deck machinery, and electrical, refrigeration, and sanitary equipment aboard ship.  6,700  Expected to decline  Taxi drivers and chauffeurs  Drive automobiles, limousines, custom-built sedans, or hearses. May drive automobiles for delivery.  88,000  Slower than average  obstructions in path of vessel, measure water depth, turn wheel on bridge, break out, rig, overhaul, and store cargo-handling gear, and chip rust from and paint deck or ship’s structure. Ordinary seamen and marine oilers: Stand deck department watch and perform a variety of tasks to preserve the painted surface of the ship and to maintain lines and equipment such as running and cargo-handling gear. May oil and grease parts of engines and auxiliary equipment.  dredges that travel into and out of harbors, estuaries, straits, sounds, rivers, lakes, bays, and oceans. Pilots: Command ships to steer them in and out of harbors, estuaries, straits, and sounds and on rivers, lakes, and bays.  transporting or providing services to passengers on passenger train or in transporting freight on freight train, or coordinate activities of switch-engine crew engaged in switching railroad cars within yard of railroad, industrial plant, or similar location. Yardmasters: Coordinate railroad traffic activities of workers engaged in makeup or breakup of trains, switching inbound or outbound traffic of railroad yard or railroad traffic on a specified section of line.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix A/419  Title  Definition  Employment 1986  Projected growth 1986-2000  HANDLERS, EQUIPMENT CLEANERS, HELPERS, AND LABORERS Freight, stock, and material movers, hand  Move materials manually in settings such as warehouses, production areas, stockrooms, or shipping departments.  831,000  Little change  Hand packers and packagers  Pack or package by hand a wide variety of products and materials.  566,000  Slower than average  Machine feeders and offbearers  Feed materials into machine or remove materials from machine or equipment that is automatic or tended by other workers.  278,000  Expected to decline  Refuse collectors  Collect and dump refuse from containers into trucks on a designated route in a municipality. May drive trucks.  113,000  About as fast as average  Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners  Wash and clean vehicles, machinery, and other equipment using water, cleaning agents, brushes, cloths, and hoses.  189,000  Slower than average   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Appendix B. Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Hand­ book use one of six adjectives to de­ scribe projected change in employment. (See figure on page 00.) The adjectives are based on numerical projections de­ veloped using the Bureau’s employment projections model system. The employ­ ment projections are the final output of the system, which also projects the size and composition of the labor force, the level of gross national product (GNP)— the total output of goods and services in the economy—the output of goods and services by industry, and employment by industry. A full description, includ­ ing numerical projections of employ­ ment, appears in Projections 2000, BLS Bulletin 2302, and in the September 1987 Monthly Labor Review. The Spring 1988 Occupational Outlook Quarterly pre­ sents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of the staff of the Bureau’s Office of Economic Growth and Em­ ployment Projections, who prepared them, and of knowledgeable people from other offices in the Bureau, other gov­ ernment agencies, colleges and univer­ sities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associations, who furnished data and information, pre­ pared reports, or reviewed the projec­ tions. The Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for them. Assumptions. Because the future course of the economy is uncertain, the Bureau prepared three scenarios of future eco­ nomic growth, with varying assump­ tions about growth of the labor force, output, productivity, inflation, and un­ employment. The information in the Handbook is based on the moderategrowth scenario, which is characterized by higher productivity than in the past, slowing labor force growth, a moder­ ately declining unemployment rate, and a slowly improving foreign trade situ­ ation. Other assumptions include no in­ crease in defense spending, slow growth 420   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  in spending on cars and trucks, and no increase in spending on gasoline and oil. Spending on food and beverages will grow more slowly than the average for all consumer expenditures, while spend­ ing on health care and on other services, such as entertainment, recreation, and financial services, will grow faster. In­ vestment in production equipment, in­ cluding that for factory automation, communication, and computer items, will grow rapidly. Housing construction is expected to increase slowly, but fast growth is expected for other construc­ tion. While the Bureau considers these as­ sumptions reasonable, the economy may well follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Growth could also be different from that projected here because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various models. Unforeseen changes in consumer, business, or gov­ ernment spending patterns and in the way goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual oc­ cupations.  Methods. This section summarizes the steps by which the Bureau arrives at pro­ jections of employment by occupation. BLS uses Bureau of the Census projec­ tions of the population by age, sex, and race, combined with projections of labor force participation rates, to arrive at es­ timates of the civilian labor force. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal policy, foreign eco­ nomic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macro­ economic model. This model provides a balanced and internally consistent rep­ resentation of the U.S. economy. It proj­ ects GNP and the distribution of GNP by its major demand components—con­ sumer expenditures, investment, gov­ ernment, and imports and exports. These  are broken down by detailed component, such as health or housing. The resulting estimates of demand for goods and ser­ vices are used, in conjunction with de­ tailed input-output tables, to project industry output of final products as well as of products required in the production process. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to industry employ­ ment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate fu­ ture output per worker hour, and regres­ sion analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with out­ put projections, are used to develop the final industry employment projections. An industry-occupation matrix is used to project employment for wage and sal­ ary workers. The matrix shows occupa­ tional staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of the work force in every industry. It includes 258 detailed indus­ tries and 480 detailed occupations. Data for current staffing patterns in the matrix come primarily from the Bureau’s Oc­ cupational Employment Statistics sur­ veys, which collect data from employers on a 3-year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were projected based on anticipated changes in the way goods and services are produced, then applied to projected industry employment, and the resulting employment summed across industries to get total wage and salary employment by occupation. Using this method, employment is projected to grow faster than average in those oc­ cupations concentrated in fast-growing industries and more slowly in slowgrowing industries. For example, health care workers are expected to grow rap­ idly, as the health care industries grow rapidly. Employment in an occupation may also grow or decline as a result of changes in the way industries produce goods and services. For example, au­ tomation causes employment of engi­ neers, technicians, and computer  Appendix B/421  specialists to grow faster than the av­ erage for all occupations and become a larger proportion of the work force in most industries. It causes the employ­ ment of some clerical workers, machine operators, and assemblers to increase more slowly—or even decline—and lowers their proportion of the work force. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. In some cases, employment was pro­ jected using an independent variable rather than the model. For example, pro­   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  jections of school enrollments and class size were used to project employment of elementary school teachers. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Pop­ ulation Survey. Self-employed workers were projected separately.  Replacement needs. Replacement openings occur as people leave occu­ pations. Some individuals transfer to other occupations as a step up the career  ladder or to change careers. Some stop working temporarily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family. And some leave the labor force permanently—re­ tirees, for example. In most occupa­ tions, replacement needs provide more job openings than does growth. A dis­ cussion of replacements, including sep­ aration rates for selected occupations, is presented in Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1988 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2301.  Appendix C. Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information State and local job market and career information is available from State em­ ployment security agencies and State Occupational Information Coordinating Committees (SOICC’s). State employ­ ment security agencies develop occu­ pational employment projections and other job market information. SOICC’s provide or help locate labor market and career information. The following list provides the title, address, and tele­ phone number of State employment se­ curity agency directors of research and SOICC directors. Alabama  944216, Sacramento, CA 94244-2160. Phone: (916)427-4675. Executive Director, California Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, 800 Capitol Mall, MIC-67, Sacramento, CA 95814. Phone: (916)323-6544. Colorado Director, Labor Market Information, 3rd Floor, Colorado Department of Labor and Employment, 1330 Fox St., Denver, CO 80204. Phone: (303)620-4543. Director, Colorado Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, 218 Centennial Bldg., 1313 Sherman St., Denver, CO 80203. Phone: (303)866-4488. Connecticut  Chief, Research and Statistics, Alabama Depart­ ment of Industrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., Room427,649 Monroe St., Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (205)261-5461.  Director, Research and Information, Connecticut Department of Labor, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, CT 06109. Phone: (203)566-2120.  Director, Alabama Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, Bell Bldg., Suite 400, 207 Montgomery St., Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (205)261-2990.  Executive Director, Connecticut Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, Connecticut Department of Education, 25 Industrial Park Rd., Middleton, CT 06457. Phone: (203)638-4042.  Alaska  Delaware  Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Alaska De­ partment of Labor, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907)465-4500. Coordinator, Alaska Department of Labor, Re­ search and Analysis Section, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802. Phone: (907)465-4518. Arizona Research Administrator, Arizona Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 733A, Phoenix, AZ85005. Phone: (602)255-3616. Executive Director, Arizona Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 897J, Phoenix, AZ 85005. Phone: (602)255-3680. Arkansas Manager, Labor Market Information, UI-BLS, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203-2981. Phone: (501)682-3194. Executive Director, Arkansas Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, Research and Analysis Section, Arkansas Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203. Phone: (501)682-1543. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Division, Employment Development Department, P.O. Box 422   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of I-abor, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302)368-6962. Executive Director, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, University Office Plaza, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302)368-6963. District of Columbia Chief, Labor Market Information and Analysis, District of Columbia Department of Employment Services, Room 201, 500 C St. NW., Washing­ ton, DC 20001. Phone: (202)639-1642. Executive Director, District of Columbia Occu­ pational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Employment Services, Room 207, 500 C St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202)639-1082. Florida Chief, Bureau of Research and Information, Flor­ ida Department of Labor and Employment Se­ curity, Room 203,2574 Seagate Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32399-0674. Phone: (904)488-1048. Manager, Florida Occupational Information Sys­ tem, Bureau of Labor Market Information, De­ partment of Labor and Employment Security, Suite 210, 1320 Executive Center Dr., Atkins Bldg.,  Tallahassee, FL 32399-0674. Phone: (904)4887397. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Georgia Department of Labor, 254 Washington St. SW., Atlanta, GA 30334. Phone: (404)656-3177. Executive Director, Georgia Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, 142 Marietta St. NE., Atlanta, GA 30303. Phone: (404)656-3177. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, Room 304, 830 Punchbowl St., Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808)548-7639. Executive Director, Hawaii Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, Room 315, 830 Punchbowl St., Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808)548-3496. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, ID 83735. Phone: (208)334-2755. Director, Idaho Occupational Information Coor­ dinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room 301,650 West State St., Boise, ID 83720. Phone: (208)334-3705. Illinois Director, Economic Information and Analysis (2 South), Illinois Department of Employment Se­ curity, 401 South State St., Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: (312)793-2316. Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Infermation Coordinating Committee, Suite 203, 217 East Monroe, Springfield, IL 62706. Phone: (217)785-0789. Indiana Director, Indiana Department of Employment and Training Services, 10 North Senate Ave., Indi­ anapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317)232-3270. Executive Director, Indiana Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, Indiana Em­ ployment Security Bldg., Room 313, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317)232-0173. Iowa Chief, Audit and Analysis, Iowa Department of Employment Services, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50319. Phone: (515)281-8181. Executive Director, Iowa Occupational Infor­  Appendix C/423  mation Coordinating Committee, 200 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50309. Phone: (515)2813850. Kansas Chief, Research and Analysis, Kansas Depart­ ment of Human Resources, 401 Topeka Ave., Topeka, KS 66603. Phone: (913)296-5061. Director, Kansas Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, 401 Topeka Ave., To­ peka, KS 66603. Phone: (913)296-1865. Kentucky Section Supervisor, Research and Statistics Branch, Department for Employment Services, 275 East Main St., Frankfort, KY 40621. Phone(502)564-7976. Coordinator, Kentucky Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 275 East Main St., 2 East, Frankfort, KY 40621. Phone: (502)5644258. Louisiana Director, Research and-Statistics Section, Loui­ siana State Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94094, Capitol Station, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504)342-3141.  Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 309 North Washington, P.O. Box 30015, Lansing, MI 48909. Phone: (517)373-0363.  Director, New Hampshire Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, 64B Old Suncook Rd., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603)2289500.  Minnesota  New Jersey  Director, Research and Statistical Services, De­ partment of Jobs and Training, Room 517, 390 North Robert St., St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone(612)296-6545.  Director, Division of Planning and Research, New Jersey Department of Labor, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, NJ 08625. Phone: (609)292-2643.  Director, Minnesota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Minnesota Department of Economic Security, 690 American Center Bldg., 150 East Kellogg Blvd., St. Paul, MN 55101 Phone: (612)296-2072. Mississippi Chief, Labor Market Information Department, Mississippi Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, MS 39215-1699. Phone(601)961-7424. Executive Director, Mississippi Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, 1101 Sillers Bldg., P.O. Box 771, Jackson, MS 39205. Phone: (601)359-3412. Missouri  Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, Labor and In­ dustry Bldg., Room 1008, CN 056, Trenton, NJ 08625-0056. Phone: (609)292-2682. New Mexico Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Em­ ployment Security Department, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505)841-8645. Director, New Mexico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Tiwa Bldg., 401 Broadway NE., P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505)841-8636. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York Department of Labor, Room 400, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Albany, NY 12240-0020. Phone: (518)457-6181.  Coordinator, Louisiana Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504)342-5149.  Chief, Research and Analysis, Missouri Division of Employment Security, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, MO 65104. Phone: (314)751-3591.  Maine  Director, Missouri Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, 421 East Dunklin St., Jef­ ferson City, MO 65101. Phone: (314)751-3800.  Director, Division of Economic Analysis and Re­ search, Maine Department of Labor, 20 Union St., Augusta, ME 04330. Phone: (207)289-2271.  Executive Director, New York Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, Department of Labor, Research and Statistics Division, Room 400, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Albany, NY 12240. Phone: (518)457-6182.  Montana  North Carolina  Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of La­ bor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Phone: (406)449-2430.  Director, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Security Commission of North Car­ olina, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919)733-2936.  Executive Director, Maine Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta. ME 04333. Phone: (207)2892331. Maryland Director, Research and Analysis Division, Mary­ land Department of Employment and Training, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore. MD 21201. Phone: (301)383-5000. Executive Director, Maryland Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, Governor's E&TCouncil, Room 1514, 301 West Preston St., Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone: (301)225-1050. Massachusetts  Program Manager, Montana Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Phone: (406)444-2741. Nebraska Administrator, Labor Market Information, Ne­ braska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402)475-8451. Administrator, Nebraska Occupational Informa­ tion Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600’ Phone: (402)475-8451. Nevada  Director, Economic Analysis and Research, Mas­ sachusetts Division of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Bldg.. Boston. MA 02114 Phone: (617)727-6556. Director, Massachusetts Occupational Informa­ tion Coordinating Committee, Massachusetts Di­ vision of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., 2nd Floor, Government Center, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617)727-6718.  Chief, Employment Security Research, Nevada Employment Security Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, NV 89713. Phone: (702)8854550. Director, Nevada Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, 601 Kinkead Bldg., 505 East King St., Carson City, NV 89710. Phone(702)885-4577.  Michigan  New Hampshire  Director, Bureau of Research and Statistics, Michigan Employment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, MI 48202. Phone: (313)876-5445.  Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, New Hampshire Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301. Phone’ (603)224-3311.   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Director, North Carolina Occupational Informa­ tion Coordinating Committee, Suite 250, 1311 St. Mary’s St., P.O. Box 27625, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919)733-6700. North Dakota Chief, Research and Statistics, Job Service of North Dakota, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502. Phone: (701)224-2825. Coordinator, North Dakota Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, 1000 East Di­ vide, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502 Phone: (701)224-2733. Ohio Director, Labor Market Information Division, Ohio Bureau of Employment Services, P.O. Box 1618, Columbus, OH 43216. Phone: (614)466-8806. Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coor­ dinating Committee, Division of LMI, Ohio Bu­ reau of Employment Services, 1160 Dublin Rd., Bldg. A, Columbus, OH 43215. Phone: (614)4815783. Oklahoma Director, Research and Planning Division, Okla­ homa Employment Security Commission, 310 Will  424/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Rogers Memorial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, OK 73105. Phone: (405)557-7105.  P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803)737-2733.  Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, 200 Will Rogers Memorial Bldg., 2401 North Lincoln Blvd., Oklahoma City, OK 73105. Phone: (405)557-7124.  South Dakota  Oregon Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Oregon Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503)378-3220. Executive Director, Oregon Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503)378-8146. Pennsylvania Chief, Research and Statistics Division, Penn­ sylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Room 1216, Seventh and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, PA 17121. Phone: (717)787-3265. Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Governor’s Office of Policy Development, 506 Finance Bldg., P.O. Box 1323, Harrisburg, PA 17105. Phone: (717)783-8384. Puerto Rico Chief, Department of Labor and Human Re­ sources, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Research and Analysis Division, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., 17th Floor, Hato Rey, PR 00918. Phone: (809)7545339. Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 6212, San Juan, PR 00936-6212. Phone: (809)7537110. Rhode Island Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Rhode Island Department of Employment Secu­ rity, 24 Mason St., Providence, RI02903. Phone: (401)277-3704. Director, Rhode Island Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Room 133, 22 Hayes St., Providence, RI02908. Phone: (401)272-0830. South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, South Carolina Employment Security Commis­ sion, 1550 Gadsden St., P.O. Box 995, Colum­ bia, SC 29202. Phone: (803)758-8983. Director, South Carolina Occupational Informa­ tion Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden St.,   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Director, Labor Market Information Center, De­ partment of Labor, P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57401. Phone: (605)622-2314. Executive Director, South Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, South Da­ kota Department of Labor, 607 North 4th St., Box 1730, Aberdeen, SD 57401. Phone: (605)6222314. Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Ten­ nessee Department of Employment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Office Bldg., Nashville, TN 37219. Phone: (615)741-2284. Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee ,519 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, TN 37219. Phone: (615)741-6451. Texas Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Texas Employment Commission, 15th and Congress, Austin. TX 78778. Phone: (512)463-2616. Director, Texas Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, TEC Bldg., Room 526T, 15th and Congress, Austin, TX 78778. Phone: (512)463-2399. Utah Director, Labor Market Information Services, Utah Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, UT 84147. Phone: (801)533-2014. Executive Director, Utah Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, 543 East 400 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84102-2702. Phone: (801) 533-2028. Vermont Director, Office of Policy and Public Information, Vermont Department of Employment and Train­ ing, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311. Director, Vermont Occupational Information Co­ ordinating Committee, Green Mountain Dr., P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602-0488. Phone: (802)229-0311.  Executive Director, Virginia Occupational Infor­ mation Coordinating Committee, Virginia Em­ ployment Commission, 703 East Main St., P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804)786-7496. Virgin Islands Virgin Islands Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Research and Analysis Section, 53-A, 54-A and B Kronprindsens Gade, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, United States VI 00801. Phone: (809)776-3700. Contact, Virgin Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 5648, St. Thomas, United States VI00801. Phone: (809)7763700. Washington Director, Labor Market and Economic Analysis Branch, Washington Employment Security De­ partment, 212 Maple Park, Olympia, WA 98504. Phone: (206)438-4804. Director, Washington Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 212 Maple Park, MS KG-11, Olympia, WA 98504-5311. Phone: (206)438-4803. West Virginia Assistant ES Director, Labor and Economic Re­ search Section, West Virginia Department of Em­ ployment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25305. Phone: (304)348-2660. Executive Director, West Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1600 1/2 Washington St. East, Charleston, WV 25311. Phone: (304)348-0061. Wisconsin Director, Labor Market Information Section, De­ partment of Industry, Labor and Human Rela­ tions, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, WI53707. Phone: (608)266-7034. Executive Director, Wisconsin Occupational In­ formation Coordinating Council, Division of Em­ ployment and Training Policy, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, 201 East Washington Ave., P.O. Box 7944, Madison, WI 53707. Phone: (608)266-6722. Wyoming  Virginia  Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Employ­ ment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760. Cas­ per, WY 82602. Phone: (307)235-3646.  Director, Economic Information Services, Vir­ ginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804)786-5670.  Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Occupational Infor­ mation Program, Herschler Bldg., 2nd Floor East, Cheyenne, WY 82002. Phone: (307)777-7340.  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) ___ Index The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) was designed to provide detailed stand­ ardized occupational information to facilitate public employment service activities in­ volving classification and placement of jobseekers. Its coding structure also is used to help bridge or relate to other occupational classification systems used in collection of employment data. Columns 1 and 3 below list the numbers and titles, respectively, from the Fourth Edition of the £).0.7., 1977, and its 1986 Supplement. Nearly all occupational statements in the Handbook list the D.O.T. codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics Survey—the major source of occu­ pational staffing patterns used in the Occupational Outlook Program. However, the D.O.T. numbers associated with the following occupations are too numerous to list: Apparel workers Blue-collar worker supervisors Clerical supervisors and managers General managers and top executives Industrial machinery repairers Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction Inspectors, testers, and graders Manufacturers’ sales workers Material moving equipment operators Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators Painting and coating machine operators Precision assemblers Printing press operators Retail sales workers Science technicians Textile machinery operators Wholesale trade sales workers Woodworking occupations These, nevertheless, are available on request from the Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington DC 20212 Numbers in column 2 refer to the coding structure of the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.). The S.O.C. is the basis for the occupational arrangement used in the National Industry-Occupation Employment Matrix—the Handbook’s source of data on current and projected employment.  DOT. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  Page  001061010 001061018 001167010 001261010 001261014 002061010 002061014 002061018 002061022 002061026  1500 1610 1610 3720 3720 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622  Architect.......................................... Landscape architect....................... School-plant consultant............... Drafter, architectural..................... Drafter, landscape......................... Aerodynamist.................................. Aeronautical engineer................... Aeronautical test engineer........... Aeronautical-design engineer___ Aeronautical-research engineer..  60 61 60 205 205 53 53 53 53 53  002061030 002167010 002167014 002167018 002261010 002280010 002281010 003061010 003061014  1622 1622 1622 1622 3720 3719 3719 1633 1633  Stress analyst.................................. Cost-analysis engineer................. Field-service engineer................... Aeronautical project engineer ... Drafter, aeronautical..................... Research mechanic ....................... Flight-test-data transcriber........... Electrical engineer......................... Electrical test engineer.................  53 53 53 53 205   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  003061018  1633  Electrical-design engineer__  55  003061022 003061026 003061030 003061034 003061038 003061042 003061046 003061050  1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633  55 55 55 55 55 55 55  003131010  3720  003161010  3711  Electrical-prospecting engineer.. Electrical-research engineer....... Electronics engineer ... Electronics-design engineer Electronics-research engineer.. Electronics-test engineer ... Illuminating engineer . Planning engineer, central office facilities......... Supervisor, drafting and printed circuit design........ Electrical technician ...  201  003161014 003161018  3711 3711  205 55 55  003167010 003167014  1633 1633  D.O.T. Title  Electronics technician___ Technician, semiconductor development........ Cable engineer, outside plant .. Distribution-field engineer....  Page  55 205 206 206 206 55 55 425  426/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number 003167018 003167022 003167026 003167030 003167034 003167038  003167042 003167046 003167050 003167054 003167058 003167062  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  Electrical engineer, power system.......................................... 1633 Electrolysis-and-corrosioncontrol engineer......................... 1633 Engineer of system development............................... 1633 Engineer-in-charge, studio operations.................................... 1260 Engineer-in-charge, transmitter.. 1633 Induction-coordination power engineer......................................  003187014 003187018 003261010 003261014 003261018  1633 3711 3720 3720  003261022 003281010 003281014 003362010  3720 3720 3720 3719  005061010 005061014  1628 1628  005061018 005061022 005061026 005061030 005061034 005061038 005061042  1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628  003167070 003187010  SOC Code  007061022  1635  007061026 007061030 007061034 007061038  1635 1635 1635 1635  007061042 007161010 007161014  1635 3720 3720  007161018  3720  007161022 007161026  1635 3713  007161030 007161034  3713 1635  007161038 007167010 007167014 007167018  1635 3713 1260 3974  007167022  3713  007181010 007261010 007261014 007261018 007261022 007267010 007281010 008061010  3713 3720 3720 3720 3720 1635 3720 1626  008061014  1626  206 55 55  008061018  1626  55 55 55 55 55 55  008061022 008061026 008061030  1626 1626 1626  008167010  1260  008261010  3719  010061010  1625  010061014 010061018 010061022  1624 1625 1624  1633  Outside-plant engineer.................. Power-distribution engineer......... Power-transmission engineer— Protection engineer........................ Supervisor, microwave.................. Systems engineer, electronic data processing........................... 1633 Transmission-and-protection engineer...................................... 1260 Engineering manager, electronics.................................. 1633 Central-office equipment engineer...................................... 1633 Commercial engineer....................  003167066  D.O.T. Number  Page  1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1636  Customer-equipment engineer... Instrumentation technician........... Controls designer............................ Integrated circuit layout designer........................................ Printed circuit designer................. Drafter, electrical............................ Drafter, electronic.......................... Design technician, computeraided ............... ........................... 205, Airport engineer.............................. Civil engineer..................................  55 55 55 55 55  Mechanical-design engineer, products .................................. Tool designer.............................. Tool-designer apprentice............ Utilization engineer.................... Applications engineer, manufacturing......................... Stress analyst.............................. Die designer................................ Die-designer apprentice.............  Page 56 56 56 56 56 56 205 205  55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 206 205 205 205 205 205  005167010 005167014 005167018  Hydraulic engineer........................... Irrigation engineer........................... Railroad engineer............................. Sanitary engineer............................. Structural engineer........................... Transportation engineer................. Waste-management engineer, radioactive materials................. 1260 Chief engineer, waterworks.......... 1628 Drainage-design coordinator.......... 1628 Forest engineer.................................  005261010 005261014 005281010 005281014 006061010 006061014 006061018 006061022 006261010 007061010  3719 3710 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 3719 1635  Engineering technician................... Civil engineering technician.......... Drafter, civil..................................... Drafter, structural............................. Ceramic design engineer................ Ceramic engineer............................. Ceramic research engineer............ Ceramics test engineer.................... Scientific glass blower.................... Automotive engineer.......................  206 206 205 205 57 57 57 57 206 56  010061026  1624  010061030  1624  010161010 010161014 010167010 010167014  1625 1260 1625 1625  010167018  1260  007061014 007061018  1635 Mechanical engineer....................... 1635 Mechanical-design engineer, facilities ......................................  56  010261010 010261026 010281010  3719 3719 3720   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Title  55 55 55 55  56  Engineering assistant, mechanical equipment............ Mechanical research engineer ... Mechanical-engineering technician................................ Optomechanical technician........ Test engineer, mechanical equipment................................ Solar-energy-systems designer... Die-drawing checker.................. Plant engineer............................. Tool programmer, numerical control..................................... Tool-drawing checker.................  205 56 206 206 56 56 206 56 211 206  Heat-transfer technician............. Chief drafter................................ Drafter, castings......................... Drafter, patent............................. Drafter, tool design........ ........... Drawings checker, engineering.. Drafter, mechanical.................... Absorption-and-adsorption engineer.................................. Chemical design engineer, processes ................................ Chemical engineer......................  206 205 205 205 205 56 205  Chemical research engineer....... Chemical-test engineer............... Nuc lear-decontamination research specialist................... Technical director, chemical plant......................................... Chemical-engineering technician................................ Design engineer, mining-andoilfield equipment................... Mining engineer......................... Petroleum engineer.................... Research engineer, mining-andoil-well equipment ................. Safety engineer, mines...............  54 54  Test engineer, mining-andoilfield equipment................... Chief engineer, research............ Chief petroleum engineer.......... Chief engineer............................. District supervisor, mud-analysis well logging ........................... Superintendent, oil-well services .................................... Field engineer, specialist............ Test-engine evaluator................. Drafter, directional survey........  54 54 54  58 54 206 57, 59 57 59 57,* 59 57  57, 59 59 59 59 59 59 206 206 205  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/427  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  010281014  3720  Drafter, geological...................  010281018 011061010 011061014 011061018 011061022 011061026 011161010  3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 1260  011261010 011261014 011261018  3719 3719 3990  Drafter, geophysical............... Foundry metallurgist............... Metallographer........................ Metallurgist, extractive.......... Metallurgist, physical............. Welding engineer.................... Supervisor, metallurgical-andquality-control-testing.......... Metallurgical technician............ Welding technician.................. Nondestructive tester.................  011281010  3719  011281014 011361010 012061018 012067010 012167010  3719 3719 1634 1634 1634  012167014 012167018 012167030 012167038  1634 1634 1634 1634  012167042 012167046 012167050 012167054 012167062 012167066  1634 1634 1634 1634 1260 1712  012167070 012167074 012167078 012187010  1634 1634 1634 1634  012187014 012261014 012267010  1634 3890 3712  013161010 014281010 015061010 015061014 015061018 015061022 015061026  015061030  D.O.T. Title  Laboratory assistant, metallurgical......................... Spectroscopist........................... Tester......................................... Standards engineer.................... Metrologist................................ Configuration management analyst.................................... Director, quality control.......... Factory lay-out engineer.......... Industrial engineer.................... Liaison worker, tool fabrication............................. Manufacturing engineer............ Production engineer................... Production planner.................... Quality-control engineer.......... Supervisor, vendor quality....... Systems analyst, electronic data processing ............................. Time-study engineer................. Tool planner.............................. Documentation engineer.......... Material scheduler....................  Shoe-lay-out planner................. Quality-control technician........ Industrial engineering technician.............................. 3719 Agricultural-engineering technician.............................. 3720 Drafter, marine......................... 1627 Design engineer, nuclear equipment............................... 1627 * Nuclear engineer...................... 1627 Research engineer, nuclear equipment.............................. 1627 Test engineer, nuclear equipment................................ 1627 Nuclear-fuels reclamation engineer :................................ 1627  015067010  1627  015137010 015167010 015167014  1627 1627 1627  017161010 017261010  3720 3713  Nuclear-fuels research engineer.................................. Nuclear-criticality safety engineer .................................. Radiation-protection engineer ... Nuclear-plant technical advisor.. Nuclear-test-reactor program coordinator.............................. Drafter, chief, design................. Auto-design checker...................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  205  017261014  3720  205 57 57 57 57 57  017261018 017261022  3720 3720  017261026 017261030 017261034  3720 3720 3720  017261038 017281010 017281014 017281018 017281022 017281026  3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720  017281030  3720  018131010 018167010 018167014 018167018 018167026 018167030 018167034 018167038 018167042  3734 3733 3739 1643 1649 3734 3733 1649 1649  018167046  1649  018167050 018261010 018261014 018261018 018261022 018261026 018262010 018281010 019061014 019161010  1649 3734 3734 3734 3734 3739 1644 3734 1623 3720  Page  57 206 206 57  206 206 206 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56  66 56 56 56  56 56 206  206 205  019161014 019167018 019261014 019261022 019261026  3719 1628 3720 3719 3710  58 58  019267010 019281010  3719 3711  58  019381010 020062010  3719 1719  020067010  1719  020067014 020067018 020067022 020162014 020167010 020167018 020167026 020187010  1739 1721 1733 3971 1732 3971 1733 3971  020187018 020224010  1739 1719  206  58 58  58 58 58  58 58 205 206  D.O.T. Title Design drafter, electromechanisms............... Detailer................... Detailer, furniture............. Drafter, commercial......... Drafter, detail................. Drafter, heating and ventilating..................... Drafter, plumbing........... Auto-design detailer........... Drafter apprentice................. Drafter, assistant............. Drafter, automotive design___ Drafter, automotive design lay­ out..................... Drafter, oil and gas............. Supervisor, cartography___ Chief of party........ Geodetic computer........ Land surveyor.......... Photogrammetric engineer.. Supervisor, mapping............. Surveyor assistant, instruments.. Surveyor, geodetic................. Surveyor, geophysical prospecting................... Surveyor, marine............... Surveyor, mine............. Drafter, cartographic........ Drafter, topographical................. Editor, map............... Mosaicist.......... Photogrammetrist............. Field-map editor... Stereo-plotter operator......... Materials engineer............ Supervisor, estimator and drafter......................... Test technician............. Resource-recovery engineer. Estimator and drafter ... Test technician__ Fire-protection engineering technician................. Specification writer........ Calibration laboratory technician................... Laboratory technician........... Computer-applications engineer ................. Engineering analyst............... Mathematician............ Operations-research analyst__ Statistician, mathematical .. Programmer, business ............. Actuary.......... Programmer, chief, business .. Statistician, applied... Programmer, information system....................... Weight analyst......... Customer-support specialist  Page 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 57 205 206 55 205 206 206 206 206 206  66  66 68 69 71  203 65 203 71  203  68  66  428/Occupational Outlook Handbook  DOT. Number  SOC Code  203 82 78 78 74 78 78 82 82 82  045067018 045107010 045107014 045107018 045107022 045107026 045107030  1915 2400 2400 2400 1915 1915 1915  79 62 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79  045107042  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  020262010 021067010 022061010 022061014 022081010 022137010 022161010 023061010 023061014 023067010  3971 1842 1845 1845 1854 1845 1260 1843 1843 1843  Software technician....................... Astronomer...................................... Chemist............................................ Chemist, food................................ Toxicologist.................................... Laboratory supervisor................... Chemical-laboratory chief........... Electro-optical engineer............... Physicist .......................................... Physicist, theoretical.....................  024061010 024061014 024061018 024061022 024061026 024061030 024061034 024061038 024061042 024061046  1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847  Crystallographer............................. Geodesist.......................................... Geologist.......................................... Geologist, petroleum..................... Geophysical prospector............... Geophysicist.................................... Hydrologist...................................... Mineralogist.................................... Paleontologist................................ Petrologist........................................  024061050 024061054 024161010 024167010 025062010 040061010 040061014 040061018 040061030 040061034  1847 1847 1847 1847 1846 1853 1853 1853 1852 1852  Seismologist.................................... Stratigrapher.................................... Engineer, soils ............................... Geophysical-laboratory chief — Meteorologist.................................. Agronomist...................................... Animal scientist............................. Dairy scientist................................ Forest ecologist............................... Forester............................................  79 79 79 79 81 73 73 73 76 76  040061038 040061042 040061046 040061050 040061054 040061058 040061062 040261010 041061014 041061018  1853 1853 1852 1852 1852 1853 1852 1852 1853 1853  Horticulturist.................................. Poultry scientist............................. Range manager.............................. Silviculturist.................................... Soil conservationist....................... Soil scientist.................................... Wood technologist......................... Soil-conservation technician........ Animal breeder.............................. Apiculturist......................................  73 73 76 76 76 73 76 76 73 73  041061022 041061026 041061030 041061034 041061038 041061042 041061046 041061050 041061058 041061062  1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854  Aquatic biologist........................... Biochemist...................................... Biologist.......................................... Biophysicist.................................... Botanist............................................ Cytologist........................................ Entomologist.................................. Geneticist........................................ Microbiologist................................ Mycologist......................................  74 74 74 74 74 74 73 74 74 74  041061066 041061078 041061082 041061086 041061090 041061094 045061010 045061014 045061018 045067010  1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854 1915 1915 1915 1915  Nematologist.................................. Physiologist.................................... Plant breeder.................................. Plant pathologist............................. Zoologist.......................................... Staff toxicologist........................... Psychologist, developmental — Psychologist, engineering........... Psychologist, experimental......... Psychologist, educational...........  74 74 73 74 74 74 92 92 92 92  045067014  1915  Psychologist, social.......................  92   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page  045107034 045107038  D.O.T. Title  Psychometrist............................... Counselor.................................... Counselor, nurses’association .. Director of counseling................ Psychologist, clinical................. Psychologist, counseling............ Psychologist, industrialorganizational ......................... 1915 Psychologist, school.................. 2400 Residence counselor...................  Page  92 115 115 115 92 92 92 92 115  054067014 054107010 070061010  Vocational-rehabilitation counselor................................ 1915 Psychologist, chief....................... 2400 Director of guidance in public schools .................................... 1852 Park naturalist.............................. 1912 Economist.................................... 1912 Market-research analyst 1........... 1916 Research worker, social welfare .................................... 1916 Sociologist.................................... 1916 Clinical sociologist...................... 2610 Pathologist....................................  070101010 070101014 070101018 070101022 070101026 070101030 070101034 070101038 070101042 070101046  2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610  Anesthesiologist........................... Cardiologist.................................. Dermatologist............................... General practitioner..................... Family practitioner........................ Flight surgeon............................... Gynecologist................................ Intern............................................. Internist......................................... Medical officer.............................  129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129  070101050 2610 070101054 2610 070101058 2610 070101062 2610 070101066 2610 070101070 2610 070101074 2610 070101078 2610 070101082 2610 070101086 2610  Neurologist.................................... Obstetrician.................................. Ophthalmologist............................ Otolaryngologist........................... Pediatrician................................... Physiatrist..................................... Physician, head............................. Physician, occupational............... Police surgeon.............................. Proctologist....................................  129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129  070101090 070101094 070101098 070107010 070107014 070107018  2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610  129 129 129 129 129  070117010 070117014 071101010 072061010  2610 2610 2610 2620  Radiologist.................................... Surgeon 1...................................... Urologist....................................... Allergist-immunologist................. Psychiatrist.................................... Director, diagnostic-andevaluation clinic...................... Chief of nuclear medicine............ Director of radiology................... Osteopathic physician................... Oral pathologist...........................  072101010 072101014 072101018 072101022 072101026 072101030 072101034 072101038  2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620  Dentist........................................... Endodontist.................................... Oral surgeon ................................. Orthodontist.................................. Pedodontist.................................... Periodontist.................................... Prosthodontist............................... Public-health dentist.....................  125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125  045107046 045117010 049127010 050067010 050067014 054067010  2400  115 92 115 76 90 90 94 94 94 129  27 27 27 129 125  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/429  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  072117010 073061010  2620 2700  D.O.T. Title Director, dental services............. Veterinarian, laboratory animal care...............................................  DOT. Number  SOC Code  27  077127014  3020  Dietitian, clinical....................  136  133  077127018 077127022 077167010 078121010  3020 3020 3020 3620  136 136 136  133 133 133 133 133 133 133  078161010 078161018  3620 3650  078162010 078221010 078261010 078261014  3650 3690 3620 3620  Dietitian, consultant.................. Dietitian, teaching.................... Dietetic intern................. Medical technologist, teaching supervisor........................ Medical technologist, chief....... Chief technologist, nuclear medicine........................ Radiologic technologist, chief... Immunohematologist............... Chemistry technologist............... Microbiology technologist..........  078361010 078361014 078361018 078361030 078361034 078362018 078362022  3630 3620 3650 3620 3650 3690 3690  078362026 078364010 078381010  3650 3690 3690  078381014 079101010 079101018 079101022 079117010  3690 2890 2810 2830 1310  079127010  1430  079131010 079137010 079167014 079224010  Page  073061014 073061018 073061022 073061026 073061030 073061034 073061038 073061042 073101010 073101014  2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700  Veterinary anatomist..................... Veterinary bacteriologist............. Veterinary epidemiologist........... Veterinary parasitologist............. Veterinary pathologist................. Veterinary pharmacologist......... Veterinary physiologist............... Veterinary virologist..................... Veterinarian.................................... Veterinarian, poultry.....................  073101018 073161010 073261010  2700 2700 2700  133 133  073264010 074131010 074161010 074161014 075117010  2700 3010 3010 3010 1283  075117014  1310  075117018  1283  Zoo veterinarian............................ Veterinary livestock inspector ... Veterinary virus-serum inspector............................ ........ Veterinary meat-inspector........... Director, pharmacy services........ Pharmacist ...................................... Radiopharmacist............................ Consultant, educational, state board of nursing......................... Director, community-health nursing ........................................ Director, educational, community-health nursing___ Director, nursing service............. Director, occupational health nursing ........................................ Director, school of nursing......... Nurse, school.................................. Nurse, staff, community health............................................ Instructor, psychiatric aide......... Nurse, consultant.......................... Nurse, head.................................... Nurse, supervisor.......................... Nurse, supervisor, communityhealth nursing............................  27  075117022 075117026  1310 1310  075117030 075124010 075124014  1310 2900 2900  075127010 075127014 075127018 075127022 075127026  2390 2900 2900 2900 2900  075127030  2900  075137010  2900  075264010 075264014 075371010 075374010 075374014 075374018 075374022  2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900  076101010 076104010 076107010 076121010 076121014 076124014 076167010 077061010 077117010 077127010  133 133  133 133 27 140 140 20 27 20  27 27 150 150 111  150 150 150 150  150 150 150 150 150 150 150  3034  Nurse supervisor, evening-ornight............................................. Nurse, supervisor, occupational health nursing............................ Nurse practitioner........................... Nurse-midwife................................ Nurse anesthetist ........................... Nurse, general duty....................... Nurse, office.................................. Nurse, private duty....................... Nurse, staff, occupational health nursing ........................................ Audiologist......................................  3034 3034 3032 3033 3039 3032 3020 3020 3020  Voice pathologist.......................... Speech pathologist......................... Occupational therapist................. Physical therapist.......................... Recreational therapist................... Industrial therapist......................... Dietitian, research........................ Dietitian, chief.............................. Community dietitian.....................  155 155 137 143 147 137 136 136 136   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  150  150 155  D.O.T. Title  Dental hygienist.................... Medical technologist.................. Nuclear medical technologist.. Tissue technologist................. Radiation-therapy technologist .. Electrocardiograph technician ... Electroencephalographic technologist...................... Radiologic technologist............. Ultrasound technologist............. Medical-laboratory assistant.......  Page  158 158 173 175 158 158 158 160 158 173 158 175 165 164 175 175 158  1310 1310 1310 3690  Medical-laboratory technician ... Chiropractor.............................. Optometrist........................... Podiatrist...................... Emergency medical services coordinator.................... Inservice coordinator, auxiliary personnel........................... Director, speech-and-hearing__ Utilization-review coordinator... Medical-record administrator.... Home health technician.............  38 27 27 27 280  079361010 079364010 079364014 079364018 079364022 079367010 079367014 079371010 079374010 079374014  3031 5233 3690 3040 5233 5233 3640 5232 3690 3660  Respiratory therapist................. Chiropractor assistant........ Optometric assistant............ Physician assistant........ Phlebotomist............ Medical assistant............... Medical record technician.......... Dental assistant.......... Emergency medical technician .. Nurse, licensed practical__  153 271 271 145 158 271 171 270 167 169  079374018 079374022 090107010 090117010 090117014 090117018 090117022 090117026 090117030 090167010  5233 3690 2400 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 2200  271 178 115  090167014 090167018  1281 1281  090167022 090167026  1281 1281  Podiatric assistant............... Surgical technician.................. Foreign-student adviser............. Academic dean.......... Alumni secretary .... Dean of students 1............ Director, athletic .................. Director, extension work............ Financial-aids officer... Department head, college or university................. Director of admissions............. Director of institutional research.............. Director of student affairs.......... Director, summer sessions........  158 124 127 132 27  20 20  20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20  430/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  090167030 090167034 090222010 090227010  1281 1281 2233 2200  090227010  2214  090227010  2215  090227010  2226  090227010  2227  090227010  2228  090227010  2232  090227010  2235  091107010 091221010 091227010 092137010 092227010  1282 2330 2330 1283 2320  092227014 094107010  2310 2350  094117010  1283  094117014 094167010 096161010 096167010  1283 2360 1283 1283  096167014  1283  097167010 097227010  1283 2390  097227014 099117010 099117014  2390 1283 1283  099117018 099117026 099117030 099167010  1282 2360 1283 1430  099167018 099167022 099167026  2360 2360 2360  099167034  1283  099223010 099224010 099224010 099227014  2390 2390 2330 2390  099227018 099227022 099227026 099227030 099327010  2390 2330 2390 2390 3990  D.O.T. Title Registrar, college or university.. Director, field services................. Instructor, business education ... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Faculty member, college or university.................................... Dean of students 2......................... Teacher, industrial arts................. Teacher, secondary school.......... Director, preschool....................... Teacher, elementary school........  Page 20 20 111  100117010 100117014 100127010  113 113 113  113 113 113 113 113 20 121 121 20 117  Teacher, kindergarten................... Work-study coordinator, special education .................................... Director, commission for the blind.............................................. Director, special education......... Supervisor, special education ... Home-service director................. District extension service agent ............................................ Specialist-in-charge, extension service.......................................... Director, vocational training — Instructor, flying 2.........................  117  Instructor, vocational training ... Director, educational program... Education supervisor, correctional institution............. Principal .......................................... Supervisor, education................... Director, education....................... Certification and selection specialist...................................... Director, instructional material.. Educational specialist................... Music supervisor...........................  111 20  Director of pupil personnel program........................................ Instructor, driving......................... Instructor, physical education ... Instructor, physical education ... Instructor, correspondence school .......................................... Instructor, ground services......... Instructor, military science.......... Instructor, modeling..................... Teacher, adult education............. Teacher aide I................................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 111  20 20 20 20 38 20 20 20  20 111 117 121 111 111 121 111 111 250  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  Page  119 119  100127014 100167010 100167014 100167018 100167022 100167026 100167034  1283 Library director............................ 2510 Library consultant....................... 2510 Chief librarian, branch or department............................... 2510 Librarian....................................... 2510 Audiovisual librarian.................... 2510 Bookmobile librarian.................. 2510 Children’s librarian..................... 2510 Institution librarian ...................... 2510 Librarian, special library............. 2510 Young-adult librarian..................  100267010 100267014 100367010 100367014 100367018 100367022 100367026  2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510  119 119 119 119 209 119  100387010 101167010 102017010  Acquisitions librarian.................. Librarian, special collections— Bibliographer................................ Classifier....................................... Library technical assistant............ Music librarian............................. Music librarian, international broadcast ................................ 2510 Catalog librarian........................... 2520 Archivist....................................... 2520 Curator...........................................  102117010 102117014 102167010 102167014 102167018 102261010 102261014 102361010 102361014 102381010  2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 3250 2520 2520 2520  Supervisor, historic sites.............. Director, museum-or-zoo............ Art conservator............................. Historic-site administrator............ Registrar, museum........................ Conservation technician................ Paintings restorer.......................... Restorer, lace and textiles........... Restorer, ceramic......................... Museum technician......................  112 112 112 112 112 112 192 112 112 112  109067010 109067014 109267010 109267014  1719 2520 2520 2510  66 112 112  109281010 109361010 109364010 109367010 110107010 110107014  2520 2520 2520 2520 2110 2110  Information scientist..................... Research associate....................... Research assistant....................... Research worker, encyclopedia........................... Armorer technician.................. Restorer, paper-and-prints........... Craft demonstrator...................... Museum attendant...................... Lawyer......................................... Lawyer, criminal........................  110117010 110117014 110117018 110117022 110117026 110117030 110117034 110117038 110117042 110167010  2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110  District attorney.......................... Insurance attorney....................... Lawyer, admiralty....................... Lawyer, corporation................... Lawyer, patent............................ Lawyer, probate.......................... Lawyer, real estate..................... Tax attorney................................. Title attorney............................... Bar examiner...............................  84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84  119267022 119267026 120007010  3960 Legal investigator......................... 3960 Paralegal assistant....................... 2042 Clergy member............................  131067010 131067014 131067018 131067022 131067026  3313 3313 3313 3313 3210  119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119  119 119 112 112  112 112 112 112 112 84 84  207 207 107, 108, 109 Columnist/commentator..............181, 186 Copy writer................................. 186 Critic...............................................181,186 Editorial writer............................ 186 Humorist....................................... 186  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/431  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  131067030 131067034  3210 3210  Librettist.................................. Lyricist..................................  186 186  131067038 131067042 131067046  3210 3210 3210  186 186  131087010 131087014 131087018 131267010 131267014 131267018 131267022  3210 3210 3210 3313 3313 3313 3312  Playwright........................... Poet..................................... Writer, prose, fiction and nonfiction........................... Continuity writer.................... Reader.......................... Screen writer.................... Newscaster................... Newswriter........................... Reporter................................ Script reader.............................  131267026 132017010 132017014 132017018  3980 3312 3312 3312  132037010 132037014 132037018 132037022 132037026 132067010  D.O.T. Title  Page  186 186 186 186 181 186 183 186  3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312  Writer, technical publications ... Editor, managing, newspaper ... Editor, newspaper................... Editor, technical and scientific publications......................... Continuity director...................... Editor, city......................... Editor, department...................... Editor, publications................. Story editor............................. Bureau chief.............................  186 186 186 186 186 186 186  132067014 132067018 132067022 132067026 132137010 132267010 132267014 132367010 137137010 141031010  3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3290 3220  Editor, book.................... Editor, dictionary...................... Editor, greeting card............... Editor, news......................... Assignment editor...................... Editor, telegraph......................... Editorial assistant........................ Editor, index......................... Director, translation................... Art director...............................  186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 195 192  141051010 141061010 141061014 141061018 141061022 141061026  3220 3250 3250 3220 3250 3250  188 192 192 192 192  141061030 141067010 141081010 141081014  3250 3220 3250 3220  Color expert......................... Cartoonist.................................... Fashion artist.............................. Graphic designer........................ Illustrator..................................... Illustrator, medical and scientific.............................. Illustrator, set............................. Creative director......................... Cartoonist, motion pictures ....... Commercial designer.................  192 192 188 192 192  141137010  3220  142031010 142031014 142051010 142051014 142061010 142061014 142061018 142061022 142061026  3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220  Production manager, advertising........................... Art director.............................. Manager, display........................ Display designer......................... Interior designer........................ Bank-note designer................... Cloth designer................... Clothes designer.............. Furniture designer............... Industrial designer...............  36 188 188 188 188 188 188 188 188 188  142061034  3220  142061038  3220  142061042  3220   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Ornamental-metalwork designer.................................... Safety-clothing-and-equipment developer............................. Set decorator.............................  186 186 186  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  142061046 142061050 142061054 142061058 142081010 142081014 142081018  3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220  Set designer.................................... Set designer.................................... Stained glass artist......................... Exhibit designer.................................. Floral designer.................................... Fur designer.................................... Package designer................................  188 188 188 188 188 188 188  142281010 143062010 143062014 143062018 143062022 143062026 143062030 143062034 143260010  3220 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260  188 189 189 189 189 189 189 189  143362010  3260  Copyist................................................... Director of photography..................... Photographer, aerial.......................... Photographer, apprentice............. Photographer, motion picture ... Photographer, scientific..................... Photographer, still.............................. Photojoumalist.................................... Optical-effects-camera operator.............................................. B iological photographer.....................  143382010 143382014 143457010 144061010 144061014 144061018 149021010 149041010 149261010 150027010  3260 3260 3260 3250 3250 3250 2390 3250 3250 3240  Camera operator, animation........ Photographer, finish.......................... Photographer........................................ Painter................................................... Printmaker........................................... Sculptor................................................. Teacher, art.................................... Quick sketch artist.............................. Exhibit artist ........................................ Dramatic coach....................................  189 189 189  150027014 150047010 150067010 150147010 151027010 151027014 151047010 152021010 152041010 152047010  2390 3240 3240 3240 3270 2390 3270 2390 3230 3230  Teacher, drama.............................. Actor....................................................... Director, stage...................................... Narrator................................................. Choreographer...................................... Instructor, dancing........................ Dancer................................................... Teacher, music.............................. Musician, instrumental....................... Choral director..............................  152047014 152047018 152047022 152067010 152067014 152067018 152067022 152267010 152367010 153137010  3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 1352  Conductor, orchestra..................... Director, music.............................. Singer............................................... Arranger.......................................... Composer........................................ Cue selector.................................... Orchestrator.................................... Copyist................................... Prompter.......................................... Manager, pool................................  153227014 159067010 159067014 159117010 159124010 159147010 159147014 159167010 159167014 159167018  2390 3240 3240 3240 2033 3330 3330 3280 3240 3240  Instructor, physical....................... Director, motion picture............. Director, television....................... Producer.......................................... Counselor, camp .......................... Announcer...................................... Disk jockey.................................... Artist and repertoire manager ... Director, radio......... ...................... Manager, stage..............................  159167022 159227010 159267010  1250 2390 3240  Executive producer, promos....... Instructor, bridge.......................... Director, casting............................  D.O.T. Title  Page  189 189  192 192 192 111 192  192 195 ill  195 195 195 197 111 197 111 198 198 198 198  198 198 198 198 198 198 198 104 Ill 195 195  195 104 181 181 195  195 195  188  188 188  36  111 195  432/Occupational Outlook Handbook  DOT. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  159647014 160162010  3240 1412  Extra.................................................. Accountant, tax..............................  195 14  160162014 160167010 160167014 160167018 160167022 160167026 160167030 160167034 160167038 160167042 160267014 160267018 161117014 161117018 161167010  1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1490 1420 1220 1420  Auditor.............................................. Accountant...................................... Accountant, budget....................... Accountant, cost............................. Accountant, property................... Accountant, systems..................... Auditor, county or city............... Auditor, internal............................ Auditor, tax.................................... Bursar................................................ Director, utility accounts............. Estimator.......................................... Director, records management... Treasurer.......................................... Management analyst.....................  14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 18 34 24, 27 34  Page  161167014 161167018 161167022 161267010 161267018 161267022 161267026 162117014 162117018 162117022  1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1370 1449 1449  Manager, forms analysis............. Manager, records analysis........... Manager, reports analysis........... Clerical-methods analyst............. Forms analyst................................ Records-management analyst — Reports analyst.............................. Contract administrator................. Contract specialist......................... Field contractor..............................  34 34 34 34 34 34 34 27 27, 43 222  162157014 162157018 162157022 162157030 162157034 162157038 162157042 162167022  4124 1442 1442 1449 1449 1449 4124 1240  222 48 48 43 43 43 222  162167030 163117010  1449 1449  Broker’s floor representative — Buyer................................................ Buyer, assistant.............................. Outside property agent................. Procurement engineer................... Purchasing agent........................... Securities trader 1 ......................... Manager, procurement services........................................ Purchase-price analyst................. Manager, contracts.......................  163117014 163117018 163117022 163117026  1250 1250 1250 1250  36 36 36  163167010 163167018 163167022  1250 1250 1250  163267010 164117010 164117014  1250 1250 1250  Manager, export............................ Manager, promotion..................... Director, media marketing......... Director, underwriter solicitation.................................. Manager, advertising ................... Manager, sales.............................. . Manager, utility sales and service ........................................... Field representative...................... . Manager, advertising .................... Manager, advertising agency —.  36 36 27, 36 36  164117018 164167010 165017010 165067010 165117010 165117014 165157010 165167010 166067010 166117010  1250 1250 3320 3320 1270 1390 4152 3320 1430 1230  Media director.............................. Account executive....................... Lobbyist.......................................... Public-relations representative.. Director, fundraising................... Director, funds development ... Song plugger................................ Sales-service promoter............... Occupational analyst................... Director, industrial relations —  . . . . . . . . . .  36 36 180 180 27 27 224 180 38 27, 38  166117014  1430  Manager, employee welfare — .  38   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  43 43 43  36 36 36  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  Manager, personnel..................... Contestant coordinator................ Director of placement.................. Manager, benefits........................ Manager, compensation.............. Manager, education and training.................................... 1230 Manager, employment................ 1430 Manager, labor relations............ 1430 Port purser...................................  27,38 38 38 27, 38 38  38  166267026  1430 Senior enlisted advisor................ 1230 Program specialist, employeehealth maintenance................. 1430 Technical training coordinator... 2390 Training representative................ 3320 Employer relations representative......................... 1430 Employment interviewer............. 1430 Hospital-insurance representative.......................... 1430 Job analyst................................... 1430 Prisoner-classification interviewer............................... 1430 Recruiter.......................................  166267030 166267034 166267038 166267042 166267046 168167010 168167030 168167034 168167038 168167046  1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 5132 1472 1472 1472 1472  166117018 166167010 166167014 166167018 166167022 166167026 166167030 166167034 166167038 166167042 166167050 166167054 166227010 166257010 166267010 166267014 166267018 166267022  1230 1430 1430 1230 1430 1230  Page  27, 38 27, 38 38 38  27, 38 38 Ill 38 21 38 38 38 . 38  Retirement officer........................ Job development specialist.......... Personnel recruiter....................... Employee relations specialist— Human resource advisor............. Customs patrol officer................ Inspector, building....................... Inspector, electrical...................... Inspector, elevators...................... Inspector, heating and refrigeration.............................  38 38 38 38 38 262 16 16 16  Inspector, plumbing.................... Building inspector....................... Claim examiner............................ Plan checker.................................. Arbitrator ..................................... Manager, electronic data processing ............................... Manager, office............................ Tooling coordinator, production engineering............................. Underwriter.................................. Coordinator, skill-training program....................................  16 16 237 16 38  38 20 115 16 195 43 195 195  184167030  Conciliator................................... Secretary, board-of-education ... Supervisor, special services......... Construction inspector................. Director, public service............... Superintendent, commissary......... Director, news............................... Director, operations, broadcast.. Director, photogrammetry flight operations................................ 3240 Director, program ........................  184167034 184167074  3240 Director, sports............................. 3240 Manager, production.....................  195 195  168167050 168267010 168267014 168267102 169107010 169167030  1472 1472 1473 1472 1430 1260  169167034 169167054  1370 1449  169167058 169167062  1414 1390  169207010 169267022 169267026 182267010 184117010 184117078 184167014 184167022 184167026  1430 1283 2400 1472 3240 1240 3240 3240 1649  16  27 27 43 47 38  62 195  5  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/433  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  185117014  1390  185137010 185157010 185157014 185167034 186117010  Area supervisor, retail chain store.................................... Manager, fast food services__ Fashion coordinator................. Supervisor of sales................. Manager, merchandise............. Business manager, college or university.............................. . Controller.................................. Manager, financial institution ..  1351 1250 1250 1240 1281  186117014 186117038  1220 1220  186117042 186117046 186117058 186117062  1353 1353 1353 1353  186117066 186117070 186117078  1220 1220 1220  186167018 186167022  1353 1220  186167026  1220  186167030 186167038  1353 1353  186167042 186167046 186167054 186167062 186167066 187117010 187117018 187117038 187117058 187117062 187137010 187137014 187161010 187167022  1353 1353 1220 1353 4123 1210 1210 1351 1310 1370 2033 2032 1351 1359  187167026 187167034 187167038 187167046 187167078 187167090 187167106  1351 1359 1270 1351 1351 1359 1351  187167110 187167122  1351 1351  187167126 187167162  1351 1250  187167174 187167178 187167182  3240 3240 3240  187167190 187167194 188167110 189117014  D.O.T. Title  1353 1359 1920 1260  Manager, land development__ Manager, leasing...................... Real-estate agent ...................... Rental manager, public events facilities ................................ Risk and insurance manager__ Treasurer, financial institution.. Vice president, financial institution........................ Manager, apartment house....... Manager, credit card operations........................... Manager, credit union............. Manager, housing project........ Manager, land leases-andrentals.................................. Manager, market...................... Manager, property.................... Reserve officer......................... Condominium manager............ Manager, real-estate firm........ Administrator, hospital.............. Director, institution................... Manager, hotel or motel.......... Director, outpatient services__ Radiology administrator............ Recreation supervisor............... Supervisor, volunteer services.. Executive chef................. Coordinator, volunteer services.................................. Director, food services............. Director, nurses’ registry.......... Director, volunteer services__ Executive housekeeper............. Manager, convention............ Manager, dental laboratory....... Manager, food service............. Manager, front office............... Manager, hotel recreational facilities...................... Manager, liquor establishment . Manager, vehicle leasing and rental................................... Producer ............................. Producer ................. Producer, assistant................. Superintendent, building.......... Superintendent, laundry............ Planner, program services........ Director, research and development.........................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  189117018  1250  36 45 36 36 43  189117030 189117038  1390 1390  189157010  1353  20 24, 27 24  189167022 189167030 189167050  1370 1370 1359  40 40 40  189267010  2032  191117030 191117042  1353 1353  191117046 191117050 193162010 193162014  1353 1353 3920 3920  193162018  3920  193167010 193167014 193262018  3920 3930 3930  Lease buyer.................................... Permit agent, geophysical prospecting.................................. Right-of-way agent....................... Right-of-way supervisor............... Air-traffic coordinator................... Air-traffic-control specialist, station.......................................... Air-traffic-control specialist, tower........................................... Chief controller.............................. Field supervisor, broadcast......... Field engineer................................  193262038 194062010 194262010 194262014 194262018 194282010 194362010 194362014 194362018 194381010  3930 3990 3930 3719 3719 3930 3719 3719 3930 3711  Transmitter operator..................... Television technician ................... Audio operator.............................. Sound controller............................ Sound mixer.................................... Video operator.............................. Recording engineer....................... Rerecording mixer........................ Telecine operator.......................... Technical testing engineer...........  194382010 194382014 195107010 195107014 195107018 195107022 195107026  3719 3719 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032  195107030 195107034 195107038  2032 2032 2032  Section-plotter operator............... Tape transferrer.............................. Caseworker...................................... Caseworker, child welfare......... Caseworker, family....................... Social group worker..................... Social worker, delinquency prevention.................................. Social worker, medical ............... Social worker, psychiatric........... Social worker, school...................  195107042  2032  195107046 195137010 195164010 195167010  2032 2032 2032 2032  195167014  2032  40 27 96  195167030 195167034 195167038 195227010  27  195227014  40 24, 27 24 24 40 24 24 40 40 40 40 24 40 40 24, 27 27 30 27 27 104 101 45 27 45 27 27 27, 30 30 27 27, 30, 45 30 30 45 36 195 195 195  Manager, customer technical services ........................................ Project director.............................. User representative, international accounting.................................. Business-opportunity-andproperty-investment broker ... Manager, department................... Program manager.......................... Superintendent, plant protection.................................... Field representative.......................  Page 36 27 24 40 27 27 27  101 40 40 40 40  200 200  200 200 201 201 201  201 201 206 206  201 206 206  201 206 206 206  101 101 101 101 101 101 101 101  2032 2032 1270 2033  Correctional-treatment specialist...................................... Probation-and-parole officer........ Casework supervisor..................... Group worker................................ Community organization worker......................................... Community-relations-andservices advisor, public housing........................................ Parole officer............... .................. Probation officer............................ Rehabilitation center manager ... Program aide, group work.........  27 104  2033  Recreation leader..........................  104  101 101 101 101 101 101 101 101  434/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  195267014  2032  D.O.T. Title  Page  195267018  2032  195367010 195367014 195367018 195367022 195367026 195367034 196167010  2032 2032 2032 2032 5133 2032 8250  Human relations or drug and alcohol counselor....................... Patient-resources-andreimbursement agent............... Case aide.......................................... Management aide........................... Community worker....................... Food-management aide............... Preparole-counseling aide........... Social-services aide....................... Chief pilot........................................  196167014 196223010 196223014  8250 8250 8250  Navigator........................................ Instructor, flying 1......................... Instructor, pilot..............................  391 391 391  196263010 196263014 196263018  8250 8250 8250  391 391  196263022 196263026  8250 8250  196263030 196263034  8250 8250  Airplane pilot.................................. Airplane pilot, commercial......... Airplane pilot, photogrammetry......................... Check pilot...................................... Controller, remotely-piloted vehicle (rpv).............................. Executive pilot.............................. Facilities-flight-check pilot.........  196263038 196263042 199167014 199261014 199267014 201162010 201362010 201362014 201362018 201362022  8250 8250 1920 3990 1739 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622  Helicopter pilot.............................. Test pilot.......................................... Urban planner................................ Parking analyst.............................. Cryptanalyst.................................... Social secretary.............................. Legal secretary.............................. Medical secretary........................... Membership secretary................... School secretary.............................  391 391 96 206 68 245 245 245 245 245  201362030 202362010 202362014 202362018 202362022 203362010 203362014 203362018 203362022  4622 4623 4623 4623 4623 4624 4649 4793 4624  245 248 248 248 248 254 242 356  203382010 203382018  4624 4793  203382026 203582022 203582026 203582030 203582034  4793 4793 4793 4793 4624  203582042  4793  356 254 234  203582046  4793  203582054 203582058  4793 4624  Secretary.......................................... Shorthand reporter......................... Stenographer.................................. Stenographer, print shop............. Stenotype operator......................... Clerk-typist...................................... In-file operator.............................. Terminal-system operator........... Word-processing-machine operator........................................ Bordereau clerk.............................. Magnetic-tape-composer operator........................................ Varitype operator........................... Data typist...................................... Data-coder operator....................... Keypunch operator......................... Magnetic-tape-typewriter operator........................................ Photocomposing-perforatormachine operator....................... Photocomposition-keyboard operator........................................ Terminal operator........................... Transcribing-machine operator ..  203582062 203582066 203582070  4793 4624 4793  Typesetter-perforator operator ... Typist............................................... Verifier operator............................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  203582074  4793  203582078 205367018 205367038 206362010 206367014 206387010  391 391 391 391 391  254 254 356 356 234 234 234  Page  4624 4782 4645 4696 4696 4696  Electronic-typesetting-machine operator........................................ Notereader...................................... Claims clerk 2................................ Registrar.......................................... File clerk 1...................................... File clerk 2...................................... Classification clerk.........................  356 254 237 242 235 235 235  206387014 206387018 206387022 206387026 206387030 208382010 208685030 209362030 209367042 209382010  4696 4696 4696 4696 4696 4793 4613 4630 4753 4624  Fingerprint clerk 2......................... Librarian, morgue......................... Record clerk.................................... Records custodian........................ Tape librarian ................................ Terminal-makeup operator......... Sorting-machine operator........... Congressional-district aide......... Reconsignment clerk..................... Continuity clerk.............................  235 235 235 235 235 356 233 236 253 254  209382014 209387014 209562010 209567014  4799 4794 4630 4364  237 247 236  209567022 209687010 209687014 209687018 210362010 210367010  4630 4799 4742 4699 4712 4712  Special-certificate dictator........... Compiler.......................................... Clerk, general................................ Order clerk, food and beverage ...................................... Office clerk .................................... Checker 2........................................ Mail handler.................................... Reviewer.......................................... Distribution-accounting clerk___ Account-information clerk.........  210367014  4712  210382010 210382014 210382018 210382030 210382034 210382038 210382042 210382046 210382050  4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712  99 101 99 99 101 99 101 99 391  D.O.T. Title  Foreign-exchange-position clerk.............................................. Audit clerk...................................... Bookkeeper 1.................................. Bookkeeper 2.................................. Classification-control clerk......... Commodity-loan clerk................. Credit-card clerk............................ Fixed-capital clerk......................... General-ledger bookkeeper......... Mortgage-loan-computation clerk ..............................................  213 236 230 239 237 230 230  230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 213 229  4791 4364 4364 4364  Night auditor.................................. Reconcilement clerk..................... Securities clerk.............................. Cashier 1.......................................... Foreign banknote teller-trader ... Teller, collection and exchange...................................... Teller, note...................................... Paymaster of purses ..................... Cashier 2.......................................... Cashier-checker..............................  4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364  Cashier-wrapper............................ Cashier, gambling......................... Check cashier................................ Drivers’-cash clerk......................... Teller................................................ Toll collector.................................. Cashier, courtesy booth............... Money counter.............................. Parimutuel-ticket cashier............. Parimutuel-ticket seller......... .......  213 213 213 213 213 213 213 213 213 213  210382054 210382058 210382062 211362010 211362014 211362022  4712 4712 4712 4364 4791 4791  211362026 211367010 211462010 211462014 211462018 211462022 211462026 211462030 211462034 211462038 211467010 211467014 211467018 211467022  229 229 213 213 213  254 356 356 234 248  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/435  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  211467026 211467030 211467034 211482010 213362010 213382010  4364 4364 4364 4364 4612 4613  D.O.T. Title  213582010 213682010 213685010  4613 4613 4613  214362018  4712  Sheet writer.................................... Ticket seller.................................... Change person................................ Cashier, tube room....................... Computer operator......................... Computer-peripheral-equipment operator........................................ Digitizer operator.......................... Tabulating-machine operator___ Auxiliary-equipment operator, data processing.......................... Fee clerk..........................................  214362030 214487010 214587014 216362010 216362014 216362018 216362022 216362026 216362034 216367010  4644 4794 4753 4712 4712 4791 4712 4712 4712 4712  Rate clerk, passenger................... Chart calculator.............................. Traffic clerk.................................... Bond clerk...................................... Collection clerk.............................. Exchange clerk.............................. Food-and-beverage controller ... Mortgage-accounting clerk......... Reserves clerk................................ Check-processing clerk 2 ...........  216382010  4712  216382014 216382018 216382022 216382026 216382030  4712 4712 4712 4712 4712  216382038 216382058 216382062 216382066  4712 4712 4794 4794  Accounting clerk, data processing.................................. Advice clerk.................................... Balance clerk.................................. Budget clerk.................................... Clearing-house clerk..................... Collateral-and-safekeeping clerk.............................................. Interest clerk.................................. Retumed-item clerk....................... Statistical clerk.............................. Statistical clerk, advertising........  216382070 216382074 216387010 216482010 216482026  4712 4712 4712 4712 4712  216482030 216587010 216587014 219362010 219362022  Page 213 213 213 213 233  243 247 253 230 230 229 230 230 230 230  233 233 233 233 230  230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 247 247  4363 4712 4712 4630 4630  Stock-transfer clerk....................... Trust-savings-account clerk........ Check-processing clerk 1 ........... Accounting clerk.......................... Dividend-deposit-voucher clerk............................................ Laundry pricing clerk................... Booking clerk......................... Posting clerk.................................. Administrative clerk..................... Clerk, telegraph service...............  230 214 230 230 236 236  219362026 219362042 219362050 219362062 219362066 219367018 219367022 219367026 219367030 219367034  4630 4699 4699 4712 4712 4754 4753 4699 4753 4754  Contract clerk, automobile......... Policy-change clerk....................... Revival clerk.................................. Trust-securities clerk..................... Voucher clerk................................ Merchandise distributor............... Paper-control clerk......................... Programmer, detail....................... Shipping-order clerk..................... Stock-control clerk.........................  236 237 237 230 230 249 253 203 253 249  219367042  4712  219387018 219387022 219387026 219462010 219467010  4712 4799 4754 4791 4795  Canceling-and-cutting control clerk............................................ Letter-of-credit clerk..................... Planimeter operator....................... Space-and-storage clerk............... Coupon clerk.................................. Grading clerk..................................  230 230 247 249 229 250   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  230 230 230 230  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  219482014 219487010 219587010 221362018  4699 4712 4712 4752  Insurance checker.................... . Tax clerk 1................................. . Parimutuel-ticket checker........... Estimator, paperboard boxes ... .  237 230 230 18  221367014 221367022 221382010 221584010 221587018 221587022 221687014 222167010 222367014 222367038  4752 4753 4794 4794 4754 4754 4753 4754 4754 4754  Estimator, printing..................... . Industrial-order clerk................. . Chart clerk................................ . Chart changer........................... . Odd-piece checker..................... . Outsole scheduler...................... . Ticket puller................................. Metal-control coordinator........... Cut-file clerk.............................. . Magazine keeper...................... .  18 253 247 247 249 249 253 249 249 249  222367042 222367050  4754 4754  249  222367062 222367066 222387014 222387018 222387022 222387026 222387030 222387034  4754 4753 4753 4754 4753 4754 4754 4754  Parts clerk............................. . Prescription clerk, lens-andframes............................. . Tool-crib attendant.................... . Truckload checker.................... . Car checker.............................. . Fuel-oil clerk............................. . Gun-repair clerk....................... . Inventory clerk......................... . Linen-room attendant................ . Material clerk........................... .  222387042 222387050 222387054 222387058 222387062 222387070 222485010 222567010 222567014 222587010  4754 4753 4753 4754 4754 4754 4753 4753 4753 4753  Property custodian.................... . Shipping and receiving clerk__ . Sorter-pricer.............................. . Stock clerk................................ . Storekeeper........................ . Type-library clerk ................. . Milk-receiver, tank truck........... , Grain elevator clerk.................... . Ship runner................................. , Aircraft-equipment-andaccessories assembler............. .  249 253 253 249 249 249 253 253 253 253 253 249 253 249 253 253 253 249 249 249  Page  249 249 253 253 249 253 249 249 249  222587018 222587022 222587034 222587054 222587058 222687022 222687030 222687046 229367010 229367014  4753 4754 4753 4754 4753 4753 4753 4754 4754 4754  Distributing clerk....................... , Kitchen clerk............................. . Route-delivery clerk................. . Transformer-stock clerk............. Vault worker........................ . Routing clerk.............................. Shipping checker....................... Protective-clothing issuer.......... , Field recorder...................... Parts lister..............................  229587014 230363010 230367010 235222010  4754 4743 4743 2390  235462010 235562014  4732 4732  235662014  4732  235662018 235662022 235662026  4732 4732 4732  Quality-control clerk.................. 249 Rural mail carrier....................... 239 Mail carrier ............................. 239 Private-branch-exchange service adviser..................................... 111, 251 Central-office operator............... 251 Switchboard operator, police district................................ 251 Communication-center 251 operator................................... Directory-assistance operator.. 251 Telephone operator.................... 251 Telephone-answering-service 251 operator...................................  436/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  236252010  4152  237267010  4649  237367010 237367018 237367022 237367026 237367038 237367042 237367046 237367050  4645 4649 4645 4799 4645 4649 4649 4649  238167010 238167014  4644 4644  238362014 238367010 238367014 238367018 238367022 238367026 238367030 238367034  4644 4644 4644 4644 4649 4644 4644 4649  239137010  1283  239227010  2390  239267010 239367018  4122 4742  239367026 241217010 241267018 241267030 241362010 243362014  4739 4782 4782 4783 4782 4630  243367014 245362010 245362014 245367010 245367014 245367018  4742 4794 4630 4630 4630 4630  248362010 248367014 248367022 248382010  4753 4753 4753 4644  D.O.T. Title Representative, personal service.......................................... Information clerk, automobile club................................................ Appointment clerk......................... Information clerk........................... Information clerk........................... Land-leasing examiner................. Receptionist.................................... Referral-and-information aide ... Telephone-quotation clerk........... Tourist-information assistant___ Travel clerk.................................... Travel counselor, automobile club................................................ Reservation clerk........................... Gate agent........................................ Reservation clerk........................... Reservations agent......................... Space scheduler............................ Ticket agent.................................... Travel clerk.................................... Scheduler ........................................ Commercial-instructor supervisor.................................... Customer-service-representative instructor .................................... Placer ................................................ Mail-distribution-scheme examiner...................................... Service observer............................. Claim adjuster................................ Claim examiner.............................. Investigator...................................... Claims clerk 1................................ Police aide...................................... Post-office clerk............................ Medical-record clerk..................... Ward clerk...................................... Animal-hospital clerk................... Blood-donor-unit assistant........... Calendar-control clerk, blood bank.............................................. Incoming-freight clerk................. Booking clerk................................ Container coordinator................... Ticketing clerk..............................  Page 224 242 242 242 242 242 242 242 242 242  4124 4152  251357018  4152  251357022 251357026  4152 4152  252157010 252257010 252357010  4369 4152 4152  252357014  4152  253157010 253257010  4152 4152  253357010  4152  239 251 237 237 237 237 236  254251010  4153  254257010  4153  254357010  4153  254357014  4153  239 247 236 236 236  254357018 254357022  4152 4153  259157010  4369  259157014  4152  259257010  4369  259257018  4152  259257022  4152  259357010 259357014  4369 4369  259357018  4153  259357022  4369  259357030  4152  243 243 243 243 243 243 242 243 243 242  20 111 215  236 253 253 253 243  Superintendent, sales................... Sales agent, insurance................. Building consultant....................... Leasing agent, residence.............  218 215 218 218   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  251257010 251257014  4100 4152 4152  4123 4122 4123 4123  250157010 250257010 250357010 250357014  4123 4152 4124 4152  251257022 251357010 251357014  4754 4795 4645 4795 4364  249367058 249367074 249367082 249367086 249467010  250357018 250357022 251157010 251157014  4152  242 214 236 236  4649 4363 4630 4630 4712  SOC Code  251257018  Policyholder-information clerk .. Counter clerk.................................. Animal-shelter clerk..................... Career-guidance technician......... Foreclosure clerk, motionpicture loans.............................. Parts-order-and-stock clerk......... Teacher aide II.............................. Park aide.......................................... Satellite-instruction facilitator ... Information clerk-cashier.............  249262010 249362010 249367010 249367014 249367038  D.O.T. Number  230 249 250 242 250 213  259357034 259357038 269357018 273357014  4369 4152 4153 4369  D.O.T. Title Sales agent, real estate................. Sales representative....................... Sales agent, securities ................. Sales representative, dataprocessing services................... Sales agent, financial services ... Sales agent, psychological tests and industrial relations ........... Sales representative, travelers’ checks .......................................... Financial planner.......................... Sales agent, business services... Sales agent, financial-report service .......................................... Sales agent, pest control service .......................................... Sales representative, franchise... Sales representative, herbicide service .......................................... Travel agent.................................... Traffic agent.................................... Crating-and-moving estimator... Sales representative, shipping services ........................................ Communications consultant........ Sales representative, telephone services ........................................ Sales representative, public utilities ........................................ Sales representative, graphic art.................................................. Sales representative, signs and displays........................................ Leasing agent, outdoor advertising.................................. Sales representative, advertising.................................. Sales representative, printing___ Sales representative, signs......... Sales representative, audiovisual program productions................. Sales representative, hotel services........................................ Sales representative, education courses ........................................ Service representative, elevators, escalators, and dumbwaiters .. Sales representative, security systems........................................ Group-sales representative......... Sales representative, dancing instructions.................................. Sales representative, radio and television time.......................... Sales representative, television cable service .............................. Sales representative, weatherforecasting service..................... Ticket broker.................................. Tobacco-warehouse agent........... Sales-promotion representative .. Sales representative, automotiveleasing..........................................  Page 218 224 222 224 222 224  224 222 224 224 224 224 224 226 224 224  224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224  224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/437  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  279357010 279357038  4450 4366  279357042 292353010 292363010 292463010  4369 8218 8218 8218  292483010 292667010 293137010  8218 8218 4369  293357010 293357014 293357018 293357022 294567010 295357010 295357014  4369 4369 4450 4369 4364 4363 4363  295357018 295367010 295367014  4363 4363 4363  295367026 295467010 295467014 295467018 295467022 295477010 299357014  4363 4363 4363 4363 4363 4363 4366  D.O.T. Title  Page  Sales exhibitor................................ Salesperson-demonstrator, party plan................................................ Salesperson, burial needs........... Driver, sales route......................... Newspaper-delivery driver......... Lunch-truck driver.........................  224  Coin collector................................ Driver helper, sales route........... Supervisor, blood-donor recruiters...................................... Blood-donor recruiter................... Fund raiser 2.................................. Goodwill ambassador................... Membership solicitor................... Auction clerk.................................. Apparel-rental clerk....................... Tool-and-equipment-rental clerk.............................................  397 397  Furniture-rental consultant......... Airplane-charter clerk................... Baby-stroller and wheelchair rental clerk.................................. Storage-facility rental clerk ........ Bicycle-rental clerk....................... Boat-rental clerk............................ Hospital-television-rental clerk .. Trailer-rental clerk......................... Automobile-rental clerk............... Telephone solicitor.......................  224 224 397 397 397  224 224 224 224 224 213 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 224  299357018 299367018 299474010 301137010 301474010 301677010 301687010 301687014 302685010 302687010  4490 4363 4490 5050 5070 5060 5070 5020 5030 5030  Wedding consultant....................... Watch-and-clock-repair clerk___ Optician, dispensing 2................. Housekeeper, home....................... House worker, general................. Child monitor................................ Caretaker.......................................... Day worker .................................... Laundry worker, domestic......... Ironer...............................................  224 214 162 283 283 283 283 283 283 283  305281010 309137010 309354010 309367010 309674010 309674014 309677010 310137010 310357010 311472010  5040 5050 5263 5090 5050 5090 5090 5211 5213 5216  Cook................................................. Butler............................................... Homemaker.................................... House sitter.................................... Butler, second................................ Personal attendant......................... Companion...................................... Host/hostess, restaurant............... Wine steward/stewardess............. Fast-foods worker.........................  283 283 280 283 283 283 283 267 267 267  311477010 311477014  5216 5216  Car hop............................................ Counter attendant, lunchroom or coffee shop................................ Waiter/waitress, bar..................... Waiter/waitress, dining car......... Waiter/waitress, formal............... Waiter/waitress, informal........... Waiter/waitress, room service ... Waiter/waitress, take out............. Canteen operator .......................... Raw shellfish preparer.................  267  311477018 311477022 311477026 311477030 311477034 311477038 311674010 311674014  5213 5213 5213 5213 5216 5216 5216 5217   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  267 267 267 267 267 267 267 267 265  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  311674018 311677010 311677014 311677018 312474010 312477010 312677010 312687010 313281010 313361010  5213 5218 5216 5218 5212 5212 5212 5218 5214 5214  Waiter/waitress, buffet................. Cafeteria attendant........................ Counter attendant, cafeteria....... Dining room attendant................. Bartender......................................... Bar attendant.................................. Taproom attendant........................ Bartender helper............................ Chef de froid.................................. Baker, second................................  267 267 267 267 267 267 267 267 265 265  313361014 313361018 313361022 313361026 313361030 313361034 313361038 313381010 313381014 313381018  5214 5214 5215 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214  Cook................................................. Cook apprentice............................ Cook, short order 1...................... Cook, specialty.............................. Cook, specialty, foreign food ... Garde manger................................ Pie maker........................................ Baker............................................... Baker, pizza.................................... Cook apprentice, pastry...............  265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265  313381022 313381026 313381030 313381034 313671010 313684010 313687010 315361010 315361014  5214 5214 5214 5214 5215 5219 5219 5214 5214  265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265  315361018  5214  Cook, barbecue.............................. Cook, pastry .................................. Cook, school cafeteria................. Ice-cream chef................................ Cook, short order 2...................... Baker helper.................................... Cook helper, pastry...................... Cook................................................. Cook, pastry, psychiatric hospital....................................... Cook, psychiatric hospital...........  315361022 315371010 315381010 315381014 315381018 315381022 315381026 316661010 316681010 316684010  5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5217 6871 5217  Cook, station.................................. Cook, mess .................................... Cook................................................. Cook, larder.................................... Cook, railroad................................ Cook, third...................................... Second cook and baker............... Carver ............................................. Butcher, meat................................ Butcher, chicken and fish...........  265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 355 265  316684014 316684018 316684022 317384010 317684010 317684014 317684018 317687010 318687010 318687014  5217 6871 6871 5217 5217 5217 5217 5219 5219 5219  Deli cutter-slicer............................ Meat cutter................................ Meat-cutter apprentice................. Salad maker.................................... Coffee maker.................................. Pantry goods maker...................... Sandwich maker............................ Cook helper.................................... Kitchen helper................................ Scullion...........................................  265 355 355 265 265 265 265 265 265 265  318687018 319137014 319137018 319464010 319464014 319467010 319474010 319677010 319687010 320137010  5219 5211 5211 5219 5219 5219 5216 5217 5218 1351  Silver wrapper................................ Manager, flight kitchen............... Manager, industrial cafeteria__ Automat-car attendant................. Vending-machine attendant....... Food order expediter..................... Fountain server.............................. Caterer helper................................ Counter-supply worker................. Manager, boarding house...........  265 45 45 267 325 267 267 267 267 30  Page  265 265  438/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D O T. Title  320137014 323687010 323687014 323687018 330371010 330371014 331674010 331674014 332271010 332271014  1351 5242 5242 5242 5252 5252 5253 5253 5253 5253  Manager, lodging facilities.......... Cleaner, hospital ........................... Cleaner, housekeeping................. Housecleaner.................................. Barber .............................................. Barber apprentice........................... Manicurist........................................ Fingernail former........................... Cosmetologist................................ Cosmetologist apprentice.............  30 282 282 282 275 275 277 277 111 277  332271018 332361010 333071010 333271010 339361010 339371010 339371014 339687010 350677010 350677026  5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 4754 5213 5213  Hair stylist...................................... Wig dresser.................................... Make-up artist................................ Body-make-up artist..................... Mortuary beautician..................... Electrologist.................................... Scalp-treatment operator............. Supply clerk.................................... Mess attendant .............................. Steward/stewardess, wine...........  111 277 277 211 211 211 211 249 267 267  350677030 352167010 352367010 352677018 354374010 354377010 354377014 354677010 355377014 355377018  5213 2033 5257 5213 3660 5236 5236 5236 5236 5233  Waiter/waitress.............................. Director, social.............................. Airplane-flight attendant............. Waiter/waitress, club................... Nurse, practical.............................. Birth attendant................................ Home attendant.............................. First-aid attendant......................... Psychiatric aide.............................. Mental-retardation aide...............  267 104 279 267 273 273 280 273 273 273  355667010 355674010 355674014 355674018 355674026 355677010 358687010 359677010  5233 5264 5236 5236 5236 5216 5244 5264  359677018 359677026  5264 5264  365361010 365361014 369367010 369367014 369467010 369477014  6854 6854 4363 4363 4363 4363  369677010  4363  372137010 372167018 372363010  5112 5112 5132  372367010  5132  372367014 372563010 372567010 372567014 372667010 372667014 372667018  5133 5144 5144 5133 5144 5144 5133  Page  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D O T. Title  372667030 372667034  5144 5144  Gate tender...................................... Guard, security..............................  260 260  372667038 372677010 373134010 373167010 373167014  5144 5133 5111 5111 5111  260 257 258 258  373167018 373267010 373267014 373267018 373363010  5111 5122 5122 5122 5123  Merchant patroller......................... Patrol conductor............................ Fire captain .................................... Battalion chief................................ Captain, fire-prevention bureau .......................................... Fire marshal.................................... Fire inspector.................................. Fire marshal.................................... Fire-investigation lieutenant........ Fire chiefs aide............................  373364010 373367010 373663010  5123 5122 5123  375133010 375137010  5112 5112  375137014 375137018  5112 5112  375137026 375137030 375137034  5112 5112 5112  375163010  5112  375163014 375167010  5132 5112  375167014  5112  375167022 375167030  5112 5112  375167034 375167038 375167042 375167046  5112 5112 5132 5112  Morgue attendant........................... Child-care attendant, school........ Nurse aide........................................ Orderly.............................................. Geriatric nurse assistant............... Food-service worker, hospital... Change-house attendant............... Attendant, children’s institution.................................... Nursery school attendant............. Playroom attendant.......................  271 276 273 273 273 267 282  Luggage repairer........................... Shoe repairer.................................. Fur-storage clerk........................... Rug measurer.................................. Manager, branch store................. Service-establishment attendant...................................... Self-service-laundry-and-drycleaning attendant..................... Correction officer, head............... Jailer, chief.................................... Protective officer...........................  378 378 214 214 214  375167050 375167054  5112 5132  375227010 375263010  2249 5132  214  375263014 375263018 375264010  5132 5132 5132  375267010 375267014 375267018  5132 5132 5132  375267022 375267026 375267030 375267034 375267038 375267042  5132 1420 5132 1473 5132 5132  375362010  4630  Community service officer, patrol............................................ Jailer................................................. Armored-car guard and driver... Armored-car guard......................... Guard, immigration....................... Airline security representative... Bodyguard ...................................... Correction officer...........................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  276 276 276  214 262 262 262  262 257 260 260 257 260 260 257  Fire fighter...................................... Fire inspector.................................. Fire fighter, crash, fire, and rescue............................................ Police sergeant, precinct 1......... Commander, identification and records.......................................... Desk officer.................................... Police lieutenant, community relations ...................................... Traffic sergeant.............................. Commander, police reserves .... Commanding officer, police officer III.................................... Commanding officer, motorized squad ............................................ Pilot, highway patrol ................... Commanding officer, homicide squad ............................................ Commanding officer, investigation division............... Detective chief.............................. Launch commander, harbor police............................................ Police captain, precinct............... Police lieutenant, patrol............... Special agent.................................. Traffic lieutenant.......................... Commander, internal affairs........ Police academy program coordinator.................................. Police-academy instructor........... Accident-orevention-squad police officer.............................. Police officer 1............................... State-highway police officer........ Police officer, crime prevention .................................. Detective.......................................... Detective, narcotics and vice.. Investigator, narcotics ................. Investigator, vice.......................... Police inspector 1.......................... Police inspector 2........................... Investigator, internal affairs........ Police officer iii............................. Police officer, safety instruction .................................. Police clerk ....................................  Page  258 258 258 258 258 258 258 258 258 262 262 262 262 262 262 262  262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 111 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 34 262 262 262 262 236  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/439  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  375363010 375367010 375367014  5132 5133 5132  Border guard.................................. Police officer 2.............................. Complaint evaluation officer___  262 257 262  375367018 375384010  5132 5132  262  376667010 377264010 379263014 379667010 379687010  5144 5132 5149 5144 5122  Page  381687014  5244  381687018 381687022  5244 5244  Police officer, booking................. Police officer, identification and records.......................................... Bouncer............................................ Identification officer..................... Public-safety officer..................... Golf-course ranger......................... Fire-extinguisher-sprinkler inspector...................................... Cleaner, commercial or institutional................................ Cleaner, industrial......................... Cleaner, laboratory equipment ..  381687026 381687030 381687034 382664010 389667010 389683010 389687014 408664010 408667010 452134010  5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5730 5730 5111  Cleaner, wall.................................. Patch worker.................................. Waxer, floor.................................... Janitor............................................... Sexton .............................................. Sweeper-cleaner, industrial......... Cleaner, window .......................... Tree trimmer.................................. Tree-trimmer helper..................... Smoke jumper supervisor...........  282 282 282 282 282 282 282 287 287 258  452167010 452364014 452367010 452367014 452687014 454384010 454683010 454684010 454684014 454684018  5122 5123 5122 5122 5123 5730 8318 5730 5730 5730  Fire warden.................................... Smoke jumper................................ Fire lookout.................................... Fire ranger...................................... Forest-fire fighter.......................... Faller 1 ............................................ Tree-shear operator....................... Bucker.............................................. Faller 2 ............................................ Logger, all-round..........................  258 258 258 258 258 287 287 287 287 287  454684022 454684026 454687010 454687014 454687018 455367010 455487010 455664010 455684010 455687010  5730 5730 5730 5730 5790 7850 5790 5790 5790 5790  River................................................. Tree cutter...................................... Chainsaw operator......................... Laborer, tanbark............................ Log marker...................................... Log grader...................................... Log scaler........................................ Rafter................................................ Log sorter........................................ Log marker......................................  287 287 287 287 287 287 287 287 287 287  262 260 262 262 260 258 282 282 282  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  600280042 600281010 600380010 600380014 600380018 601280010  6813 6813 6813 7329 7329 6811  Maintenance machinist................. Fluid-power mechanic ................. Fixture maker................................ Job setter.......................................... Machine set-up operator............. Die maker, stamping.....................  365 365 365 383 383 383  601280014 601280018 601280022 601280030  6811 6811 6811 6811  383 383 383  601280034 601280042 601280046 601280050 601280058 601281010  6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811  Die maker, trim............................ Die maker, wire drawing........... Die sinker........................................ Mold maker, die-casting and plastic molding.......................... Tap-and-die-maker technician ... Tool maker...................................... Tool-and-die maker....................... Tool-and-die-maker apprentice .. Tool-maker apprentice................. Die maker, bench, stamping___  383 383 383 383 383 383 383  601281014 601281026 601380010 601381010 601381014 601381022 601381026 601381030 601381034 601381042  6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811  Die-try-out worker, stamping ... Tool maker, bench......................... Carbide operator............................ Die finisher...................................... Die maker........................................ Die-maker apprentice................... Plastic tool maker........................ Plastic-fixture builder................... Saw maker...................................... Die maker, electronic...................  383 383 383 383 383 383 383 383 383 383  604362010  7326  605360010  7326  605380010  7326  605382046  7326  606362010  7326  606382014  7326  606382018  7326  609262010  3974  609662010  7326  613667010  7714  Lathe operator, numerical control.......................................... Router set-up operator, numerical control....................... Milling-machine operator, numerical control....................... Numerical-control router operator, printed circuit boards.......................................... Drill-press operator, numerical control.......................................... Jig-boring machine operator, numerical control....................... Numerical-control drill operator, printed circuit boards............... Tool programmer, numerical control.......................................... Numerical-control-machine operator........................................ Liner assembler..............................  614684010 617280010  7532 7326  620261010 620261012  6111 6111  620261022  6117  620261030  6111  459387010 459687010 525361010 525381010 525381014 525664010 553684010 579137030 600260018 600280022  5790 5730 6871 6871 6871 6871 7714 4630 6813 6813  Cruiser.............................................. Laborer, brush clearing............... Shactor.............................................. Butcher apprentice......................... Butcher, all-round......................... Meat dresser.................................... Heat welder, plastics..................... Dispatcher, concrete products ... Model maker, firearms................. Machinist ........................................  287 287 355 355 355 355 387 236 365 365  600280026 600280030  6813 6813  Machinist apprentice..................... Machinist apprentice, automotive.................................. Machinist, automotive................. Machinist, experimental...............  365  620261034  6111  365 365 365  620281010 620281026 620281034  6111 6111 6111  600280034 600280038  6813 6813   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Billet assembler............................ Shot-peening operator, tape control.......................................... Automobile mechanic................... Automobile-mechanic apprentice.................................... Construction-equipment mechanic .................................... Automobile-service-station mechanic .................................... Automotive-cooling-system diagnostic technician............... Air-conditioning mechanic......... Brake repairer................................ Carburetor mechanic.....................  Page  369 369 369  369 369 369 369 211 369 387 387 369 293 293 317 293 293 293 293 293  440/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  620281038 620281042 620281046 620281050 620281054 620281058 620281062 620281066 620281070 620364010  6111 6117 6111 6112 6114 6112 6111 6111 6111 6115  620381010 620381014  6111 6117  620381022 620684018 620684022 620684026  6111 6111 6111 6114  620684034 621221010 621261018 621281010  621281014  6115 2390 8250 6116  6116  621281018  6116  621281022 621281026 621381010 621381014 621684014 623261010  6116 6113 6116 6116 6116 6114  623261014 623281038  6114 6114  623281042 624281010 624281014  6114 6118 6118  Automobile-radiator mechanic... Mechanic, endless track vehicle.......................................... Repairer, heavy.............................. Brake adjuster................................ Clutch rebuilder............................ Motorcycle subassembly repairer........................................ Used-car renovator......................... Field-service representative ........ Flight engineer.............................. Air-conditioning check-out mechanic .................................... Airframe-and-power-plant mechanic .................................... Airframe-and-power-plantmechanic apprentice................. Experimental mechanic 2........... Mechanic, field and service........ Flight-test shop mechanic........... Mechanic, aircraft accessories... Reclamation worker ..................... Experimental mechanic, outboard motors......................... Outboard-motor tester................... Motorboat mechanic.....................  624684010 625261010 625281010  6118 6881 6112  625281014 625281018 625281022 625281026 625281030 625281034 625361010 625381010 629281018 633261010  6112 6114 6111 6114 6114 6114 6112 6114 6118 6154  Diesel-mechanic apprentice....... Engine repairer, service............... Fuel-injection servicer................. Gas-engine repairer....................... Power-saw mechanic..................... Small-engine mechanic............... Diesel-engine erector................... Engine repairer, production....... Dairy-equipment repairer............. Assembly technician.....................  6174  6174 6174  633281018 633281022  6174 6174  633281030 637261010  6174 6156  637261014  6160  637261018 637261026  6179 6160  637261030 637261034  6160 6160  637381010 637381014 638261010  6160 6160 6178  638261014 638261018  6178 6178  290  638261026 638281010  6178 6179  290  638281018  6178  290 290 290 290 290 290  638281022 639281014 640682018 640685010 641682014  6178 6179 7478 7678 7474  649685066 649685090 650582010 650582014 650582018  7679 7679 7642 7642 7642  293 317 301 301 319 301 293 293 293  6118 6118 6812  633261014  633281010 633281014  Front-end mechanic....................... Logging-equipment mechanic ... Maintenance mechanic................. Mechanic, industrial truck......... Motorcycle repairer....................... Tractor mechanic........................... Transmission mechanic............... Tune-up mechanic......................... Vehicle-fuel-systems converter.. Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer........................................  624381010 624381014 624381018  6118  SOC Code  Page  Outboard-motor mechanic........... Farm-equipment mechanic 1 .... Farm-equipment-mechanic apprentice.................................... Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment mechanic .................................... Assembly repairer......................... Farm-equipment mechanic 2___ Farm-machinery set-up mechanic .................................... Greaser.............................................. Diesel-engine tester....................... Diesel mechanic............................  624361014  D.O.T. Number  D.O.T. Title  Mail-processing-equipment mechanic ....................................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  292 293 317 293 293 293 319 292 111 391  319 319 319 319 305  301 319 301 319 319 319 301 319 305 299  305  650582022 650682010  7642 7642  305 305 305  650685010 652585010  7642 7642  652665014 652685022  7644 7644  652685086 652685106 653360010 653360014  7644 7642 7449 7449  653360018 653380010 653382010 653562010  7449 7449 7649 7449  653585010 653662010  7649 7449  653680010 653682010  7449 7449  305 305 301 301  322  D.O.T. Title  Page  Cash-register servicer................. Dictating-transcribing-machine servicer...................................... Office-machine servicer............. Office-machine-servicer apprentice.................................. Statistical-machine servicer___ Air-conditioning installerservicer, window unit........... Environmental-control-system installer-servicer...................... Gas-appliance servicer............... Refrigeration mechanic ............. Solar-energy-system installer... Air and hydronic balancing technician.................................. Evaporative-cooler installer___ Refrigeration unit repairer......... Automated equipment engineertechnician.................................. Machinery erector....................... Manufacturer’s service representative........................... Field service technician............. Fire-fighting-equipment specialist.................................... Millwright...................................... Millwright apprentice................. Coin-machine-service repairer.. Cutting-machine operator......... Book trimmer.............................. Gluing-machine operator, automatic.................................. Layboy tender.............................. Perforating-machine operator... Linotype operator......................... Monotype-keyboard operator... Photocomposing-machine operator...................................... Phototypesetter operator............. Equipment monitor, phototypesetting....................... Typesetting-machine tender__ Photolettering-machine operator...................................... Strickler attendant....................... Cutting-and-printing-machine operator...................................... Stencil-machine operator........... Type-proof reproducer............... Casing-in-line setter................... Folding-machine setter............... Gathering-machine setter........... Perfect-binder setter................... Folding-machine operator......... Side-stitching-machine operator...................................... Collating-machine operator........ Saddle-stitching-machine operator...................................... Stitching-machine setter............. Book-sewing-machine operator 2.................................................  322 322 322 322 322 310 308 310 308 308  .  308 308 308  . .  316 316  . 316 .295, 316 . .  307 316  . . . .  316 325 351 351  . . . . .  351 351 351 356 356  .  356 356 356 356  . . . . .  356 363 363 363 356 351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/441  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  653682014 653682018  7649 7449  D.O.T.  Title  Covering-machine operator.......... Head-bander-and-liner operator........................................  Page 351  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  716382018 716382022  6864 Precision-lens grinder................. 6864 Precision-lens-grinder apprentice................................ 6864 Precision-lens centerer and edger....................................... 6864 Blocker and cutter, contact lens.......................................... 6864 Lens polisher, hand..................... 6864 Precision-lens polisher................ 6155 Radio repairer.............................. 6155 Tape-recorder repairer................ 6155 Television-and-radio repairer___ 6114 Magneto repairer.........................  351  716462010 653682022 7449 653685010 653685014  7649 7649  653685018 653685022 653685026  7661 7649 7649  653685030 653686014 653686018 653686022  7649 8725 8725 8725  653686026  8725  Tinning-machineset-up operator........................................ Bindery worker............................... Book-sewing-machine operator 1 ................................................... Case-making-machine operator.. Magazine repairer......................... Rounding-and-backing-machine operator........................................ Spiral binder................................... Folding-machine feeder................ Gathering-machine feeder............ Perfect-binder feeder-offbearer..  351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351 351  653687010 654382010 659686010 669687022 683222010 692685146 693281026 700281010 700281014  7820 7449 8725 8725 2390 7679 6813 6822 6822  Stitching-machine feederoffbearer ...................................... Collator............................................. Casting-machine operator............ Jogger................................................ Picker................................................ Instructor, weaving........................ Saddle-and-side wire stitcher___ Rocket-engine mechanic.............. Jeweler.............................................. Jeweler apprentice..........................  700281022 700381030 700381042 700381046 706381010 706381030 706381046 709684086 709687018 711381010  6822 6822 6822 6822 6174 6174 6111 7714 8641 6864  Silversmith....................................... Locket maker................................... Ring maker....................................... Sample maker 1.............................. Aliner, typewriter............................ Repairer, typewriter...................... Wheelwright..................................... Torch-straightener-and heater ... Hot-top-liner helper........................ Optical-instrument assembler___  362 362 362 362 322 322 293 387 400 162  712281010 712381014  6865 6865  Dental ceramist................................ Contour wire specialist, denture ........................................ Dental-laboratory technician......... Dental-laboratory-technician apprentice.................................... Orthodontic gold-band maker ... Orthodontic technician................... Artificial-glass-eye maker............. Artificial-plastic-eye maker........... Optician apprentice, dispensing .................................. Optician, dispensing 1...................  358  Lens-mold setter.............................. I^ens mounter 2................................ Machinist, motion-picture equipment.................................... Instructor, watch assembly............ Optician.............................................. Optician apprentice......................... Optician.............................................. Lay-out technician........................... Lathe operator, contact lens.......... Optical-element coater...................  162 162  712381018 6865 712381022 6865 712381026 712381030 713261010 713261014 713361010 713361014  6865 6865 6864 6864 6864 6864  713381010 6864 713681010 6864 714281018 6813 715221010 716280008 716280010 716280014 716381014 716382010 716382014  2390 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  351 351 356 351 287 Ill 351 365 362 362  358 358 358 358 358 162 162 162 162  365 Ill 162 162 162 162 162 162  716681010 716681018 716682018 720281010 720281014 720281018 721281022 722281010 723381010 723381014 723584010 726261010 726281010 726361022 726364014 726381014 726684090 727662010 727684022 729281010 729281022 729381018 730281014 730281018  D.O.T. Title  6151 Instrument repairer....................... 6156 Electrical-appliance repairer........ 6156 Vacuum cleaner repairer............. 6156 Appliance repairer....................... 3711 Electronics assembler, developmental......................... 3711 Electrician, research.................... 6867 Repairer, probe test card, semiconductor wafers............ 3720 Test fixture designer.................... 6151 Production repairer..................... 6153 Reworker, printed circuit board.......................................  Page  162 162 162 162 162 162 303 303 303 319 297 310 310 310 206 206 295 205 295, 297, 303 295 387 387 303 310 333 320  730281026 730281038 730281050  7332 Lead burner, machine.................. 7714 Lead burner................................. 6155 Audio-video repairer.................... 6156 Electric-tool repairer.................... 6432 Street-light repairer...................... 6172 Accordion repairer....................... 6155 Electric-organ inspector and repairer................................... 6172 Fretted-instrument repairer.......... 6172 Piano technician........................... 6172 Violin repairer..............................  730281054 730361010 730361014 730381010 730381026 730381034 730381038 730381042 730381058 730681010  6172 Wind-instrument repairer............. 6172 Piano tuner.................................... 6172 Pipe-organ tuner and repairer ... 6172 Accordion tuner........................... 6172 Harp regulator............................... 6172 Metal-reed tuner........................... 6172 Organ-pipe voicer........................ 6172 Percussion-instrument repairer... 6172 Tuner, percussion......................... 6172 Piano regulator-inspector.............  320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320  730684022 730684026 730684094 739381018 739381022 739687198  6172 Bow rehairer............................... 6172 Chip tuner.................................... 6172 Tone regulator.............................. 6811 Die maker..................................... 6811 Die-maker apprentice................... 5244 Venetian-blind cleaner and repairer................................... 2390 Instructor, decorating................... 3719 Experimental-box tester................ 6413 Stone repairer............................... 6853 Automobile upholsterer................  320 320 320 383 383  740221010 761281014 779684058 780381010 780381014 780381018  6853 Automobile-upholsterer apprentice................................ 6853 Furniture upholsterer.....................  303 320 320 320  282 Ill 206 327 384 384 384  442/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  780381022  6853  780381026 780381030 780681010 780684122 781381018 783361010  6853 6854 6853 6853 6854 6854  783381018  6854  783381022 783381026 788222010 788261010  6854 6854 2390 6854  788381010 788381014 789222010  6854 6854 2390  794687026 795684010 795684022  7740 7759 7759  795687010 801361014 801361018  7661 6473 6473  801361022 801381010 801684026 804281010 804281014 805261010 805261014  6473 6473 6473 6824 6824 6814 6814  805361010 805361014 805381010 806227010  6814 6814 6814 2390  806281038  6116  D.O.T. Title Furniture-upholsterer apprentice............................. Hearse upholsterer................... Pad hand .................................. Upholsterer, inside................... Upholstery repairer................. Leather stamper...................... Custom-leather-products maker.................................... Harness maker......................... Luggage maker........................ Saddle maker........................... Instructor.................................. Orthopedic-boot-and-shoe designer and maker............. Cobbler.................................... Shoemaker, custom................. Instructor, apparel manufacture......................... Forwarder................................ Caser.......................................... Tipper.......................................  Page . . . . . .  384 384 378 384 384 378  . .  378 378  . . .  378 378 Ill  . . .  378 378 378  . . . .  Ill 351 351 351  Coverer, looseleaf binder........ . Structural-steel worker.............. . Structural-steel-worker apprentice............................... . Tank setter................................ . Assembler, metal building....... . Reinforcing-metal worker........ . Sheet-metal worker................... . Sheet-metal-worker apprentice . Boilermaker apprentice............ . Boilermaker 1.......................... .  351 346 346 346 346 346 344 344 353 353  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  810382010 810384010 810384014 810664010 810684010 811482010  7332 7714 7714 7714 7714 7332  811684010  7714  811684014 812360010  7714 7332  812682010  7332  813684010 814382010  7714 7532  814682010  7532  814684010 815380010  7532 7332  815382010  7332  815382014  7532  815682010 815682014  7532 7532  816364010 816464010 816684010 819281010 819281014 819281022 819361010  7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714  819361014 819381010 819384008  7714 7714 7714  819384010 819684010 819685010 820662010 821261010  7714 7714 7532 6932 6157  D.O.T. Title  Page  Welding-machine operator, arc.. Welder apprentice, arc............... Welder, arc ................................ Welder, gun................................ Welder, tack .............................. Welding-machine operator, gas .......................................... Welder apprentice, gas...............  387 387 387 387 387  Welder, gas................................ Welder setter, resistance machine.................................... Welding-machine operator, resistance................................ Brazer, assembler........................ Welding-machine operator, friction..................................... Welding-machine operator, ultrasonic................................ Welder, explosion...................... Welder setter, electron-beam machine.................................... Welding-machine operator, electron beam.........................  387  Welding-machine operator, electroslag............................... Laser-beam-machine operator ... Welding-machine operator, thermit..................................... Arc cutter.................................... Thermal cutter, hand 1............... Thermal cutter, hand 2............... Lead burner ................................ Lead-burner apprentice............... Welder, experimental................. Welder-fitter................................  387 387  387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387 387  806361026 806381062  6111 6432  806684038  6111  806684110 807261010  6116 6116  Boilerhouse mechanic............... . Boilermaker fitter...................... . Boilermaker 2........................... . Instructor, rocket-motor case assembly................................ . Mechanic, aircraft rigging and controls.................................. . New-car get-ready mechanic ... . Installer, electrical, plumbing, mechanical............................. .333, Automobile-accessories installer.................................. . Pressure sealer-and-tester........ . Aircraft body repairer............... .  807267010 807281010 807281014 807361010 807381010 807381014 807381018 807381022 807381030 807484010  6115 6115 6115 6115 6115 6116 6115 6115 6115 6115  Shop estimator......................... Truck-body builder................... Truck-body-builder apprentice.. Automobile-body customizer... Automobile-body repairer........ Bonded structures repairer....... Frame repairer........................... Service mechanic...................... Auto-body repairer, fiberglass .. Frame straightener....................  . . . . . . . . . .  292 292 292 292 292 290 292 292 292 292  821261026 821281010 821361010 821361018 821361022 821361026 821361030 821361038 821667010 821684014  6433 6157 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 8643 8643  Trouble shooter 2........................ Television-cable installer............ Cable installer-repairer............... Line erector................................ Line installer, street railway....... Line repairer.............................. Line-erector apprentice............... Tower erector............................. Helper, electrical........................ Tower erector helper...................  314 314 314 314 314 314 314 314 400 400  807664010 807684010  6111 6115  293  807684018 807684022  6116 6111  Muffler installer........................ . Automobile-bumper straightener........................... . Burnisher and bumper.............. . Floor service worker, spring ... .  821687010 822261010 822261022 822281010  6433 6151 6158 6151  Steel-post installer...................... Electrician, office........................ Station installer-and-repairer__ Automatic-equipment technician................................  314 297 324   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  353 353 353 Ill 290 293 340 293 290 290  821261014 821261022  292 290 293  387 387 387 387 359  6157 6433  Welder-fitter apprentice............. Welder-assembler........................ Welder apprentice. combination............................. Welder, combination................... Welder, production line............. Welding-machine tender............ Motor-room controller............... Community-antenna-television line technician ........................ Line maintainer........................... Service restorer, emergency.......  387 387  297 314 314  297  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/443  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  822281014 822281018  6151 6158  822281022  6151  822281026 822281030  6151 6151  822281034  6151  822361014 822361018 822361022 822381010 822381014 822381018  6151 6432 6432 6151 6157 6151  822381022 822664010  6151 8643  822684010 822684014  6151 8643  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  297  828281014  6153  324  828281022  6153  297 297  829261018 829281022 829361010 829361014 829684022  D.O.T. Title  Page  Central-office repairer................. Maintenance mechanic, telephone................................ Private-branch-exchange repairer................................... Signal maintainer........................ Technician, plant and maintenance............................. Technician, submarine cable equipment................................ Central-office installer............... Protective-signal installer.......... Protective-signal repairer............ Equipment installer.................... Line installer-repairer................. Private-branch-exchange installer................................... Telegraph-plant maintainer........ Protective-signal-installer helper....................................... Frame wirer................................ Protective-signal-repairer helper.......................................  297 333 333 297 314  Public-address servicer............... Radio interference investigator .. Radio mechanic ......................... Antenna installer, satellite communications...................... Avionics technician.................... Electrician, radio........................ Rigger.......................................... Television installer...................... Electrician................................... Electrician apprentice.................  297 314 297  Airport electrician...................... Neon-sign servicer...................... Street-light servicer.................... Electrician.................................. Electric-track-switch maintainer............................. Elevator examiner-and-adjuster. Elevator repairer........................ Elevator-repairer apprentice__ Elevator constructor................. Automatic-window-seat-and-toplift repairer............................. Electrician..................................  333 333 333 333  297  Page  6153 6151 6433 6433 8643  Electronics-mechanic apprentice.............................. . 295, Radioactivity-instrument maintenance technician........ . Electrician, maintenance.......... . Sound technician...................... . Cable splicer............................. . Cable-splicer apprentice............ . Electrician helper...................... .  295 333 297 314 314 400  829684026 840381010 840381014 840381018 840681010 840684010 840687010 841381010 842361010 842361014  8643 6442 6442 6442 6442 6442 8644 6443 6424 6424  Electrician helper...................... Painter....................................... Painter apprentice, shipyard__ Painter, shipyard ...................... Painter, stage settings............... Glass tinter................................ Painter helper, shipyard............ Paperhanger.............................. Lather........................................ Lather apprentice....................  . . . . . . . . . .  400 337 337 337 337 337 400 337 332 332  842361018 842361022 842361026 842381010 842381014 842664010 842681010 844364010 844364014 844461010  6444 6444 6444 6424 6444 6424 6424 6463 6463 6463  Plasterer................................... Plasterer apprentice................. Plasterer, molding.................. Dry-wall applicator................. Stucco mason........................... Taper....................................... Dry-wall applicator................. Cement mason......................... Cement-mason apprentice....... Concrete-stone finisher............  . . . . . . . . . .  339 339 339 332 339 332 332 330 330 330  844684010 844687010 850387010 850467010 850684014  6463 8648 1472 1472 8648  . . . .  330 400 16 16  859687010 860281010 860281014 860381014 860381018  8650 6422 6422 6422 6422  Concrete rubber...................... Cement sprayer helper, nozzle Inspector of dredging............. Grade checker......................... Horizontal-earth-boringmachine-operator helper__ Blaster helper........................... Carpenter, maintenance.......... Carpenter, ship....................... Boatbuilder apprentice, wood . Boatbuilder, wood...................  . . . . . .  400 400 328 328 328 328  860381022 860381026 860381030 860381034 860381038 860381042 860381046 860381050 860381054 860381058  6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422  Carpenter.................................. Carpenter apprentice............... Carpenter, bridge.................... Carpenter, mold...................... Carpenter, railcar.................... Carpenter, rough .................... Form builder........................... Joiner....................................... Joiner apprentice .................... Shipwright..............................  . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ..  328 328 328 328 328 328 328 328 328 328  860381062 860381066 860381070 860664010 860664014 860664018 860681010 860684010 860684014 861361010  6422 6422 6422 6422 8642 8642 6422 6422 6422 6413  Shipwright apprentice............. .. Tank builder and erector........ .. Tank erector............................. .. Carpenter 1.............................. .. Joiner helper........................... .. Shipwright helper.................... .. Carpenter 2.............................. .. Builder, beam......................... .. Sider......................................... .. Composition-stone applicator.. ..  328 328 328 328  861361014  6413  Monument setter...................... ..  327  299  297  297 297 400 297 400  823261010 823261014 823261018 823261022  6151 6433 6151 6151  823281010 823281014 823281022 823361010 824261010 824261014  6151 6151 6151 6155 6432 6432  824281010 824281018 824381010 824681010 825261010  6432 6432 6432 6432 6151  825261014 825281030 825281034 825361010 825381014  6176 6176 6176 6176 6111  825381030  6432  825381034 825684010 827261010 827261014  6432 8632 6156 6156  827361014 827464010  6160 6156  827661010 828251010  6156 6153  828261010  6155  Electrician apprentice............... Electrician helper, automotive.. Electrical-appliance servicer__ Electrical-appliance-servicer apprentice.............................. Refrigeration mechanic............ Air-conditioning installer, domestic................................ Household-appliance installer .. Electronic-sales-and-service technician.............................. Electronic-organ technician __  828261014 828261018 828281010  6153 3711 6153  Field engineer........................... 295, 299 Senior technician, controls....... 206 Electronics mechanic............... 295, 299   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  D.O.T. Title  297 297 297 297 303 333 333  297 304 304 304 304 293 333 333  400 310 310 308 310 310 295 303  400 400  328 328 328 327  444/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  861381010 861381014 861381018 861381022 861381026  6412 6412 6412 6412 6412  861381030 861381038 861381042 861381046  6413 6413 6413 6463  861381050 861381054 861381058 861664010 861664014 861664018 861684010 861684014 861684018 861687010  6463 6414 6414 6479 6479 6479 6412 6412 6414 8641  861687014 862261010 862281010 862281014 862281018  8641 6450 6450 6450 6160  862281022 862361010 862361014 862361018 862361022  6450 6160 6450 6450 6450  862381014 862381022 862381026 862381030 862381034 862681010 862682010 862684018 862684022 862684034  6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 8645 8645 6450  863364010 863364014 863381010  6465 6465 6465  863381014 863664010 863684010  6465 6465 6422  864381010 864687010 865361010 865381010  6462 8648 6464 6464  865381014 865684010 866381010 866381014 866684010 869281010  6464 6115 6468 6468 6468 6160  D.O.T. Title  Acid-tank liner........................... Bricklayer.................................... Bricklayer.................................... Bricklayer apprentice................. Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory tile ......................... Marble setter.............................. Stonemason ................................ Stonemason apprentice............... Terrazzo worker......................... Terrazzo-worker apprentice....... Tile setter.................................... Tile setter apprentice................... Marble finisher........................... Terrazzo finisher.......................... Tile finisher................................ Cupola patcher........................... Patcher......................................... Tile setter.................................... Bricklayer helper, firebrick and refractory tile ......................... Patcher helper............................. Pipe fitter.................................... Coppersmith................................ Coppersmith apprentice.............. Oil-bumer-servicer-andinstaller.................................... Pipe fitter .................................... Furnace installer......................... Gas-main fitter ........................... Pipe fitter, diesel engine 1 ........ Steam service inspector..............  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  D.O.T. Title  Page  ill ill ill ill  869361018 869381010 869381034 869567010  6422 6422 6422 8646  Sign erector-and-repairer............ House repairer............................. Timber framer............................. Surveyor helper...........................  328 328 328 400  ill ill ill ill 330  869664014 869684046 869684050 869687010 869687026 869687034 869687042 891687010 891687018 899261014  6479 6560 6424 8648 8710 8648 8642 5244 5244 6100  Construction worker 1 ............... Roustabout.................................. Sheetrock applicator................... Awning-hanger helper............... Construction worker 2............... House-mover helper.................. Timber-framer helper................. Chimney sweep........................... Project-crew worker.................. Maintenance repairer, industrial..................................  400 343 332 400 400 400 400 282 282  Page  330 347 347 400 400 400 ill  m 347 400 400 340 340 340 308 340 308 340 340 340  Industrial-gas fitter...................... Pipe fitter, diesel engine 2........ Pipe-fitter apprentice................... Plumber....................................... Plumber apprentice.................... Plumber....................................... Pipe cutter................................... Pipe-fitter helper......................... Pipe-fitter helper......................... Water-softener servicer-andinstaller...................................  340 340 340 340 340 340 340 400 400  Insulation-worker apprentice__ Insulation worker........................ Cork insulator, refrigeration plant......................................... Pipe coverer and insulator.......... Blower insulator......................... Composition-weatherboard applier..................................... Carpet layer................................ Carpet-layer helper.................... Mirror installer........................... Glazier.........................................  336 336  Glazier apprentice...................... Glass installer............................. Roofer......................................... Roofer apprentice........................ Roofer applicator........................ Furnace installer-and-repairer, hot air.....................................   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  340  336 336 336 328 329 400 335 335 335 292 342 342 342 308  307  899364010 899381010 899664010 900683010 902683010 903683010 903683014 903683018 904383010 904683010  6412 6179 8648 8213 8213 8213 8213 8213 8212 8212  Chimney repairer........................ Maintenance repairer, building .. Diver helper................................ Concrete-mixing-truck driver__ Dump-truck driver...................... Explosives-truck driver.............. Powder-truck driver.................... Tank-truck driver........................ Tractor-trailer-truck driver........ Log-truck driver.........................  327 307 400 397 397 397 397 397 397 397  905483010 905663010 905663014 905663018 905683010 906683010 906683014 906683018  8213 8213 8213 8212 8213 8214 8214 8214  397 397 397 397 397 397 397  906683022  8214  Milk driver.................................. Garbage collector driver............ Truck driver, heavy.................... Van driver.................................... Water-truck driver 2..................... Food-service driver.................... Liquid-fertilizer servicer............ Telephone-directory-distributor driver....................................... Truck driver, light......................  909663010 909663010 911667018 913363010  8215 8212 8646 8215  913463010 913663014 913663018 919223010  8215 8215 8214 2390  919663018 919663022 919663026  8213 8214 8213  Hostler......................................... Hostler......................................... Sounder....................................... Bus driver, day-haul or farm charter..................................... Bus driver.................................... Mobile-lounge driver................. Driver......................................... Instructor, bus, trolley, and taxi........................................... Driver-utility worker................... Escort-vehicle driver................... Tow-truck operator....................  919687010 921364010 921664014 921667014 921687014 921687030 922687082 929683010 930664014 930666010  4753 5790 6177 5790 5790 5790 5790 8318 8650 8650  Checker....................................... Rigging slinger........................... Rigger.......................................... Chaser......................................... Choke setter................................ Rigger, third .............................. Pulp piler.................................... Logging-tractor operator............ Clean-out-driller helper............. Driller helper..............................  253 287 287 287 287 287 287 287 400 400  930667010 930687010  8650 8650  Shale planer operator helper....... Bottom-hole-pressure-recordingoperator helper........................  400  397 397 393 397 400 393 393 393 393 111 397 397 397  400  Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index/445  D.O.T. Number  soc Code  930687014 939364010  8648 8650  939663010  8650  950362014 950382010 950382018 950382022 950382026  D.O.T. Title  Page 400  6931 6931 6931 6931 6931  Core-drill-operator helper.......... Observer helper, seismic prospecting.............................. Observer helper, gravity prospecting.............................. Refrigerating engineer............... Boiler operator........................... Gas-engine operator................... Rotary-rig engine operator........ Stationary engineer....................  950382030 952167014 952362014 952362018 952362022 952362026 952362030 952362034 952362038 952362042  6931 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932  Stationary-engineer apprentice... Load dispatcher........................... Feeder-switchboard operator__ Hydroelectric-station operator ... Power-reactor operator............... Substation operator.................... Substation operator apprentice... Switchboard operator................. Switchboard operator................. Turbine operator.........................  379 359 359 359 359 359 359 359 359 359  952364010 952367014 952381010 952382010 952382014 952382018 952687010 953687010 954382010  6432 6932 6432 6932 6932 6932 5244 8645 6910  333 359 333 359 359 359 282 400  954382014  6910  Trouble shooter 1........................ Switchboard operator assistant .. Switch inspector......................... Diesel-plant operator.................. Power operator........................... Power-plant operator.................. Hydroelectric-plant maintainer .. Gas-meter-installer helper.......... Pump-station operator, waterworks.............................. Water-treatment-plant operator ..  955222010  6910  955362010  6910  955382010 955382014 955585010  6910 6910 6910  959367010 961364010 962167014 962361010 962382010  6433 3240 3240  962382014 970281010 970281018 970281026 970361014 970361018 970381010 970381030 970381034 971261010  3719  971381010  6842  971381014 971381018 971381022 971381026 971381030 971381034  6842 7644 6842 6842 6842 6842  6868  3719 6868 6868  6863 6842 3250 6868  6842 6868  6842   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Instructor, wastewater-treatment plant......................................... Wastewater-treatment-plant operator................................... Clarifying-plant operator............ Waste-treatment operator............ W astewater-treatment-pl ant attendant.................................. Electric powerline examiner....... Double......................................... Program assistant........................ Optical-effects layout person__ Recordist..................................... Sound cutter................................ Airbrush artist............................. Photograph retoucher................. Sketch maker, photoengraving .. Repeat chief................................ Artist, suspect............................. Colorist, photography................. Retoucher, photoengraving........ Spotter, photographic................. Etcher, hand................................ Etcher apprentice, photoengraving........................ Etcher, photoengraving............. Offset-plate maker...................... Photoengraver............................. Photoengraver apprentice.......... Photoengraving finisher............. Photoengraving printer...............  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  971381038 971381040  6842 6842  400 400 379 379 379 379 379  971381050 971381054 971382014 971382018  6842 6842 7444 7644  971684010 971684014 971685010 972281010 972281014 972281018 972282010  7756 7756 7644 6842 6842 6842 7444  972282014  7444  972381010 972381014  6842 6842  972381022 972381026 972382010  6842 6842 7444  972382014 972382018  7444 6842  972384010 972384014  7671 7671  385 385 111  385 385 385 385 314 195 195 373 206 206 373 373 363 363 192 373 363 373 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363  972664010 972682010 972682014 973381010 973381014 973381026 973381030 973681010 976361010 976380010  8619 7644 7644 6841 6841 6841 6841 6863 6868  7671  976381010 976381014 976381018 976382010 976382014 976382018 976382022 976382026  6868 6868 6868  976382034  7444  976385010  7671  976487010 976564010 976665010 976681010 976682010 976682014  7759 4752 7671  976682018 976682022  7671 7671  7671 7671 7671 6868  7671  6868  7671 7671  D.O.T. Title  Page  Photoengraving proofer............. Photoengraving-proofer apprentice................................  363  Stripper....................................... Stripper apprentice...................... Photographer, photoengraving... Repeat-photocomposing-machine operator................................... Blocker 2 ................................... Stager.......................................... Roller-print tender...................... Process artist.............................. Process stripper........................... Process-artist apprentice............. Scanner operator.........................  363 363 363  Laser-beam-color-scanner operator................................... Lithographic plate maker............ Lithographic-plate-maker apprentice................................ Stripper, photolithographic........ Transferrer.................................. Photographer apprentice. lithographic............................. Photographer, lithographic........ Photo mask maker, electronbeam ....................................... Photo mask processor................. Platemaker, semiconductor packages..................................  363  363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 373 373  Litho-make-ready assistant........ Plate grainer................................ Plate-grainer apprentice............. Compositor.................................. Compositor apprentice............... Make-up arranger....................... Proofsheet corrector.................. Galley stripper............................. Reproduction technician............. Computer-controlled-colorphotograph-printer operator ...  363 363 363 356 356 356 356 356 373  Film laboratory technician 1 __ Microfiche duplicator................. Projection printer....................... Camera operator, title................. Color-printer operator................. Film developer........................... Photostat operator...................... Computer-output-microfiche operator................................... Step-and-repeat reduction camera operator...................... Microfilm processor..................  373 373 373 373 373 373 373  Photograph finisher.................... Detailer, school photographs.... Take-down sorter....................... Developer................................... Film printer................................ Printer operator, black-andwhite................................... Rectification printer.................... Microfilm-camera operator........  373 373 373 373 373  373  373 363 373  373 373 373  446/Occupational Outlook Handbook  D.O.T. Number  soc  Code  D.O.T. Title  Page  976684014 976684018  7671 7753  Film laboratory technician........ Mounter, hand.............................  373 373  976684022 976684026 976685010 976685014 976685018 976685022 976685026 976685030 976687018  7759 7759 7678 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 4753  373 373 373 373 373 373 373 373  351  977381010  6844  Print washer................................ Splicer......................................... Cutter.......................................... Developer, automatic................. Film laboratory technician 2 — Mounter, automatic.................... Print developer, automatic........ Utility worker, film processing .. Photofinishing laboratory worker..................................... Bookbinder..................................  977381014  6844  Bookbinder, apprentice.............   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  253 351  D.O.T. Number  SOC Code  977684018 977684022 977687010 979281018 979381010 979381018 979381022  7740 7752 7850 6823 6823 6842 6842  979382018 979382022 979682014 979684010 979684026 979687018  D O T. Title  Page 351 351 351 363 363 363  6849 7644  Presser ......................................... Stitcher, hand............................. Collator, hand............................. Engraver, picture........................ Engraver 1 .................................. Paste-up copy-camera operator .. Paste-up copy-camera operator apprentice................................ Graphic arts technician............... Pantographer..............................  7644 7757 8616 7820  Blueprinting-machine operator .. Carbon printer............................. Print-shop helper........................ Plate gager..................................  363 363 363 363  363 363 363  Index to Occupations Page  A Account executives, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives............................................... 222 Accountants and auditors.......................................................... 14 Accounting clerks..................................................................... 230 Actors, directors, and producers..............................................195 Actuaries.......................................................................................65 Administrative secretaries, see: Secretaries............................ 245 Administrators, health services, see: Health services managers................................................................................. 27 Administrators, school, see: Education administrators............. 20 Admissions officers, see: Education administrators...................20 Adult and vocational education teachers..................................Ill Advertising managers.................................................................. 36 Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers.................... 53 Aerospace engineers....................................................................53 Affirmative action coordinators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......... 38 Agents and brokers, insurance.................................................215 Agents and brokers, real estate.................................................218 Agents, reservation and transportation ticket...........................243 Agricultural commodity inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................32 Agricultural equipment mechanics, see: Farm equipment mechanics.............................................................305 Agricultural quarantine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................32 Agricultural scientists.................................................................. 73 Agricultural technicians, see: Science technicians.................. 210 Agriculturists, see: Agricultural scientists..................................73 Agronomists, see: Agricultural scientists..................................73 Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics..........308 Air-conditioning mechanics, automotive................................. 293 Air safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................................32 Air traffic controllers................................................................ 200 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists................................290 Aircraft pilots............................................................................ 391 Airline reservation and ticket agents........................................ 243 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents............................................... 262 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ... 32 Animal breeders, see: Agricultural scientists.............................73 Animal scientists, see: Agricultural scientists........................... 73 Animators, see: Visual artists...................................................192 Announcers................................................................................181 Anthropologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners................................................................................... 88 Apartment managers, see: Property and real estate managers................................................................................. 40 Apiculturists, see: Agricultural scientists..................................78 Apparel workers.........................................................................349 Appliance repairers, home........................................................310 Applications programmers, see: Computer programmers.......................................................................... 203 Arbitrators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................... 38 Archeologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners................................................................................... 88  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page Architects...............................................................................................60 Architects, landscape..........................................................................61 Archivists and curators.................................................................... 112 Armed Forces occupations..............................................................401 Art directors, see: Designers.......................................................... 188 Artists, see: Visual artists................................................................ 192 Assemblers, precision......................................................................375 Astronomers ......................................................................................... 82 Astrophysicists, see: Physicists and astronomers........................ 82 Attorneys, see: Lawyers.................................................................... 84 Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians...............201 Audiologists......................................................................................... 155 Auditors ............................................................................................... 14 Automatic equipment technicians, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................................................297 Automotive body repairers..............................................................292 Automotive mechanics......................................................................293 Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating machine operators......................................................................... 372 Automotive service technicians, see: Automotive mechanics.......................................................................................293 Aviation safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................32 Avionics technicians, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................................................297  B Babysitters, see: Private household workers..............................283 Bakers, bread and pastry, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers..................................................................265 Bank branch managers, see: Financial managers........................ 24 Bank tellers.........................................................................................229 Barbers ................................................................................................ 275 Bartenders and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage service workers............................................................ 267 Beauticians, see: Cosmetologists and related workers............................................................................................ 277 Beauty operators, see: Cosmetologists and related workers............................................................................................ 277 Bibliographers, see: Librarians.......................................................119 Bindery workers................................................................................. 325 Biochemists, see: Biological scientists........................................... 74 Biological scientists ............................................................................74 Biological technicians, see: Science technicians ...................... 210 Biologists, see: Biological scientists............................................... 74 Bleaching and dyeing machine operators,textile........................ 381 Blue-collar worker supervisors...................................................... 352 Boat engine mechanics....................................................................319 Body repairers, automotive............................................................ 292 Boilermakers....................................................................................... 353 Bookbinders.........................................................................................351 Bookbinding workers........................................................................351 Bookkeepers and accounting clerks .............................................230 Bordereau clerks, see: Typists...................................................... 254 Botanists, see: Biological scientists ............................................... 74 Bricklayers and stonemasons.......................................................... 327 Broadcast news analysts, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.......................................................181 Broadcast technicians....................................................................... 201 Brokers, insurance, see: Insurance sales workers.................... 215 447  448/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Page  Page  Brokers, real estate, see: Real estate agents and brokers.............................................................................................218 Brokers, securities and financial services, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives............................ 222 Building custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners........................ 282 Building inspectors.............................................................................. 16 Bulldozer operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...........................................................................................395 Bus mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics........................................301 Busdrivers ...........................................................................................393 Business machine repairers, see: Office machine and cash register servicers...........................................................322 Butchers and meatcutters................................................................ 355 Butlers, see: Private household workers......................................283 Buyers, wholesale and retail trade ................................................. 48  Claims investigators, see: Insurance claims and policy processing clerks....................................................................237 Classifiers, see: Librarians........................................................ 119 Cleaners, see: Janitors and cleaners........................................ 282 Clerical supervisors and managers .......................................... 231 Clerk-typists, see: Typists........................................................254 Clerks, see: Bookkeepers and accounting clerks................................. 230 File clerks.......................................................................... 235 General office clerks......................................................... 236 Mail carriers and postal clerks..........................................239 Receptionists and information clerks............................... 242 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.............................................................243 Statistical clerks ................................................................ 247 Stock clerks.......................................................................249 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks............................ 253 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists............................................ 81 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................... 158 Coin machine servicers and repairers, see: Vending machine servicers and repairers............................................325 College and university faculty ................................................. 113 College career planning and placement counselors, see: Counselors......................................................................115 College presidents, see: General managers and top executives................................................................................25 College student development specialists, see: Counselors.............................................................................. 115 Commentators, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters......................................................................181 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers................................................................................. 295 Commercial artists, see: Visual artists..................................... 192 Commercial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers..................... 295 Communications-center operators, see: Telephone operators................................................................................. 251 Communications equipment mechanics................................... 297 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists................................................................................180 Community health nurses, see: Registered nurses.................. 150 Community outreach workers, see: Human services workers.....................................................................................99 Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners..........96 Companions, see: Private household workers.........................283 Compensation managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers......................... 38 Compliance officers....................................................................32 Composers, see: Musicians...................................................... 198 Compositors and typesetters .................................................... 356 Computer and peripheral equipment operators....................... 233 Computer programmers.............................................................203 Computer service technicians...................................................299 Computer systems analysts ........................................................ 66 Conciliators, labor relations, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers......................... 38 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers................................... 330 Conductors, orchestra, see: Musicians..................................... 198 Conservation scientists................................................................ 76 Conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists................................................................................... 76 Construction and building inspectors.........................................76 Construction equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics.................................................317 Construction laborers, see: Construction trades helpers ...................................................................................400 Construction machinery operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................. 395  C Cabinetmakers, see: Woodworking occupations........................ 389 Cable equipment technicians, submarine, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................297 Cable splicers..................................................................................... 314 Cable TV line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers.........................................................314 Camera operators, printing, see: Lithographic and photoengraving workers.............................................................. 363 Camera operators, television, video, and motion pictures, see: Photographers and camera operators............... 189 Career planning counselors, see: Counselors.............................. 115 Caretakers, see: Private household workers................................283 Carpenters ...........................................................................................328 Carpet installers................................................................................. 329 Cartographers, see: Surveyors...........................................................62 Cartoonists, see: Visual artists....................................................... 192 Caseworkers, see: Social workers................................................. 101 Cash register servicers...................................................................... 322 Cashiers.................................................................................................213 Catalogers, see: Librarians...............................................................119 Catholic priests, see: Roman Catholic priests.............................109 Cement masons and terrazzo workers..........................................330 Central office equipment installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................297 Central office operators, see: Telephone operators...................251 Ceramic engineers................................................................................57 Checkers, see: Cashiers.......................................................................................213 Drafters .......................................................................................205 Checkout clerks, see: Cashiers.......................................................213 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers....................................265 Chemical engineers..............................................................................54 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians........................ 210 Chemists.................................................................................................78 Chief executive officers, see: General managers and top executives....................................................................................25 Child abuse workers, see: Human services workers...................99 Child health associates see: Physician assistants .......................145 Child welfare workers, see: Social workers................................ 101 Childcare workers............................................................................. 276 Chiropractors....................................................................................... 124 Choral directors, see: Musicians................................................... 198 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers...................197 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners.........................96 Civil engineering technicians.......................................................... 206 Civil engineers..................................................................................... 55 Claims adjusters, see: Insurance claims and policy processing clerks............................................................................237 Claims examiners, see: Insurance claims and policy processing clerks........................................................................... 237  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Index to Occupations/449  Page  Page  Construction trades helpers......................................................400 Consultants, management, see: Management analysts and consultants..........................................................34 Consumer safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................. 32 Contract specialists, see: Purchasing agents and managers................................................................................. 43 Controllers, air traffic .............................................................. 200 Controllers, financial, see: Financial managers......................... 24 Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers......................... 265 Private household workers.................................................283 Copy writers, see: Writers and editors..................................... 186 Correction officers..................................................................... 257 Correspondents...........................................................................183 Cosmetologists and related workers........................................ 277 Cost estimators.............................................................................18 Counselors................................................................................. 115 Counter and rental clerks......................................................... 214 Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers...................................................................................267 Court reporters, see: Stenographers ........................................ 248 Crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.................................................................................395 Credit managers, see: Financial managers................................ 24 Criminologists, see: Sociologists............................................... 94 Critics, see: Reporters and correspondents.............................. 183 Curators.......................................................................................112 Custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners.....................................282 Custom tailors and sewers, see: Apparel workers.................. 349 Customers’ engineers, see: Computer service technicians............................................299 Office machine and cash register servicers......................322 Customs agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents.................................................................................... 262 Customs inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................................32 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Apparel workers............. 349  Directors, see: Actors, directors, andproducers ...................... 195 Directors of admissions, see: Education administrators................................................................................... 20 Directors of student services, see: Education administrators................................................................................... 20 Disk jockeys, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters............................................................................. 181 Dispensing opticians..........................................................................162 See also: Optometrists ............................................................ 127 Doctors, chiropractic........................................................................124 Doctors, medical................................................................................129 Doctors, osteopathic..........................................................................129 Drafters................................................................................................ 205 Driver-sales workers, see: Truckdrivers ..................................... 397 Druggists, see: Pharmacists.............................................................140 Drywall workers and lathers.......................................................... 332 Dyers, see: Textile machinery operators..................................... 381  D Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural scientists.............................. 73 Dancers and choreographers.....................................................197 Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process workers...................................................................................373 Data entry keyers.......................................................................234 Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer service technicians................................................................ 299 Data typists, see: Data entry keyers........................................ 234 Day workers, see: Private household workers......................... 283 Deans, see: Education administrators........................................ 20 Demographers, see: Sociologists............................................... 94 Dental assistants.........................................................................270 Dental ceramists, see: Dental laboratory technicians............. 358 Dental hygienists....................................................................... 160 Dental laboratory technicians.................................................. 358 Dentists...................................................................................... 125 Designers................................................................................... 188 Detailers, see: Drafters.............................................................205 Detectives...................................................................................262 Developers, film, see: Photographic process workers........... 373 Dictating-machine transcribers and typists, see: Stenographers........................................................................ 248 Diemakers ................................................................................. 383 Diesel mechanics.......................................................................301 Dietitians and nutritionists........................................................136 Dining room attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers..................................................................... 267  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  E Ecologists, see: Biological scientists .............................................74 Economists.............................................................................................90 Editorial artists, see: Visual artists............................................... 192 Editorial assistants, see: Writers and editors.............................. 186 Editorial writers, see: Reporters and correspondents............... 183 Editors...................................................................................................186 Education administrators.................................................................... 20 Education and training managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialistsand managers.............38 EEG technologists and technicians............................................... 164 EKG technicians .............................................................. Electric power generating plant operators and .power distributors and dispatchers........................................................ 359 Electrical and electronics engineers ...............................................55 Electrical and electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians..............................................................206 Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors........................................................................................... 16 Electrical powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers........................................................ 314 Electricians.......................................................................................... 333 Electrocardiograph techicians.........................................................165 Electroencephalographic technologists andtechnicians............. 164 Electroneurodiagnostic technologists, see: EEG technologists and technicians.....................................................164 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers................ 303 Electronics engineers..........................................................................55 Electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment.......................................................................................295 Electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians.............206 Elementary school teachers............................................................ 117 Elevator constructors........................................................................304 Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors........................................................................................... 16 Elevator installers and repairers.................................................... 304 Elevator mechanics........................................................................... 304 Emergency medical technicians.....................................................167 Employee-benefits and welfare managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists andmanagers.............38 Employee relations specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................ 38 Employment counselors, see: Counselors....................................115 Employment interviewers..................................................................21 Engineering technicians....................................................................206 Engineers.............................................................................................. 51 See also: Aerospace engineers.......................................................... 53 Chemical engineers............................................................ 54  450/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Page  Page  Civil engineers.................................................................... 55 Electrical and electronics engineers .............................. 55 Industrial engineers.............................................................56 Mechanical engineers.........................................................56 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers.......................................................................... 57 Mining engineers................................................................ 57 Nuclear engineers...............................................................58 Petroleum engineers...........................................................59 Engineers, stationary........................................................................379 Entomologists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................... 73 Environmental health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................................. 32 Equal employment opportunity counselors and representatives, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... 32 Equipment rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks................................................................................................ 214 Excavating and loading machine operators, see: Material moving equipment operators......................................395 Extruding machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators.......................................................381  Furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics................................................................ 308 Furnace operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators........................................... 366 Furniture and wood finishers, see: Woodworking occupations..................................................................................... 389 Furniture upholsterers ...................................................................... 384  F  Fallers and buckers, see: Timber cutting and logging occupations.............................................................. 287 Family daycare providers, see: Childcare workers.................276 Family service workers, see: Social workers........................... 101 Farm equipment mechanics...................................................... 305 Farm operators and managers...................................................285 Fashion artists, see: Visual artists............................................ 192 Fashion designers, see: Designers............................................ 188 Fast-food cooks.........................................................................265 Fast-food workers, see: Food and beverage service workers...................................................................................267 FBI special agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents..................................................................262 Field engineers, see: Broadcast technicians........................................................201 Computer service technicians............................................299 Office machine and cash register servicers......................322 File clerks...................................................................................235 Film developers, see: Photographic process workers............. 373 Financial aid officers, see: Education administrators............... 20 Financial managers..................................................................... 24 Financial services sales representatives................................... 222 Fine artists, see: Visual artists................................................. 192 Firefighting occupations...........................................................258 Flight attendants........................................................................ 279 Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots.........................................391 Floor covering installers, see: Carpet installers......................329 Food and beverage service occupations................................... 267 Food and drug inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................. 32 Food service managers ...............................................................45 Food technologists, see: Agricultural scientists ........................73 Foremen and forewomen, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors..............................................................................352 Foresters and conservation scientists .........................................76 Forklift operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.................................................................................395 Forming machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators.............................................................. 381 Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers, see: Metalworking machine operators ........................................ 366 Frame wirers, see: Communications equipment mechanics............................................................................. 297  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  G General managers and top executives ........................................... 25 General office clerks..........................................................................236 Geodesists, see: Surveyors................................................................ 62 Geographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners............. 88 Geologists............................................................................................... 79 Geophysicists ...................... 79 Gerontologists, see: Sociologists..................................................... 94 Gerontology aides, see: Human services workers...................... 99 Glaziers................................................................................................ 335 Governesses, see: Private household workers............................ 283 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators, see: Material moving equipment operators....................................................... 395 Graders, see: Inspectors, testers, and graders............................................. 361 Apparel workers........................................................................349 Graphic artists, see: Visual artists................................................. 192 Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers.........................................................213 Guards.................................................................................................. 260 Guidance counselors, see: Counselors..........................................115  H Hairstylists, see: Barbers.........................................................................................275 Cosmetologists and related workers.................................... 277 Hamessmakers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers........................................................................................... 378 Hazardous waste management specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ... 32 Health and regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................32 Health services managers.................................................................. 27 Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators..........................................................................366 Heaters and heating equipment setters and setup operators, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators..........................................................................366 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics...........308 Heavy equipment operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...................................................................... 395 Heavy mobile equipment mechanics............................................. 317 Helicopter pilots, see: Aircraft pilots........................................... 391 Helpers, construction trades............................................................ 400 Highway patrol officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents................................................................................. 262 Historians, see: Social scientists and urban planners................. 88 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...................................................................... 395 Home appliance and power tool repairers....................................310 Home entertainment electronic equipment repairers.................303 Homemaker-home health aides.......................................................280 Horticulturists, see: Agricultural scientists....................................73 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage service workers....................................... 267 Hotel managers and assistants...........................................................30 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers..........................283 Human services workers.................................................................... 99  Index to Occupations/451  Page Hydrologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists .......................79 Hygienists, dental............................................................................160 Labor relations specialists and managers ......................................38 Laboratory technicians, dental ...................................................... 358 Laboratory technicians, film, see: Photographic I process workers............................................................................. 373 Laboratory workers, medical *see: Clinical laboratory Illustrators, see: Visual artists...................................................192 technologists and technicians.....................................................158 Immigration inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance Laborers, see: Construction trades helpers................................. 400 officers, except construction...................................................32 Land surveyors..................................................................................... 62 Industrial buyers, see: Purchasing agents and Landscape architects............................................................................61 managers................................................................................. 43 Lathers.................................................................................................. 332 Industrial designers, see: Designers........................................ 188 Laundromat attendants, see: Counter and retail clerks........... 214 Industrial electronic equipment repairers................................. 295 Lawn and garden equipment mechanics, see: Motorcycle, Industrial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and boat, and small-engine mechanics ...........................................319 industrial electronic equipment repairers............................ 295 Lawyers................................................................................................... 84 Industrial engineering technicians............................................206 Layout workers, apparel.................................................................. 349 Industrial engineers..................................................................... 56 Leather workers and repairers........................................................ 378 Industrial machinery repairers.................................................. 312 Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses........................... 150 Legal assistants................................................................................... 207 Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries.................................................245 Industrial safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors Librarians............................................................................................. 119 and compliance officers, except construction........................32 Library technicians........................................................................... 209 Industrial sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ sales Licensed practical nurses................................................................ 169 workers...................................................................................217 Life insurance agents, see: Insurance sales workers................ 215 Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material Life underwriters, see: Insurance salesworkers..........................215 moving equipment operators................................................. 395 Line installers and cable splicers.................................................. 314 Information clerks................................................/..................242 Lithographic and photoengraving workers...................,.......... 363 Information officers, see: Public relations specialists..............180 Loan officers, see: Financial managers......................................... 24 Information scientists, see: Log handling equipment operators ...............................................287 Computer systems analysts................................................. 66 Logging equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy Librarians ........................................................................... 119 equipment mechanics.................................................................... 317 Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.................... 153 Logging occupations......................................................................... 287 Inspectors and compliance officers, except Logging tractor operators................................................................ 287 construction..............................................................................32  Inspectors, construction and building.........................................16 Inspectors, health and regulatory, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................. 32 Inspectors, testers, and graders.................................................361 Instructors, see: Adult and vocational education teachers......................... Ill College and university faculty.......................................... 113 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers...................117 Secondary school teachers................................................. 121 Instrument repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics..............................................................................297 Insulation workers..................................................................... 336 Insurance claims and policy processing occupations...............237 Insurance sales workers.............................................................215 Interior designers, see: Designers............................................ 188 Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing metal workers...................................................................................346  J Jailers, see: Correction officers.......................................................257 Janitors and cleaners..........................................................................282 Jewelers................................................................................................ 362 Job analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers .............................................................. 38 Job development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................... 38 Journalists, see: Reporters and correspondents.......................... 183  K Keypunch operators, see: Data entry keyers............................ 234 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers.......................... 117  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  M Machine-tool operators, numerical control................................. 369 Machine-tool setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators..........................................................................366 Machinery mechanics, industrial.................................................. 312 Machinists........................................................................................... 365 Mail carriers and postal clerks...................................................... 239 Mailhandlers, see: Mail carriers and postal clerks.................... 239 Maintenance mechanics, general................................................... 307 Management analysts and consultants........................................... 34 Managers, see: Financial managers .................................................................... 24 General managers and top executives....................................25 Health services managers.......................................................... 27 Hotel managers and assistants................................................. 30 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers................................................................................... 36 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................................38 Property and real estate managers......................................... 40 Purchasing agents and managers............................................. 43 Restaurant and food service managers..................................45 Manicurists, see: Cosmetologists and related workers........... 277 Manpower development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........... 38 Manufacturers’ representatives, see: Manufacturers’ sales workers................................................................................. 217 Manufacturers’ sales workers........................................................ 217 Manufacturing opticians.................................................................. 370 Map editors, see: Surveyors ............................................................ 45 Mapping scientists, see: Surveyors.................................................62 Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons.................... 327  452/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Page  Marine geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists............................................................................ 79 Markers, apparel.......................................................................349 Market research analysts, see:Economists................................. 90 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers................................................................................. 36 Material moving equipment operators.....................................395 Materials engineers..................................................................... 57 Mathematicians............................................................................ 68 Meatcutters................................................................................. 355 Mechanical engineering technicians....................................... 206 Mechanical engineers................................................................ 56 Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors................................................................. 16 Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists....................... 290 Automotive body repairers............................................... 292 Automotive mechanics......................................................293 Boilermakers ..................................................................... 353 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................................................295 Communications equipment mechanics...........................297 Computer service technicians............................................299 Diesel mechanics .............................................................. 301 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.......................................................................... 303 Elevator installers and repairers........................................ 304 Farm equipment mechanics............................................... 305 General maintenance repairers.......................................... 307 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics....................................................................... 308 Home appliance and power tool repairers....................... 310 Industrial machinery repairers.......................................... 312 Jewelers..............................................................................362 Line installers and cable splicers ..................................... 314 Millwrights.........................................................................316 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................ 317 Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics...............319 Musical instrument repairers and tuners...........................320 Office machine and cash register servicers......................322 Shoe and leather workers and repairers...........................378 Telephone installers andrepairers.................................... 32M Upholsterers....................................................................... 384 Vending machine servicers and repairers......................... 325 MEDEX, see: Physician assistants...........................................145 Media specialists, see: Librarians............................................ 119 Mediators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ........................................................ 38 Medical and scientific illustrators, see: Visual artists..............192 Medical assistants..................................................................... 271 Medical laboratory technologists and technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............... 158 Medical record clerks, see: Statistical clerks...........................247 Medical record technicians........................................................ 171 Medical secretarie's, see: Secretaries........................................ 245 Medical social workers, see: Social workers........................... 101 Membership secretaries, see: Secretaries ................................245 Mental health counselors, see: Counselors...............................115 Mental health technicians, see: Human services workers.................................................................................... 99 Metal and plastic molding and casting machine operators................................................................................. 366 Metallurgical engineers...............................................................57 Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators................................................................................. 366 Meteorologists ............................................................................ 81 Microbiologists, see: Biological scientists................................ 74 Military occupations................................................................. 401   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page Millwrights...........................................................................................316 Mine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................................................................... 32 Mineralogists, see: Geologists and geophysicists.........................79 Mining engineers..................................................................................57 Mining equipment repairers, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics.................................................................... 317 Ministers, Protestant.......................................................................... 107 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics............................................. 317 Mosaicists, see: Surveyors................................................................ 62 Motion picture camera operators................................................... 189 Motor vehicle body repairers, see: Automotive body repairers...........................................................................................292 Motor vehicle inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... 32 Motor vehicle repairers, see: Automotive mechanics...............293 Motorboat mechanics........................................................................319 Motorcycle mechanics......................................................................319 Musical instrument repairers and tuners..................................... 320 Musicians............................................................................................. 198 N Nannies, see: Private household workers....................................283 Neurophysiologic technologists, see: EEG technologists and technicians ..............................................................................164 News anchors or co-anchors, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters....................................................... 181 Newscasters......................................................................................... 181 Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents................................................................................183 Newswriters, see: Writers and editors..........................................186 Nuclear engineers................................................................................58 Nuclear medicine technologists ..................................................... 173 Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians............................ 210 Numerical-control machine-tool operators..................................369 Numerical-control tool programmers........................................... 211 Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses................................ 150 Nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses......................................................... 169 Registered nurses...................................................................... 150 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides..................................... 273 Nutritionists................................................................................ 136  O Occupational analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers....................................38 Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses................... 150 Occupational safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................... 32 Occupational therapists.....................................................................137 Oceanographers, see: Geologists and geophysicists...................79 Office clerks, general........................................................................236 Office machine and cash register servicers..................................322 Office managers, see: Clerical supervisors and managers.........................................................................................231 Office nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................150 Operating engineers, see: Material moving equipment operators........................................................................................... 395 Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technicians............. 178 Operations research analysts.............................................................69 Ophthalmic dispensers, see: Dispensing opticians..................... 162 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians................................................. 370 Optical goods workers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................................................370 Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................................................370  Index to Occupations/453  Page Opticians, dispensing........................................................................ 162 Optometrists ........................................................................................127 Orchestra conductors, see: Musicians ..........................................198 Orthodontic technicians, see: Dental laboratory technicians . 358 Osteopathic physicians, see: Physicians ......................................129  P Package designers, see: Designers .......................................... 188 Painters and paperhangers........................................................337 Painters, visual artists...............................................................192 Painting and coating machine operators................................. 372 Paleontologists, see: Geologists and geoghysicists...................79 Paperhangers.............................................................................. 337 Paralegals, see: Legal assistants............................................... 207 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians...................167 Parole officers, see: Social workers.........................................101 Passenger agents and booking and rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................... 243 Pathologists, speech-language...................................................155 Patternmakers, apparel, see: Apparel workers ....................... 349 PBX installers and repairers .................................................... 297 PBX operators, see: Telephone operators................................251 Peripheral equipment operators, electronic data processing, see: Computer and peripheral equipment operators.................................................................................. 233 Personnel consultants, see: Employment interviewers ...................................................21 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers....................................................................38 Personnel recruiters, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................... 38 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...........................................................................38 Petroleum engineers.......;......................................................... 59 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians......................210 Pharmacists................................................................................140 Photoengraving workers........................................................... 363 Photofinishing laboratory workers, see: Photographic process workers..................................................................... 373 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors............................................62 Photographers and camera operators.........................................189 Photographic process workers.................................................. 373 Photographic retouchers and spotters, see: Photographic process workers..................................................................... 373 Photojoumalists, see: Photographers and camera operators .. 189 Physical therapists......................................................................143 Physician assistants and associates.......................................... 145 Physicians................................................................................... 129 Physicists and astronomers..........................................................82 Physiologists, see: Biological scientists..................................... 74 Piano technicians and tuners, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners.............................................................. 320 Pilots, aircraft............................................................................ 391 Pipefitters...................................................................................340 Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners.............................................................. 320 Placement directors, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................... 38 Plant breeders, see: Agricultural scientists................................73 Plasterers ................................................................................... 339 Plastic molding and casting machine operators....................... 366 Plastic-working machine operators.......................................... 366 Plating and coating machine operators, metal and plastic \........................................................ Plumbers and pipefitters........................................................... 340  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......................................................................... 16 Podiatrists.............................................................................................132 Police, detectives, and specialagents .......................................... 262 Policy processing clerks, insurance, see: Insurance claims and policy processingoccupations............................... 237 Political scientists, see: Social scientists and urban planners.............................................................................................88 Postal clerks .......................................................................................239 Postal inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..........................................................................32 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural scientists..............................73 Power distributors and dispatchers ...............................................359 Power generating plant operators.................................................. 359 Power reactor operators....................................................................359 Power tool repairers, home appliances ....................................... 310 Powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers........................................................ 314 Practical nurses, licensed................................................................ 169 Precision assemblers......................................................................... 375 Presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives....................................25 Press operators, printing..................................................................376 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists.....................180 Pressers and pressing machine operators, apparel,  see:  Apparel workers........................................................................349 Priests, Roman Catholic.................................................................. 109 Principals, school, see: Education administrators ...................... 20 Print developers, photographic, see: Photographic process workers............................................................................. 373 Printmakers, visual artists................................................................ 192 Print shop stenographers, see: Stenographers............................248 Printing press operators....................................................................376 Private duty nurses, see: Registered nurses................................150 Private household workers..............................................................283 Probation officers, see: Social workers........................................101 Producers, see: Actors, directors, and producers.....................195 Product managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers..........................................................................36 Professors, see: College and university faculty.......................... 113 Programmer-analysts, see: Computer programmers................ 203 Programmers, computer..................................................................203 Programmers, tool............................................................................. 203 Property and real estate managers...................................................40 Protestant ministers............................................................................107 Psychiatric aides................................................................................. 273 Psychologists......................................................................................... 92 Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists......................................................................................... 180 Public relations specialists.............................................................. 180 Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......................................................................... 16 Purchasing agents and managers.....................................................43  Q Quality assurance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................32  R Rabbis.................................................................................................. 108 Radiation protection specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................32 Radiation therapy technologists, see: Radiologic 366 technologists................................................................................... 175 Radio and television announcers and newscasters.....................181  454/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Page  Page  Radio and television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers................................303 Radio repairers and mechanics, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 297 Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists.............................175 Radiologic technologists...................................................................175 Railroad inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... 32 Range conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.................................................................... 76 Range ecologists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.............................................................................................76 Range managers, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.............................................................................................76 Real estate agents and brokers.......................................................218 Real estate managers.......................................................................... 40 Realtors, see: Real estate agents and brokers............................ 218 Receptionists and information clerks........................................... 242 Recording engineers, see: Broadcast technicians...................... 201 Recreation workers............................................................................ 104 Recreational therapists...................................................................... 147 Recruiters, personnel, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers....................................38 Refrigeration mechanics.................................................................. 308 Regional planners................................................................................96 Registered nurses................................................................................ 150 Registered representatives, securities, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives............................ 222 Registrars, see: Education administrators......................................20 Regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... 32 Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors.................................. 115 Reinforcing metal workers.............................................................. 346 Reporters and correspondents......................................................... 183 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ................................................................................... 243 Residence counselors, see: Counselors........................................115 Respiratory therapists........................................................................ 153 Restaurant and food service managers........................................... 45 Retail buyers......................................................................................... 48 Retail sales workers..........................................................................220 Revenue officers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................... 32 Riggers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.............................. 297 Material moving equipment operators..................................395 Timber cutting and logging occupations ............................ 287 Roman Catholic priests.................................................................... 109 Roofers................................................................................................ 342 Roustabouts.........................................................................................343 Route drivers, see: Truckdrivers...................................................397  Securities and financial services sales representatives........................................................................222 Services sales representatives.................................................224 Travel agents..............................................................................226 Wholesale trade sales workers............................................... 227 Sanitarians, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..........................................................................32 Sanitation inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.........................................................32 School counselors, see: Counselors ............................................. 115 School librarians, see: Librarians................................................... 119 School nurses, see: Registered nurses..........................................150 School principals and assistant principals, see: Education administrators...........................................................20 School secretaries, see: Secretaries...............................................245 School social workers, see: Social workers................................ 101 School superintendents, see: General managers and top executives....................................................................................25 School teachers, see: Adult and vocational education teachers............................ Ill College and university faculty............................................... 113 Kindergarten and elementary teachers.................................. 117 Secondary school teachers....................................................... 121 Science technicians............................................................................210 Sculptors, see: Visual artists...........................................................192 Secondary school teachers...............................................................121 Secret service agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents................................................................................. 262 Secretaries.......................................................................................... 245 Securities and financial services sales representatives.............222 Securities traders, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives......................................................................222 Security guards, see: Guards.......................................................... 260 Seismologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists........................ 79 Services sales representatives.........................................................224 Setters and setup operators, metalworking and plastic-working machine.............................................................. 366 Setters and setup operators, textile machine..............................381 Sewage treatment plant operators .................................................385 Sewers and sewing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers........................................................................349 Sheet-metal workers..........................................................................344 Shipping and receiving clerks.........................................................253 Shoe and leather workers and repairers....................................... 378 Short order cooks ............................................................................. 265 Shorthand reporters, see: Stenographers..................................... 248 Signal or track switch maintainers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 297 Silversmiths, see: Jewelers.............................................................. 362 Singers, see: Musicians.................................................................... 198 Social scientists....................................................................................88 Social secretaries, see: Secretaries ............................................... 245 Social service technicians, see: Human services workers...............................................................................................99 Social work assistants, see: Human services workers...............................................................................................99 Social workers....................................................................................101 Sociologists...........................................................................................94 Soil conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.................................................................... 76 Soil scientists, see: Agricultural scientists....................................73 Sonographers, see: Radiologic technologists.............................. 175 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists.......................... 155 Spray painters..................................................................................... 372 Spreaders, apparel, see: Apparel workers................................... 349 Sprinklerfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters............................340 State police officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents................................................................................. 262  S Saddlemakers, see: Shoe and leather worker and repairers................................................................................... 378 Safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.........................................................32 Sales engineers, see: Manufacturers’ sales workers.................217 Sales managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers...............................................................36 Sales workers, see: Cashiers.......................................................................................213 Counter and rental clerks.........................................................214 Insurance sales workers.......................................................... 215 Manufacturers’ sales workers.................................................217 Real estate agents and brokers............................................... 218 Retail sales workers..................................................................220  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Index to Occupations/455  Page Station installers, see: Telephone installers and repairers...........................................................................................324 Stationary engineers..........................................................................379 Statistical clerks................................................................................. 247 Statisticians........................................................................................... 71 Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters..................................340 Stenographers..................................................................................... 248 Stenotype operators, see: Stenographers..................................... 248 Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants.........................................................................................279 Stock clerks.........................................................................................249 Stockroom clerks, see: Stock clerks.............................................249 Stonemasons.......................................................................................ill Stratigraphers, see: Geologists and geophysicists.......................79 Structural and reinforcing metal workers................................... 346 Stucco masons, see: Plasterers.......................................................339 Student development specialists, see: Counselors.....................115 Supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors ............................................. 352 Clerical supervisors and managers....................................... 231 Surgeons...............................................................................................129 Surgeons’ assistants..........................................................................145 Surgical technicians..........................................................................178 Survey technicians, see: Surveyors................................................. 62 Surveyors...............................................................................................62 Switchboard operators, see: Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers ...............................................359 Telephone operators.................................................................. 251 Systems analysts, computer.............................................................. 66 Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers...............203  T Teacher aides..................................................................................... 250 Teachers, see: Adult and vocational education teachers............................ Ill College and university faculty............................................... 113 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers..................... 117 Secondary school teachers.......................................................121 Technical secretaries, see: Secretaries......................................... 245 Technical writers, see: Writers and editors................................ 186 Technicians, see: Air traffic controllers................................................................ 200 Broadcast technicians.............................................................. 201 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............. 158 Computer programmers.......................................................... 203 Dental hygienists ...................................................................... 160 Dispensing opticians................................................................ 162 Drafters .......................................................................................205 EEG technologists and technicians........................................164 EKG technicians........................................................................ 165 Emergency medical technicians............................................. 167 Engineering technicians.......................................................... 206 Legal assistants......................................................................... 207 Library technicians....................................................................209 Licensed practical nurses.........................................................169 Medical record technicians..................................................... 171 Nuclear medicine technologists............................................. 173 Radiologic technologists...........................................................175 Science technicians..................................................................210 Surgical technicians.................................................................. 178 Tool programmers, numerical control................................. 211 Telegraph plant maintained, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................................................297 Telephone-answering-service operators, see: Telephone operators......................................................................251 Telephone installers......................................................................... 324  https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Page Telephone line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers...................................................... 314 Telephone operators......................................................................... 251 Telephone repairers........................................................................... 324 Teletype installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.......................................................................................297 Television announcers and newscasters....................................... 181 Television camera operators, see: Photographers and camera operators............................................................................189 Television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ...........................................303 Tellers, bank.......................................................................................229 Terrazzo workers............................................................................... 330 Testers.................................................................................................. 361 Textile designers, see: Designers...................................................188 Textile machinery operators............................................................ 381 Therapeutic recreational therapists................................................. 147 Therapists, see: Occupational therapists.............................................................137 Physical therapists.................................................................... 143 Recreational therapists............................................................ 147 Respiratory therapists.............................................................. 153 Speech pathologists and audiologists....................................155 Ticket agents and clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks........................243 Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers.......................................................................................213 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks........................................................................... 243 Tilesetters............................................................................................ 347 Timber cutting and logging occupations..................................... 287 Tool-and-die makers......................................................................... 383 Tool programmers, numerical control.........................................211 Tower-crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators......................................................................395 Traffic controllers, air......................................................................200 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ....................................... 253 Training specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers....................................38 Transcribing machine operators, see: Stenographers ...............248 Transmitter engineers and operators, see: Broadcast technicians....................................................................................... 201 Transportation ticket agents............................................................243 Travel agents.......................................................................................226 Travel clerks.......................................................................................243 Treasurers, see: Financial managers............................................... 24 Treatment plant operators, water and wastewater.................... 385 Truck mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics................................... 301 Truckdrivers ....................................................................................... 397 Trust officers, see: Financial managers......................................... 24 Tuners, musical instruments.......................................................... 320 Tutors, see: Private household workers....................................... 283 Typesetters.......................................................................................... 356 Typists and word processors.......................................................... 254 U  Ultrasound technologists, see: Radiologic technologists................................................................................... 175 Underwriters......................................................................................... 47 University faculty..............................................................................113 Upholsterers.........................................................................................384 Urban and regional planners............................................................ 96 V  Vending machine servicers and repairers................................... 325 Veterinarians....................................................................................... 133  456/Occupational Outlook Handbook  Page  Page  Vice-presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives................................ 25 Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.................201 Visual artists....................................................................................... 192 Vocational counselors, see: Counselors........................................ 115 Vocational education and training teachers................................ Ill Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical nurses.. 169 Vocational rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors............. 115  Wood machinists................................................................................389 Wood pattern and model makers...................................................389 Woodworkers, precision.................................................................. 389 Woodworking occupations.............................................................. 389 Word processing machine operators, see: Typists.................... 254 Word processors................................................................................. 254 Writers and editors............................................................................ 186 Writers, technical, see: Writers and editors................................ 186  W  X  Wage-hour compliance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................... 32 Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage service workers..............................................................................267 Warehouse clerks, see: Stock clerks............................................. 249 Water and wastewater treatment plant operators...................... 385 Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators.....................387 Wholesale and retail buyers.............................................................. 48 Wholesale trade sales workers.......................................................227 Wood machine operators ................................................................ 389  X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists.......................175   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Y Yard clerks, see: Stock clerks.........................................................249  Z Zoologists, see: Biological scientists............................................. 74  Reprints From the Occupational Outlook Handbook Bulletin No. All sections of the 1988-89 □ Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are □ □ especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and □ for counselors who need to stretch the □ contents of a single Handbook among □ □ many students. □ □ The titles of all 18 reprints are listed here, and an index to the reprints □ appears on the following pages. □ □ Price of reprints: As indicated. A □ complete set costs only $22.00. Use □ Order form below. □ □ □ □  Title 2300-1 2300-2 2300-3 2300-4 2300-5 2300-6 2300-7 2300-8 2300-9  $1.25 $2.50 $1.75 $1.50 $2.00 $1.25 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50  2300-10 2300-11 2300-12 2300-13 2300-14 2300-15 2300-16 2300-17 2300-18  $1.25 $1.25 $1.75 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 $1.75 $1.50 $2.00  Tomorrow’s Jobs: Overview Business, Managerial, and Legal Occupations Engineering, Scientific, and Related Occupations Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations Education, Social Service, and Related Occupations Medical and Dental Practitioners and Assistants Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Sales Occupations Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations Protective Service Occupations and Inspectors Service Occupations: Food, Cleaning, Health, and Personal Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Metalworking and Woodworking Occupations Production and Transportation Occupations  Please send the following reprints from the 1988-89 Occupational Outlook Handbook. Quantity  Bulletin No. OR  Send sets of an 18 reprints @ $22.00 each $  Order Form Occupational Outlook Reprints Mail to:  ---------------------------------  Total @ $ Total @ $ Total @ $  Name_________________ Organization  _________________________________ ________________  Street Address_____________________________________________________ CityStateZip_________  Bureau of Labor Statistics Publications Sales Center P.O. Box 2145 Chicago, IL 60690 or Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC 20402  Make all checks payable to the Superintendent of Documents. (Note: A discount of 25 percent will be allowed on purchases of 100 or more copies of a single reprint when mailed to a single address.)   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  457  458  Reprints From the Occupational Outlook Handbook Order Reprint No. 2300—  , if you want information about  Correction officers Cosmetologists and related workers Cost estimators Counselors Counter and rental clerks  13 14 2 5 11  A Accountants and auditors Actors, directors, and producers Actuaries Adult and vocational education teachers Aerospace engineers Agricultural scientists Air traffic controllers Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists Aircraft pilots Apparel workers Architects Archivists and curators Automotive body repairers Automotive mechanics  2 or 4 9 4 5 3 3 10 15 10 18 9 5 15 15  B 12 14 18 3 18 18 12 16 10 18 18  Bank tellers Barbers Bindery workers Biological scientists Blue-collar worker supervisors Boilermakers Bookkeepers and accounting clerks Bricklayers and stonemasons Broadcast technicians Busdrivers Butchers and meatcutters  16 or 17 16 11 14 3 3 14 6 3 12 8 5 15 15 18 4 or 12 4 or 10 4 or 15 4 16 13 16  Carpenters Carpet installers Cashiers Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers Chemical engineers Chemists Childcare workers Chiropractors Civil engineers Clerical supervisors and managers Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians College and university faculty Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers Communications equipment mechanics Compositors and typesetters Computer and peripheral equipment operators Computer programmers Computer service technicians Computer systems analysts Concrete masons and terrazzo workers Construction and building inspectors Construction trades helpers   https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis  Dancers and choreographers 12 Data entry keyers 6 or 14 Dental assistants 6 Dental hygienists 8 Dental laboratory technicians 6 Dentists 9 Designers 15 Diesel mechanics 7 Dietitians and nutritionists 8 Dispensing opticians 3 or 10 Drafters 16 Dry wall workers and lathers  Home appliance and power tool repairers Homemaker-home health aides Hotel managers and assistants Human services workers  15 14 2 5 or 14  N 3 8  Nuclear engineers Nuclear medicine technologists 17 Numerical-control machine-tool operators 7 or 14 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides  i  9  3 Industrial engineers 15 Industrial machinery repairers 13 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction 18 Inspectors, testers, and graders 16 Insulation workers 12 Insurance claims and policy processing occupations 11 Insurance sales workers  7  Occupational therapists Office machine and cash register servicers 2 or 4 Operations research analysts 8 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians 6 Optometrists 15  16 £ 2 or 4 2 8 8 18  3 16 15 15 or 16 8 2 3 or 10  Economists Education administrators EEG technologists and technicians EKG technicians Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers Electrical and electronics engineers Electricians Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers Elevator installers and repairers Emergency medical technicians Employment interviewers Engineering technicians F  15 2 12 2 13 14 14 3  Farm equipment mechanics Farm operators and managers File clerks Financial managers Firefighting occupations Flight attendants Food and beverage service occupations Foresters and conservation scientists  j 14 18  Janitors and cleaners Jewelers  2 12 3 16 14  General maintenance mechanics General managers and top executives General office clerks Geologists and geophysicists Glaziers Guards  H 2 15 or 16  Health services managers Heating, airconditioning, and refrigeration mechanics  2  K Kindergarten and elementary school teachers  5  3 7 9 18  L  2 or 10 5 5 or 10 7 15 18  Landscape architects Lawyers Legal assistants Librarians Library technicians Licensed practical nurses Line installers and cable splicers Lithographic and photoengraving workers M  17 2 11 2  18 4 3 6 or 14 8 or 12 3  15  18  17 3 15 3 15 15 15 9  Machinists Management analysts and consultants Manufacturers’ sales workers Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers Material moving equipment operators Mathematicians Mechanical engineers Medical assistants Medical record technicians Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators Meteorologists Millwrights Mining engineers Mobile heavy equipment mechanics Motorcycle, boat, and small engine mechanics Musical instrument repairers and tuners Musicians  7 6 6 3 16 16 6 13 12 18 18 14 2 5 5 2 or 9 2  Painters and paperhangers Painting and coating machine operators Personnel, training. and labor relations specialists and managers Petroleum engineers Pharmacists Photographers and camera operators Photographic process workers Physical therapists Physician assistants Physicians Physicists and astronomers Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Podiatrists Police, detectives, and special agents Postal clerks and mail carriers Precision assemblers Printing press operators Private household Property and real estate managers Protestant ministers Psychologists Public relations specialists Purchasing agents and managers  5 Rabbis 9 Radio and television announcers and newscasters 8 Radiologic technologists 11 Real estate agents and brokers 12 Receptionists and information clerks 5 Recreation workers 7 Recreational therapists 7 Registered nurses 9 Reporters and correspondents 12 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks 8 Respiratory therapists 2 Restaurant and food service managers 11 Retail sales workers  5  Roman Catholic priests Roofers Roustabouts  16 16  3 or 10 Science technicians 5 Secondary school teachers 12 Secretaries 11 Securities and financial services sales representatives 11 Services sales representatives 16 or Sheet-metal workers 17 15 Shoe and leather workers and repairers 5 Social workers 5 Sociologists 7 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists Stationary engineers 18 12 Statistical clerks 4 Statisticians 12 Stenographers 12 Stock clerks 16 or Structural and reinforcing metal 17 workers 8 Surgical technicians 3 Surveyors T 5 or 12 15  Teacher aides Telephone installers and repairers 12 Telephone operators 18 Textile machinery operators 16 Tilesetters 18 Timber cutting and logging occupations 17 Tool-and-die makers 10 or Tool programmers, 17 numerical control 11 Travel agents 12 Travel, shipping, and receiving clerks 18 Truckdrivers 12 Typists and word processors U 2 18 2  Underwriters Upholsterers Urban and regional planners  15  Vending machine servicers and repairers Veterinarians Visual artists  W 18 17 2 or 11 11 17 9  Water and wastewater treatment plant operators Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators Wholesale and retail buyers Wholesale trade sales workers Woodworking occupations Writers and editors