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MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN nonelectric machines. Greater use of complex equipment which re quires additional maintenance has increased the need for servicemen, especially those who have a knowl edge of electricity or electronics. Opportunities for employment servicing electronic data processing equipment (computers and asso ciated equipment) will be particu larly favorable in the years ahead. As new uses develop and the econ omy expands and becomes more complex, computers will become in creasingly useful to business, gov ernment, and other organizations. Business machine servicemen have year-round employment— steadier than many other skilled trades. The office machines serviced by these men must be maintained, even when business slackens, since business records must be kept, corre spondence carried on, and statistical reports prepared. Men who estab lish themselves in the business machine service field can expect continuing employment for many years. Earnings and Working Conditions Information obtained from a number of employers of business machine servicemen in 1970 indi cated that experienced servicemen generally earned from $110 to $300 a week. Wages depend on geographic location, machine serviced, and the length of serv ice with employers. Wages gener ally were lowest for men who repair only typewriters, adding machines, calculators, cash registers, or dictat ing machines. Rates usually were highest for men who service elec tronic data-processing equipment, accounting-bookkeeping machines, postage and mailing machines, and 483 complex duplicating and copying equipment. Trainees begin earning from $80 to $105 a week. As they be come more skilled, their pay in creases. Men having previous elec tronics training in the Armed Forces or civilian technical schools generally receive somewhat higher beginning wages. In addition, many business equipment manufacturers have a merit rating plan that pro vides for periodic review of em ployee salaries. The merit salary in creases resulting from this review usually are based on the service man’s ability, training, and cus tomer relationship. In addition to their salaries, serv icemen in some companies receive commissions for selling supplies or service contracts. Many servicemen employed by manufacturers and in dependent dealers are covered by group life and hospitalization insur ance plans and pension plans. Servicing of business machines is cleaner and lighter then the work in most other mechanical trades. Serv icemen generally wear business suits and perform most of their work in the offices where the ma chines are used. Work tools usually are supplied by the employer. The occupation is comparatively free from the danger of accidents. Some of these positions involve considera ble traveling within the area served by the employer. For this reason, many employers require that serv icemen own or have the use of a car. The serviceman generally is re imbursed for company use of his car on a mileage basis. Other service men may work in a very concen trated area, depending on the city size and the number of machines. Service representatives frequently find themselves working in a variety of environments. These include hos pitals and laboratories,, government offices, and military installations, and colleges and universities—as well as large industrial plants and business offices. Source of Additional Information Additional information about em ployment in the field of business machines servicing may be obtained from local dealers who sell and serv ice typewriters, adding, and dictat ing machines, as well as from branch sales and service offices of equipment manufacturers. Techni cal and vocational schools that offer courses in electricity, electronics, or office machine maintenance and re pair can provide helpful information about the kind of training needed to qualify as a business machine serv ice man. In addition, the local office of the State employment serv iceman will provide information about training programs under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. DIESEL MECHANICS (D.O.T. 625.281) Nature of the Work Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment such as heavy trucks, buses, ships, boats, and locomotives; and construction equipment such as bulldozers, earthmovers, and cranes. In addi tion, they maintain and repair diesel farm tractors and a variety of other diesel-powered equipment, such as generators, compressors, and 484 pumps, used in public utilities, oilwell drilling rigs, and irrigation. Before making repairs, a diesel mechanic inspects and tests engine components to determine why an engine is not operating properly. After the cause of the trouble has been located, he repairs or replaces defective parts and makes necessary adjustments. Preventive mainte nance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is another major responsi bility. For example, he may periodi cally inspect, test, and adjust engine components. Many diesel mechanics make all types of diesel engine re pairs; others specialize, for exam ple, in rebuilding engines or in repairing fuel injection systems, tur bochargers, cylinder heads, or start ing systems. Some mechanics also repair large natural gas engines used to power generators, pumps, and other industrial equipment. Diesel mechanics job titles often indicate the type of diesel-powered equipment the mechanics repair. For example, those who re pair the diesel engines in trucks may be called truck mechanics (diesel). Those who work on construction equipment, such as bulldozers and earthmovers, are usually called heavy equipment mechanics (die sel). In addition to engine mainte nance and repair, the mechanics listed above may work on other parts of diesel-powered equipment. For example, truck mechanics (die sel) may work on brake and steer ing systems, transmissions, and other truck parts. (See statement on Truck Mechanics and Bus Mechan ics.) Diesel mechanics use common handtools (such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers), as well as special tools (including valve refacers and piston pin-fitting machines). In ad dition, they may use complex testing equipment, such as a dynamometer OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK to measure engine power, and spe cial fuel injection testing equipment. Mechanics may also use machine tools to make replacement parts for diesel-powered equipment. They use powered hoists and other equip ment for lifting and moving heavy parts. Places of Employment In 1970, an estimated 85,000 persons repaired and maintained diesel engines and related equip ment. Many are employed in service departments of distributors and dealers that sell diesel engines, farm and construction equipment, and trucks. Mechanics also work for companies and government agencies that repair and maintain their own diesel-powered equipment, such as local and intercity buslines, con struction companies, trucking com panies, railroads, and State highway departments. Other diesel mechan ics are employed by manufacturers of diesel engines and independent repair shops that specialize in repair of diesel engines. Diesel mechanics are employed in all parts of the country. Large numbers of these workers, however, are employed in California, New York, Illinois, and Texas—States where high levels of construction, commercial, industrial, and farming activity have resulted in the use of large numbers of diesel-powered machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Diesel mechanics learn their skills in several different ways. Most work first as mechanics repair ing gasoline-powered automobiles, trucks, and buses. They usually start as helpers to experienced gasoline engine mechanics, becoming skilled in 3 or 4 years. When employed by firms that use or repair diesel-pow ered equipment, they are given 6 to 18 months of additional training in maintenance and repair of this equipment. While learning to fix diesel engines, many find it helpful to take courses in repair and main tenance of diesel equipment, offered by vocational, trade, and corre spondence schools. Some diesel mechanics, such as those employed by diesel engine manufacturers, learn their trade through formal apprenticeship pro grams. These programs, which gen erally last 4 years, give trainees a combination of classroom training and practical experience in repair ing diesel engines. Apprentices re ceive classroom instruction in blue print reading, hydraulics, welding, and other subjects. In their practical training, they learn about valves, bearings, injection systems, starting systems, cooling systems, and other parts of diesel engines. Still another method of entry is through full-time attendance at trade or technical schools that offer comprehensive training in diesel en gine maintenance and repair. These training programs generally last from several months to 2 years, and provide practical experience and re lated classroom instruction. Gradu ates, however, usually need addi tional on-the-job training before they become skilled mechanics. Training programs for diesel me chanics and others in occupations that involve diesel engine repair work were in operation in several cities in 1970, under the provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act. Unemployed and un deremployed workers who meet certain minimum requirements are eligible to apply for this training, 485 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Experienced mechanics usually have several hundred dollars in vested in their tools. Diesel mechanics who work for organizations that operate or repair large fleets of diesels, such as bus lines or diesel equipment distribu tors, may advance to leadman and to supervisory positions such as shop foreman or service manager. Employment Outlook Diesel mechanic reassembles engine after repair is completed. which usually lasts at least 36 weeks. Other young men learn the trade through less formal training pro grams. Generally, they are hired as trainees and are taught by experi enced mechanics to do all kinds of diesel repair jobs. Experienced diesel mechanics employed by companies that sell diesel-powered equipment are some times sent to special training classes conducted by diesel engine manufacturers. In these classes, me chanics learn to maintain and repair the latest diesel engines, using the most modern equipment. Employers prefer to hire trainees and apprenticeship applicants who have a high school education as well as mechanical ability. Shop courses in automobile repair and machineshop work, offered by many high schools and vocational schools, are helpful, as are courses in science and mathematics. Young persons interested in becoming diesel me chanics should be in good physical condition because the work often requires lifting heavy parts. Many diesel mechanics are re quired to buy their own handtools. A beginner is expected to accumu late tools as he gains experience. Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced mechanics who are promoted, retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Increased employment of diesel mechanics is expected mainly be cause most industries that use diesel engines in large numbers are ex pected to expand their activities in the years ahead. In addition, diesel engines will continue to replace gas oline engines in a growing variety of equipment. For example, small de livery trucks powered by diesel en gines are expected to be used increasingly in the future. Dieselpowered farm equipment will also become more common. Most new job openings in this field will be filled by mechanics who have experience in repairing gaso line engines. Companies that re place gasoline engine equipment with diesel-powered equipment usu ally retrain their experienced me chanics to service the diesel equip ment. Men who have school training in diesel repair, but no practical ex perience, may be able to find jobs only as trainees. 486 Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data are not avail able for diesel mechanics. However, wage data collected from employers of workers who repair trucks, buses, construction equipment, and sta tionary engines, indicate that most diesel mechanics earned from $3.70 to $4.37 an hour in 1970. The work schedule of diesel me chanics usually ranges from 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work at night or on weekends, particularly if they work on buses, diesel engines used in powerplants, or other diesel equipment used in serving the public. Some are subject to call for emergencies at any time. Diesel me chanics generally receive a higher rate of pay when they work over time hours, evenings, or weekends. Many diesel mechanics receive paid vacations and holidays. In ad dition, they may receive health and life insurance benefits, which are at least partially paid by their em ployers. Most larger repair shops are pleasant places in which to work, but some small shops have poor lighting, heating, and ventilation. Diesel mechanics who work for bus lines or construction companies sometimes make repairs outdoors where the breakdowns occur. If proper safety precautions are not taken, there is some danger of in jury when repairing heavy parts supported on jacks or hoists. In most jobs, mechanics handle greasy tools and engine parts. It is some times necessary to stand or lie in awkward positions for extended pe riods of time. Many diesel mechanics belong to labor unions such as the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalga mated Transit Union; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ciation; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Sources of Additional Information Young people who wish to obtain additional information about work opportunities in this trade should di rect inquiries to the local office of the State employment service. Other sources are firms that use or service diesel-powered equipment, such as truck and buslines, truck dealers, and construction and farm equip ment dealers. The State employ ment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. Unions listed below may be con tacted for information on work and training opportunities or for the names and addresses of local unions that can provide such information: International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Sheet Metal Workers’ Interna tional Association, 1000 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. ELECTRIC SIGN SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 824.281) Nature of the Work Electric sign servicemen maintain and repair hundreds of thousands of neon and illuminated plastic signs that advertise names, products, and businesses. Some workers build, as semble, and install signs. Electric sign servicemen diagnose trouble in improperly operating signs. Minor repairs, such as burned out lamps, are made at sign loca tions, whereas overhauls of faulty components, such as a motor, are made in sign shops. In repairing neon signs service men may repaint portions of neon tubing to increase the readibility of the sign, tighten or weld parts loosened in high winds or dented during erection, and paint beams, columns, and other exterior frame work. In replacing bumedout ballasts in illuminated plastic signs, service men may refer to wiring diagrams and charts. Defective sockets usu ally appear cracked and are re placed. Small cracks in the face of the sign also may be repaired. Electric sign servicemen also per form preventive maintenance. They check signs and remove such things as birds’ nests and accumulated water. Also, gears, drives, pinions, bearings, and other parts of revolv ing signs may be checked, adjusted, and lubricated. Servicemen some times suggest to customers ways to increase the attractiveness and visi bility of signs. For example, they may recommend changing the color of neon tubing, attaching flashers, or raising the height of a sign. 487 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Ohio, and Pennsylvania, where there are large numbers of in dustrial and commercial centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Servicemen drive trucks equipped with the necessary tools such as wrenches, pliers, screw drivers, and tin snips. They also use test lamps and voltmeters. A boom crane may also be necessary for a very high sign. Servicemen usually must fill out reports, noting the date, place, and nature of service calls. They also may estimate the cost of service calls and sell maintenance contracts to sign owners. Chief servicemen prepare work schedules for other electric sign servicemen. Places of Employment About 8,000 electric sign service men were employed in 1970, pri marily in small shops that manufac ture, install and service electric signs. Some servicemen also were employed in independent electric sign repair shops. Both types of shops may service signs that have been mass produced in large facto ries and shipped elsewhere for in stallation. Electric sign servicemen are em ployed in every State. However, more than half are employed in New York, Illinois, California, Most electric sign servicemen are hired as trainees and learn their trade informally while on the job. Trainees rotate through the various phases of signmaking to obtain a general knowledge of sign fabrica tion—such as cutting and assem bling metal and plastic signs; mounting neon tubing; wiring signs; and installing sockets, lamps, time switches, and photoelectric circuits. During each phase, they observe, work with, and receive instructions from experienced men. At least 3 years on the job are required to be come a fully qualified service man. After completion of training, train ees are usually assigned to a perma nent job, depending on their prefer ences and employers’ needs. Some servicemen learn their trade through electricians’ appren tice programs, and specialize in signmaking and repairing. Appli cants are generally required to be between 18 and 25, have mechani cal aptitude, and an interest in elec tricity. These programs generally last from 3 to 5 years and include on-the-job training in signmaking and repairing, and classroom in struction is such fields as electrical theory and codes and blueprint reading. A few servicemen acquire their skills through special appren ticeships in sign contruction, erec tion, and servicing. Such programs usually include courses in metal and plastic sign fabrication, wiring of signs, installation techniques, and trouble shooting, in addition to sim ilar courses taken by electrician ap prentices. 488 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employers prefer trainees who are high school or vocational school graduates, although many sign serv icemen have less education. Math ematics, science, electricity, and blueprint reading can be helpful to young people who are interested in learning this trade. Servicemen need good color vi sion because electric wires are fre quently identified by color. They also need manual dexterity to han dle tools and physical strength to lift transformers, scaffolding, or equip ment. All electric sign servicemen must be familiar with the National Elec tric Codes; some also must know local electric codes. Many cities re quire servicemen to be licensed. Li censes can be obtained by passing a comprehensive examination in electrical theory and its application. Electric sign servicemen generally purchase their own handtools which may cost up to $100, but employers usually furnish power tools. Highly skilled servicemen may become foremen. Because of their experience in servicing signs and dealing with customers, electric sign servicemen sometimes become sign salesmen. Also, servicemen with sufficient funds can open their own sign manufacturing or repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of electric sign serv icemen is expected to increase rapidly during the 1970’s and pro duce several hundred new jobs an nually. A few hundred openings also will result each year from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. A rapid increase in the number of signs in use will spur demand for electric sign servicemen. New busi nesses, competition among busi nesses, and modernization of estab lished enterprises will expand the number of new sign installations. In addition, many signs already in use will continue to require mainte nance. Employment, however, will not increase as rapidly as the number of signs in use. New equipment, such as highly versatile boom and ladder trucks, will speed servicing. Substi tution of pressure cleaning equip-, ment for manual methods also will increase efficiency. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of electric sign serv icemen compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. Ac cording to a survey of wages and fringe benefits in 1970 covering 80 cities in 24 States, the average hourly union wage rate of experi enced electric sign servicemen ranged from $2.50 to $6.44. In more than three-fourths of these cit ies, straight-time hourly earnings ranged between $4.00 and $6.00. Apprentice rates usually start at about half the journeyman’s hourly wage rate and increase every 6 months, moving up to about 90 per cent of the journeyman’s rate during the final year of the program. According to the survey, most electric sign servicemen worked an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and re ceived premium pay for overtime. In some cities, they also received premium pay for working at heights in excess of 30 feet. Servicemen re ceived a week of paid vacation after 1 year’s service, and 2 weeks or more thereafter, depending on the length of service. They also re ceived from 6 to 9 paid holidays a year. In addition, many employers paid part or all of the cost of life, health, and accident insurance; some also contributed to retirement plans. When uniforms were re quired, the cost was usually partly or entirely paid for by the employer, who sometimes provided for their upkeep. Because most signs are out-ofdoors, servicemen are exposed to all kinds of weather. They make emer gency repairs at night, on weekends, and on holidays. They often work from scaffolds, catwalks, and lad ders; sometimes in awkward or cramped quarters. Some patrol areas at night for improperly oper ating signs. Hazards include electri cal shock, burns, and falls from high places. Safety belts, training pro grams emphasizing safety, and bas kets on boom trucks for easy access to signs have reduced the frequency of accidents. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for electric sign servicemen, inquiries should be di rected to local sign manufacturing shops, the local office of the State employment service, or locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. General information about the work of electric sign servicemen may be obtained from: National Electric Sign Associa tion, 600 Hunter Drive, Oak Brook, 111. 60521. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN FARM EQUIPMENT MECHANICS (D.O.T. 624.281) Nature of the Work Much of the equipment used by farmers to plant, cultivate, and har vest food is serviced by farm equip ment mechanics. These craftsmen maintain the electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic systems in all types of farm machinery such as tractors, combines, pick-up balers, corn pick ers, crop dryers, field forage har vesters, elevators, and conveyors. In addition, they may assemble new farm implements and machinery that have been shipped in sections to farm equipment dealers or whole salers. Sometimes, they may repair dented and torn sheet metal on farm equipment. Much of the mechanic’s time is spent repairing and adjusting dieseland gas-powered tractors. When a tractor is malfunctioning, it may be driven or hauled to a shop. In plant ing or harvesting seasons, however, the mechanic may have to travel to the farm where the tractor is lo cated. Often mechanics must make emergency repairs to equipment so that ripening crops can be harvested before they spoil. Farm equipment mechanics use a variety of testing equipment. For example, they may use a dynamom eter, a device which measures en gine performance. A compression tester also may be used to deter mine whether piston rings are worn or cylinder valves leak. After deter mining the cause of the trouble, me chanics make the necessary repairs. They may repair the transmission and tune or overhaul the engine completely. If parts of the engine are worn or broken, they may re pair or replace them. They may use 489 welding equipment or power metal working tools to repair broken parts. They also use handtools such as wrenches, pliers, hammers, and micrometers. Mechanics also perform preven tive maintenance. Periodically, they test farm machinery parts, clean vital components, and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics may spe cialize in certain types of repair, such as engine overhaul or clutch and brake repair. They also may specialize in repairing certain types of equipment such as tractors or hay balers. Some farm equipment me chanics also repair plumbing, electri cal, irrigation, and other equipment located on farms. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 53,000 farm equipment mechanics em ployed in 1970 worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. These dealers sell and serv ice new and used farm equipment. Other mechanics worked in inde pendent repair shops, in repair shops on large farms, and in service departments of farm equipment wholesalers and manufacturers. Most farm equipment repair shops employed fewer than five me chanics. These shops were located in the agricultural areas of the coun try. About half of the mechanics were employed in thirteen States: Farm equipment mechanic assembles transmission shaft of tractor. 490 Illinois, Texas, Iowa, California, Minnesota, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Wisconsin, Nebraska, North Caro lina, Pennsylvania, and Kansas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most farm equipment mechanics are hired as helpers, and learn the trade by working on the job. As helpers, they assist qualified me chanics, assemble new farm equip ment, and perform rough body re pair work. The duration of on-thejob training varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. Some helpers can do simple repair jobs after 6 months. Generally, however, at least 3 years of on-the-job train ing are necessary to become a quali fied mechanic. A few mechanics also learn the trade by completing an apprentice ship training program. Apprentice trainees are usually chosen from among shop helpers. These pro grams last from 3 to 4 years and in clude on-the-job training in all phases of maintaining and repairing farm equipment and related class room instruction. Upon completion of an apprenticeship program, train ees become qualified mechanics. A small number of farm equip ment mechanics also have received training in programs approved under the provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. Typically, these programs last between 29 and 56 weeks and in clude training in basic electricity, transmissions, welding, hydraulics, and diesel engines. Trainees who complete these programs make sim ple repairs and can qualify as skilled mechanics after some on-the-job ex perience. Some farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive refresher train OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing in short-term programs con ducted by manufacturers of farm equipment. These programs usually last several days. A company repre sentative explains the design and function of equipment, and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. Employers prefer to hire young men with a farm background and an aptitude for mechanical work. They prefer high school graduates, but some employers will hire young men having less education. In gen eral, employers stress previous ex perience or training in diesel and gasoline engines, hydraulics, and welding—subjects that may be learned in high schools and voca tional schools. A young person considering a ca reer as a farm equipment mechanic should have strength and manual dexterity in order to handle tools and equipment. Good mechanics read many service and repair man uals to keep abreast of changes in farm equipment engineering. Me chanics work independently and are able to see the results of their labor. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop foremen. Some open their own repair shops. Me chanics improve their opportunities for advancement by attending the manufacturer-sponsored training sessions. Employment Outlook Employment of farm equipment mechanics is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. In addi tion to the openings that will arise from growth in the field, several hundred job openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment requirements will be determined mainly by the number of farms, the extent of farm mech anization, and the increased relia bility of new farm machinery— especially tractors, which account for much of the repair work. The decrease in the number of farms and the increasing reliability of farm machinery are expected to limit the demand for farm equipment me chanics. These limiting factors will be partially offset, however, by the expected increases in farm mechani zation, and the widespread adoption of specialized farm equipment such as the tomato harvester. Further more, farm operators will find it more economical to have their ma chinery serviced on a regular basis as farms become larger. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage data collected from a small number of employers indicated that in 1970 average hourly wages of farm equipment mechanics were generally between $2.30 and $3.85. Farm equipment mechanics usu ally work a 44-hour week, which in cludes 4 hours on Saturday. During planting and harvesting seasons, however, they often work 6 to 7 days each week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, they may work fewer than 40 hours a week. Many mechanics receive from 1 to 2 weeks’ paid vacation and 7 paid holidays each year. In large shops, farm equipment mechanics are usu ally covered by health plans and sometimes by retirement plans. Farm equipment mechanics often travel many miles to repair equip ment. When working in the field, they may be exposed to the ele ments. They come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, dust, and dirt. There is danger of injury when they 491 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN repair heavy parts which are sup ported on jacks or by hoists. Engine burns and cuts from sharp edges of farm implements are also possible. The few farm equipment me chanics that belong to labor unions are members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about work oppor tunities in this trade may be ob tained from the local offices of the various State employment services, local farm equipment dealers, and independent service shops. The State employment services also can provide information about programs set up under provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. General information about the occupation can be obtained from: Farm and Industrial Equipment In stitute, 850 Wrigley Building N., 410 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, 111. 60611. National Farm and Power Equip ment Dealers Association, 2340 Hampton Ave., St. Louis, Mo. 63139. INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 625. through 632.281, and 637. through 639.281) Nature of the Work The great variety of machinery and equipment used throughout American industry is kept in efficient operating condition by in dustrial machinery repairmen—of ten called maintenance mechanics. These skilled workers maintain and repair machinery and other me chanical equipment used in a wide variety of factories. When break downs occur, repairmen must quickly determine the cause of the trouble, make the necessary repairs, and return the equipment to proper working order in minimum time. In this process, they may completely or partly disassemble a machine to re pair or replace defective parts. After the machine is reassembled, they make the necessary adjust ments to insure proper operation. A repairman spends much time in preventive maintenance. By regu larly inspecting the equipment, oil ing and greasing machines, and cleaning and repairing parts, he prevents trouble which could cause breakdowns later. He also may keep maintenance records of the equip ment he services. The types of machinery on which industrial machinery repairmen work depend on the particular in dustry in which they are employed. For example, in the apparel indus try, these skilled workers may re pair industrial sewing machines. They may take sewing machines apart to repair belts, adjust treadles, or replace motor bearings. In print ing and publishing establishments, repairmen may work on equipment such as printing presses and folders. Repairmen often follow blue prints, lubrication charts, and engi neering specifications in maintaining and repairing equipment. They also may use catalogs to order replace ments for broken or defective parts. When parts are not readily available or the situation demands quick ac tion to return a machine to produc tion, repairmen may sketch a part that may be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Industrial machinery repairmen use wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers, and other handtools, as well as port able power tools. They also may use welding equipment in repairing broken metal parts. Places of Employment Industrial machinery repairmen work in almost every industrial plant that uses large amounts of machinery and equipment. How ever, most of the 180,000 repair men estimated to be employed in 1970 worked in the following indus tries: food and kindred products, primary metals, machinery, chemi cals, fabricated metal products, and transportation equipment. Many re pairmen also were employed in the paper, electrical machinery, and rubber industries. Because industrial machinery re pairmen work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every section of the country. The largest numbers of these workers are found in New York, Pennsylvania, Cali fornia, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and other heavily industrialized States. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 492 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers who become in dustrial machinery repairmen start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally through several years of experience. Others learn the trade through formal appren ticeship programs. Apprenticeship training usually lasts 4 years and consists of both on-the-job training and related classroom (or corre spondence school) instruction. Ap prentices learn the use and care of tools, and the operation, lubrication, and adjustment of the machinery and equipment which they will maintain. Classroom instruction is given in shop mathematics, blue print reading, safety, hydraulics, welding, and other subjects related to the craft. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifica tions for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility also are necessary because repair men are sometimes required to lift heavy objects or do considerable climbing in order to reach equip ment located high above the floor. High school courses in mechani cal drawing, mathematics, and blue print reading are recommended for those interested in entering this trade. repairmen to do major overhaul jobs during such periods. In emergencies, industrial ma chinery repairmen may be called to the plant during off-duty hours. In some factories, repairmen may work nights and week-ends. Because motors and other parts of machines are not always readily accessible, repairmen may work in stooped or cramped positions in limited quarters or from the tops of ladders. Repairmen are subject to Earnings and Working Conditions common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises. However, accidents Average straight-time hourly have been reduced by the use of earnings of industrial machinery re goggles, metal-tip shoes, safety hel pairmen employed by manufactur mets, and other protective devices. ing establishments in 86 metropoli Repairmen must frequently work on tan areas surveyed in 1969-70, dirty and greasy equipment. Light ranged from $3.02 in Lubbock, ing and ventilation are usually good. Texas, to $4.50 in Detroit. Nearly Most industrial machinery repair two-thirds of the repairmen covered men belong to labor unions. Some by these surveys earned $3.75 an of the unions to which these hour or more. Straight-time hourly workers belong are the United earnings for repairmen in 12 of the Steelworkers of America; the Inter metropolitan areas, selected to pre national Union, United Automobile, sent regional variations in wages, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple appear in the accompanying tabula ment Workers of America; the In tion. ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; and M e tr o p o lita n a r e a R a te p e r h o u r Baltimore ............................................ $4.06 the International Union of Electri B oston ................................................. 3.70 cal, Radio and Machine Workers. C hicago............................................... 3.18 Most employer-union contracts Houston ............................................. 4.14 Miami ................................................... 3.23 provide for paid holidays and vaca Minneapolis-St. P a u l........................ 3.98 tions, health and life insurance, re New Y o rk ........................................... 4.26 tirement pensions, and other fringe P hoenix............................................... 3.90 Pittsburgh ............................................ 3.91 benefits. more machinery and equipment to fabricate, process, assemble, in spect, and handle industrial produc tion materials. In addition, as auto matic equipment and continuous production lines become more wide-spread, breakdowns will lead to possible greater losses of produc tion and make repair work and preventive maintenance more essen tial. Employment Outlook San Francisco-Oakland ................... 4.39 Seattle-Everett .................................. 4.35 South B e n d ......................................... 3.89 Employment of industrial ma chinery repairmen is expected to in crease rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to employment growth, thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experi enced repairmen who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment is expected to in crease mainly because of the use of Apprentices usually begin at 50 percent to 65 percent of the jour neyman rate and receive periodic increases until that rate is reached. Industrial machinery repairmen are not usually affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some production workers are laid off, repairmen are often retained. Many companies use INSTRUMENT REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 710.131; 710.281; 710.381; 710.884; 729.281; 823.281; and 828.281) Nature of the Work Instrument repairmen (also called instrument men) maintain MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 493 jewelers loupes, micrometers, or microscopes. As guides in their work, instrument repairmen fre quently use instruction books and maintenance manuals that describe how to install, operate, and main tain instruments. They also use schematic diagrams, assembly draw ings, and blueprints. When instru ments are reassembled, repairmen give them final checks for accurate operation. Instrument repairmen follow preventive maintenance schedules to inspect and correct defects that might cause breakdowns and result in production losses. They also clean, lubricate, and adjust instru ments. the complex industrial and scientific instruments that measure, record, or control variables such as heat, electricity, pressure, liquid flow, and chemical composition. These work ers service instruments used to refine oil, guide airplanes and missiles, generate electricity, conduct labora tory experiments, and manufacture a variety of consumer products. They also service a wide variety of instruments used in fields such as nuclear energy, oceanography, sew age and water treatment, pipeline transportation, medicine, dentistry, optics, and photography. Most re pairmen service a variety of instru ments; others specialize in elec tronic, hydraulic, or pneumatic instruments. Some repairmen install and test new instruments and advise operators on how to use and care for them. When an instrument controlled system is not functioning correctly, instrument repairmen first deter mine whether the trouble is caused by a malfunction of the instrument itself or by other equipment con nected to the instrument. They may disassemble malfunctioning instru ments and examine and test mecha nisms and circuitry for defects. They use testing equipment such as pressure and vacuum gages, speed counters, voltmeters, and ammeters. Readings shown on test equipment are compared with readings that would be shown if the instruments were operating properly. Instrument repairmen work with instruments at the site of trouble or in specially equipped shops. They may perform major overhauls, re place worn or damaged parts, or make minor repairs such as resold ering loose connections. They use handtools such as screwdrivers, wrenches, pliers, and soldering irons, and bench tools such as jew elers’ lathes, pin vises, small buffer grinders, and ultrasonic cleaners for small metal parts. In some compa nies, instrument repairmen operate drill presses, grinders, polishers, and other machine tools to make new parts or to change standard parts to fit particular instruments. When an instrument must be set to a precise tolerance, they may use Places of Employment About 95,000 instrument repair men were employed in 1970. Most of them worked for gas and electric utilities, petroleum and chemical plants, and manufacturers of instru ments and industrial controls. Large numbers of instrument repairmen also were employed by airlines and by manufacturers of pulp and paper, metals, rubber, aircraft and missiles, and automobiles. A few thousand worked for Federal agen cies, mainly the Air Force, Navy, and Army. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement At least 4 years of on-the-job training and study is usually re quired to become a fully qualified instrument repairman. However, training time may vary considera bly, depending upon individual abil ity, previous experience and train ing, and complexity of the instru ments serviced. Instrument repairmen generally 494 are selected from production em ployees or hired as trainees. They may learn their trade informally by assisting experienced repairmen or through formal apprenticeship or other special on-the-job training programs. Apprenticeship programs generally last 4 years and in addi tion to actual work experience, may include courses in instrumentation theory, mathematics, blueprint reading, process theory, physics, electronics, and chemistry. These courses may be taken by correspond ence or at local schools during or after working hours. Some young men train for instru ment repair work in technical insti tutes and junior colleges. Programs offered by these schools usually last about 2 years and emphasize basic engineering courses, science, and mathematics. As instruments be come more complex, technical school training will become increas ingly important and young men with this kind of training will have better advancement opportunities. Armed Forces technical schools also offer training in instrument serv icing. Young men who enter the Armed Forces may wish to investi gate opportunities for training and work experience while in military service. Skills acquired in this way may help to qualify men for civilian jobs as instrument repairmen. A small number of unemployed and underemployed workers receive training under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act. Several instrument manufacturers offer specialized training to experi enced repairmen employed by their customers. This training generally lasts from 1 week to 9 months, de pending upon the number and com plexity of the instruments. Courses are given in theory, maintenance, and operation of the instruments produced by these manufacturers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Students learn how to check instru ments and where to find further in formation about instrument servic ing. Men hired as trainees or appren tices generally must be high school graduates. Courses in algebra, trigo nometry, physics, chemistry, elec tricity, electronics, machine-shop practice, and blueprint reading are considered particularly useful. Some employers give tests to applicants to determine their mechanical or electrical aptitude. Building and maintaining a ham radio station or stereo is good experience for an in dividual planning to become an in strument repairman, at least for electrically operated instrumenta tion. , Young people planning a career as instrument repairmen must have mechanical aptitude and above-av erage ability to read manuals and schematic drawings. Other impor tant qualifications include ability to work with little supervision and to perform a variety of duties often characterized by frequent change. Instrument repairmen must be able to evaluate data revealed by tests and observations and to work to precise standards and tolerances. Good eye-hand coordination and finger dexterity are needed when handling delicate parts. Instrument repairmen having su pervisory ability may become group leaders or foremen in maintenance and repair departments. Some may advance to positions as service rep resentatives in the branch offices of instrument manufacturing compa nies. A few instrument repairmen become engineering assistants. Be cause the use of electronic compo nents in instruments is expected to increase, a basic knowledge of elec tronics may increase the possibility of advancement. Employment Outlook The number of instrument repair men is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In ad dition to job openings resulting from growth, a few thousand open ings will result annually from the need to replace experienced repair men who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. More instrument repairmen will be needed during the 1970’s be cause the use of instruments is ex pected to increase significantly for a wide variety of scientific, industrial, and technical purposes. Rapid in creases are expected in areas such as oceanography, air and water pol lution monitoring, nuclear instru mentation, and in the health service field. The number of industrial in struments used for process control in industries such as metals, petro leum, chemicals, food, rubber, and paper also is expected to increase substantially. In addition, more in struments will be needed for re search laboratories; flight and navi gation systems of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft; automotive repair shops; applications of laser technol ogy; temperature control of com mercial and residential buildings; and for optical applications. Earnings and Working Conditions Several union-management agree ments in the paper and allied products and petroleum industries indicated that many instrument re pairmen received between $2.93 and $4.77 an hour in 1970. Those specializing in the repair of elec tronic instruments often receive higher wages. Instrument repairmen employed by Federal agencies are paid about the same rates as those employed by private industry. 495 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Most instrument repairmen work a 40-hour, 5-day week. Those em ployed in petroleum refineries and chemical plants that operate 24 hours a day and 7 days a week may work on any of three shifts or rotate among shifts. Repairmen also may be called to work with emergency crews nights, Sundays, and holidays. They receive premium pay for night and holiday work, and most compa nies provide holiday and vacation pay. Many companies provide addi tional employee benefits such as life insurance, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. Working conditions for instru ment repairmen vary from servicing instruments located on factory floors amid noise, oil, and fumes, to working at benches in quiet, clean, well-lighted repair shops. In some industries, such as chemical, petro leum, and steel, repairmen may be required to work outdoors. Those employed by instrument manufac turers may have to travel fre quently. Many instrument repairmen be long to unions, including the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; International Chemical Workers Union; International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and Utility Workers Union of America. Sources of Additional Information The local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities for persons who wish to enter this occupation. Additional information about training, as well as employ ment opportunities in the field of in strumentation, may be obtained from: Instrument Society of America, 530 William Penn PL, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15200. Scientific Apparatus Makers Associ ation, Process Measurement and Control Section, 370 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Inquiries concerning positions with • the Federal* Government should be made at the regional offices of the U.S. Civil Service Commission. MAINTENANCE ELECTRICIANS (D.O.T. 825.281 and 829.134 and .281) Nature of the Work Maintenance electricians (electri cal repairmen) maintain and repair many different types of electrical equipment. In addition, they some times modify and install electrical equipment such as motors, trans formers, generators, controls, in struments, and lighting systems used in industrial, commercial, and public establishments. A large part of a maintenance electrician’s work is preventive maintenance—periodic inspection of equipment to locate and repair de fects before breakdowns occur. When trouble does occur, he must find and repair the faculty circuit or equipment quickly to prevent costly production losses and inconve nience. In emergencies, he may ad vise management whether immedi ate shutdown of equipment is neces sary, or if continued operation would be hazardous. In his daily work, the mainte nance electrician completes many tasks. For example, he may make repairs by replacing units or parts such as wiring, fuses, circuit break ers, coils, or switches. When per forming repair or installation work, the electrician may connect wires by splicing or by using mechanical connectors. He may measure, cut, bend, thread, and install conduits through which wires are run to out lets, panels, and boxes. He also may adjust equipment controls and check and adjust instruments. The maintenance electrician uses devices such as test lamps, amme ters, volt-ohm meters, and oscillo scopes in testing electrical equip ment and wiring. He sometimes works from blueprints, wiring dia grams, or other specifications. He may make mathematical computa tions to determine the current carry ing capacities of electrical wiring and equipment. Maintenance elec tricians use pliers, screwdrivers, wire cutters, drills, reamers, conduit bending and threading tools, and other hand and power tools. Although all maintenance electri cians have the same basic skills, the nature of their work depends mainly on the size of the plant and the par ticular industry in which they work. In manufacturing plants, these workers usually maintain electrical equipment used in the manufacture of a particular product. For exam ple, steel mills and aluminum plants require a large number of electri cians to maintain the electrical and 496 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK local governments also employed many of these skilled workers. Maintenance electricians are em ployed in every State. Large num bers work in heavily industrialized States such as California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Skilled workers in this occupation have the advantage of being able to transfer to maintenance electrician jobs in many different industries. After some additional training, they also may qualify as construction electricians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Maintenance electrician rewinds armature. electronic equipment used to power and control rolling mills, presses, and other production machinery. In plants that use large amounts of electrical equipment, electricians may specialize in the maintenance of particular types of equipment, such as motors, welding machines, or transformers. In small plants, electricians usually are responsible for all types of electrical repair work. Maintenance electricians em ployed in large office buildings, apartment houses, and hospitals maintain lighting systems and other electrical equipment, such as that used in air-conditioning systems. Places of Employment An estimated 250,000 mainte nance electricians were employed throughout the country in 1970. More than half of these craftsmen were engaged in servicing equip ment and machinery used in the manufacturing plants of industries such as transportation equipment, primary metal products, electrical and nonelectrical machinery, chemi cals, and fabricated metal products. Nonmanufacturing firms that em ployed large numbers of mainte nance electricians included trans portation, communications, and public utilities industries; services; and mining. Federal, State, and Maintenance electricians learn the skills of their trade through for mal apprenticeship programs or by accumulating experience through informal on-the-job training. Train ing authorities generally agree that apprenticeship programs give train ees more thorough knowledge of the trade and improved job opportuni ties during their working life. Apprenticeship programs for maintenance electricians usually last 4 years. Apprentices are given onthe-job training and related techni cal classroom instruction in subjects such as mathematics, electrical and electronic theory, and blueprint reading. Training may include motor repair, wire splicing, com mercial and industrial wiring, instal lation of light and power equipment, installation and repair of electronic controls and circuits, and welding and brazing. A young man employed in a plant as a helper to a skilled mainte nance electrician gradually may ac quire the skills of this craft by ob serving the electrician and following his instructions. Others learn the trade by working in the mainte 497 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN nance department of a plant and picking up some fundamentals of the job. By moving from job to job, they eventually acquire sufficient experience to qualify as skilled workers. However, it generally takes more than 4 years to become a maintenance electrician through informal on-the-job training. A young man interested in be coming a maintenance electrician should include courses in mathe matics (such as algebra and trigo nometry) and basic science in his high school or vocational school curriculum. Because the electri cian’s craft is subject to constant technological change, many experi enced electricians continue to ac quire additional technical knowl edge and learn new skills. For example, some maintenance electri cians who entered the trade years ago must now learn basic electronics to service the new electronic equip ment being introduced in the Na tion’s industrial establishments and large commercial and residential buildings. In selecting apprentice applicants or trainees, employers look for young men who have manual dex terity and are interested in learning how electrical equipment functions. These young men also need good color vision because electrical wires are frequently identified by their different colors. Although great physical strength is not essential, agility and good health are impor tant. All maintenance electricians should be familiar with the National Electric Code; some must be famil iar with local building codes. A growing number of cities and coun ties require maintenance electricians to be licensed. An electrician can obtain a license by passing a com prehensive examination that tests his knowledge of electrical theory and its application. Skilled maintenance electricians may become foremen who supervise the work of other maintenance elec tricians or other maintenance per sonnel. Occasionally, they may ad vance to jobs such as plant electrical superintendent or plant mainte nance superintendent. Employment Outlook Employment of maintenance electricians is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Most openings will occur from the need to replace journeymen who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields. Retirements and deaths alone will result in several thousand job open ings annually. In addition, a few thousand job openings are expected each year because of the growing volume of electrical and electronic equipment in use in industry. Earnings and Working Conditions In general, earnings of mainte nance electricians compare favora bly with those of other skilled workers. The average straight-time hourly earnings of maintenance electricians in establishments in 85 cities and areas in 1969-70 ranged from $3.07 in Manchester, N.H., to $5.29 in Chicago, 111. In about four-fifths of the cities surveyed, however, average straight-time hourly earnings of these craftsmen ranged from $3.60 to $4.75. In establishments that operate an apprenticeship program, apprentices start at about 60 percent of the journeyman’s basic hourly pay rate. They receive increases every 6 months, rising to 85 or 90 percent of the journeyman’s rate during the last period of apprenticeship. During a single day, an electri cian employed in a plant may repair electrical equipment both in a clean air-conditioned office and on the factory floor, surrounded by the noise, oil, and grease of machinery. Maintenance electricians may be re quired to climb ladders, work on scaffolds, or work in awkward or cramped positions when repairing or installing electrical equipment. Because maintenance electricians often work near high-voltage in dustrial equipment, they must be alert and accurate when performing their duties. Errors in wiring instal lations could have dangerous conse quences, both to the electrician and the operating employees. Safety principles, part of all electrician training programs, have greatly re duced the frequency of accidents. Maintenance electricians are taught to use protective equipment and clothing, to respect the destructive potential of electricity, and to handle small electrical fires. Several labor unions have main tenance electricians in their mem bership. Many of these craftsmen are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Other unions to which maintenance electricians belong are the Interna tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America (Ind.); and the United Steelworkers of America. Most labor-management contracts covering maintenance elec tricians provide major benefit pro grams that may include paid holi days and vacations; hospitalization, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 498 medical, and surgical insurance; life insurance; and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information A young man who wishes to ob tain further information regarding electrician apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade should apply to local firms that em ploy maintenance electricians; to a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or to the local office of the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment serv ice may be a source of information about training opportunities. Some State employment service offices provide services such as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. MILLWRIGHTS (D.O.T. 638.281) Nature of the Work Millwrights are skilled craftsmen who move and install lathes, mill ing machines, automatic assembly equipment, and many other types of heavy industrial machinery. They must have a thorough knowledge of complex equipment to dismantle, reassemble, and aline it. In assem bling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, aline gears and wheels, at tach motors, and connect belts. Millwrights often construct concrete foundations and platforms or fabri cate metal framework on which ma chinery is mounted. They must be able to read blueprints and work with wood, steel, concrete, and other building materials. When moving machinery, mill wrights use hoists, cranes, jacks, crowbars, wood blocking, and other rigging devices. In dismantling and assembling equipment, they use wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers and other handtools, and portable power tools. They use micrometers, calipers, squares, plumb bobs, and other devices to align and level ma chinery. Millwrights employed by contract installation and construction compa nies install a wide variety of heavy machinery. Those employed in fac tories usually specialize in installing the particular types of machinery used by their employers. They may also maintain plant equipment such as conveyors and cranes. They may replace worn or broken belts, weld metal parts, and lubricating machin ery. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 80,000 millwrights employed in 1970 worked in manufacturing. The greatest number were in primary metals, metalworking, paper, lum ber, and chemical products indus tries. Most of the remaining were in construction. Some millwrights are employed by companies that specialize in moving, installing, and maintaining industrial machinery on a contract basis. Others work for machinery manufacturers who employ mill wrights to install their products in customers’ plants. Millwrights work in every State. However, about half of them are employed in the heavily industrial ized States of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, and Indiana. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers who become mill wrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade infor mally through several years of expe rience. Others learn the trade through formal apprenticeship pro grams. Apprenticeship programs generally last 4 years and include training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery. Apprentices are trained also in floor layout, carpentry, welding, rigging, and the use of structural steel, wood, and concrete. The appren ticeship program includes classroom instruction in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, elec tricity, and safety. Many companies require that applicants be high school graduates between 18 and 26. High school courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are use ful to young men interested in be coming millwrights. Because mill wrights often put together and take apart complicated machinery, me chanical aptitude is important. Strength and agility are also impor tant because the work requires con siderable lifting and climbing. Employment Outlook Employment of millwrights is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Factors ex pected to increase employment in clude construction of new plants, addition of new machinery, changes in plant layouts, and maintenance of increasing amounts of complex ma chinery. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN In addition to new job openings created by industrial expansion and increased mechanization, a few thousand workers will be needed annually to replace millwrights who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of millwrights vary by area and industry. According to a survey covering 44 metropolitan areas, average straight-time hourly earnings of millwrights in manufac turing ranged from $3.31 to $4.75 in 1969-70. More than two-thirds of these workers earned at least $4 an hour. Straight-time hourly earn ings for millwrights in 12 of the areas, representing various regions of the country, appear in the ac companying tabulation. Rate per hour Industrial millwrights {manufacturing industries) Akron ............................ ..................... $4.39 B o sto n ................................................. 3.56 Buffalo ............................................... 4.29 Fort W orth ................... ..................... 3.61 Los Angeles-Long Beach and Anaheim-Santa Ana--Garden Grove ............................................. 4.75 Louisville ..................... ..................... 4.50 Minneapolis-St. Paul . . ................... 4.42 New H aven ................... ................... 3.41 New Orleans................. ................... 4.09 Rockford........................ ................... 4.20 St. L o u is........................ ................... 4.19 T renton.......................... ................... 4.50 City Millwrights employed by contract installation companies and construc tion companies usually have higher wage rates than those in manufac turing. The minimum average hourly rates for millwrights under union contracts in construction ranged from $4.15 to $7.14 in 1969, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. 499 Apprentices generally start at 50 percent or more of the skilled worker’s rate and increase to that rate by the end of their training pe riod. Millwrights employed by facto ries ordinarily work year round. Those employed by construction companies, contract installation companies and those that manufac ture and install machinery may have periods of unemployment and fre quently work away from home. The work of millwrights involves certain hazards. For example, there are dangers of being struck by fall ing objects or by machinery that is being moved. There also is the dan ger of falling from high work places. In addition, millwrights are subject to the usual shop hazards* such as cuts and bruises. Accidents have been reduced by the use of protec tive devices, such as safety belts and hats. Most millwrights belong to labor unions, among which are the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (construction millwrights); United Steelworkers of America; International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; and the International Union of Eelctrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Employer-union contracts usually provide for bene fits such as paid holidays and vaca tions. Sources of Additional Information United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Con stitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. MOTORCYCLE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.281 and .384) Nature of the Work More than 2 million Americans own motorcycles and motor scoot ers. Although many cycling enthu siasts repair their own vehicles, most rely on skilled mechanics. Motorcycles, like automobiles, need periodic servicing to operate at peak efficiency. Spark plugs, igni tion points, brakes, and many other parts that frequently get “out of whack” have to be adjusted or re placed. This routine servicing fre quently represents the major part of the mechanic’s work load. How ever, the mark of a skilled mechanic is his ability to diagnose major me chanical and electrical problems and make necessary repairs in a minimum of time. In diagnosing malfunctions, the mechanic first obtains a description of the symptoms from the motor cycle owner, and then runs the en gine or test rides the machine. He may have to use special testing equipment and disassemble some components for further examination. Once defective parts are located, ad justments or replacements are made. Some jobs require only the replace ment of a single item, such as a carburetor or generator, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, an overhaul may re quire several hours because the mechanic must disassemble and re assemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as special tools for getting at “hard to remove parts” such as flywheels and bear OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 500 ings. They also use compression gauges, timing lights, and other kinds of testing devices. Hoists are used to lift heavy motorcycles. Most mechanics specialize in serv icing only a few of the more than 30 brands of motorcycles and motor scooters. In large shops, some me chanics specialize in overhauling and rebuilding engines and trans missions, but most are expected to perform all kinds of repairs. Me chanics may occasionally repair mini-bikes, go-carts, snowmobiles, outboard boat motors, lawn mow ers, and other equipment powered by small gasoline engines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Motorcycle mechanics learn their trade on the job. Trainees pick up their skills from experienced workers. Initially, a trainee learns to uncrate, assemble, and road test new motorcycles. Next, he learns routine maintenance jobs such as adjusting brakes, spark plugs, and ignition points. As the trainee gains experience, he progresses to more difficult tasks such as repairing electrical systems and overhauling engines and transmissions. Gener ally, 2 to 3 years on the job are nec essary before a trainee becomes a fully qualified mechanic. A trainee is expected to accumu late handtools as he gains experi- Places of Employment Nearly all of the estimated 5,000 full-time and 1,500 part-time mo torcycle mechanics employed in early 1970 worked for motorcycle dealers. Most of the remainder maintained police motorcycles for municipal governments. A small number of mechanics were em ployed by firms that specialized in modifying or “customizing” motor cycles. Most shops employ fewer than five mechanics. By State, employment is distrib uted much the same as motorcycle registrations. About one-half of the registrations in 1970 were in seven States: California, Michigan, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and New York. Nearly all mechanics who spe cialize in repairing motorcycles are employed in cities having more than 30,000 population. In smaller cities, motorcycles usually are repaired by mechanics who repair all kinds of equipment powered by small gaso line engines. Motorcycle mechanic overhauls engine. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 501 ence. Mechanics usually have sev to other fields of mechanical work. The growth of motorcycles in use eral hundred dollars invested in For example, since all internal com is expected to continue through the tools. bustion engines are similar, a mo 1970’s, but at a considerably slower Employers sometimes send me torcycle mechanic can become an pace than during the previous dec chanics and experienced trainees to automobile or diesel mechanic after ade. Increases in the young adult special training courses conducted some additional training. However, population and personal income lev by motorcycle manufacturers and such a transfer would not necessar els will create a demand for more importers. These courses, which ily mean higher earnings. motorcycles, and additional me may last as long as 2 weeks, are de Motorcycle mechanics have lim chanics will be needed to maintain signed to upgrade the worker’s skills ited advancement possibilities. these machines. Growth in the num and provide information on repair Those with supervisory ability may bers of mini-bikes and snowmobiles ing new models. advance to service manager and, also will stimulate the demand for When hiring trainees, employers eventually, to general manager in mechanics. look particularly for cycling enthu large dealerships. Managers who Maintenance per motorcycle may siasts who have gained practical ex have the necessary capital may be rise during the next decade as a re perience repairing their own motor come dealers. sult of a trend to higher powered, cycles. However, many employers more complex engines. However, will hire young men with no riding this favorable employment effect experience if they have mechanical likely will be offset by increases in Employment Outlook aptitude and show an interest in mechanic efficiency brought about Employment in this relatively by improved training methods, bet learning the work. Trainees must be free of any physical disabilities that small occupation is expected to ter shop management, and greater would prevent their obtaining a mo grow rapidly through the 1970’s use of special tools and test equip and create a few hundred job open ment. torcycle driver’s license. Most employers prefer high ings for full-time motorcycle me school graduates, but will accept ap chanics each year. Many additional plicants with less education. openings will arise from the need to Earnings and Working Conditions Courses in small engine repair—of replace experienced mechanics who Earnings of motorcycle mechan fered by some high schools and vo retire, die, or transfer to other fields ics and trainees vary widely and cational schools—generally are of work. The number of motorcycles in depend on level of skill, geographic helpful, as are courses in automo bile mechanics, science, and mathe use, the primary determinant of the location, and employer. Limited in matics. While in school, a young demand for mechanics, quadrupled formation indicates that mechanics man may work part time as a me between 1960 and 1969. This dra employed by motorcycle dealers chanic trainee. Many motorcycle matic increase resulted largely from earned between $2.50 and $5.50 an dealers employ students, especially a surge in the sale of imported mo hour in early 1970, or 2 to 3 times during the summer, to help assem torcycles, particularly the small, in as much as inexperienced trainees. Some mechanics are paid an ble new motorcycles and perform expensive machines which were in troduced in this country in the late hourly rate or weekly salary. Others minor repairs. Public schools in several large 1950’s. Favorable market condi are paid a percentage—usually cities offer post-secondary and adult tions also were an important factor about 50 percent—of the labor cost education in small engine repair; a behind the rise in sales. Reflecting charged to the customer. If a me few schools in California have spe the large birth rate after World War chanic is paid on a percentage basis, cial courses in motorcycle repair. II, the young adult population grew his salary depends on the amount of Some unemployed and under-em rapidly during the 1960’s. Personal work he is assigned and how fast he ployed workers have received train income levels also rose rapidly and completes it. Trainees frequently ing in small engine repair under the made more money available for rec are paid on a piecework basis when Manpower Development and Train reation. In addition, advertising de uncrating and assembling new mo signed to overcome an unfavorable torcycles. At other times, they are ing Act. The skills learned through repair public attitude toward motorcycling paid an hourly rate or weekly sal ary. ing motorcycles can be transferred boosted sales. 502 Motorcycling increases sharply as the weather grows warmer. Conse quently, most mechanics work more than 40 hours a week during the summer. Employers often hire addi tional mechanics and trainees to help handle the increased work load. Many of these temporary workers are part time and are laid off in the fall. However, a large pro portion are students or have full time jobs elsewhere. Many motorcycle mechanics re ceive holiday and vacation pay and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Some also receive paid sick leave, contributions to retirement plans, and laundered uniforms. Motorcycle shops generally are well-lighted and ventilated, but are noisy when engines are being tested. The work is not hazardous, al though mechanics are subject to cuts, bruises, and other minor inju ries. Since motorcycles are rela tively light-weight and have easily accessible parts, mechanics rarely do heavy lifting or work in awkward positions. A small percentage of motorcycle mechanics are members of the In ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding employment opportunities for mo torcycle mechanics, inquiries should be directed to local motorcycle dealers or the local office of the State employment service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK TELEVISION AND RADIO SERVICE TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 720.281) Nature of the Work Skilled television and radio serv ice technicians use their knowledge of electrical and electronic parts and circuits to install and repair a grow ing number of electronic products. Of these, television sets are by far the most prominent. Other major electronic products are radios (in cluding home, automobile, and two-way mobile radios), phono graphs, hi-fidelity and stereophonic sound equipment, intercommuni cation equipment, tape recorders, and public address systems. Many service technicians specialize in re pairing one kind of equipment; for example, color television sets or au tomobile radios. Most of the skilled work done by television and radio service techni cians involves diagnosing trouble in equipment and making necessary repairs. Equipment may operate un satisfactorily or break down com pletely because of faulty tubes, tran sistors, and other components; poor connections; aging of parts; or dirt, moisture, and heat. The service technician’s job is to check and evaluate each possible cause of trouble; they begin with the simplest and most common cause—tube fail ure. In other routine checks, they look for loose or broken connec tions and for parts that are charred or burned, due to excessive current or mishandling. When routine checks do not lo cate the cause of trouble, service technicians use test equipment to check suspected circuits. For exam ple, they may measure voltages until an unusual or irregular measure ment indicates the part causing trouble. Commonly used test instru ments are vacuum tube voltmeters, multimeters, oscilloscopes, and sig nal generators. On service calls, service techni cians advise customers as to what may be wrong with television sets and whether sets must be taken to shops for further analysis and re pair. If possible, they explain what repairs must be made and esti mate the cost. Technicians make simple electri cal checks with a voltmeter, change tubes, and make necessary adjust ments, including focusing the pic ture or correcting the color balance on color sets. They check high volt age circuits in color TV sets for ex cessive X-ray radiation. Service technicians who make customer service calls carry tubes and other components that are easily replaced in the customer’s home. Appren tices or less experienced television service technicians may install or repair antennas on roofs or in attics and run lead-in wires from antennas to receivers. Radios, portable televisions, and other small equipment usually are repaired in service shops. Larger television sets are repaired in shops when trouble develops only after a few hours of operation, or when the trouble must be located with more complex test equipment available in shops. Television and radio service tech nicians usually refer to wiring dia grams and service manuals that show connections within sets, pro vide adjustment information, and de scribe causes of trouble associated with unusual symptoms. They must know how to use soldering irons, wire cutters, long-nosed pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers and, some times, magnifying glasses when they remove, adjust, or replace parts, MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN components, or complete equipment such as automobile radios. Places of Employment More than 130,000 television and radio service technicians were estimated to be employed in 1970, of whom about one-third were selfemployed. About three-fourths of all service technicians worked in service shops or in stores that sell and service television sets, radios, and other electronic products. Many of the remaining service technicians were employed by manufacturers, including their service branches. Television and radio service tech nicians work in almost every city. However, employment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Thus, they are employed mainly in the highly populated States and major metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics is required to become a highly skilled television and radio service technician capable of working on various types of elec tronic equipment. Technical, voca tional, or high school training in electronic subjects, mathematics, and physics has helped men to qual ify as expert television and radio service technicians. The military service offers training and work ex perience that is useful in civilian electronics work. Home study (cor respondence school) courses are also helpful. From 2 to 4 years’ combined training and on-the-job experience are required to become a qualified television and radio service techni cian. Men without previous training may be hired as helpers or appren 503 tices if they show aptitude for the work or, like the amateur (“ham” ) radio operator, have a hobby in electronics. An important part of the service technicians’ training is provided by many manufacturers, employers, and trade associations. These organ izations conduct training programs when new models or new products are introduced, as part of a continu ing effort to keep service technicians abreast of the latest technical serv icing and business methods. Serv ice technicians also keep up with technical developments by studying manufacturers’ instruction books and technical magazines, and by at tending training meetings covering electronics service work. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs in the television and radio service field were in operation in several States in 1970 under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. These programs usually lasted from about 6 months to a year. Given additional experience or training, which may include an ap prenticeship, graduates of these programs may become skilled serv ice technicians. Television and radio service tech nicians must know how electronic components and circuits work, and why they function as they do. They also must be able to understand technical publications. Other essen tial qualifications include the ability to manipulate small parts and tools, good hand-eye coordination, normal hearing, and good eyesight and color vision. Television and radio service tech nicians who work in large repair shops or service centers may be promoted to assistant foreman, foreman, and service manager. Fre quently, they are able to obtain jobs as electronic mechanics or techni cians in manufacturing industries or government agencies. Those who are employed by manufacturers can advance to higher paying occupa tions such as technical writer, sales engineer, design engineer, and serv ice training instructor. In addition, experienced men who have suffi cient funds, adequate business man agement training, and ability may open their own sales and repair shops. Persons interested in advancing to positions such as electronic tech nician can improve their opportuni ties by taking trade school, corre spondence, or technical institute courses in automatic controls, elec tronic engineering, television engi neering, mathematics, and related subjects. In 1969, several cities and four States—Indiana, Connecticut, Loui siana, and Massachusetts—required that radio and television technicians be licensed. To obtain a license, ap plicants are required to pass an ex 504 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK amination designed to test their skill in the use of testing equipment and their knowledge of electronic cir cuits and components. Employment Outlook Employment of television and radio service technicians is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to the openings that will arise from growth, thou sands of job openings will result an nually from the need to replace ex perienced service technicians who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment of service techni cians is expected to increase in re sponse to the growing number of ra dios, televisions, phonographs, and other home entertainment products in use. Factors that will contribute to this growth include rising popula tion and family formations, and ris ing levels of personal income. In 1970, over 95 percent of all house holds had at least one television. During the next decade, the number of households with two television sets or more is expected to increase significantly, mainly because of the growing demand for color and light weight, portable television sets. Other consumer electronics prod ucts that are expected to be used in creasingly include stereo equipment and tape recorder devices such as cartridge and cassette units. New consumer products, such as home video tape recorders, as well as im proved styling and design of existing products, also will stimulate de mand. Greater use of nonentertain ment products, such as closed-cir cuit television, two-way radios, and various medical electronic devices, also is expected. For example, closed-circuit television is being used increasingly to monitor pro duction processes in manufacturing plants, and to bring educational programs into classrooms. Employment of service techni cians is not expected to increase as rapidly as the use of televisions and other consumer electronic products. Replacement of tubes with transis tors and use of printed circuit boards instead of handwired chassis have lengthened the time a product may be operated before requiring service. Technological changes are expected to continue to reduce serv icing requirements. Such changes, however, as well as the increasing miniaturization of components usu ally require servicemen to have greater skill and technical knowl edge. Many also provide or help pay for health and life insurance benefits. Service on television, radio, and other home entertainment products is performed in shops and homes where working conditions are usu ally pleasant. Inside men work at benches, normally provided with stools. Outside men may spend sev eral hours a day driving between shops and customers. Some physical strain is involved in lifting and carrying receivers. Perhaps the greatest hazards are the risk of fall ing from roofs while installing or re pairing antennas, and electrical shock. Some raido and television service technicians are members of labor unions. Most of them belong to the International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers. Earnings and Working Conditions National earnings data are not available for television and radio service technicians. However, wage data obtained from more than one hundred union-management con tracts, in effect in early 1970, indi cated that experienced radio and television service technicians cov ered by these contracts averaged $3.50 to $6.50 an hour. The wide variations in wage rates reflect dif ferences in type of employer, geo graphic location, and skill levels. Television and radio service tech nicians employed in local service shops or dealer service departments commonly work a 6-day, 48-hour week. In large shops, including manufacturers’ service branches, they usually work a basic 40-hour week. Service technicians often work more than 8 hours a day and receive higher rates of pay for over time work. Some employers of tele vision and radio service technicians provide paid vacations and holidays after a specified length of service. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about jobs in television servicing may be obtained from local service techni cians, local dealers who sell and service television receivers and other electronic equipment, local televi sion service associations, and manu facturers who operate their own service centers. Technical and voca tional schools that offer courses in television and radio repair, or elec tronics, can provide helpful infor mation about training. In addition, the local office of the State employ ment service would be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other programs that provide training opportunities. Information about the work of television and radio service techni cians may also be obtained from: National Alliance of Television As sociations, 5908 South Troy St. Chicago, 111. 60629. 505 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Nature of the Work are similar but have different fuel and ignition systems. A mechanic who has worked only on gasoline engines needs special training to qualify as a diesel mechanic. (See statement on Diesel Mechanics else where in the Handbook.) Truck and bus mechanics keep the Nation’s trucks and buses in good operating condition. Truck mechanics maintain and repair heavy trucks used for mining, con struction, and intercity travel; and small trucks used for local hauling. Bus mechanics maintain and repair transcontinental buses as well as those used for local transit. Although many parts of large trucks and buses are similar to automobile parts, truck and bus mechanics re pair large engines, complex trans missions and differentials, air brakes, and other components that are different from those in automo biles. Mechanics employed by organi zations that maintain their own ve hicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe vehicle operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a main tenance check, mechanics inspect brake systems, steering mecha nisms, wheel bearings, universal joints, and other parts, and make needed repairs and adjustments. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in one or two kinds of re pair. For example, some mechanics specialize in major engine or trans mission repair. If an engine is to be rebuilt, the mechanic removes it from the vehicle and disassembles it. He examines parts, such as valves or pistons, for wear, and re places or repairs defective parts. Many mechanics specialize in diesel engines that power large trucks and buses. Diesel and gasoline engines Truck and bus mechanics use common handtools such as screw drivers and pliers; power and ma chine tools such as pneumatic wrenches and drills; special purpose tools, such as pump seal installers and transmission jacks; and welding and flame cutting equipment. They also use testing equipment, such as oscilloscopes and dynamometers, to locate malfunctions, and hydraulic jacks and hoists to lift and move heavy parts. When performing heavy work, such as removing engines and trans missions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a skilled mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally work under the supervision of a shop foreman or service manager. TRUCK MECHANICS AND BUS MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.281) Places of Employment A large proportion of the nearly 100,000 truck mechanics employed in 1970 worked for firms that own fleets of trucks. Fleet owners in clude trucking companies and com panies that haul their own products such as dairies, bakeries, and con struction companies. Other em ployers include truck dealers, truck manufacturers, independent truck repair shops, firms that rent or lease trucks, and Federal, State, and local governments. Most of the estimated 17,000 bus mechanics employed in 1970 worked for local transit companies and intercity buslines. Bus manufac turers employed a relatively small number of mechanics. Truck and bus mechanics are em ployed in every section of the coun try, but most of them work in large towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most truck or bus mechanics learn their skills on the job. In shops where fleets of trucks and buses are serviced, beginners usu ally perform tasks such as cleaning, fueling, and lubrication. They may be required to drive vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, young persons—especially those who have prior automobile re pair experience—are hired as me chanics’ helpers. Most helpers are able to make minor repairs after a few months’ experience and are allowed to han dle increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. Generally, 3 to 4 506 years of on-the-job experience is necessary to qualify as an all-round truck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be necessary for me chanics who wish to specialize in diesel engines. Most training authorities, includ ing joint labor-management com mittees for the truck transportation industry, recommend a formal 4year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. Typical ap prenticeship programs for truck and bus mechanics consist of approxi mately 8,000 hours of shop training and at least 576 hours of related classroom instruction. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine re pair. Unemployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as truck mechanics are trained in a large number of cities under the Man power Development and Training Act. This training, which lasts up to a year, stresses basic maintenance and repair work, but additional onthe-job or apprenticeship training is needed before workers can qualify as skilled mechanics. For entry jobs, employers gener ally look for young men who have mechanical aptitude, and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is an advantage in getting an entry mechanic job because most employers believe it indicates that a young man can “finish a job” and has advancement potential. When the mechanic’s job in cludes driving trucks or buses on public roads, applicants may have to get a State chauffeur’s license. If the employer is engaged in inter state transportation, the applicant also may be required to meet quali fications for drivers established by the U.S. Department of Transporta tion. He must be at least 21 years of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK age, able bodied, have good hear ing, and have at least 20/40 eye sight with or without glasses. He must be able to read and speak Eng lish; have at least ,1 year’s driving experience (which may include driving private automobiles); and have a good driving record. Young men interested in becom ing truck or bus mechanics can gain valuable experience by taking high school or vocational school courses in automobile repair. Courses in sci ence and mathematics are helpful since they give a young man a bet ter understanding of how trucks and buses operate. Courses in diesel re pair provide valuable related train ing. Practical experience in automo bile repair gained from working in a gasoline service station, training in the Armed Forces, and working on automobiles as a hobby also is valu able. Most employers require mechan ics to purchase their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often have several hundred dollars in vested in tools. Employers sometimes send expe rienced mechanics to special train ing classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, and parts manufac turers. In these classes, mechanics learn to repair the latest equipment or receive special training in sub jects such as diagnosing engine mal functions. A young person considering a ca reer as truck or bus mechanic should have strength and manual dexterity to handle tools and equip ment. Good mechanics read many service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Truck and bus mechanics work in dependently and are able to see the results of their work. Experienced mechanics who have supervisory ability may advance to shop foremen or service managers. Truck mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become truck salesmen. Some mechanics open their own gasoline service stations or independent repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of truck mechanics is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of significant increases in the transpor tation of freight by trucks. More trucks will be needed for both local and intercity hauling as a result of increased industrial activity, contin ued decentralization of industry, and the continued movement of the population to the suburbs. In addi tion to the job openings expected to occur as a result of employment growth, more than a thousand open ings are expected each year from the need to replace workers who die or retire. Job openings also will occur as some mechanics transfer to other occupations. Several hundred job openings for bus mechanics are anticipated an nually through the 1970’s to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Total employ ment, however, is expected to re main at about the present level, be cause of offsetting factors affecting the demand for bus service. More buses will be needed for intercity travel due to increasing population, new highways, and less railroad pas senger service. Local bus travel, on the other hand, is expected to de cline as a result of the growing use of private automobiles in cities and suburbs. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering 88 metropolitan areas in 1970, me 507 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN chanics employed by trucking com panies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average straight-time hourly earn ings of $4.01. Average hourly earn ings of these workers in individual cities ranged from $2.96 in Port land, Me., to $5.02 in San Francisco-Oakland, Calif. Apprentices’ wage rates generally start at 50 percent of skilled workers’ rates and are increased about every 6 months until a rate of 90 percent is reached during the last 6 months of the training period. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Because many truck and bus firms provide service around the clock, mechanics may work evenings, night shifts, and weekends, for which they usually receive a higher rate of pay. A large number of employers provide holi day and vacation pay; many pay part or all of the cost of financing employee health and life insurance programs and other employee bene fits. Some employers furnish laun dered uniforms. Truck mechanics and bus me chanics are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. If proper safety precautions are not followed, there is danger of injury when repairing heavy parts supported on jacks and hoists. Me chanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awk ward or cramped positions for ex tended periods of time when repair ing vehicles. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Al though most work is performed in doors, mechanics occasionally make repairs outdoors where breakdowns occur. Many truck and bus mechanics are members of labor unions. These include the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for truck or bus mechanics, inquiries should be di rected to local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of unions pre viously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment serv ice. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General in formation about the work of truck mechanics and apprenticeship train ing may be obtained from: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. VENDING MACHINE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 639.381) Nature of the Work The convenience of automatic, 24-hour merchandising and the great variety of items provided by vending machines have increased job opportunities for skilled me chanics who maintain and repair these machines. The familiar gum ball, cigarette, or other mechanical, gravity-operated dispensing device no longer typifies modern vending machines. Today, vending machines include growing numbers of com plex, electrically operated machines that dispense hot canned foods and ready-to-eat dinners, and brew cups of coffee flavored to taste. Most vending machine mechanics work both in repair shops and at lo cations where machines are in stalled, such as schools, office build ings, factories, theaters, transporta tion terminals, and hospitals. Some work only in repair shops; others work only in the field and travel by car or small truck from one location to another to make machine repairs. In the repair shops, mechanics repair complex vending machine components, such as water pumps, motors, and relays, and overhaul machines by replacing worn or damaged parts. They also may as semble new machines in the shop, following instructional materials supplied by the manufacturer. After the machines are assembled, they are filled with products or ingre dients and test run. When working on relatively complex machines— for example, beverage dispensing machines—mechanics check to see that the machines dispense proper quantities of ingredients and that their refrigerating or heating units operate properly. On gravity-oper ated machines, mechanics check springs, plungers, and mechandisedelivery systems. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When installing a machine on loca tion, mechanics make the necessary water and electrical connections and recheck the machines for proper operation. 508 When a machine on location is reported to be defective, the me chanic first determines the cause of the trouble. He inspects the ma chine for obvious troubles, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and water and other leaks. He may test the machine’s components to isolate the defective parts. After the mechanic locates the cause of the trouble, he may remove and repair or replace the defective parts, either on loca tion or in his employer’s service shop. Preventive maintenance— avoid ing trouble before it starts—is an other major responsibility of the mechanic. For example, he periodi cally cleans electrical contact points, lubricates mechanical parts and ad justs machines to perform properly. Both in the service shop and on lo cation, mechanics use handtools, such as wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, pliers, pipe cutters, electrical circuit testers and solder ing irons. In the service shop, they also may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills. Vending machine mechanics use operating and troubleshooting man uals to repair machine systems and components. They must know how and when to do soldering or brazing to repair piping systems; how to read diagrams of electrical circuits; and how to test electrical circuits and components. Mechanics who install and repair food vending machines must know State public health and sanitation standards as well as those established under local plumbing codes. They also must know and comply with safety proce dures, especially when working with electricity and gas and when lifting heavy objects. Repairmen are required to do some clerical work. For example, they may fill out reports, prepare OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK repair-cost estimates, keep parts in ventories, and order parts. If they are chief mechanics, they prepare work schedules for other mechanics. Mechanics employed by small oper ating companies frequently service as well as repair machines. These combination “repair-routemen” are responsible for periodically stocking machines, collecting money, filling coin and currency' changers, and keeping daily records of merchan dise distributed. (Additional infor mation about vending machine routemen is included in the state ment on routemen elsewhere in the Handbook. See index for page num bers.) Places of Employment In 1970, an estimated 18,000 mechanics maintained and repaired approximately 5 million vending machines. Vending machine repair men work mainly for operators who place machines in selected locations and provide necessary services, such as cleaning, stocking, and repairing. Some repairmen also are employed by beverage companies which have coin operated machines on location. Although vending machine opera tors are located throughout the country, most mechanics are em ployed in the major industrial and commercial centers where large numbers of vending machines are located. Vending machine manufacturers employ some highly skilled mechan ics to explain technical innovations and ways to repair new machines to vending machine repairmen. Such instruction takes place either in manufacturers’ service divisions in major metropolitan areas or in op erator’s repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young men usually enter this trade as general shop helpers. If MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN shop helpers show promise as me chanics, they may become trainees. Some young men are hired directly as trainees. Mechanic trainees acquire skills on the job—observing, working with, and receiving instruction from experienced mechanics. Sometimes, trainees attend manufacturer-spon sored training sessions, which em phasize the repair of new and com plex machines. Employers usually pay the wages and expenses of trainees during these sessions which may last from a few days to several weeks. Because vending machines are in creasing in complexity, some opera tors encourage both trainees and ex perienced mechanics to take eve ning courses in subjects related to machine operation and repair—for example, basic electricity. At least part of the tuition and book ex penses for these courses is paid for by the employers. The duration of on-the-job train ing varies with the individual’s ca pabilities and the extent of his prior education. Although IV2 to 2 years may be required for a trainee to be come skilled in his work, within 6 to 9 months he usually can handle sim ple repair jobs and may be sent out alone on trouble calls. Mechanics are generally “in training” through out their working lives, since they must constantly increase their work ing knowledge to handle new and improved vending equipment. Many beginners in this trade are high school graduates, although em ployers generally do not require a high school diploma for employ ment. High school or vocational school courses in electricity and machine repair help beginners to qualify for entry jobs. These courses also may help beginners to skip the lowest rung of the job ladder—gen eral shop helper. 509 Employers require prospective repairmen to demonstrate mechani cal ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. The abil ity to deal tactfully with people is important to employers who are considering applicants. A commer cial driver’s license and a good driv ing record are essential for most vending machine repair jobs. Skilled mechanics may be pro moted to senior mechanic or, in large companies, to shop foreman or supervisor. Advancement to service manager, who schedules repair work, is possible for a few mechan ics having administrative ability. A few mechanics having initiative and adequate financial backing become independent operators. Employment Outlook Employment of vending machine mechanics is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by growth, a few hundred jobs will be come available each year because of the need to replace repairmen who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some of the factors that stimu lated past growth and increased the demand for the services of qualified mechanics are the introduction of new and improved machines that dispense a growing variety of mer chandise; convenient, round-theclock service; and the rising costs of selling low-priced, standard items through conventional procedures. Improvements in currency-changing devices also have stimulated the growth of the industry by making it more convenient for customers to use vending machines. Other factors that will continue to contribute to the industry’s growth include an expanding popu lation; rising levels of personal in come; movement of industrial plants, schools, hospitals, depart ment stores, and other establish ments to the suburbs where restau rants are often inconveniently lo cated; and the rising popularity of light meals and snacks. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage data for vending machine mechanics are available from a number of union-management con tracts in effect in early 1970 cover ing workers employed by vending machine companies in 14 States and the District of Columbia. Although these contracts show a very wide range of straight-time hourly pay rates for mechanics, the majority provided for hourly rates ranging between $3.20 and $4.25. Different hourly rates for shop mechanics and for field (street) mechanics were stipulated in several contracts. In a few, mechanics’ rates differed, de pending on the complexity of the machines being repaired. Most vending machine repairmen work 8 hours, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for over-time work. Since vending machines can be operated 24 hours a day, me chanics frequently are required to work at night and on weekends and holidays. Some union-management contracts stipulate higher rates of pay for nightwork and for emer gency repair work on weekends and holidays. Many union-management agree ments covering vending machine mechanics include health insurance provisions for hospital, medical, and surgical benefits, usually financed by the employer. Some contracts pro vide for employer-financed retire ment benefits. Vacation and holiday OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 510 pay provisions are commonly in cluded. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service—usu ally, 1 week after 1 year of service, 2 weeks after 2 years, and 3 weeks after 10 years. The majority of con tracts provide for 7 or 8 paid holi days annually. Vending machine repair shops are generally quiet, well-lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when working on ma chines on location, mechanics may work in cramped quarters, such as passageways, where pedestrian traf fic is heavy. Repair work is rela tively safe, although mechanics are subject to shop hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. Many vending machine mechan ics employed by large companies are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America. Sources of Additional Information WATCH REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 715.281) Nature of the Work Watch repairmen (also called watchmakers) are skilled craftsmen who clean, repair, and adjust watches, clocks, chronometers, and other time pieces. When a watch is not operating properly, the repair man uses tweezers, screwdrivers, and other tools to remove the watch from its case and disassemble the movement. With the aid of a loupe (magnifying glass), he examines carefully various parts of the mech anism to determine necessary re pairs and replacements. Depending on the reason for the malfunction, he may replace the mainspring, hairspring, balance and other wheels, stems and crowns, hands or broken jewels, and ad just improperly fitted wheels and other parts. The parts are cleaned and oiled before the watch is reas sembled and tested for accuracy. Further information about work opportunities in this trade can be ob tained from local vending machine operators and local offices of the State employment service. Addi tional information about employ ment in this field is available from the National Automatic Merchan dising Association, 7 South Dear born St., Chicago, 111. 60603. The development of interchange able mass-produced watch parts has decreased the watch repairman’s need to make parts by hand. How ever, he frequently must adjust fac tory-made parts for complicated timepieces to insure a “true” fit. Watch repairmen use timing machines; cleaning machines, in cluding ultrasonic cleaners; and handtools, such as tiny pliers, tweezers, and screwdrivers. The re pair of electric and electrome chanical watches and clocks re quires the use of electrical meters. Watch repairmen are frequently proprietors of jewelry stores, and may do minor jewelry repair and sell watches, jewelry, silverware and other items. They also may hire and supervise salesclerks, other watch repairmen, jewelers, and engravers; arrange window displays; purchase goods to be sold; and handle other managerial duties. Places of Employment About 15,000 watch repairmen were employed in 1970, about half of whom were self-employed. Most self-employed watch repairmen owned small retail jewelry stores that perform repair work on the premises. Others operated their own repair shops and specialized in re pairing watches for jewelry stores. Most of these who were not selfemployed worked in retail jewelry stores and the remainder worked in repair shops, wholesale establish ments, and plants that manufacture watches, clocks, or other precision timing instruments. A few watch re pairmen were instructors in voca tional schools. A substantial number of individu als who received training as watch repairmen used their skill in jobs such as instrument maker, repair man, or assembler; laboratory tech nician; and microminiaturization specialist. 511 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Although scattered throughout the country, retail jewelry stores and repair shops are concentrated in large commercial centers such as New York City, Chicago, Los An geles, Philadelphia, and San Fran cisco. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many young people prepare for this trade through courses given in private watch repair schools, public vocational high schools, or posthigh school training. Others are trained through formal apprentice ship or other on-the-job training programs. Training in instrument repair work in the armed services can be helpful to those who wish to become watch repairmen. There generally are no specific educational requirements for en trance into any of the approximately 40 watch repair schools, although most students are high school grad uates. The length of time required to complete the course—usually 18 months—is determined by its con tent, the ability of the individual student, and whether attendance is full or part time. In most watch re pair schools, a considerable amount of time is spent taking apart and reassembling various kinds of watch movements, truing hairsprings, re moving and replacing balance staffs, fitting friction jewels, and learning how to use a watchmaker’s lathe and watch cleaning machines. Some schools offer courses in the repair of unusual types of timepieces, such as chronographs, calendars, and timers. Most schools require stu dents to furnish their own handtools. Students or watch repairmen in terested in employment outside of jewelry stores or repair shops may require training in related subjects such as basic electronics, instrument repair or microminiaturization tech nology which is provided on the job in many industries. The following States require watch repairmen to obtain a li cense: Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Ken tucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minne sota, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wisconsin. To obtain a license, they must pass an examina tion designed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge of watch construction and repair. Watch repairmen in all States, however, can demonstrate their de gree of competence by passing one of two certification examinations given by the American Watchmak ers Institute. Successful examinees receive the title of either Certified Watchmaker or Certified Master Watchmaker, depending on their proficiency. Annual voluntary up grading examinations covering some new phase of watchmaking also are offered to those watch repairmen who desire to prove their ability to keep up with the times. Those who pass the up-grading examination re ceive a plaque of recognition. Beginners who have sufficient funds may open their own watch re pair shops. The usual practice, how ever, is to work for an experienced watch repairman before starting one’s own business. Some owners of watch repair shops sell various items of jewelry, and may eventu ally establish retail jewelry stores. These stores require a more sub stantial financial investment. A young person planning a career as a watch repairman must be will ing to sit for long periods and work by himself with a minimum of su pervision. The precise and delicate nature of the work requires patience and concentration. Good visual depth perception helps in working with tiny parts. Watch repair is “problem-solving” work because the repairman must find and elimi nate malfunctions. Employment Outlook Employment of watch repairmen is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. How ever, hundreds of job openings will arise annually from the need to re place experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Opportunities will be par ticularly favorable for highly skilled watch repairmen because the num ber being trained is insufficient to meet current needs. The number of watches and clocks in use will grow fairly rapidly due to rising population and in comes. The trends toward owning more than one watch, wearing watches as costume jewelry, and buying more children’s watches are expected to continue. Only a limited number of these watches will be re paired, however, because most will be pin-lever watches which cost lit tle more to replace than to repair. Consequently, the demand for watch repairmen is not expected to keep pace with increases in the number of watches in use. New openings for watch repair men will occur in retail stores and repair shops in small cities where business is expanding and in newly established suburban shopping cen ters. In addition, demand will con tinue for well-trained workers to use their watch repair skills in the pro duction of miniaturized devices, especially in industries making sci entific instruments and electronic equipment. 512 Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of watch repairmen in entry jobs generally ranged from about $90 to $120 a week in 1970 and depended on individual ability and place of employment. Experi enced watch repairmen employed in retail stores, repair shops, and watch manufacturing establishments received from $120 to $200 for a 40-hour week. In addition, repair men in retail stores may receive commissions based on sales of watches and other items in the store. Repairmen in large retail and manufacturing establishments often participate in life and health insur ance programs and savings and in vestment plans. Watch repairmen who are in business for themselves usually earn considerably more than OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK those working for a salary. Earnings of the self-employed depend on the amount of repair work done and, in the case of watch repairmen who own retail jewelry stores, the vol ume of sales and working hours. Watch repairmen frequently work longer than the standard 40hour week. Those who are self-em ployed or located in small commu nities usually work a 48-hour week or longer. The work involves little physical exertion and generally is performed in comfortable, welllighted surroundings. This light, se dentary work frequently is recom mended to certain handicapped workers. Some watch repairmen are mem bers of the International Jewelry Workers Union or the America Watch Workers Union (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Information on training courses, as well as on watch repairing as a career, may be obtained from: American Watchmakers Institute, P.O. Box 11011, Cincinnati, Ohio 45211. Information on watch repair job opportunities in retail stores can be obtained from: Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Vermont Ave., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Further information about work opportunities or training in this trade may be available from local offices of the State employment service. P R IN T IN G (G R A P H IC A R T S ) O C C U P A T IO N S Printing is an art, a leading in dustry, and one of our chief means of communication. In 1970, it pro vided employment for more than 1 million workers in a wide variety of occupations. Although these occu pations are found principally in the printing, publishing, and allied in dustries, they also are found in gov ernment agencies and in private firms that do their own printing, such as banks and insurance compa nies. About one-third of all printing employees work in printing craft oc cupations. These craft occupations are described in detail later in this chapter. Other occupations in the printing industries include printing estimator, printing technician, mailer, computer programer, and computer typist, as well as the usual administrative, clerical, mainte nance, and sales occupations found in all industries. Nature and Location of the Industry The printing process is basically a means of transferring ink impres sions of words, numerals, symbols, and photographs or other illustra tions to paper, metal, or other mate rials. The most commonly used methods of printing are letterpress, lithography, gravure, flexography, and screen printing. Each method has special advantages and requires some special skills. Included in the printing, publish ing, and allied industries are the printing and publishing of newspa pers, magazines, books, and adver tising matter; the production of business forms; the production of greeting cards and gift wrappings; commercial or job printing; book binding; and the provision of type setting, photo-engraving, platemak ing, and other printing services, pri marily for printing establishments. In 1970, the largest division in terms of employment was newspa per printing and publishing, with over 370,000 employees in approxinately 8,000 establishments. Most daily and many weekly newspapers throughout the Nation do their own printing. Although some major newspapers have more than 2,000 employees, many smaller dailies and weeklies have fewer than 20 em ployees. Commercial or job printing es tablishments, the second largest di vision, employed about 355,000 workers in approximately 19,000 establishments. Establishments in this division produce a great variety of materials, including advertising matter, letterheads, business cards, calendars, catalogs, labels, maps, and pamphlets. They also print lim ited-run newspapers, books, and magazines. More than half of all workers in commercial shops are in establishments having fewer than 100 employees. Many establish ments, however, have several hundred employees. Printing jobs are found through out the country. Almost every town has at least one printing shop of some kind—frequently, a small newspaper plant which also may do other printing. However, more than half of the nation’s printing em ployees are in five States—New York, Illinois, California, Pennsyl vania, and Ohio. Within these States, most printing activities are in or near manufacturing, commercial, or financial areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Phila delphia, San Francisco-Oakland, Cincinnati, and Cleveland. Other leading centers of printing employ ment are Boston, Detroit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Washington, D.C., St. Louis, and Baltimore. Em ployment in book and magazine printing is highly concentrated in these areas. A much larger propor tion of employment in newspaper plants, however, is found outside these centers because of the great number of small local newspapers. Printing Methods All methods of printing have cer tain common characteristics. A sur face of metal, stone, wood, lino leum, rubber, or plastic is prepared so that part of it can be covered with ink. The ink is then transferred to a sheet of paper or other material which is pressed against the pre pared surface. In relief printing, the printing surface stands up from the rest of the surrounding printing plate area. Ink is rolled over the raised surface and then paper is pressed against it. The best known and most widely used example of this method is let terpress printing. Other examples of relief printing are flexography, in which a flexible rubber plate and rapid drying fluid inks are used; lino leum and wood block printing; and relief engraving on metal or plastic. Flexography is widely used for printing on plastic films and foil bags, milk containers, gummed tape, and bread and candy wrap pers. In lithography (offset print ing), the printing plate surface is smooth, with both image and non image areas on the same level. Li thography is based on the principle that grease and water do not mix. The image areas of the plate are coated with a substance to which the 513 514 greasy printing ink will adhere. On the press, the plate is moistened with water before each inking so that only the image areas take up the greasy ink from the inking roller. The inked image is trans ferred from the plate to a rubber blanket and then offset to the sur face to be printed. The lithographic method can be used to produce practically all items printed by any other method. It is especially satis factory for printing on rough-tex tured surfaces because of the flexi bility of the rubber blanket. In gravure printing, the image to be reproduced is etched into the surface of the printing plate. The whole surface is covered with ink and then wiped off; ink is left only in the sunken or etched areas. When paper or other material is firmly pressed against the surface, the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. Copper and steel plate engraving also uses this technique. Screen printing is a method in which inks or other materials such as paint, varnish, and liquid plastic are forced by the action of a flexible blade through a stencil mounted on a finely woven screen, generally plastic or stainless steel. The shape of the stencil openings determines the design to be printed. This proc ess may be applied to a wide vari ety of surfaces such as conventional paper, cardboard, wood, - glass, metal, plastic, and textiles. Screen printing is used on irregular surfaces and cylindrical surfaces as well as on flat surfaces. Regardless of the method used, several basic steps are involved in the production of printed matter. They include layout—planning the composition and content of each page; typesetting and composition —producing and assembling the text type, headings, illustrations, and other materials into final page OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK form; platemaking—preparing printing plates from the original composition for use on the printing presses; printing—transferring an image to a printing surface; and fin ishing—binding and mailing opera tions. Printing Occupations Production of printed materials involves workers in a wide variety of occupations. Printing craftsmen who in 1970 numbered over 400,000 represent a large segment of these employees. Printing crafts men usually specialize in one area of printing operations; for example, type composition, photography, platemaking, presswork, or binding. Their training, moreover, is confined largely to only one of the basic printing methods—letterpress, li thography, or gravure. The estimated 185,000 skilled composing room workers employed in 1970 were the largest group of printing craftsmen. This group in cludes hand compositors, typeset ting machine operators, makeup men, tape-perforating machine op erators (teletypesetters), and proof readers. Other large groups of skilled workers are printing press men and their assistants; and litho graphic craftsmen, including cam eramen, artists, strippers, platemakers, and lithographic pressmen. Bookbinders, photoengravers, elec trotypers, and stereotypers are other important printing craftsmen. Indi vidual occupations are described in detail in this chapter. Maintenance machinists, who re pair and adjust typesetting ma chines, printing presses, or bindery equipment, are another group of skilled workers employed in large plants. In the skilled occupations, practi cally all the workers are men. How ever, many of the less skilled jobs, especially in the binderies, are held by women. Printing establishments also employ a great many persons as executives, salesmen, account ants, engineers, stenographers, clerks, and laborers. Newspapers and other publishers employ a con siderable number of reporters and editors. These occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Because of the increasingly com plex and highly mechanized printing equipment in use today, the need is growing for technically trained peo- PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS pie in all areas of printing manage ment and production. For example, an increasing number of production technicians are being employed throughout the printing industry. These men are responsible for seeing that the standards established for each printing job are met. To do this, they must be thoroughly famil iar with the printing processes, and the many technical instruments used in the plant to judge and control the quality of the printing. The mailroom, chiefly in newspa per and periodical plants, is another area of employment closely related to printing production. Here workers address, bundle, and tie the printed matter for distribution. Modern mailroom processes are mechanized to a considerable ex tent. Mailers operate addressing, stamping, stacking, bundling, and tying machines. Training and Other Qualifications Apprenticeship is a common method of entry into the printing crafts. In some instances, it is the only means by which one may be trained to become a journeyman (skilled worker) in a unionized shop. Formal apprenticeship also is required for journeyman status in many larger establishments not cov ered by union contracts. At the beginning of 1970, about 13,800 registered apprentices were in training in the skilled printing crafts. A registered apprentice is an employee who, under an ex pressed or an implied agreement, receives instruction in an apprenticeable occupation for a stipulated term and is employed in an appren ticeship program registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. In addition, several thousand appren tices were in nonregistered pro grams. A substantial number of per sons also were learning a printing trade while working as helpers, par ticularly in small printing shops or lettershops, or through a combina tion of work experience and school ing. Printing trades apprenticeships usually last from 4 to 6 years, de pending on the occupation and the shop or area practices. The appren ticeship program covers all phases of the particular trade and generally includes classroom or correspond ence study in related technical sub jects in addition to training on the job. As new printing methods have been developed and introduced, they generally have been incorpo rated into the duties of the tradi tional printing crafts and included in the apprentice training programs. Apprenticeship applicants generally are required to be between 18 and 30 years of age and must pass a physical examination. However, in many printing crafts, there is no maximum age limit for entry into an apprenticeship. In selecting applicants for print ing craft jobs, most employers re quire a high school education or its equivalent. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, the funda mentals of grammar, and basic mathematics is essential in many of the printing trades. A knowledge of the basic principles of chemistry, electronics, and physics is becoming increasingly important because of the growing use of photomechanical and electronic processes in printing. An artistic sense is also an asset since the finished product should be pleasing in balance and design. Most printing crafts require persons with good eyesight, about average physical strength, and a high degree of manual dexterity. Mental alert 515 ness, speed combined with accu racy, neatness, patience, and the ability to work with others are also necessary. The ability to distinguish colors is important in areas of print ing where color is used. Many em ployers require applicants to take one or more aptitude tests devel oped for printing industry occupa tions by the U.S. Department of Labor. These tests are given in the local offices of State employment services. Apprentices often are chosen from among the young men already employed in various un skilled jobs in printing establish ments who demonstrate the me chanical aptitudes essential for the printing crafts. About 4,000 schools—high schools, vocational schools, techni cal institutes, and colleges—offer courses in printing. These courses may help a young person to be se lected for apprenticeships or other job openings in the printing and publishing industries. Employment Outlook Opportunities to enter the skilled printing trades through the 1970’s will be many and will result primar ily from the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Slight employment increases in some printing trades also are ex pected to provide a small number of additional job openings annually. Many of the opportunities will be in new types of jobs because of tech nological changes in production methods. A continued rise in the volume of printed material is expected because of population growth, the increas ingly high level of education, the ex pansion of American industry, and the trend toward greater use of 516 printed materials for information, packaging, advertising, and various industrial and commercial purposes. However, employment in skilled printing trades is not expected to in crease significantly because of the continuing introduction of laborsav ing technological changes in printing methods. These changes, primarily in the areas of type composition, platemaking, and bindery opera tions, include the increasing use of electronic devices such as comput ers, electronic etching and colorseparating equipment, and electronic controls for highly mechanized bind ery equipment. Employment growth will vary among the printing trades. For ex ample, employment of compositors, the largest group of printing crafts men, is expected to decrease slightly despite the continued increase in the volume of printing because of laborsaving technological changes in type setting and composition. Employ ment of lithographic craftsmen, however, is expected to increase be cause of the growing use of lithog raphy (offset printing). Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the printing and publishing indus try, including the unskilled and semi skilled workers and printing crafts men, are among the highest in man ufacturing industries. In 1970, production workers in the industry averaged $147.78 for 37.7 hours a week, or $3.92 an hour. In compar ison, production workers in manu facturing industries as a whole aver age $133.73 for 39.8 hours a week, or $3.36 an hour. Earnings of individual printing craftsmen vary from one occupation to another. Generally, the wage rates in large cities are higher than OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in small communities. Wage rates also differ by type of printing estab lishments. The following tabulation shows the average union minimum hourly wage rates for daywork for selected printing occupations in 69 large cities on July 1, 1970. These rates are the minimum basic rates for the individual occupational classifications. They do not include overtime, other special payments, or bonuses. A v e r a g e u n io n h o u r ly r a te J u ly 1 , 1 9 7 0 1 N ew s- B ook p a p e r a n d jo b Bookbinders ................... ............. Compositors: Hand ........................... . . .$5.00 Machine operators . . . . . 5.09 Electrotypers ................... Photoengravers ................ . . 5.56 Pressmen (journeymen) . . . 4.94 Pressmen (cylinder) . , Pressmen (platen) . . Stereotypers ...................... . . 4.87 M ailers............................. . . . 4.61 1Average day rates. $4.89 5.14 5.09 4.91 5.00 4.46 5.23 4.11 Most printing trades workers who are covered by union-management contracts work fewer than 40 hours a week. Some contracts specify a standard workweek of less than 35 hours, but most fall within a 35 to 37Vi hour range. Time and a half generally is paid for overtime. Work on Sundays and holidays is paid for at time and one-half or doubletime rates in most commercial printing establishments. In newspaper plants, however, the craftsmen’s workweek often includes Sundays. Time and one-half or double time is paid for these days only when they are not part of the employee’s regular shift. Night-shift workers generally re ceive pay differentials above the standard day rates. The starting wage rates of ap prentices are generally from 40 to 50 percent of the basic rate for journeymen in the shop. Wages are increased periodically, usually every 6 months, until in the final year or half year of training, the apprentice receives from 80 to 95 percent of the journeyman rate. Apprentices who have prior civilian or military experience sometimes can obtain credit which will start them above the beginning apprentice pay rate, and also reduce the length of time required to become a journeyman if they successfully pass examinations provided for situations of this nature. In exceptional cases, these provi sions also apply to apprentices with technical school training. In some of the trades, apprentices may be up graded when they show exceptional progress. Paid vacations generally are pro vided for printing craftsmen. The most common provision in labormanagement agreements is 2 weeks’ vacation after 1 year’s employment. Many agreements, however, provide for 3 weeks’ vacation after 1 year or more of employment, and an in creasing number provide for 4 weeks after 20 or 25 years. Other major benefits, such as paid holi days, retirement pay, life and disa bility insurance, hospitalization, and severance pay, are also common. In addition, a number of printing trade unions have for many years operated their own programs pro viding their members with one type of benefit or more, such as life in surance, retirement, sickness, or disability payments. The injury-frequency rate in the printing industry is somewhat lower than the average for all manufactur ing industries. A large proportion of the printing trades workers are members of unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO. The largest printing trades unions are the International Printing Press men and Assistants’ Union of North America; the International Typo graphical Union; and the Lithogra 517 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS phers and Photoengravers Union. Other printing trades unions include the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders; the International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America; and the Interna tional Mailers Union (Ind.). Most unionized lithographic workers are in plants under contract with the Li thographers and Photoengravers In ternational Union, which includes both printing craftsmen and other lithographic workers. Gravure Technical Institute, 60 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10020. International Typographical Union, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, Colo. 80901. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. (See sections on individual print ing occupations for names of labor organizations and trade associations which can provide more informa tion on specific printing trades.) Sources of Additional Information Information on opportunities for apprenticeship or other types of printing employment in a particular locality may be obtained from vari ous sources. Applicants may apply directly to the printing establish ments in their areas. The names and locations of local printers usually can be obtained from the classified section of the telephone directory. In addition, the local unions and employer associations in the print ing industry often can provide infor mation regarding apprenticeship openings. In recent years, increasing use has been made of local offices of the State employment services as in formation exchanges for apprentice ship openings. Some of these offices provide service such as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. General information on the print ing industry may be obtained by writing to the following organiza tions : American Newspaper Publishers As sociation, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Education Council of The Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. COMPOSING ROOM OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 650.582, 654.782, and 973.381) The printing process begins in a composing room where manuscript copy is set in type, proofed, and checked for errors. Machine and handset type, and other materials, such as photoengravings, are assem bled there and prepared for the pressroom. In 1970, nearly half of all print ing craftsmen—about 185,000— were employed in composing room occupations. These occupations offer many opportunities for per sons interested in learning a skilled craft. Composing room workers in clude compositors who set type by hand; typesetting machine operators who operate semiautomatic typeset ting machines; tape-perforating machine operators who perforate tapes used to operate some typeset ting machines; bankmen who as semble type in shallow trays called “galleys” and make trial proofs of this type; proofreaders who check the galley proofs with the original copy for errors; make-up men who assemble type and photoengravings in page forms; and stonehands, who arrange the pages in proper se quence. Compositors are employed in newspaper plants, commercial printing shops, book and periodical printing plants, and typographic composition firms that set type for printing establishments, advertising agencies, and advertising depart ments of large business firms. Onethird of all compositors work in newspaper plants. A large number are employed in establishments that specialize in setting type for book and magazine publishers. Skilled composing room workers are employed in almost every com munity throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large met ropolitan areas. Nature of the Work Hand compositors ( typesetters) (D.O.T. 973.381) make up the old est composing room occupation. Today most type that is set by hand is for work requiring very fine com position (usually larger size type for advertising copy) and for small jobs in which the setting of type by machine would be impractical. In setting type by hand, the com positor, reading from the manu script copy, first sets each line of type in a “composing stick” (a de vice which holds type in place) let ter by letter and line by line. When this stick is full, he slides the com pleted lines onto a shallow metal tray called a “galley.” Typesetting machine operators are craftsmen who operate semi-au tomatic machines which set type much more rapidly than the hand compositors. The type size used in machine set composition ordinarily is much smaller than that set by hand. 518 Linotype (or Inter type) machine operators (D.O.T. 650.582) read ing from the copy clipped to the machine’s copy board, select letters and other characters by operating a keyboard which has 90 keys. As they press the keys, the letters, in forms of metal molds called matri ces, are assembled into lines of words. A spaceband key provides the necessary spacing between words. As they complete each line, the operators touch a lever and the machine automatically casts the line of type into a solid metal strip called a “slug.” The slugs are then deposited in a galley and are later assembled into the type forms from which either the printing impres sions or the plates are made. Nearly all newspaper plants, large commer cial shops, and typographic compo sition firms use these machines and operators to set type. In the smaller plants, the typesetting machine op erator maintains and repairs as well as operates the typesetting machine. In the larger plants, maintenance machinists are employed to make OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK all but minor adjustments to the machines. In smaller plants, the typesetting machine operator main tains, repairs, and operates the typesetting machine. In large plants, maintenance machinists make all but minor adjustments to machines. Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 650.582) operate key boards which are similar to a type writer but have about four times as many keys. The keyboard machine produces a perforated paper tape which later is fed into the casting machine. The keyboard operator must be able to handle complicated copy, such as statistical tables. Monotype caster operators (D.O.T. 654.782) operate casting machines which automatically cast and assemble type which is guided by perforations in the paper tape pre pared by the keyboard machine. As the tape is fed into the machine, the proper matrices for casting letters PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS are selected automatically by perfo rations. Molten metal is forced into the matrix to form the individual character. As the name suggests, the monotype casting machine forms one letter at a time. Corrections may be made by hand without re setting the entire line. Caster opera tors insert the tape, adjust and tend the machine while it is operat ing, and do necessary maintenance and repair work. Phototypesetting machine opera tors (D.O.T. 650.582) set type on machines which may be similar in appearance or method of operation, or both, to those which cast type in hot metal. In phototypesetting, how ever, a photographic process re places the function of the hot metal, and the final product is a film or photographic paper print of the type rather than a metal slug. In one type of machine, as the operator presses the keys, the individual matrices or mats, which contain small film nega tives, are assembled and photo graphed character by character on film to form a line of type. In other phototypesetting machines, a per forated paper tape or a magnetic sound tape is fed into a phototype setting machine which “reads” the tapes and photographs the individ ual characters indicated on the tape. Some typesetters operate photo lettering machines which produce lines or individual characters in large-size type such as those used for newspaper headlines and for ad vertisements. As in phototypeset ting, a photographic process is in volved, and the final product is on film or paper. In addition to machine operation, the phototypesetter must be familiar with the fundamentals of photogra phy, including darkroom proce dures, to develop the film on which the type has been photographed. He also may assemble and arrange de veloped film into pages. This proc ess, called “stripping,” corresponds to page makeup in the hot metal type process. The operator also makes minor repairs on the photo typesetting machine. Since much of this equipment has electronic con trols, the operator needs a basic working knowledge of the principles of electronics. Typesetting machine operators also use machines similar to type writers to set “cold type” on paper. These machines automatically space letters and lines. “Cold type” com position may be set directly on a paper or even a metal sheet from which the plate is to be made, or the cold type images may be cut from paper and pasted on layout sheets. The process of assembling and pasting this type on layout sheets is called paste makeup, and is somewhat similar to hand composi tion. The worker who asembles and pastes up all the materials for a page is called a paste-makeup man. Cold type composition frequently is used by newspapers for display ad vertising, and by small newspapers to set regular text copy. Typesetters frequently operate tape-perforating machines called teletypesetters which have keyboards similar to those of typewriters. The machines are fitted with reels of tape that are perforated as the keys are struck. The perforated tapes are inserted in line casting machines, which set the type as directed by the perforations. After the tape has been punched, it may be sent by teletype to other cities where it is automatically reperforated and used to control the operation of linecast ing machines. Training and Other Qualifications Most compositors acquire their 519 Phototype setter sends perforated tape into phototypesetting machine. skills through apprenticeship train ing. In union shops, apprentices often are selected from among the helpers. Some compositors ac-^ quire their skills while working as helpers for several years (particu larly in small shops and in the smaller communities) or through a combination of trade school and helper experience. Tape-perforating machine opera tors must be expert typists. They generally acquire their typing skill in commercial courses in high school or in business school. These operators do not need to be trained as journeymen compositors but they must be familiar with printing terms and measurements. The training pe riod for tape-perforating machine operators is about a year. Journey men compositors sometimes trans fer to this occupation. Generally, apprenticeship covers a 6-year period of progressively ad vanced training, supplemented by classroom instruction or correspond ence courses. However, this period 520 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK may be shortened by as much as 2 to years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. The time and emphasis spent on any particular phase of training depend upon the type of printing establish ment and vary from plant to plant. A typical apprenticeship program for compositors includes instruction in elementary hand composition, page makeup, lockup, lineup, and proofreading. After basic training as a hand compositor, the apprentice receives intensive training in one specialized field or more, such as the operation of typesetting ma chines, including phototypesetting and teletypesetting machines, as well as specialized work in hand compo sition and photocomposition. Applicants for apprenticeship generally must be high school grad uates and in good physical condi tion. They sometimes are given ap titude tests. Important qualifications include training in English, espe cially spelling, and in mathematics. Printing and typing courses in voca tional or high schools are good preparation for apprenticeship ap plicants, and a general interest in electronics and photography is be coming increasingly useful. Artistic ability is an asset for a compositor in layout work. Apprentices are paid according to a predetermined wage scale, which increases as the apprenticeship pe riod advances. At the beginning of 1970, nearly 4,300 registered ap prentices were in training for skilled composing room jobs. to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. In spite of the anticipated expan sion in the volume of printing in the United States during the 1970’s, employment of compositors is ex pected to decline slowly because of technological changes in typesetting equipment that will make it possible to set type faster using fewer opera tors. For example, over the past decade automatically operated type setting machines have been used in creasingly. These machines, which set lines of type in metal or on film, are activated by an electronic device into which perforated tapes are fed. The perforations indicate charac ters, words, sentences, length of lines, spacing, and hyphenation. The use of computers, programed to perforate the codes for spacing, length of line, and hyphenation, simplifies the work of the tape-per forating machine operator and in creases the speed at which type can be set. The number of firms using computers for typesetting rose from fewer than 100 in 1964 to nearly 1,100 in 1969, and further increases are anticipated. Technological changes also will affect significantly the educational and skill requirements for compos ing room workers. For example, greater use of phototypesetting re quires compositors who have some photographic skills. Since much of the new typesetting equipment is operated by electronics systems a knowledge of the principles of elec tronics is becoming increasingly im portant for the compositor. skilled workers generally. However, wage rates vary from place to place and from firm to firm. The average union minimum hourly wage rate for hand compositors on the day shift in 69 large cities was $5 in newspaper plants and $5.14 in book and job shops on July 1, 1970. Union minimum wage rates for compositors in book and job shops ranged from $3.20 an hour in Tampa, Fla., to $5.97 in Chicago, 111. In newspaper establishments, the union minimum hourly wage rates for dayshift compositors ranged from $3.94 an hour in Little Rock, Ark., to $6.12 in New York, N.Y. Working conditions for composi tors vary from plant to plant. Some heat and noise are made by hot metal typesetting machines. In gen eral, the newer plants are well lighted and clean, and many are air conditioned. Composing room jobs require about average physical strength. Hand compositors are re quired to stand for long periods of time and to do some lifting. Young men with some types of physical handicaps, such as deafness, have been able to enter the trade and do the work satisfactorily. Many com positors work at night on the second or third shift for which they gener ally receive additional pay. A substantial proportion of com positors are members of the Inter national Typographical Union. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions A few thousand job openings for composing room workers are ex pected annually through the 1970’s As for most printing crafts, wages of skilled composing room workers are relatively high compared with International Typographic Composi tion Association, Inc., 2233 Wis consin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007. Sources of Additional Information International Typographical Union, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, Colo. 80901. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 521 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. PHOTOENGRAVERS (D.O.T. 971.281 and .382) Nature of the Work Photoengravers make metal printing plates of illustrations and other copy that cannot be set up in type. The printing surfaces on these plates stand out in relief above the nonprinting spaces, as do the letters and the accompanying type. Simi larly, gravure photoengravers, a specialized type of photoengraver, make gravure plates in which the image is etched below the surface for use in reproducing pictures and type. In making a photoengraving plate for the letterpress process, the en tire job may be done either by one man or by a number of skilled workers, each specializing in a par ticular operation. Specialists include cameramen, printers, etchers, finish ers, routers, blockers, and proofers. In the large shops, the work is di vided almost always among a num ber of these specialists. A cameraman starts the process of making a photoengraving plate by photographing the material to be reproduced. Plates made from line drawings are called line plates and those from photographs are called halftone plates. After the camera man develops the negative, the print er prints the image on a metal plate by coating the plate with a solution sensitive to light and then exposing it and the negative to arc lights. The image areas are protected by chemi cals so that when the plate is placed in an acid bath by the etcher, only the nonimage areas are etched away. The image areas that are left stand out in relief. A number of other photoengrav ing operations may be performed, depending on the quality of the printing required. Photoengravings for very high quality books or peri odicals, for example, require more careful finishing than those for newspapers. The finisher carefully inspects and touches up the plate with handtools; the router cuts away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing; the blocker mounts the engraving on a suitable base to make it reach the right height; and the proofer prints a sample copy on a proof press. The operations involved in gra vure photoengraving are much like those in letterpress photoengraving, except that the image areas rather than the background are etched away. Places of Employment An estimated 17,000 journeymen photoengravers were employed in 1970. About two-thirds of them were employed in commercial serv ice shops where the main business is making photoengravings for use by others. Newspaper and rotogra vure shops employ several thousand photoengravers. In addition, book and periodical shops and the U.S. Government Printing Office also employ photoengravers. Many of these craftsmen have their own shops. Photoengravers’ jobs are highly concentrated in the largest printing centers, particularly New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. Gravure photoengravers work mainly in independent gravure plants. Most of them work for the 522 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK small number of big firms which handle a large proportion of all gra vure work. A few large newspaper and commercial plants also have de partments where this work is done. Gravure plants are concentrated in a few States, particularly New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Kentucky. Training and Other Qualifications The most common way to be come a photoengraver is through apprenticeship training. At the be ginning of 1970, about 630 regis tered apprentices were in training for skilled photoengraving occupa tions. The apprenticeship program generally covers a 5 year period and includes at least 800 hours of related classroom instruction. Be sides the care and use of tools, the apprentice is taught to cut and square negatives, make combination plates, inspect negatives for defects, mix chemicals, sensitize metal, and operate machines used in the pho toengraving process. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and gen erally must have a high school edu cation or its equivalent preferably with courses in chemistry and phys ics and training in art. Credit for previous experience acquired in photoengraving work may shorten the required apprenticeship time. Many employers require a physical examination for prospective pho toengravers; the condition of the ap plicant’s eyes is particularly impor tant because a photoengraver’s du ties involve constant close work and color discrimination. Employment Outlook A few hundred job openings are expected each year through the 1970’s because of the need to re place photoengravers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. However, the total number of these craftsmen is expected to de cline slowly despite the growing use of photographs and other illustra tions, and the increasing use of color. The application of electronics to engraving and to color separa tion, improved photographic equip ment, and the increasing use of offset printing, which requires no photoengravings, will limit the num ber of photoengravers needed. Earnings and Working Conditions Photoengravers are among the highest paid printing craftsmen. The average union minimum hourly wage rate for photoengravers in 69 large cities on July 1, 1970, was $5.73 in book and job shops and $5.56 for the day shift in newspaper plants. Union minimum hourly rates ranged from $3.83 an hour in Shreveport, La., to $6.53 an hour in Chicago. Most photoengravers are union members. Nearly all unionized pho toengravers are represented by the Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union. Sources of Additional Information American Photoplatemakers Associ ation, 166 West Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60604. Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union, 233 West 49th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS (D.O.T. 974.381 and 975.782) Nature of the Work Electrotypers (D.O.T. 974.381) and stereotypers (D.O.T. 975.782) make duplicate press plates of metal, rubber, and plastic for letterpress printing. These plates are made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotypes are used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereo types, which are less durable, are used chiefly in newspaper work. Electrotyping and stereotyping are necessary because most volume printing requires the use of dupli cate printing plates. When a large edition of a book, magazine, or newspaper is printed, several plates must be used to replace those which become too worn to make clear im pressions. Also, by having duplicate plates, printers can use several presses at the same time and finish a big run quickly. This is especially important in publishing daily news papers. Furthermore, many big plants use rotary presses which re quire curved plates made by either electrotyping or stereotyping from flat type forms. Several steps are required to produce a duplicate, curved metal plate for use in the pressroom. In electrotyping, a wax or plastic mold of the type form is made and coated with special chemical solutions be fore being suspended in an electro lytic solution containing metal. This leaves a metallic shell on the coated mold; this shell is stripped from the mold, backed with metal or plastic, and carefully finished. The stereotyping process is much simpler, quicker, and less expensive 523 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS than electrotyping, but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Stereotypers make molds or mats of paper-mache (a strong material composed of paper pulp) instead of wax or plastic. The mat is placed on the type form and covered with a cork blanket and sheet of fiberboard. The covered form is run under heavy power-driven steel roll ers to impress the type and pho toengravings on the mat. Then the mat is placed in a stereotype casting machine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, stereotype plates are cast in automatic machines. In many of the larger plants, electrotypers and stereotypers per form only one phase of the work, such as casting, molding, finishing, or blocking. However, journeymen must know how to handle all the tasks involved in their respective trades. Many electrotypers work in large plants that print books and periodi cals. Most stereotypers work in newspaper plants, but some are em ployed in large commercial printing plants. Electrotypers and stereotyp ers also are employed in independ ent service shops which do this work for printing firms. Training and Other Qualifications Nearly all electrotypers and stere otypers learn their trades through apprenticeship. Electro typing and stereotyping are separate crafts, and little transferability takes place be tween the two. The apprenticeship program of each trade covers all phases of the work and almost al ways includes classes in related technical subjects as well as training on the job. Apprenticeship training for electrotypers and stereotypers usually covers a 5- or 6-year period of reasonably continuous employ ment. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and, in most instances, must have a high school education or its equivalent. If possible, this education should in clude mechanical training and courses in chemistry. Physical ex aminations and aptitude tests often are given to prospective appren tices. Employment Outlook There will be some opportunities for new workers to become electro typers and stereotypers through the 1970’s because of retirements, deaths, or transfers of workers to other occupations. However, the total number of electrotypers and stereotypers is expected to continue to decline moderately. This decline will occur in spite of the anticipated increase in the total volume of printing because of tech nological changes. For example, the increasing use of automatic plate casting eliminates many steps in platemaking, and plastic and rubber plates are being made increasingly outside electrotyping and stereotyp ing shops. Furthermore, the increas ing use of offset printing reduces the need for electrotypers and stereo typers, since this type of plate is not required in offset printing. for electrotypers in book and job plants ranged from $3.95 an hour in Baltimore, Md., to $5.57 an hour in New York, N.Y., and Newark, N.J. In newspaper plants, rates for dayshift stereotypers ranged from $3.83 an hour in Shreveport, La., to $6.66 an hour in Chicago, 111. Much of the work requires little physical effort since the preparation of duplicate printing plants is highly mechanized. However, some lifting of relatively heavy, hot press plates is required. Nearly all electrotypers and ster eotypers are members of the Inter national Stereotypers’ and Electro typers’ Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information International Stereotypers’ and Elec trotypers’ Union of North Amer ica, 10 South La Salle St., Chi cago, 111. 60603. International Association of Electro typers and Stereotypers, Inc., 758 Leader Building, Cleveland, Ohio 44114. Printing Industries of America, 1730 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. PRINTING PRESSMEN AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 651.782, .885, and .886) Earnings and Working Conditions On July 1, 1970, the union mini mum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities averaged $4.91 an hour for electrotypers, $5.23 an hour for stereotypers in book and job shops, and $4.87 an hour for stereotypers on day shift in newspaper plants. Union minimum hourly wage rates Nature of the Work The actual printing operation is performed in the pressroom. Print ing pressmen “makeready” (pre pare) type forms and press plates for final printing and tend the presses while they are in operation. 524 The object of makeready, which is one of the most delicate and diffi cult parts of the pressman’s work, is to insure printing impressions that are distinct and uniform. This is ac complished by means such as plac ing pieces of paper exactly the right thickness underneath low areas of the press plates to level them, and by attaching pieces of tissue paper to the surface of the cylinder or flat platen which makes the impression. Pressmen also have to make many other adjustments—for example, those needed to control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they are responsible not only for tending the presses but also for oiling and cleaning them and making some minor repairs. On the larger presses, pressmen have assistants and helpers. Pressmen’s work may differ greatly from one shop to another, mainly because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses used. Small commercial shops generally have small and relatively simple presses that often are fed paper by hand. At the other extreme are the enormous web-rotary presses used OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK by the larger newspaper, magazine, and book printing plants. These giant presses are fed paper in big rolls called “webs,” up to 50 inches or more in width. They print the paper on both sides by means of a series of cylinders; cut, assemble, and fold the pages; and, finally, count the finished newspaper sec tions which emerge from the press ready for mailing. Each of these au tomatic steps calls for constant at tention. Presses of this kind are op erated by crews of journeymen and less skilled workers under the direc tion of a pressman-in-charge. Although the basic duties of lith ographic (offset) pressmen are sim ilar to those of letterpress and gra vure pressmen, a number of differ ences exist, principally because of the specialized character of litho graphic presses. (See p. 525 for fur ther details.) Press assistants feed sheets of paper into presses and help press men operate large and complicated rotary presses. Workers whose main responsibility is feeding often are called press feeders. The ratio of as sistants to pressmen depends on the size of the plant, type of press, and other factors, and differs from one plant to another. Many shops are too small to have pressroom assist ants. Training and Other Qualifications As in other printing crafts, ap prenticeship is the most common way to become a pressman. Some workers have learned the skills of the trade while working as helpers or press assistants or through a combination of work experience in the pressroom and vocational or technical school training. The length of apprenticeship and the content of training depend largely on the kind of press used in the plant. The apprenticeship period in commercial shops is 2 years for press assistants and 4 years for pressmen. In newspaper establish ments the apprenticeship period is 5 years. The apprenticeship period for pressmen operating web presses is generally 5 years. On-the-job train ing includes the care of pressroom equipment, makeready, running the job, press tending and maintenance and working with various types of inks and papers. In addition to onthe-job instruction, the apprentice ship includes related classroom or correspondence schoolwork. At the beginning of 1970, about 3,000 reg istered apprentices were in training. Individual companies generally choose apprentices from among press assistants and others already employed in the plant. Young men often may work for 2 or 3 years in the pressroom before they are se lected to begin 2- to 4-year training periods leading to journeyman sta tus. A high school education or its equivalent generally is required. Be cause of technical developments in the printing industry, a year of 525 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS chemistry and a year of physics should be included. Mechanical ap titude is important in making press adjustments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essential for work on color presses, which are being used increasingly. Physical strength and endurance are neces sary for work on some kinds of presses, where the pressmen have to lift heavy type forms and press plates and stand for long periods. Employment Outlook Employment of pressmen is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition, a few thousand job openings will arise each year because of the need to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. More pressmen will be needed because of growth in the amount of printed materials. Employment growth, however, will be limited by continued improvements in the efficiency of printing presses. areas frequently wear ear protec tors. They are subject to hazards when working near machinery. Pressmen often have to lift heavy type forms and printing press plates. At times, they work under pressure to meet deadlines, especially in the printing of newspapers and maga zines. Many pressmen work night shifts for which the rate of pay is higher than the basic day rate. Most pressroom workers are cov ered by union agreements. Practi cally all of the organized letterpress and gravure pressmen are members of the International Printing Press men and Assistants’ Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North Amer ica, Pressman’s Home, Tenn. 37850. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of pressmen depend upon the kind of press operated, the type of printing plant, and the geo graphical area of employment. A survey of union minimum hourly wage rates for day-work in 69 large cities shows that the average mini mum hourly rate in effect on July 1, 1970 for newspaper pressmen-incharge was $5.24; for newspaper pressmen (journeymen), $4.94; for book and job cylinder pressmen, $5.00; for book and job platen pressmen, $4.46; and for book and job press assistants and feeders, $4.26. Pressrooms are unavoidably noisy. Pressmen working in certain LITHOGRAPHIC OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work Lithography (offset printing) is one of the most rapidly growing methods of printing. Practically all items printed by other processes also are produced by lithography— including books, calendars, maps, posters, labels, office forms, cata logs, folding cartons, and news papers. Lithography has special advantages when the copy to be re produced includes photographs, drawings, or paintings, since the rub ber blanket which transfers the image from the plate to the surface to be printed permits greater flexibility in the type of paper that can be used. Several operations are involved in lithography, and each is per formed by a specialized group of workers. The main groups of litho graphic workers are cameramen, artists and letterers, strippers, platemakers, and pressmen. The cameraman, (D.O.T. 972.382) starts the process of mak ing a lithographic plate by photo graphing the copy. He generally is classified as a line cameraman (black and white), halftone camera man (black and white), or color separation photographer. After the negatives have been made, they frequently need retouch ing to lighten or darken certain parts. Thus, it is often necessary for a lithographic artist (D.O.T. 972.281) to make corrections by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. Highly skilled workers perform this work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. To qualify as journeymen, these artists must be adept in one or more of the various retouching methods. Like cameramen, they are assigned to only one phase of the work and may customarily be known, for ex ample, as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. The stripper (D.O.T. 971.381) makes layouts on paper, glass, or film. He arranges and pastes film or prints of type, pictures, and other art work on the layout sheets called flats or “stripups,” from which pho tographic impressions are made for the lithographic press plates. The job of the stripper in the litho graphic process corresponds to that 526 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK man. The specific occupation in which journeyman status is being sought is emphasized although an attempt is made to make the ap prentice familiar with all litho graphic operations. At the begin ning of 1970, about 3,350 registered apprentices were being trained for skilled lithographic occupations. Usually, apprenticeship appli cants must be in good physical con dition, high school graduates, and at least 18 years of age. Aptitude tests are sometimes given to prospective apprentices. Vocational school training and training in photogra phy, mathematics, chemistry, phys ics, and art are helpful in learning these crafts. Employment Outlook of the makeup man in the letterpress process. In lithography, employees in the platemaking department expose press plates to photographic films which are made by the cameramen and corrected by artists. The platemaker (D.O.T. 972.781) may cover the surface of the metal plate with a coating of photosensitive chemicals, or the metal plate may come to him with the photosensitive layer applied. The platemaker ex poses the sensitized plate through the negative or positive to strong arc lights; this is commonly done in a vacuum printing frame. When a large number of the same images are to be exposed on a single plate, however, the operation is done in a photocomposing machine. The plate then is developed and chemically treated to bring out the image. The lithographic pressman (D.O.T. 651.782) makes ready and tends the lithographic (offset) printing presses. He installs the plate on the press, adjusts the pres sure for proper printing, cares for and adjusts the rubber blanket which takes the impression from the plate and transfers it to the paper, adjusts water and ink rollers for correct op eration, mixes inks, and operates the presses. Basically, the duties of these workers are similar to those of letterpress and gravure pressmen. Some differences exist, however, because of the chemical means used to separate image and nonimage areas on lithographic presses. In large plants, press feeders and help ers are employed; their duties are similar to those of assistants and helpers to letterpress and gravure pressmen. (See p. 524) Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship covering the basic lithographic proc ess usually is required to become a well-rounded lithographic crafts Employment of journeymen lith ographic workers, who numbered about 80,000 in 1970, is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition, the need to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will provide some job openings. Employment of lithographic workers is expected to increase in response to the continued growth of offset printing. Commercial printing firms and small and medium size newspaper publishers increasingly are using offset presses. Employ ment growth also will be stimulated by the greater use of photographs and drawings in printed matter, and by the more widespread use of color in many printed products. However, new technological developments, particularly in the camera, plate making, and press departments, are expected to limit the increase in lithographic employment. 527 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for lithographic occupations vary within each occupation, and depend upon the degree of skill re quired, the type and size of equip ment, and the part of the country in which the worker is employed. For example, according to information on union minimum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities as of July 1, 1970, wage rates for cameramen, dot etchers or process artists, and letterers ranged from $3.71 an hour in Little Rock, Ark., to $6.46 an hour in Boston, Mass. Minimum hourly rates of platemakers ranged from $3.71 an hour in Little Rock to $6.15 an hour in Boston. The wide range of rates for lithographic pressmen—from $2.96 an hour for small multilith press operators in Little Rock to $8.20 an hour for first pressmen on a large eight-plate roll-fed offset press in Chicago—is due largely to the many different types and sizes of presses operated. A substantial proportion of all lithographic workers are members of the Lithographers and Photoen gravers International Union. A con siderable number of offset press men and other offset workers are members of the International Print ing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union, 233 West 49th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North Amer ica, Pressmen’s Home, Tenn. 37850. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. National Association of Photo- Lithographers, 230 West 41st St., New York, N.Y. 10036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. BOOKBINDERS AND RELATED WORKERS (D.O.T. 977.781) Nature of the Work Many printed items, such as books, magazines, pamphlets, busi ness forms, and calendars, must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 977.781) who numbered nearly 30,000 in 1970. Many bookbinders are em ployed in shops whose chief busi ness is bookbinding. However, a considerable number are employed in the bindery departments of large book, periodical, and commercial printing plants and large libraries. There are several different kinds of binderies. Edition and pamphlet binderies bind books, magazines, and pamphlets printed in large quantities. Trade or job binderies do bindery work on contract for printers, publishers, or other cus tomers. Blankbook and looseleaf binderies bind various types of blank books such as ledgers and bookkeeping and accounting vol umes. They also produce looseleaf binders and bind books in looseleaf form. Edition binding—making books in quantity from big, flat printed sheets of paper—is by far the most complicated. The first step is to fold the printed sheets into one unit or more, known as “signatures,” so that the pages will be in the right order. The next steps are to insert any illustrations that have been printed separately, to gather and as semble the signatures in proper order, and to sew them together. The resulting book bodies are shaped with power presses and trimming machines, and reinforced with glued fabric strips. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bod ies, after which the books undergo a variety of finishing operations and, frequently, are wrapped in paper jackets. Machines are used exten sively throughout the process. Skilled bookbinders seldom per form all the different edition bind ery tasks, although many journey men have had training in all of them. In large shops, skilled book binders may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated machines. In many binderies, especially large ones, much of the work is done by workers trained in only one operation or in a small number of relatively simple, related tasks. Most of these workers, often classi fied as bindery workers or bindery hands, are women (hence the com mon designation, bindery women). Their work closely resembles as sembly line factory work. Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship which includes on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruc tion generally is required to qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprentice ship programs may vary considera bly among the various types of bookbinding shops. When large quantities of books are bound on a 528 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pected for bindery hands, most of whom are women, because of the considerable turnover among this group. However, some decrease in the total number of bookbinders and bindery hands is expected, de spite the anticipated growth in the amount of bound printed materials, because of the increasing mechani zation of bindery operations. Earnings and Working Conditions mass production (edition) basis, the most modern machine methods are used. In fine hand binding, hand methods, including artistic designing and decorating of leather covers are used. For many years, hand book binding has been declining in im portance. Apprenticeship applicants usually must have a high school education, mechanical aptitude, and be at least 18 years of age. During the appren ticeship, trainees learn to assemble signatures, renovate old, worn bind ings, and use various binding ma chines such as punches and folders. For the less skilled bindery occu pations, the training period may last from several months to 2 years. In union shops, apprenticeship pro grams for women bindery workers generally last 2 years. These formal programs include classroom instruc tion as well as on-the-job training. Wage rates for skilled bookbind ers tend to be below the average of other printing crafts. A survey of union minimum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities, as of July 1, 1970, showed that the minimum hourly wage rate for bookbinders in book and job establishments averaged $4.89 an hour, and rates ranged from $2.69 an hour in Syracuse, N.Y., to $6.06 in New York, N.Y. The wage rates for bindery women are considerably lower and are among the lowest for printing indus try workers. They ranged from $2.15 an hour in Shreveport, La., to $3.41 an hour in the San Francisco area. Most bindery workers are union members. Most skilled bookbinders are represented by the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders. Sources of Additional Information Employment Outlook Several hundred job openings are expected each year during the 1970’s because of the need to re place experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Many openings are ex International Brotherhood of Book binders, 1612 K St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20016. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. See page 517 for additional sources of information. SOM E OTHER MANUAL O C C U P A T IO N S ASSEMBLERS mon tools used by semiskilled as semblers. Nature of the Work Television sets, automobiles, and refrigerators are typical of the man ufactured products which undergo many assembly operations. The parts for these and thousands of other products are put together by assemblers, most of whom are semi skilled workers. Some assemblers, known as floor assemblers, put together large, heavy machinery or equipment on shop floors, often fastening parts with bolts, screws, or rivets. Others, known as bench assemblers, put to gether small parts to make subas semblies or small complete units while working at a bench. Many as semblers work on items which move automatically past their work sta tions on conveyors. These workers must complete their assembly job within the time it takes the part or product to pass their work station. The job duties of assemblers de pend upon the product being manu factured, and the process being used. In aircraft and missile produc tion, these workers may assemble and install parts into subassemblies. In the automobile industry, one as sembler may start nuts on bolts, and the next worker tightens the nuts with power-driven tools. Assem blers in electronic plants may con nect parts with electrical wire. The kinds of tools assemblers use depend upon the work they are doing and the product on which they are working. Pliers, screwdriv ers, soldering irons, power drills, and wrenches are among the com New York, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. About half of all assemblers are women. They work primarily as bench assemblers because such work is relatively light and often in volves handling delicate objects. This is particularly true in the electrical and electronic equipment industry. Men are usually employed as floor or line assemblers, where the work is physically hard. Final automobile assembly, for example, is generally done by men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Skilled assemblers work on the more complex parts of subassem blies with little or no supervision and are responsible for the final as sembly of complex jobs. These workers must know how to read blueprints and other engineering specifications and use a variety of tools and precision measuring in struments. In relatively new fields such as electronics, instrumentation, and missiles, subassembly work may require a high degree of skill. Places of Employment In 1970, approximately 865,000 assemblers were employed in manu facturing plants; the great majority were in plants that made fabricated metal products, electric and none lectric machinery, and motor vehi cles. More than half of all assem blers were employed in California, Inexperienced people who are hired to do assembly work are usu ally trained on the job in a few days or weeks. The new worker may have his job duties explained to him by his supervisor and then be placed under the direction of an experi enced employee. When the new worker has developed sufficient speed, he is placed “on his own” and is responsible for the work he does. Employers seek applicants who are physically fit and dependable, and who have some aptitude for mechanical work. High school grad uates or workers who have taken vocational school courses, such as blueprint reading, are preferred by many employers, although a high school diploma is not usually re quired. Generally, for production line jobs, employers look for appli cants who can do routine work at a fast pace. For other types of assem bly jobs, applicants may have to meet special requirements. For ex ample, in plants producing electrical and electronic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color blindness. A relatively small number of workers who learn to perform a va529 530 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK riety of assembly jobs and who have a knowledge of blueprint reading and shop mathematics may become skilled assemblers. A few also may become skilled inspectors or fore men. Employment Outlook Employment of assemblers is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. However, most job openings will result as workers retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Overall, thousands of open ings will become available each year. Manufacturing plants will need more assemblers to produce goods for the Nation’s growing economy. Growth in population and personal income will increase the demand for consumer products such as automo biles and household appliances. Business expansion will increase the demand for industrial machinery and equipment. Employment of as semblers, however, is not expected to keep pace with manufacturing output because the automation of assembly processes and other la borsaving innovations are expected to raise output per worker. Employment in plants that pro duce durable goods, such as automo biles and aircraft, is particularly sensitive to changes in business con ditions and national defense needs. Therefore, assemblers in these plants will be subject to occasional layoffs. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data on assemblers are not available. However, infor mation from a limited number of union-management contracts indi cate that wages ranged from $2.15 to $3.75 an hour in 1970. Variation in wages depends on geographic area, industry, and type of assembly work. The working conditions of assem blers differ, depending on the partic ular job performed. Assemblers of electronic equipment may put to gether small components at a bench in a room which is clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of industrial machinery, on the other hand, may install and assemble heavy parts and are often exposed to contact with oil and grease. Workers on assembly lines may be under pressure to keep up with the speed of the lines. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piece-work rates, and are encour aged to work more rapidly by the prospect of higher earnings. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Electri cal, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; and the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Most labor-management contracts pro vide for fringe benefits such as holi day and vacation pay, health insur ance, life insurance, and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about em ployment opportunities for assem blers may be available from local offices of the State employment serv ice. AUTOMOBILE PAINTERS (D.O.T. 845.781) Nature of the Work Automobile painters make old and damaged motor vehicles “look like new.” These skilled workers re paint vehicles that have lost the lus ter of their original paint, and the repaired portions of vehicles dam aged in traffic accidents. (Produc tion painters who work for motor vehicle manufacturers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) To prepare an automobile for painting, the painter or his helper rough sands the vehicle to remove original paint and rust. He then uses a spray gun to apply primer coats to the automobile surface. After the primer dries, he sands the surface until it is smooth enough to be painted. For rough sanding, he usu ally uses a pneumatic or electric sander and a coarse grade of sand paper; final sanding may be done by hand, using a fine grade of sand paper. Small nicks and scratches that cannot be removed by sanding are filled with automobile-body putty. Masking tape and paper are used to cover areas not to be painted. Before painting repaired portions of an automobile, the painter may mix paints to match the existing color of the car. Before applying the paint, he adjusts the nozzle of the spray gun according to the kind of lacquer or enamel being used and, if necessary, adjusts the air-pressure regulator to acquire the needed amount of pressure. He must handle the spray gun skillfully so that the paint is applied evenly, rapidly, and thoroughly. To speed drying, he may place the freshly painted auto mobile under heat lamps or in a SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS special infrared oven. After the paint dries, the painter or his helper may polish the newly painted sur face to bring out its luster. 531 the nine States with the largest number of motor vehicles: Califor nia, Texas, New York, Ohio, Penn sylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Florida, and New Jersey. Places of Employment Almost two-thirds of an esti mated 30,000 automobile painters employed in 1970 worked in repair shops that specialize in automobilebody repairs and painting, and in shops that make general automobile repairs. Most of the others were employed in the service depart ments of automobile and truck deal ers. Some painters were employed by organizations that maintained and repaired their own fleets of motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and bus lines. Although automobile painters are employed in every section of the country, about half of them work in Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile painters start as helpers and acquire their skills in formally by working for several years with experienced painters. Usually, beginners remove automo bile trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, and polish painted sur faces. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks such as using spray guns to apply primer coats and paint small areas. Three to four years of infor mal on-the-job training are required to become a fully qualified automo bile painter. A small number of automobile painters learn their trade through apprenticeship. Apprenticeship pro grams for automobile painters, which generally last 3 years, consist of on-the-job training supplemented by related classroom instruction. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as automobile painters are in operation in several cities under provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. Persons who complete these programs, which usually last up to a year, generally need additional onthe-job or apprenticeship training to qualify as skilled painters. Young persons considering this work as a career should have good health, keen eyesight, a discerning color sense, and a steady hand. Courses in automobile-body repair offered by high schools and voca tional schools provide helpful expe rience. Completion of high school is generally not a requirement but may be an advantage in getting a job as a painter’s helper, because to many employers high school gradution indicates that a young man can “complete a job.” An experienced automobile painter with supervisory ability may advance to shop foreman. Many ex perienced painters who acquire the necessary capital open their own shops. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile painters is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the few hundred job openings resulting from employ ment growth, several hundred open ings are expected each year because of the need to replace experienced painters who retire or die. Job 532 openings also will occur as some painters transfer to other occupa tions. Employment of automobile painters is expected to increase pri marily because more motor vehicles will be damaged in traffic accidents as the number of vehicles in use grows. This accident toll will in crease, even though new and im proved highways, driver training courses, added safety features on new vehicles, and stricter law en forcement may slow down the rate of growth. Despite the increasingly durable paint used on new cars, the number of motor vehicles that need to be repainted because the original finish has deteriorated also is ex pected to increase. The favorable employment effect of increasing numbers of motor ve hicles and traffic accidents may be offset slightly by improvements that make automobile bodies more resist ant to rust, and new developments in painting equipment that should enable painters to complete jobs in less time. Earnings and Working Conditions Automobile painters employed by automobile dealers in 33 cities had average straight-time hourly earnings of $5.59, based on a sur vey in late 1969. Average hourly earnings of these workers in individ ual cities ranged from $3.45 in Providence-Pawtucket, R.I., to $7.60 in Detroit, Mich. Skilled painters usually earn between two and three times as much as inexpe rienced helpers and trainees. Many painters employed by auto mobile dealers and independent re pair shops are paid a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, a painter’s earnings depend largely on the amount of work he is assigned OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and how fast he completes it. Em ployers frequently guarantee their commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually are paid an hourly rate until they are sufficiently skilled to work on a commission basis. Painters em ployed by trucking companies, bus lines, and other organizations that repair their own vehicles usually re ceive an hourly rate. Most painters work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many employers of automobile painters provide holiday and vaca tion pay, and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident in surance, and contribute to retire ment plans. Some shops furnish laundered uniforms free of charge. Automobile painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mix ing ingredients. However, in most shops, the painting is performed in special ventilated booths that pro tect the painters. Masks covering the nose and mouth are also used. Painters must be agile because they often bend and stoop while working. Only average physical strength is needed. Many automobile painters belong to unions, including the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most painters who are union members are em ployed by the larger automobile dealers and by trucking companies and buslines. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for automobile painters, inquiries should be di rected to local employers, such as automobile-body repair shops and automobile dealers; locals of the un ions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment serv ice also may be a source of infor mation about the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act appren ticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile painters may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Asso ciation, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Independent Garage Owners of America, Inc., 624 South Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. AUTOMOBILE TRIMMERS AND INSTALLATION MEN (AUTOMOBILE UPHOLSTERERS) (D.O.T. 780.381 and .884) Nature of the Work Automobile trimmers, frequently assisted by installation men, replace and repair upholstery and other au tomobile fabrics. Trimmers and in stallation men together are called “automobile upholsterers.” (Work ers who upholster automobiles in factories are not included in this statement.) Automobile trimmers (D.O.T. 780.381) are skilled upholsterers who custom-make convertible tops; coverings for automobile seats, floors, and door panels; and other items. To make these items, they first determine the dimensions of each piece of vinyl, leatherette, 533 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS broadcloth, or other material to be used and mark the material for cut ting, after allowing for pleats, seams, shrinkage, and stretching. Although trimmers often follow standard designs to make most items, they may follow original de signs specified by customers or create original designs. After cutting and fitting, they use heavy-duty sewing machines to stitch the pieces. Finished pieces are stretched and pulled to fit snugly; glued, tacked, stapled, or fastened in other ways; and then trimmed of excess material. In addition to making au tomobile upholstery and convertible tops, trimmers may make items such as truck seat cushions and tar paulins, boat covers, and seats for buses and small airplanes. Automo bile upholsters also repair uphol stery that has been torn, cut, burned, or otherwise damaged. They may repair power-window and convertible top mechanisms, and cut and install automobile glass. Automobile trimmers often are assisted by installation men, some times called seat-cover installers (D.O.T. 780.884), who remove worn seat covers and convertible tops and install new ones. Trimmers and installation men use a variety of handtools including shears, knives, screwdrivers, special pliers, various types of wrenches, tack hammers, mallets, and tape measures. They also use heavy-duty sewing machines and power tools such as air-powered staplers and wrenches. In some shops, they use electric steaming machines to shrink fabrics, and special electronic weld ers to bind synthetic materials. ployed in 1970. Most worked in shops that specialize in the fabrica tion and replacement of automobile upholstery and convertible tops. Others worked in automotive repair and accessories sections of depart ment stores, in automobile-body re pair shops, and in automobile dealer shops. Most automobile upholstery shops employ from 1 to 5 trimmers. In small shops, the number of in stallation men generally equals the number of trimmers. However, in stallation men outnumber trimmers in many of the larger shops, particu larly those that specialize in the in stallation of factory-made seat cov ers and tops. Although automobile upholster ers are employed throughout the country, most work in the larger cit ies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most trimmers and installation men learn their skills on the job. Places of Employment Nearly 9,000 automobile trim mers and installation men were em Automobile upholsterer installs new convertible top. 534 Beginners usually are hired as in stallation men trainees. They are first taught to remove seats and up holstery and install seat covers, and gradually learn to do more difficult jobs such as installing convertible tops. After qualifying as installation men, they progress to making seat covers, tops, and other items. Al though a capable beginner can be come a fully qualified installation man in 3 to 6 months, 3 to 4 years usually are required to become a skilled trimmer. A small number of automobile trimmers begin as apprentices. Ap prenticeship programs for automo bile trimmers, which usually last 3 or 4 years, consist of on-the-job training supplemented by related classroom instruction. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs as automobile trim mers are in operation in several cit ies under the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act. Persons who complete these programs, which usually last up to a year, may need additional on-the-job or ap prenticeship training to qualify as skilled trimmers. Applicants for entry jobs should be mechanically inclined and in good physical condition. Employers are interested in hiring those who enjoy working creatively with their hands. A high school education is desirable but not essential. High school and vocational school courses in furniture upholstering provide valuable training. Courses in mathematics are useful in laying out and planning upholstery work. Experienced trimmers who have supervisory ability may advance to foremen in large shops. Many auto mobile upholstery shops are owned by trimmers who acquired the nec essary experience, skill, and capital to establish their own businesses. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment of automobile trim mers and installation men is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the job openings resulting from em ployment growth, a few hundred openings are expected to result each year from the need to replace expe rienced workers who retire or die. Job openings also will occur as some trimmers and installation men transfer to other occupations. Employment is expected to in crease primarily because the grow ing number of automobiles will stimulate greater demand for cus tom-made automobile upholstery and other fabric products. However, the demand is not expected to grow as rapidly as the number of automo biles, because of the use of more durable fabrics. Other stimulants to employment growth include an in creasing demand for truck cushions and tarpaulins because of growth in the number of trucks, and an in creasing demand for custom-made boat covers and seats resulting from the growing popularity of boating. Earnings and Working Conditions According to information from a limited number of automobile up holstery shops, beginners earned from $1.60 to $2.25 an hour in 1970. Experienced installation men earned $2.30 to $3.10 an hour, and skilled trimmers earned $3.75 to $6.25 an hour. Individual earnings often depend on experience and lo cation. Earnings generally are higher in large metropolitan areas than in small towns. Most trimmers and installation men are paid a weekly salary or hourly wage and work from 44 to 48 hours a week. Many receive commissions or bonuses based on sales, in addition to their regular pay. Some trimmers are paid on a straight commission basis. Trimmers and installation men receive holiday and vacation pay and all, or part, of the cost of life, health, and accident insurance. Some employers also contribute to retirement plans. Trimmers and installation men generally work in shops that are clean, well-lighted, and relatively quiet. Their work often involves being in awkward and uncomforta ble positions for short periods. Au tomobile upholstery work is not hazardous, although these workers are subject to cuts, bruises, and other minor injuries. A small percentage of these workers are members of the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for automobile trimmers and installation men, in quiries should be directed to local automobile upholstery shops or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment serv ice also may be a source of infor mation about the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act, appren ticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile trimmers and installation men may be obtained from: National Association of Auto Trim Shops, 129 Broadway, Lynbrook, L.I., N.Y. 11563. 535 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS BLACKSMITHS (D.O.T. 356.381 and 610.381) Nature of the Work Blacksmiths make and repair var ious metal articles, such as machine and agricultural implement parts. They also sharpen chisels, drills, and similar tools. Blacksmiths join pieces of glowing hot metal by ham mering them together, a process called forge or fire welding. In this process, they heat the metal in a special furnace called a forge, then place it on an anvil and shape it with presses and power hammers, and finish the piece with handtools such as chisels and hammers. After making or repairing a metal article, the blacksmith may harden or temper it by heat-treatment. To harden metal, he first heats it to a high temperature in the forge, and then quickly cools it in an oil or water bath. To temper metal (make it more durable and less brittle), he also heats it, but to a lower temper ature than for hardening. The metal is kept at this lower temperature for a specified time and then removed to cool gradually at air temperature. An ancient skill practiced by many blacksmiths is shoeing horses; blacksmiths who specialize in this activity often are called farriers. Today most blacksmiths use ready made horse shoes, but they may have to make or adjust shoes to achieve a proper fit. The jobs of industrial blacksmiths and forge shop workers are similar. For a detailed discussion of jobs in forge shops, see the section on Forge Shop Occupations. Places of Employment In 1970, about two-thirds of the 12,000 blacksmiths employed in the United States worked as industrial blacksmiths, primarily performing maintenance and repair duties. Nearly half of the industrial black smiths worked in manufacturing in dustries, especially in the iron and steel industry, and also in the ma chinery, transportation equipment, and fabricated metal products in dustries. The railroad, construction, and mining industries also employed blacksmiths. About one-third of all black smiths worked in small shops. Most of them were self-employed. These blacksmiths repair farm imple ments, tools, and mechanical equip ment, and often perform other serv ices such as welding, brazing, or tool sharpening. A small number of them specialize in the shoeing of horses. Blacksmiths work in all parts of the country, in small rural commu nities as well as in large industrial centers. However, employment is concentrated in Pennsylvania, Texas, California, Illinois, Ohio, and New York. Horseshoers are found in all States and, especially, where there are numerous horses, horse farms, and race tracks. Training and Other Qualifications Most workers enter the occupa 536 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tion by obtaining jobs as helpers in blacksmith shops, where they gradusually learn the trade on the job. Others enter through formal appren ticeship programs, which generally last 3 or 4 years. Apprenticeship pro grams customarily provide training in blueprint reading, proper use of tools and equipment, heat-treatment of metal, and forging methods, in cluding forge welding. Most appren tices are found in large industrial firms rather than in small repair shops. Vocational school or high school courses in metalworking, blueprint reading, and mathematics are helpful to young persons inter ested in becoming blacksmiths. Blacksmiths must be in good physical condition. Pounding metal and handling heavy tools and parts require considerable strength and stamina. The use of power hammers and hoists, however, reduces the physical demands of the work. Employment Outlook Employment of blacksmiths is expected to decline slowly through the 1970’s. However, a few hundred job openings will arise each year to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment is expected to de cline because forge shops are pro ducing a growing variety of small metal articles formerly made by blacksmiths. Metalworking opera tions once performed only by black smiths are being done by other spe cialized workers such as welders and forge shop craftsmen. It is often cheaper to replace small parts than to have a blacksmith repair them. However, the skills of all-round blacksmiths will continue to be re quired in the maintenance depart ments of large industrial firms and in many small metalworking and re pair shops. Earnings and Working Conditions National earnings data for black smiths are not available. In unionmanagement contracts covering a large number of blacksmiths in steel plants, railroad shops, and in the shipbuilding and petroleum indus tries, straight-time hourly pay rates ranged from $3.33 to $5.12 in 1970. Industrial blacksmiths gener ally work the same number of hours and have the same holidays, vaca tions, and other benefits as their fel low plant workers. Blacksmith shops tend to be hot and noisy, but conditions have im proved in recent years as a result of large ventilating fans and less vibra tion from machines. Blacksmiths are subject to hazards such as burns from forges and heated metals, and cuts, bruises, and other injuries from handling materials. Increased use of safety glasses, metal helmets, metal-tip shoes, face shields, ear plugs, and other protective equip ment has helped reduce injuries. Many blacksmiths belong to un ions. One important union is the In ternational Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Black smiths, Forgers and Helpers. Other unions representing blacksmiths in clude the United Steelworkers of America, the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America, and the International Union of Journeymen Horseshoers. BOILERMAKING OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work Boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men are skilled craftsmen who specialize in the repairing, fabricat ing, and assembling and disassem bling of boilers, tanks, vats, pres sure vessels, heat exchangers, and similar structures made of metal plate. These boilers and other metal vessels are used throughout industry to hold liquids and gases under pressure. Boilermakers are engaged primarily in erecting and repairing boilers and pressure vessels; layout men and fitup men usually are em ployed in manufacturing new boilers and heavy tanks. The repair work performed by boilermakers requires these workers to have all-round skills; fitup men and layout men have more specialized duties. Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.281). These craftsmen assemble and erect prefabricated parts and fittings at construction sites where boilers or other pressure vessels are used. After installation is completed, they conduct tests to check for defects. Boilermakers also repair all kinds of boilers. After first determining the cause of trouble, they may disman tle the boilers or other units and make repairs, such as patching weak spots with metal stock, replac ing defective sections with new parts, or strengthening joints. In ad dition to those working at construc tion sites, a large number of boiler makers maintain and repair boiler and other pressure vessels in the powerplants of industrial firms. In stallation and repair work per formed by boilermakers often must meet standards set by State and local laws covering boilers and other pressure vessels. 537 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Many large boilers are assembled in manufacturing plants and shipped as complete units. Boilermakers often perform this assembly work, using the same skills for plant work as for field work. Boilermakers use a variety of tools and equipment in their work. They cut and shape metal plate to size with power shears, power rolls, power presses, or oxyacetylene torches. They also use welding or riveting equipment. When assem bling and erecting steel plate units at a construction site, they may use rigging equipment such as hoists, jacks, and rollers. gages, hammers, and scribers in their work. Fitup Men (D.O.T. 819.781). Before the various parts of boilers, tanks, vats, and other pressure ves sels finally are assembled, fitup men temporarily assemble and fit them together in the shop. They bolt or tack-weld parts together and correct irregularities. Fitup men also fit to gether nozzles, pipes, fittings, and other parts. Fitup men read and interpret blueprints and drawings used in the manufacturing process, check parts for accuracy, and make certain the parts meet specifications. They use handtools such as hammers, sledges, wrenches, and punches, and equip ment such as welding machines, portable drills, and grinding tools. Places of Employment Layout Men (D.O.T. 809.381 and .781). Metals used in the man ufacture of boilers, tanks, vats, and other pressure vessels initially are prepared for fabricating operations by layout men. These workers mark curves, lines, points, and dimensions on metal plates and tubes that serve as guides to other workers who cut or shape the parts required for fabrication of the pressure vessel. They lay out parts to scale as out lined on blueprints, sketches, or patterns. Layout men use com passes, dividers, scales, surface More than 25,000 boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men were em ployed in 1970. Several thousand were employed in the construction industry, mainly to assemble and erect boilers and other pressure ves sels. Boilermakers also were em ployed in the maintenance and re pair departments of industries such as iron and steel manufacturing, pe troleum refining, railroad transpor tation, and electric and gas utilities. Large numbers worked in Federal Government installations, princi pally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Layout men and fitup men were employed mainly in plants that fabricate fire-tube and water-tube boilers, heat exchangers, heavy tanks, and similar boiler-shop products. Boilermakers are employed in every State because of the wide spread need for their skills in repair and installation work. Large num bers are employed in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central re gions where metalworking industries are concentrated. Most layout men and fitup men also work in these two regions. Pennsylvania, Califor nia, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, New York, and New Jersey are among the leading States in the employ ment of boilermaking craftsmen. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many men have become boiler makers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boiler makers, but most training authori ties agree that a 4-year apprentice ship is the best way to learn this trade. In the apprenticeship pro gram, the apprentice works under the close supervision of a journey man boilermaker who instructs him in the skills of the craft, including the proper way to use the tools and machines of the trade. Apprentice ship programs usually provide about 8,000 hours of relatively continuous employment and training, supple mented by about 600 hours of re lated technical instruction. Some of the technical subjects studied are blueprint reading, shop mathemat ics, welding techniques, and shop metallurgical science covering stress and strain of metals. Many layout men and fitup men acquired their skills on the job. They usually are hired as helpers and learn the craft by working with experienced men. It generally takes at least 2 years to qualify as an ex perienced layout or fitup man in a fabricating shop where boilers and other pressure vessels are massproduced. Shops which custommake products generally hire quali fied boilermakers for layout and fitup jobs. When hiring apprentices or help 538 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ers most employers prefer high school graduates. Prior training in mathematics, blueprint reading, and shopwork is helpful to young men interested in becoming boilermak ers, layout men, or fitup men. Most firms require prospective employees to pass a physical examination be cause good health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these occupations. Mechanical apti tude and manual dexterity also are important qualifications. Some boilermakers may become foremen for contractors specializing in boiler installation and repair work. A few may go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Employment in boilermaking oc cupations is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment is expected to in crease mainly because of the expan sion of industries that use boiler products—particularly electric and gas utilities, chemical, petroleum, steel, and shipbuilding industries. In addition to increased demand for boiler products, the trend to erect large, complex, custom-made boil ers on the construction site is ex pected to spur employment of skilled boilermakers. The develop ment of atomic energy facilities may create a need for more boilermak ers, layout men, and fitup men, ei ther to manufacture or install boil ers and related products. In shops that fabricate boiler products, how ever, growth in the number of boil ermakers, layout men, and fitup men is expected to be limited by the increasing use of more efficient production techniques and equip ment, including improved materials handling methods and welding equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates of skilled boilermak ing workers compare favorably with those of other craftsmen, although wages vary widely because of differ ences in factors such as the experi ence and skill of the worker, the kind of industry in which he is em ployed, and the geographical region in which he works. Boilermakers in field assembly and installation (construction) work generally receive higher hourly wage rates than boilermak ers, layout men, and fitup men em ployed in industrial plants, although they may not be employed as stead ily. According to a national survey of building trades workers in the construction industry, union mini mum hourly wage rates for boiler makers in 68 large cities averaged $6.48 on July 1, 1970. Straighttime hourly earnings for boilermak ers in 15 of the cities, selected to show wage information from various areas of the country, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity Baltimore ............... Boston ................... Buffalo ................... Chicago ................. Cleveland ............... Denver ................... F resn o ..................... Houston ................. Kansas City ........... Los Angeles ........... Memphis ............... New Orleans ......... New York ............. Phoenix ................. Seattle ................... R a te p e r h o u r .................$6.90 ................. 6.25 ................. 7.34 ................. 7.60 ................. 7.96 ................. 5.85 ................. 6.80 ................. 6.00 ................. 5.85 ................. 6.80 ................. 5.35 ................. 6.00 ................. 8.68 ................. 6.80 ................. 6.30 Comparable data were not avail able covering boilermakers em ployed in industrial plants. How ever, information on minimum hourly wage rates was available from union-management agree ments, in effect in 1970, covering a large number of boilermakers, lay out men, and fitup men employed in fabricated plate work, petroleum, and shipbuilding industries. The majority of these agreements called for minimum hourly wage rates ranging from about $3.30 to $5.60. Generally, layout men received higher rates than boilermakers, and boilermakers received higher rates than fitup men. Boilermakers, layout men, and fit up men in industrial plants usually work the same number of weekly hours as other plant workers, gener ally 40 hours. Most union-manage ment agreements covering these workers provide fringe benefits such as hospitalization, and medical and surgical insurance; paid vacations; life insurance; sickness and accident insurance; and retirement pensions. When engaged in boiler repair and assembly work, boilermakers often are required to work in cramped quarters or at great heights. Some work also must be done under conditions of dampness, heat, and poor ventilation. Boilermaking is more hazardous than many other metalworking oc cupations. Employers and unions attempt to eliminate injuries in boilershops by promoting safety train ing and the use of protective equip ment, such as safety glasses and metal helmets. Most boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men belong to labor un ions. The principal union in these trades is the International Brother hood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Some boilermaking crafts men are members of industrial un ions, such as the Industrial Union of 539 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America; the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of Additional Information General information about the work of boilermakers may be ob tained from: International Brotherhood of Boil ermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help ers, Eighth at State Ave., Kansas City, Kansas 66101. DISPENSING OPTICIANS AND OPTICAL MECHANICS (D.O.T. 713.251, .381, .884, and 299.884) Nature of the Work Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics (also called optical labo ratory technicians) make and fit eyeglasses prescribed by physicians and optometrists to correct defec tive vision. Optical mechanics grind and polish lenses to the specifica tions of prescriptions and assemble lenses in frames. Dispensing opti cians then fit and adjust the finished glasses to the customer’s facial fea tures. In some States, dispensing opticians also fit contact lenses. Oc casionally, both the fabricating and fitting of glasses are performed by the same person. The dispensing optician works in a retail optical establishment. He makes certain that the glasses follow the prescription and fit the customer properly. The optician determines exactly where the lenses should be placed in relation to the pupils of the eyes by measuring the distance between the centers of the pupils. He also assists the customer in se lecting the proper eyeglass frame by measuring the customer’s facial fea tures and giving consideration to the various styles and colors of frames. Before prescription eyeglasses are fitted, the dispensing optician prepares a work order which gives the optical mechanic the informa tion he needs to interpret the pre scription properly, grind the lenses, and insert them in a frame. The work order consists of the lens prescrip tion; information on the size, tint (where appropriate), optical cen tering of the lens, and other optical requirements; and the size, color, style, and shape of the frame. After the eyeglasses are made, the opti cian adjusts the frame to the con tours of the customer’s face and head to make sure they fit properly and comfortably. He uses small handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers, and also uses a precision instrument to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. In some shops, he may do lens grinding and finishing, and sell other optical goods such as binocu lars, magnifying glasses, and non prescription sunglasses. In fitting contact lenses, the dis pensing optician, following the phy sician’s or optometrist’s prescrip tion, measures the cornea of the customer’s eye and then prepares specifications to be followed by a firm specializing in finishing such lenses. The dispensing optician uses precision instruments to measure the power and curvature of the len ses and the curvature of the cornea of the eye. Contact lens fitting re quires considerably more skill, care, and patience than conventional eyeglass fitting. The dispensing opti cian instructs the customers in the insertion, removal, and care of the contact lenses during the initial pe riod of adjustment, which may last several weeks. The physician or op- 540 tometrist rechecks their fit, as needed. If minor adjustments are necessary, the dispensing optician makes them; if major changes are needed, he returns the lenses to the contact lens manufacturer. Optical mechanics make pre scription eyeglasses but not contact lenses. The two types of optical me chanics are surfacer (or prescription lens grinder) and benchman (or fin isher). Starting with standard or stock size lens blanks, which large optical firms mass-produce, the sur facer lays out the work and grinds and polishes the lens surfaces. He uses precision instruments to meas ure the lenses and assure that they fit the prescription. In small labora tories, one man may do these opera tions and benchwork too. In large laboratories, work is divided into separate operations which are per formed mainly by workers who op erate power grinding and polishing machines. The benchman marks and cuts OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the lenses and smooths their edges so that they will fit the frame. He then assembles the lenses and frame parts into finished eyeglasses. In large laboratories, these duties are divided into several operations which are performed mainly by semiskilled workers. The benchman uses small handtools, such as lens cutters, chippers, pliers, files, pro tractors, and diamond point glass drills. He also uses an automatic edging machine for shaping lens edges and precision instruments to detect any imperfections. Places of Employment An estimated 11,000 dispensing opticians and 15,000 optical me chanics were employed throughout the country in 1970. A few thou sand women are employed in these trades—most as dispensing opti cians. Most dispensing opticians were employed by retail optical shops or the optical departments of depart ment stores and other retail estab lishments. Many also worked for eye physicians or optometrists who sell eyeglasses directly to patients. A small number of dispensing opti cians worked in prescription depart ments of wholesale optical labora tories that did work for retail optical firms; in special prescription shops in large ophthalmic goods factories; and in hospitals. Most optical mechanics worked in wholesale optical laboratories. The remainder worked for the same types of employers as did dispensing opticians. In addition to the dispensing opti cians and optical mechanics men tioned above, many others are pro prietors of retail optical establish ments. Although opticians and mechan ics are found in all States, more than half are located in the follow ing States: New York, Massachu setts, Pennsylvania, California, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most optical mechanics and dis pensing opticians learn their skills through informal, on-the-job train ing. On-the-job training in dispens ing work may last several years and usually includes instruction in opti cal mathematics, optical physics, the use of precision measuring instru ments, and other related subjects. Trainees start in jobs requiring simple skill and dexterity and grad ually work into the more difficult jobs. For example, they may begin by processing lenses through a lens grinding machine. After they have become skilled in this operation, the 541 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS trainees perform other production operations such as polishing, edg ing, lens cutting, and eyeglass as sembly. Their training may include instruction in the measurement and curvature of lens surfaces, the meas urement of lenses, and other sub jects related to their work. When the trainees have acquired experi ence in all types of eyeglass produc tion work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all-round optical mechanics. Some trainees become specialists on one type of work performed by optical mechanics, such as surfacing or bench work. The training time re quired to become a specialist gener ally is less than that needed to be come an all-round mechanic. High school graduates also can prepare for both optical dispensing and mechanical work through for mal apprenticeship programs. Some optical firms have 4- or 5-year ap prenticeship programs. Apprentices having exceptional ability may com plete their training in a shorter pe riod. Most training authorities agree that optical mechanics and dispens ing opticians who learn as appren tices have more job opportunities, improved job security, and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. Formal institutional training for the dispensing optician is becoming increasingly common. In 1970, seven schools offered 2-year full time courses in optical fabricating and dispensing work leading to an associate degree. In addition, a number of vocational schools of fered full-time courses lasting 9 months in optical mechanics. Grad uates from such schools often go to work for retail optical stores where they receive additional on-the-job training. Large manufacturers of contact lenses offer nondegree courses of instruction in contact lens fitting that usually last a few weeks. A small number of dispensing opti cians and optical mechanics learn their trades in the Armed Forces. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as dispensing opticians and optical mechanics to be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, ge ometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable. Interest in, and ability to do, precision work are essential. Because dispensing opti cians deal directly with the public, they must be tactful and have a pleasing personality. In 1970, 17 States had licensing requirements governing dispensing opticians: Arizona, California, Con necticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Car olina, Rhode Island, South Caro lina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington. Some of these States also require licenses for optical me chanics in retail optical shops or for the retail optical shop itself. Some States permit dispensing opticians to fit contact lenses whereas others prohibit them from doing so. To ob tain a license, the applicant gener ally must meet certain minimum standards of education and training and also pass a written or practical examination, or both. For specific requirements, the licensing boards of individual States should be con sulted. Optical mechanics can become supervisors, foremen, and manag ers. Many of them have become dis pensing opticians, although there is a trend to train specifically for dis pensing optician jobs. There are op portunities for workers in both oc cupations to go into business for themselves, especially for those hav ing all-round training in both shop and dispensing work. Dispensing opticians also may become managers of retail optical stores. Some dis pensing opticians may become sales men for wholesale optical goods companies or for manufacturers of conventional eyeglasses or contact lenses. Employment Outlook Employment of dispensing opti cians is expected to increase moder ately through the 1970’s. In addi tion to the opportunities resulting from employment growth, a few hundred job openings will result an nually from the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire or die. Some additional job openings will become available as workers trans fer to other occupations. Little or no change in the number of optical mechanics is expected during the 1970’s. Several hundred job openings, however, will be available annually because of the need to replace experienced me chanics who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The production of prescription lenses is expected to increase con siderably during the period. Factors that will contribute to this growth include the increasing size, and the rising literacy and educational level of the population; a large increase in the number of older persons (a group most likely to need eye glasses); and the growing emphasis on good vision (more than half the population over 6 years of age now wear eyeglasses). In addition, the many different styles and colors of eyeglass frames now available have increased the number of pairs of eyeglasses purchased by individuals and encouraged the wearing of eyeglasses. The increase in production of prescription lenses will result in the 542 growing employment of dispensing opticians. However, principally as a result of more efficient methods of production and improved equip ment, employment of optical me chanics is not expected to increase. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, information from a small number of union-management contracts indicated that optical lab oratory mechanics earned from $2.50 to $4.25 an hour. Depending on experience, skill, and responsi bilities, foremen earned up to 20 percent more than mechanics. Dispensing opticians usually earn about 15 to 25 percent more than optical mechanics. Opticians who own their business may earn much more. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate; their wages are increased periodi cally so that upon completion of the apprenticeship program, they re ceive the beginning rate for jour neymen. Optical laboratory mechanics at wholesale establishments usually have a 5-day, 40-hour week. Dis pensing opticians and mechanics at retail shops generally work a 5 Vi - or 6-day week. Employment is year round because demand for glasses fluctuates little. Surroundings of the dispensing optician are pleasant, well-lighted, and well-ventilated, but noisy be cause of the power-grinding and polishing machines. Physically handicapped persons who have full use of their eyes and hands can perform some of the more specialized jobs in the larger laboratories. Some optical mechanics and dis pensing opticians are members of unions. Most of them are members OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (D.O.T. 500.380, .782, and .884) All-round platers in small shops an alyze solutions, do a great variety of small lot plating, calculate the time and current needed for various types of plating and perform other technical duties. They also may order chemical and other supplies for their work. Platers in production shops usually carry out less difficult, more specialized assignments re quiring limited technical knowledge. Parts of an item not to be electro plated are covered with lacquer, rub ber or tape. The item is then scoured or dipped in a cleansing bath before being placed in the plating solution. The article may be removed from the solution at intervals to make sure the work is progressing satis factorily. Unnoticed errors can be costly. Many types of plating must be in spected for visible defects. Microm eters, calipers, and electronic de vices are used to determine the quality of the work. Helpers fre quently place objects on racks be fore plating, remove them after wards, and then clean tanks and racks. Nature of the Work Places of Employment Electroplaters use plating solu tions and electric current (electrol ysis) to coat metal and plastic arti cles with chromium, nickel, silver, gold, or other metal to give the arti cles a protective surface or a more attractive appearance. Products that often are electroplated include items as widely different as automobile bumpers, silverware, costume jew elry, electrical appliances, and jet engine parts. A process known as electroforming forms items such as spray paint masks, search light re flectors, and a variety of molds used in the manufacture of plastic items. Skills vary among plating shops. An estimated 17,000 electropla ters were employed in 1970. About half of them worked in independent job shops and specialized in metal plating and polishing for manufac turing firms and for individuals. The remaining platers were employed in plants that manufactured plumbing fixtures, cooking utensils, wire prod ucts, electric appliances, electronic components, motor vehicles, me chanical measuring instruments, and other metal products. Electroplaters are employed in almost every part of the country, al though most work in the Northeast and Midwest near the centers of the of the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses in opticianry may be obtained from: Guild of Prescription Opticians of America, 1250 Connecticut Ave., N W , Washington, D.C. 20036 General information may be ob tained from the following sources: American Board of Opticianry, 821 Eggert Rd., Buffalo, N.Y. 14226 International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St., NW., Washington D.C. 20036 Optical Wholesalers Association, 222 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60606 ELECTROPLATERS 543 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS assigning of technical responsibil ities to chemists and other person nel will limit growth of this occupa tion. Earnings and Working Conditions Electroplater prepares to immerse helicopter parts in nickel solution. metalworking industry. Large num bers of electroplaters work in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Providence and Newark (New Jer sey). Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most electroplaters learn the trade on the job as helpers by work ing with experienced platers. Three years or longer are required to be come an all-round plater in this way. Platers employed in produc tion shops who are not required to have an all-round knowledge of plating can learn their jobs in much less time. A small percentage of electroplaters have received all round preparation by working 3 or 4 years as an apprentice. The program for apprentices combines on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in the properties of metals, chemistry, and electricity as applied to plating. The apprentice does progressively more difficult work as his skill and knowl edge increase. By the third or fourth year, he determines cleaning meth ods, does plating without supervi sion, makes solutions, examines plating results, and supervises help ers. Qualified journeymen may ad vance to foremen. High school and vocational school courses in chemistry, elec tricity, physics, mathematics, and blueprint reading will prove valu able to young persons interested in becoming electroplaters. Some col leges, technical institutes, and voca tional high schools offer 1- or 2year courses in electroplating. In addition, many branches of the American Electroplaters Society conduct basic courses in electroplat ing. Employment Outlook Employment of electroplaters is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Most openings however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Expansion of metalworking in dustries and the electroplating of a broadening group of metals and plastics are expected to increase the need for electroplaters. However, continuing mechanization and the National wage data are not avail able for electroplaters. However, data obtained from nearly 60 firms in two large cities indicated that most experienced electroplaters had hourly wage rates ranging from $2 to $4 in late 1970. Some highly skilled platers earned more than $4.50 an hour. During apprentice ship or on-the-job training, a worker’s wage rate starts at about 60 to 70 percent of an experienced worker’s rate and progresses to the full rate by the end of his training period. Almost all plants pay shift premiums for night work. Many employers provide paid holidays and vacations and pay part or all of additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Plating work involves some haz ards because acid, alkaline, or poi sonous solutions are used. Humidity and odor also are problems in elec troplating plants. However, most plants have installed systems of ven tilation and other safety devices which have considerably reduced the occupational hazards. Protective clothing and boots provide addi tional protection. Mechanical de vices generally are used to handle most of the lifting required, but at times the worker must lift and carry objects weighing up to 100 pounds. Some platers are members of the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union. Other platers have been organized by the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America, and the International As 544 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sociation of Machinists and Aero space Workers. Some of the labormanagement contracts covering electroplating provide health insur ance and other benefits. Sources of Additional Information For educational information con cerning electroplating and other metal finishing methods, write to: American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 56 Melmore Gardens, East Orange, N J. 07017. For information on job opportu nities, training, and other questions, write to: National Association of Metal Fin ishers, 248 Lorraine Ave., Upper Montclair, N J. 07043. FURNITURE UPHOLSTERERS (D.O.T. 780.381) Nature of the Work Furniture upholsterers recondi tion sofas, chairs, and other uphol stered furniture. These craftsmen repair or replace fabrics, springs, webbing, frames, and other parts that are worn or damaged. (Workers employed in the manu facture of upholstered furniture are not included in this statement.) The upholsterer usually places the furniture on padded wooden horses so that he may work at a convenient level. Using a tack puller or chisel and mallet, he pulls out the tacks that hold the fabric in place and removes the fabric. He also may remove padding and burlap that cover the springs. He examines the springs and removes the broken or bent ones. If the webbing that holds the springs in place is worn, all of the springs and the webbing are removed. The upholsterer then repairs the frame by regluing loose sections and refinishing wooden arms. To reupholster the furniture, the upholsterer first tacks strips of web bing to the frames. Next, he sews new springs to the webbing and ties each spring to the adjoining ones, securing the outside springs to the frame. He then uses burlap, filling, and padding to cover the springs, and sews the padding to the burlap. Finally, after covering the padding with muslin and new fabric, he at taches these materials to the frame and makes sure that they are smooth and tight. He completes the job by sewing or tacking on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments ordered by the customer. Upholsterers use a variety of handtools in their work, including tack and staple removers, pliers, hammers, and shears. They also use special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. Upholsterers who work in small shops lay out patterns and use hand shears or machines to cut the uphol stery fabric. They also operate sew ing machines to form new uphol stery covers. In large shops, how ever, seamstresses usually perform these tasks. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture. Those who own shops order supplies and equipment, keep business records, and perform other managerial and administrative tasks. Places of Employment More than one-half of the esti mated 33,000 furniture upholsterers 545 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS employed in 1970 worked in small upholstery shops. Most of these shops had fewer than eight em ployees. Many upholsterers also were employed by furniture stores, and a few worked for organizations —movie theatres, hotels, motels, and others—that maintain their own furniture. Employment of upholsterers is distributed geographically in much the same way as the Nation’s popu lation. Thus, they are employed mainly in major metropolitan areas and in the more populated States. coming upholsterers should have good manual dexterity and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail, ability to distinguish between colors, and a flair for cre ative work are helpful. Upholsterers usually purchase their handtools, but employers provide power tools. Many upholsterers open their own shops. Almost one out of every three upholsterers is self-employed —a much higher proportion than in most trades. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common way to learn this trade is through on-the-job training in an upholstery shop. Prospective upholsterers are hired as helpers to perform simple jobs, such as removing old fabric, pad ding, and springs. As they gain ex perience, they perform more com plex tasks, such as installing web bing and springs, and sewing on fabric and trimming. A helper may become a skilled upholsterer after about 3 years of on-the-job training. Inexperienced persons can learn many skills of the trade by working in furniture factories and perform ing a variety of jobs closely related to furniture upholstering. They also may get valuable training in voca tional or high school courses that in clude chair caning, furniture mak ing, textile fabrics, and upholstery repair. However, additional training and experience in a shop usually is required before these workers can qualify as skilled upholsterers. A few people learn the trade through formal apprenticeship programs that last from 3 to 4 years and include classroom instruction. Young persons interested in be Employment of upholsterers is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. Several hundred job openings, however, will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. There have been many un filled job openings in recent years because the supply of qualified up holsterers has been insufficient to meet the demand. Among the factors tending to in crease requirements for furniture upholsterers are growing expendi tures for furniture, growth in the number of families, and higher lev els of personal income. However, these factors will be offset by the rising cost of reupholstering furni ture relative to replacing it. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings data for furniture up holsterers are not available on a na tional basis. However, information from union-management contracts covering many of these workers in 1970 indicated that hourly rates for helpers ranged from $1.60 to $2.50, and for experienced upholsterers from about $3.00 to $5.25. A few upholsterers were paid on a piece work basis. Hourly rates depended on factors such as skill level, length of time employed, and geographic location. Hourly rates in the South were generally lower than those in the North and West. Upholsterers generally work 40 hours a week, although overtime is common during the weeks before major holidays. Many upholsterers receive paid vacations and sick leave, and some are covered by health insurance plans. Many upholstery shops are spa cious, adequately lighted, and well ventilated and heated. However, dust from padding and stuffing sometimes is present. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a con siderable amount of stooping and bending. The work generally is safe, although minor cuts from sharp tools and back strain from lifting and moving heavy furniture are not uncommon. Sources of Additional Information For further information on work opportunities for upholsterers, con tact local employers or the local office of the State employment serv ice. General information on uphol sterers may be obtained from: Upholsterers International Union of North America, 1500 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19121. 546 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK GASOLINE SERVICE STATION ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 915.867) Nature of the Work Almost all the 110 million motor vehicles in the United States are serviced at one time or another by gasoline service station attendants (also called gasoline station sales men or servicemen). In servicing a car, the attendant pumps gasoline, cleans the wind shield, and offers the additional serv ices of checking water level in the radiator and battery, oil level in the crankcase and automatic transmis sion, and air pressure in the tires. He also may check the tires, fan belt, and other parts of the car for excessive wear. The attendant may perform a variety of other services for the customer, ranging from giv ing street directions to making minor repairs. The attendant has other responsi bilities besides servicing cars. He sells and installs parts and acces sories such as tires, batteries, fan belts, and windshield wiper blades. When a customer pays his bill, he either makes change, or prepares a charge slip if the customer uses a credit card. In small stations, partic ularly, he may perform minor main tenance and repair work, such as lubrication, changing engine oil, ro tating tires, repairing tires, or re placing a muffler. Some attendants, called mechanic-attendants, per form more difficult repairs. The attendant also may keep the service areas, building, and rest rooms clean and neat. In some sta tions, he helps the station manager take inventory, set up displays, and perform other duties associated with the operation of a smafl business. If a gasoline service station pro vides emergency road service, the at tendant occasionally may drive a tow truck to a stalled car and change a flat tire or perform other minor repairs. If more extensive re pairs are needed, he tows the custo mer’s vehicle back to the service station. In doing maintenance and repair work, gasoline service station at tendants may use simple handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, and power tools such as pneumatic wrenches. Mechanic-at tendants frequently use more com plex equipment such as motor ana lyzers and wheel alignment ma chines. Places of Employment An estimated 410,000 service station attendants, more than onethird of whom were part-time workers, were employed in gasoline service stations in 1970. In addition to attendants, more than 225,000 gasoline service station managers and owners did similar work. Gasoline service station attend ants are employed in every section of the country, in the largest cities, the smallest towns, and outlying areas. About half of them, however, are employed in the nine States that have the largest number of motor vehicles: California, Texas, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Florida, and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An applicant for a job as gasoline service station attendant should have a driver’s license, a general understanding of how an automo bile works, and some sales ability. He should be friendly and able to speak well, present a generally neat appearance, and have self-confi dence. He should know simple arithmetic so that he can make change quickly and accurately and help keep business records. An ap plicant should be familiar with local roads, highways, and points of inter est in order to give directions to strangers and to locate vehicles whose owners have called for road service. Although completion of high school is not generally a require ment for getting an entry job, it is an advantage because it indicates to many employers that a young man can “finish a job.” A high school education generally is required for attendants to qualify for service sta tion management training programs conducted by oil companies, and to advance to the position of service station manager. Gasoline service station attend ants usually are trained on the job, although there are some formal training programs. Attendants who are trained on the job do relatively simple work at first, such as clean 547 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS ing the station, washing cars, pump ing gas, and cleaning windshields. Gradually, they progress to more advanced work such as making sales, writing credit charge slips, doing simple maintenance work, in stalling accessories on cars, and helping to keep the station records. It usually takes from several months to a year for a gasoline service sta tion attendant to become fully qual ified. Formal training programs for young people who want to do gaso line service station work are offered in many high schools around the country. In this curriculum, known as distributive education, students in their last 2 years of high school take business education courses and work part-time in a gasoline service station where they receive instruc tion and supervision in all phases of service station work. Some attendants are enrolled in formal training programs for service station managers, which are con ducted by most major oil compa nies. These programs usually last from 2 to 8 weeks and emphasize subjects such as simple automobile maintenance, salesmanship, and business management. Several avenues of advancement are open to gasoline service station attendants. Additional training qual ifies attendants to become automo bile mechanics; those having busi ness management capabilities may advance to station manager. Many experienced station managers and automobile mechanics go into busi ness for themselves by leasing a sta tion from an oil company, the most common means, or by buying their own service station. Some service station managers are hired by oil companies as salesmen or district managers. Employment Outlook Employment of gasoline service station attendants is expected to in crease moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the full-time and part-time job openings resulting from employment growth, thou sands of openings are expected each year from the need to replace at tendants who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment of service station at tendants is expected to increase as a result of the growing consumption of gasoline and other service station products. The number of motor ve hicles is expected to rise because of growing population, income, multi ple car ownership, and the continu ing movement to the suburbs. Also, greater use of cars is expected as families have more leisure time and as the highway systems continue to be improved. More attendants also may be needed to perform additional main tenance on newer, more complex cars. For example, more cars will have devices that reduce exhaust fumes, and these devices must be serviced periodically. On the other hand, more cars that require oil changes and lubrication less fre quently will offset partially the serv icing requirements of additional, more complex vehicles. In many stations, employers provide fringe benefits such as acci dent and health insurance and paid vacations. Some employers furnish uniforms and pay for their cleaning; others require the attendants to pay for these expenses. More than onehalf of the attendants work over 40 hours a week; many work more than 48 hours. Attendants fre quently work at night and on week ends and holidays. A gasoline service station attend ant works outdoors in all kinds of weather. He must be in good physi cal condition because he does con siderable lifting and stooping and spends much time on his feet. Possi ble injuries include cuts from sharp tools and burns from hot engines. The attendant frequently gets dirty because he pumps gasoline and works around oil and grease. For many attendants, however, the op portunity to deal with people and the possibility of someday managing their own service stations more than offset these disadvantages. For oth ers, the opportunity to get part-time employment is important. Some high school and college stu dents have been able to work their way through school by working as gasoline service station attendants after school, and on vacations and holidays. Some workers also supple ment their income from regular jobs by working part-time as attendants. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings of gasoline serv ice station attendants vary consid erably. Hourly earnings for many attendants ranged from $1.80 to $2.91 in 1970, according to wage data collected from a small number of major oil companies. Attendants employed in large metropolitan areas generally had higher earnings than those employed in small towns. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for gasoline serv ice station attendants, inquiries should be directed to local gasoline service stations or the local office of the State employment service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 548 INSPECTORS (MANUFACTURING) as screwdrivers or pliers. In some industries, inspectors make minor repairs and adjustments and grade products for quality. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nature of the Work Places of Employment Almost everything manufactured, including the products we eat, drink, wear, or ride in, must be carefully checked by inspectors dur ing the manufacturing process. The millions of automobiles, television sets, business machines, and other mass-produced items must be in spected to make sure they operate properly. In addition, inspectors check the quality of the raw mate rials and parts that make up finished goods. Inspectors use a variety of meth ods to make certain that products meet specifications. They may merely look for scratches and other defects; or they may use gauges, mi crometers, and other devices to ex amine parts and materials. They may read work orders, and do arith metic involving decimals and frac tions when reading measuring in struments. Skilled inspectors work under general supervision whereas semi skilled inspectors usually work under close supervision. Skilled inspectors generally have greater discretion in accepting or rejecting products and are responsible for inspecting the most critical parts of mass-produced goods. Skilled inspectors also use a much wider variety of testing instru ments. In the metal-working indus tries, they read blueprints and inter pret complex specifications. Inspectors often keep records of the number of parts they have re jected. When they find too many faulty pieces, they notify their su pervisors so that corrections can be made on the production line. Inspectors may use hand-tools, such in plants that produce small elec trical and electronic components. In 1970, most of the approxi mately 665,000 inspectors—largely semiskilled—worked in plants that produced durable goods such as electrical and nonelectrical machin ery, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, and aero space products. Others were em ployed in plants that produced non-durable goods such as chemi cals, textiles, apparel, and food products. Large numbers of inspec tors were employed in Ohio, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Pennsylva nia, California, and New Jersey. More than two-fifths of all inspec tors were women. Many of these women were employed in the food, textile, and apparel industries. Oth ers were employed throughout the metalworking industries, especially Inspectors generally are trained on the job for a brief period—from a few hours or days to several months, depending upon the skill required. Employers look for applicants who have good health and eyesight, can follow directions, and can con centrate on details. A few large companies give aptitude tests; for example, in the electronics industry, new workers may be given tests to determine their ability to work with numbers. Employers may hire ap plicants who do not have a high school diploma but have qualifying aptitudes or related experience. Some employers prefer experienced production workers for inspection jobs. Some semiskilled inspectors in the metal products industries who 549 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS take educational courses, such as blueprint reading and shop mathe matics, may advance to skilled in spectors or quality control techni cians. After acquiring sufficient experience and knowledge, a few become foremen. Employment Outlook Employment of inspectors is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. However, most openings will result as workers re tire, die, or transfer to other occu pations, and as women leave their jobs to marry or rear a family. Ov erall, many thousands of openings for inspectors will be created each year. Most of the industries that em ploy these workers, especially the electrical machinery industry, are expected to increase their employ ment in the long run. The growing complexity of manufactured prod ucts should also result in a need for more inspectors. However, increas ing use of mechanized and auto matic inspection equipment will partially offset these factors. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data on inspectors are not available. However, infor mation from a limited number of union-management contracts indi cate that hourly rates for inspectors ranged from $1.95 to $4.85 in 1970, depending on skill level, type of product inspected, geographic area, and industry. Working conditions vary consid erably for inspectors. For example, some have well-lighted, air-condi tioned workplaces in an aircraft or missile plant; others, who work on the production floor of a machinery or metal fabricating plant, often are exposed to high temperatures, oil, grease, and noise. Many inspectors are members of labor unions, among which are the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Most labor-management contracts provide for fringe benefits such as paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retire ment pensions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about em ployment opportunities in this field may be available from local offices of the State employment service. JEWELERS AND JEWELRY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 700.281 and .381) Nature of the Work Jewelers are skilled craftsmen who make or repair rings, pins, necklaces, bracelets, and other pre cious jewelry. They create jewelry from metal such as gold, silver, and platinum, and set precious or semi precious stones. To repair jewelry, they solder broken parts, make new parts, enlarge or reduce the size of rings, reset stones, and restyle old jewelry. The jewelers’ work is very delicate and must be done with care and precision, as the materials used usually are expensive. An eye “loupe,” or magnifying glass held over the eye, often is used when working to close tolerances. To make jewelry, jewelers may follow their own design or one prepared by a design specialist. The metal is formed to follow the design in one of several ways. For example, work may involve shaping metal stock with hand and machine tools or melting and casting metal in a mold. When jewelry is produced in vol ume, the metal usually is formed ei ther by the casting or the stamping process. Shaping metal stock by hand may involve the following metalworking operations: outlining, cutting, drill ing, sawing, filing, shaping, engrav ing, and electroplating. Individual parts are polished and then joined by soldering. After the article has been assembled, surface decorations are made and jewels or stones are mounted. When jewelry is made in this manner, tools such as files, saws, and drills; dapping, carving, and chasing tools; jewelers’ lathes; soldering irons; and polishing ma chines are used. To cast gold and platinum jew elry, a model is made by a jewelry modelmaker, a craftsman who has a thorough knowledge of the casting process. A rubber mold is produced from the model and into this mold wax or plastic is injected under pressure. The pattern pro duced is placed in a plasterlike mate rial and burned out, leaving a cavity in the material. The precious metal then is cast into this cavity by cen trifugal force. After cooling, the cast piece is removed. Articles produced by the process require a minimum of finishing. Jewels or stones then may be set in the cast piece and it may be engraved. Cast costume jewelry is produced 550 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Nearly three-fourths of all pre cious jewelry manufacturing plants are located in New York, New Jer sey, Rhode Island, and California. The New York City metropolitan area is the center of precious jew elry manufacturing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement similarly, except that the metal is cast directly into a rubber or metal mold, and either tumbled and plated or finished on a polishing machine. In the stamping process, which is used to make costume and some precious jewelry, the metal piece is formed in a stamping machine that brings together, under tremendous force, a die and metal from which the piece is to be made. The die has a cavity shaped to the exact contour and dimension of the desired article. As a rule, jewelers specialize in making a particular kind of jewelry, or in a particular operation, such as making models and tools, engrav ing, polishing, or setting diamonds and other stones. After years of ex perience, some become all-round jewelers capable of making and re pairing any kind of jewelry. Cos tume jewelry and some kinds of pre cious jewelry are mass produced by factory workers using assembly line methods; however, skilled jewelers are needed to make the models and tools for this large-scale production. Skilled jewelers also may perform finishing operations, such as stone setting and engraving, on stamped or cast pieces. Many jewelers make and repair jewelry in their own stores where they also may sell jewelry, watches, and other merchandise, and repair watches. Other jewelers operate trade shops that specialize in mak ing jewelry and in doing repair work for jewelry stores owned or oper ated by merchants who are not jew elry craftsmen or who take in more repair work than they can handle. Places of Employment About half of the 15,000 jewelers and jewelry repairmen employed in 1970 were self-employed. Most of the self-employed owned either re tail jewelry stores or repair shops. About half of those who were not self-employed worked in jewelry manufacturing establishments; oth ers worked in retail jewelry stores. Retail jewelry stores are located throughout the country. The heavi est concentration of these stores, as well as the small repair shops that service them, is located in large commercial centers, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Young persons generally learn the jewelry trade either by serving a formal apprenticeship or through informal on-the-job training while working for an experienced jeweler. Jewelry repair, which usually is less complicated than jewelry making, can be learned in a short time by in dividuals already trained in filing, sawing, drilling, and other basic me chanical skills. Courses in jewelry repair are given in several trade schools. Other trade schools offer courses in specific types of jewelry work, such as diamond setting, jew elry design, and engraving. Formal apprenticeship in this trade, depending on the type of training, takes from 3 to 4 years. For example, 3 years are required to become a colored-stone setter and 4 years to qualify as a diamond setter. Throughout the apprentice ship, training on the job is supple mented by trade school instruction in design, quality of precious stones, chemistry of metals, and other re lated subjects. Initial work assign ments may be to set up work for soldering or to do simple soldering or rough polishing. As an appren tice gains experience, he advances to more difficult work. After com pletion of the apprenticeship, he be comes a qualified journeyman jew eler. Jewelry manufacturing establish ments in the major production cen ters offer the best opportunities for 551 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS a young person to acquire all-round skills, even though the number of trainees accepted is small. Repair shops also offer training opportuni ties, but their small-size—many are one- or two-man shops—limits the number of trainees. Jewelry workers may advance in several ways. In manufacturing, they can advance from production jewelers to shop foremen. In retail stores, jewelers may become heads of sales departments or store managers. Those craftsmen em ployed in jewelry making and repair departments operated by large retail establishments may advance to de partment managers. Some jewelry workers establish their own retail stores or repair shops. A high school education is desira ble for young people entering the trade. Courses in chemistry, me chanical drawing, and art are partic ularly useful. Jewelers or repairmen must be willing to sit for long pe riods of time. The precise and deli cate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordination, patience, and concentration. Jewelry design ers should be creative. People working with precious stones and metals must be bonded and investi gated for honesty, trustworthiness, and respect for the law. A substantial financial investment is required to open a retail jewelry store and the field is highly competi tive in most parts of the country. Jewelers interested in going into business for themselves will find it advantageous to work first in an es tablished retail jewelry store, repair shop, or jewelry manufacturing plant. Persons planning to open their own jewelry stores should have experience in selling jewelry. Those craftsmen who can repair watches have an advantage over those who can repair jewelry only, since watch repair work is a sub stantial part of the business in many small jewelry stores. Talented and experienced jewelers of recognized integrity can establish their own re pair shops or small manufacturing shops with a more moderate finan cial investment. The location of these shops is limited to areas that have a large volume of jewelry busi ness. For manufacturing, this means the major production centers; repair shops have best chances for success in moderate or large cities where there are many retail jewelry stores. Employment Outlook Employment requirements for jewelers and jewelry repairmen are expected to show little or no change although the 1970’s. However, sev eral hundred openings will arise an nually because of retirements and deaths among experienced workers. Most job openings are expected to be filled by people trained in only one or two specialties of the trade such as stone setting, engraving, modelmaking, casting, or polishing. Nevertheless, all-round jewelers will continue to be in demand, and have been in short supply in recent years. Rising levels of personal incomes are expected to result in a substan tial increase in the demand for pre cious and costume jewelry, and an expected increase in family forma tions will spur demand for engage ment and wedding rings. However, the employment effect of an in creased demand for jewelry will be offset by more efficient means of producing and repairing jewelry. The demand for jewelry crafts men during the 1970’s is expected to differ by place of employment. In jewelry manufacturing, most job openings will be filled by specialized craftsmen as mass-production tech niques are adopted increasingly. In repair shops, where a large volume of repair work permits job special ization, job openings also will be filled mainly by specialized crafts men. In retail jewelry stores, how ever, there will be job opportunities for both all-round jewelers and spe cialized craftsmen. Earnings and Working Conditions National earnings data are not available for jewelers and jewelry repairmen. However, information obtained in several major metropol itan areas from retail jewelry stores and repair shops indicated that be ginning pay for jewelers and jewelry repairmen ranged from $80 to $125 a week in 1970; experienced workers earned up to $240 weekly. Wages were highest for jewelry re pairmen who worked in large met ropolitan areas. Jewelers who own retail stores or repair shops earn considerably more than jewelers working as employees in these es tablishments. One union-management agree ment, covering about 2,700 jewelry workers employed in plants manu facturing precious jewelry in New York City, provides the minimum hourly rates shown in the accom panying tabulation for inexperienced workers (including apprentices) and for journeymen in selected crafts, in 1971. Average hourly earnings also are shown in the tabu lation. Under this agreement, all inexpe rienced workers, including appren tices, receive increases of 15 cents an hour after 30 days of employ ment and 15 cents an hour every 3 months until they reach the mini mum journeyman rate for their par ticular job, which is considerably 552 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A verage h o u r ly M in im u m h o u r ly e a r n in g s j o b r a te 1971 1971 $2.00 . .$4.55 . . 5.50 . . 6.50 3.55 4.05 4.10 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.05 3.75 4.30 3.55 3.55 3.55 3.35 3.80 4.10 4.55 O c c u p a tio n Starting rate—all inexperienced workers Journeyman’s rate: Production jewelers .......................... Jewelers—handmade work ............. Modelmakers ...................................... Stone setting: Diamond .................................... Colored sto n e s............................ Handmade work ....................... Chasers ................................................. Engravers ............................................ Polishers .............................................. Casters ............................................... Lappers ............................................... Toolmakers ........................................ Hub C utters........................................ lower than average hourly earnings in the trades. Skilled workers in the precious jewelry manufacturing union shops in the New York City area have a 35-hour workweek and are paid time and one-half for all work done before or after the regular workday. Retail jewelers and jewelry repair men work 40 to 48 hours a week. 5.55 4.25 5.80 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.85 5.30 6.10 6.55 Union, Local No. 1, 133 West 44th St., New York, N.Y. 10036. MEAT CUTTERS (D.O.T. 316.781, 316.884) Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information Information on employment op portunities for jewelers and jewelry repairmen in retail jewelry stores may be obtained from: Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Information on employment op portunities in manufacturing estab lishments may be obtained from: Manufacturing Jewelers and Silver smiths of America, Inc., SheratonBiltmore Hotel, Room S-75, Prov idence, R.I. 02902. International Jewelry Workers’ rib or chuck, and then uses a butcher knife and a smaller boning knife to divide the primal cuts into retail cuts such as T-bone steak or rib roast. Meat cutters prepare meat, fish, and poultry for sale in supermarkets or wholesale food outlets. Their pri mary duty is to divide animal car casses into steaks, roasts, chops, and other serving sized portions. They also prepare meat products such as sausage, corned beef, and meat loaf. Meat cutters who work in retail food stores may set up coun ter displays and wait on customers. In cutting a beef carcass, the meat cutter divides it into halves with a band saw, and then quarters it by cutting each half between the ribs with a knife and sawing through the backbone. He uses special meat cutting saws to divide the quarters into major (primal) cuts, such as The meat cutter may divide the retail cuts into individually sized portions. He uses a butcher knife or slicer to divide boneless cuts and a band saw or cleaver to divide cuts containing bones. He removes any bone chips that remain on the meat either by scraping it with his butcher knife or placing the meat on a machine that has a small revolving brush. Finally, the meat cutter grinds trimmings and less expensive cuts into hamburger. In addition to cutting meat, the meat cutter may pickle or “corn” meat by pumping a brine solution into the arteries. He may place some of the cuts on a tenderizer machine which increases tenderness by injecting an enzyme into the meat. 553 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Places of Employment The estimated 190,000 meat cut ters employed in 1970 were located in almost every city and town in the Nation. Only a small proportion were women. Most meat cutters worked in retail food stores. A large number also worked in wholesale food outlets; a few worked in res taurants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Meat cutters acquire their skills either through apprenticeship pro grams or on-the-job. Under the guidance of skilled journeymen meat cutters, trainees learn the identity of various cuts and grades of fresh meats and cold cuts and the proper use of tools and equipment. They learn to use scales, make counter displays, slice luncheon meats and cheese, wrap meat, and wait on customers. Carcass breaking, boning, and por tion cutting are a major part of the meat cutter’s training. To perform carcass breaking—the successive di vision of the carcass into halves, quarters, and primal cuts—trainees learn to use the band saw, rotary saw, and butcher knife. During the boning operation, in which the ex cess skin, bones, and fat are re moved and the primal cuts are di vided into retail cuts, they learn to use the boning knife and to increase their skill with the butcher knife. Generally, the last cutting function trainees learn is portion cutting. During this phase, they learn to op erate the sheer, grinder, and small band saw, and to use the revolving brush that removes bone chips. In addition to cutting operations, beginning meat cutters learn to dress fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts, grind hamburger, prepare sausage, cure and corn meat, and may learn to use the vacuum and tenderizer machines. During the lat ter stages of training, they may learn marketing operations such as inventory control, meat buying and grading, and recordkeeping. Meat cutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship generally complete 2 to 3 years of supervised on-the-job training which may be supplemented by some classroom work. At the end of the training pe riod the apprentice is given a meat cutting test which is observed by his employer. A union member is also present in union shops. If the ap prentice passes the test, he becomes a fully qualified journeyman meat cutter. In many areas of the coun try, the apprentice may become a journeyman in less than the usual training time if he is able to pass his meat cutting test at an earlier date. The most common method of en tering this occupation is to be hired and trained by an individual retail or wholesale outlet. A few meat cut ters have gained entry by attending vocational schools that offer courses in meat cutting. Unemployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as meat cutters are trained in many cities under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. Employers prefer entrants who have a high school diploma and also have the potential to develop into meat department or retail store managers. High school or vocational school courses in business arithme tic are helpful to young people in terested in becoming meat cutters, since they may be called on to weigh and price meats and to make change. A pleasing personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly also are im portant qualifications because meat cutters may wait on and advise cus tomers. Manual dexterity, good form and depth perception, color discrimina tion, and good eye-hand coordina tion are important in cutting meat. Better than average strength is nec essary since meat cutters often must lift heavy loads and stand on their feet much of the day. In some com munities, a health certificate may be required for employment. Meat cutters may progress from journeyman to first cutter and then to meat department manager of a retail food store. Some become meat buyers, and those who learn the operation of the grocery section of a retail outlet can become retail store managers. In a few instances, experienced meat cutters have opened their own meat markets or retail food stores. Employment Outlook Meat consumption is expected to increase substantially in the future due to population growth and in creased personal income. However, little or no increase in the total number of meat cutters is antici pated through the 1970’s, since ris ing worker productivity is expected to offset growth in meat consump tion. Nevertheless, thousands of entry jobs for meat cutters will be available during the next decade to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. A number of technological ad vances are expected to limit em ployment growth of meat cutters. Such innovations include power tools, such as electric saws; elec tronic scales; wrapping machines that can weigh, package, and stamp prices automatically; and machines 554 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK that tie strings on roasts or other level. Most meat cutters are mem boneless cuts. In the future, power bers of the Amalgamated Meat Cut assisted knives may be used for ters and Butcher Workmen of boning and portion cutting. A proc North America. Meat cutters generally work in a ess is being tested that separates meat from bones by centrifugal well-lighted and well-ventilated en vironment. They must exercise care force. Central cutting, the establishment since sharp instruments, such as of one point from which meat for a knives, grinders, saws, cleavers, given area is cut and wrapped, is scrapers, and shears, are used. To expected to limit employment prevent accidents, most machinery growth because fewer cutters will be is equipped with protective devices needed in individual retail stores to and safety gloves often are worn. cut or package meat. Central cutting Meat cutters are exposed to sudden also permits meat cutters to special temperature changes when entering ized in both the type of meat cut and leaving refrigerated areas and and the type of cut performed. This may be exposed to unpleasant specialization reduces the amount of odors. training necessary to become a skilled cutter. In many wholesale outlets, a de Sources of Additional Information gree of specialization similar to that Information on training and other of central cutting is already in ef aspects of the trade may be ob fect. Many wholesale outlets per tained from: form “portion cutting” for restau rants, hotels, and other institutions. American Meat Institute, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111. Rather than keeping a meat cutter 60605. on the premises, the hotel or restau Amalgamated Meat Cutters and rant orders a desired number of Butcher Workmen of North Amer serving-size portions from the ica, 2800 North Sheridan Road, wholesaler. The effect has been to Chicago, 111. 60657. displace some meat cutters formerly Further information about local employed by hotels, restaurants, work opportunities can be obtained and other institutions. from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. The State employment service also Earnings and Working Conditions may furnish information about train According to union-management ing opportunities under the Man power Development and Training contracts in eight large cities in Act, apprenticeship, and other 1970, hourly earnings of most jour training programs. neymen meat cutters ranged from $3.45 to $4.56 for a standard 40hour work week. Some highly skilled meat cutters earned as much as $5.47 an hour. Beginning apprentices usually re ceive between 60 and 70 percent of journeymen wages and generally re ceive increases every 6 to 8 months until they achieve the journeyman MOTION PICTURE PROJECTIONISTS (D.O.T. 960.382) Nature of the Work The projectionist is an important man behind the scenes in the mo tion picture theater. From an ele vated room at the back of the the ater, he operates the projection machines and audio equipment, as suring high quality screen and sound presentation for the audience. In showing a feature length movie, the projectionist uses two projectors, audio equipment, a film rewinding machine, and seven reels or more of film. Before the first fea ture is scheduled to begin, he checks the equipment to see that it operates properly and loads the two projectors with the first and second reels to be shown. To load a projec tor he threads the film through a series of sprockets and guide rollers, and attaches it to a take-up reel. Most projectors burn a carbon rod to provide light for the screen. After igniting and adjusting the carbon rod, the projectionist starts the projector containing the first reel. When the reel has reached proper running speed, he opens a shutter and the picture appears on the screen. If the picture is out of focus or unsteady, he makes the necessary adjustments on the projector. A film reel lasts approximately 20 minutes. When the first reel is near completion, the projectionist watches for cue marks (small cir cles in the upper right hand comer of the screen) which indicate that it is time to start the second projector. When a second series of cue marks appears, he simultaneously closes the shutter on the first projector and opens the shutter on the second 555 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS projector. This changeover happens so quickly that the viewer in the au dience does not notice an interrup tion on the screen. Next, the projec tionist removes the used reel, and rewinds it on the rewinding ma chine. The projectionist repeats the process described above until all the reels have been used. If the film breaks the projectionist must work rapidly to rethread it so that the show may continue. In addition to operating the equipment, the projectionist cleans and lubricates it, checks for defec tive parts and damaged film, and makes minor repairs and adjust ments. By keeping his equipment in good operating condition, the projectionist reduces the possibility of malfunctions and breakdowns. For example, he may replace a badly worn projector sprocket which could eventually cause film damage or an unsteady picture. Major repairs are made by service men who specialize in projection and audio equipment. Places of Employment An estimated 15,000 full-time motion picture projectionists— nearly all of them males—were em ployed in 1970. More than threefourths of them were employed in indoor theaters; most of the remain der were employed in drive-in theaters. Other employers of projec tionists included large manufac turers, television studios, and Fed eral, State, and local governments. Most theaters employ one projec tionist per shift; few employ more than two. Projectionists work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. In a theater located in a small town, the theater owner or a member of his family may perform the duties of the projectionist. Projectionist adjusts carbon arc lamp in projector. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most motion picture theaters in urban areas are unionized, and young people who aspire to work as motion picture projectionists in these theaters must complete a pe riod of apprenticeship. Apprentice ship applicants must be at least 18 years of age, and high school gradu ates usually are preferred. The length of time a person must serve as an apprentice before taking an examination for union member ship may vary from 1 to 2 years, de pending on the policies of union lo cals. However, if he is capable of performing the work, an apprentice may be assigned to a full- or parttime job at journeyman’s pay before becoming a member. In a few cities and States, projectionists must be li censed. An apprentice learns the trade by working full or part time with expe rienced projectionists. He first learns simple tasks, such as thread ing and rewinding film. As he gains experience, he progresses to more difficult assignments such as adjust ing and repairing equipment. He may work in several theaters to be come familiar with different types of equipment. Some apprentices re ceive no pay while being trained. In a nonunion theater, a young man may start as an usher or helper and learn the trade by working with an experienced projectionist. Young men interested in becom ing projectionists should have good eyesight, including normal color perception and good hearing. They should be temperamentally suited to working alone in close quarters. Manual dexterity and mechanical aptitude are also important personal qualifications. Practical experience gained from operating small movie OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 556 projectors at home, at school, or in the Armed Forces also is helpful. Employment Outlook Employment of motion picture projectionists is expected to in crease slowly through the 1970’s. Most job opportunities will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Re tirements and deaths alone may re sult in several hundred job openings annually, but competition for the available openings is likely to con tinue to be keen. Some of these openings will be filled by experi enced projectionists who are unem ployed or underemployed. Employment of projectionists is closely related to the number of mo tion picture theaters. Following a rapid decline in the 1950’s and early 1960’s, the number of theaters has leveled off in recent years but is expected to increase slightly during the 1970’s. Among the factors which may contribute to this in crease are growing population, ris ing personal incomes, increased leisure time, and the continued movement of people to suburban areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings data for motion picture projectionists are not available on a national basis. However, average straight-time hourly earnings for many projectionists in large metro politan areas ranged from $2.95 to $8.75 in 1970 according to infor mation from several union-manage ment contracts. Generally, down town theaters pay higher hourly rates than suburban or drive-in the aters. Most projectionists work eve nings. Generally, those employed on a full-time basis work 4 to 6 hours, 6 evenings a week. They may work more than 6 hours on Saturday in a theater which features Saturday matinees. Some projectionists work at several theaters. For example, a projectionist’s weekly schedule may call for 2 evenings in each of three theaters. Projectionists employed in drive-in theaters, particularly those in Northern States, may be laid off for several months during the winter. Many projectionists receive 2 or 3 weeks of paid vacation and pre mium pay for weekend or holiday work. Some projectionists are cov ered by hospitalization and pension plans. The motion picture projectionist works in a room called a projection booth. In most theaters, these booths have adequate lighting, ventilation, and work space. Many booths are air-conditioned. The work is rela tively free of hazards, but there is danger of electrical shocks and burns if proper safety precautions are not taken. The motion picture projectionist’s work is not physically strenuous. He frequently lifts and handles film reels, but most of these weigh no more than 35 pounds. Al though he must be on his feet much of the time, he can sit for short pe riods while the equipment is in op eration. Most projectionists work without direct supervision and have infrequent contact with other the ater employees. Sources of Additional Information Further information about ap prenticeship programs and employ ment opportunities may be obtained from any local union of the Interna tional Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada. PARKING ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 915.878) Nature of the Work Parking attendants are stationed near entrances of commercial and private parking facilities to move cars in and out of parking spaces. At commercial lots, the attendant meets incoming cars, records the time of arrival on a numbered claim ticket, gives the driver part of the ticket, and puts the other part in some clearly visible place on the car. Some establishments use a three-part claim ticket. In such cases, the attendant notes the car’s parking space on the third part which is filed in the office. This pro cedure eliminates the attendant’s looking for the car when the cus tomer returns. Still other facilities use a “time plan” for handling cars. Under this system, customers 557 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS are asked the time they expect to return, and parking spaces are allo cated to reduce the number of cars that must be moved when the cus tomer returns. Next, in both com mercial and private lots, the attendant drives the car to a va cant space or instructs the driver where to park. At multilevel park ing garages, some attendants may drive cars up and down the ramps, while others park and retrieve cars on a particular floor. In a single level parking lot or garage, the attendant walks back to the entrance after he has parked the car. However, in many multilevel garages a moving manlift belt transports him to and from any floor. In some commercial lots and ga rages, the attendant meets returning customers, tallies the parking charge, collects the fee, and re trieves the car. In large establish ments, however, customers usually pay a cashier. The cashier gives the claim ticket to an attendant, who then retrieves the car. Slack periods are common at most facilities. Some car parkers, therefore, may be expected to take on routine maintenance jobs around the lot or garage, or to wash and wax cars. Places of Employment In 1970, approximately 50,000 parking attendants worked full-time and thousands more were employed part-time. Many part-time attend ants are young men working their way through school. Parking attendants are employed at facilities that vary in size and type from small outdoor lots to vast multilevel parking garages. Al though most parking establishments are commercial, some facilities are maintained privately by restaurants, hotels, airports, private clubs, or stores for the use of their patrons, members, or employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no specific educational requirements exist for parking at tendants, employers prefer high school graduates. Parking attend ants must have a valid driver’s li cense and be skillful in handling all types of cars. Clerical and arithmetic skills are helpful for attendants who keep records of claim tickets, com pute parking charges, and make change. Attendants also should be in good physical condition because the work involves long periods of stand ing and can be strenous during busy times. Since parking attendants deal with the public, they should be neat, tactful, and courteous. Most organizations have on-thejob-training programs which im prove the attendant’s car handling ability and familiarize him with good customer relations, company policy, and record keeping proce dures. Car parkers have limited oppor tunities for advancement, although they may become managers or su pervisors of a parking facility. Fre quently, attendants use their driving skill to switch to related jobs such as truck driver, chauffeur, or routeman. Employment Outlook Employment of parking attend ants is expected to grow slowly through the 1970’s. Most new facili ties are expected to be self-parking systems. Commercial parking own ers favor the less costly self-park concept which eliminates many labor and customer relations problems. Customers generally prefer to park rather than entrust their cars to an attendant. In addition, traffic flow is smoother and faster in a self-park facility since attendants do not have to handle incoming and outgoing cars. Also, new construction tech niques allow garages to be built with fewer supporting pillars for easier parking. Despite the expected slow growth in the occupation, many openings are expected annually for parking attendants through the 1970’s, pri marily to replace attendants who die or retire, but especially to replace those who transfer to other occupa tions. Most job opportunities will be in large commercial parking facili ties in the downtown areas of large cities. Earnings and Working Conditions Although parking attendants usu ally are not covered by minimum wage provisions, beginning salaries for parking attendants in 1970 were usually at or near the minimum of $1.60 an hour required by State and Federal laws. Some parking attend ants, depending on the location and type of lot or garage, earn up to $2.00 or $3.00 an hour. Tips, which are common in this occupation, can boost regular earnings substantially. Many car parkers receive fringe benefits such as life, health, and dis ability insurance; paid vacations; a Christmas bonus; and profit sharing. Some companies furnish uniforms. On the other hand, many attendants work long hours—a 10-hour day, night, weekend, and holiday work is not unusual. In addition, many car parkers spend much time outdoors in all kinds of weather and con stantly breathe automobile exhaust fumes. In some places, attendants 558 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nician places it in the developer, a solution that brings out the image on exposed film. After the film has remained in the developer for a Sources of Additional Information specified period, the technician transfers it to a stop bath to pre National Parking Association, 1101 vent over-development. Next, he 17th St., NW., Washington, D.C. places the film in a fixing bath that 10036 makes it insensitive to light, thus preventing further exposure. He then washes the film with water to remove the fixing solution and places it in a drying cabinet. In PHOTOGRAPHIC many photographic laboratories, LABORATORY technicians regulate machines that OCCUPATIONS automatically perform the steps de scribed above. (D.O.T. 970.281; and 976.381, .687, .782, .884, .855, .886, and .887) Developing processes for color films are more complex than those used for black-and-white films. Thus, some laboratories employ Nature of the Work color technicians (D.O.T. 976.381) Amateur snapshots, home mov —highly skilled workers who spe ies, professional portraits, and pho cialize in processing color film. The darkroom technician makes tographs to illustrate publications, a photograph by transferring the such as magazines and catalogues, require the skills of thousands of image from a negative to photo photographic laboratory employees. graphic paper. Printing frequently is These workers develop film, make performed on a projection printer, prints and slides, and perform re which consists of a fixture for hold lated tasks such as enlarging and re ing negatives and photographic touching photographs. (This chap paper, an electric lamp, and a mag ter does not discuss employees of nifying lens. The technician places laboratories that specialize in proc the negative between the lamp and essing professional motion picture lens, and the paper below the lens. When he turns on the lamp, light film.) A ll-round darkroom technicians passes through the negative and lens (D.O.T. 976.381) perform all tasks and records a magnified image of necessary to develop and print film. the negative on the paper. During The technician varies the develop printing, the technicians may vary ing process according to the type the contrast of the image or remove of film—black-and-white negative, unwanted background by using his color negative, or color positive. hand or paper patterns to shade For example, a developing process part of the photographic paper from for black-and-white negative film the lamp light. After removing the covers five steps: developer, stop exposed photographic paper from bath, fixing bath, washing, and the printer, he develops it in much drying. The first three steps involve the same way as the negative. If the the use of chemical solutions and customer desires, the technician are performed in darkness. After mounts the finished print in a frame unwinding a roll of film, the tech or on a paper or cardboard back, are responsible for any damage they do to customers’ cars. using cement or a hand-operated press. In addition to working in the lab oratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or other wise assist experienced photogra phers. Many technicians, particu larly those in portrait studios, divide their time between taking and proc essing pictures. In some laborator ies, helpers assist technicians. They also may be assisted by workers who specialize in a particular activ ity, such as developers (D.O.T. 976.381) , printers (D.O.T. 976.381) , and photograph retouch ers (D.O.T. 970.281). In large, mechanized photo graphic laboratories, darkroom technicians may supervise semi skilled workers who perform special ized assignments that require only a limited knowledge of developing and printing. Included are film numberers (D.O.T. 976.887), who sort film according to the type of proc essing needed and number each roll for identification purposes; film 559 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS strippers (D.O.T. 976.887), who unwind rolls of film and place them in developing machines; printer op erators (D.O.T. 976.782), who op erate machines that expose rolls of photographic paper to negatives; print developers, machine (D.O.T. 976.885) , who operate machines that develop these rolls of exposed photographic paper; chemical mix ers (D.O.T. 976.884), who meas ure and combine the various chem icals that make up developing solu tions; slide mounters (D.O.T. 976.885) , who operate machines that cut, insert, and seal film in cardboard mounts; and photocheck ers and assemblers (D.O.T. 976.687), who inspect the finished slides and prints and package them for customers. Places of Employment In 1970, an estimated 37,000 workers were employed in photo graphic laboratory occupations. More than half of them were in semiskilled photofinishing occupa tions; the remainder were darkroom technicians. Although most dark room technicians are men, women predominate in many of the semi skilled occupations. For example, most printer operators, slide mount ers, photocheckers, and assemblers are women. A large proportion of darkroom technicians are employed in photo graphic laboratories operated by portrait and commercial studios and by business and government organi zations. The latter include manufac turers, newspaper and magazine publishers, advertising agencies, and Federal, State, and local govern ments. Darkroom technicians also are employed in small commercial laboratories that specialize in proc essing the work of free-lance pho tographers, advertising agencies, magazine publishers, and others. Most semiskilled workers are em ployed by large commercial photo graphic laboratories that specialize in processing film for amateur pho tographers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most darkroom technicians learn their skills through informal onthe-job training. Beginners start as helpers and gradually learn to de velop and print film by assisting ex perienced technicians. It generally takes 3 or 4 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some helpers become specialists in a particular activity such as printing or developing. Generally, the train ing time required to become a spe cialist is less than is needed to be come an all-round darkroom techni cian. Employers prefer to hire dark room technicians’ helpers who have a high school education. Courses in chemistry, physics, and mathematics are helpful to young people inter ested in this trade. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in photography that include training in film processing. The Armed Forces also offer training for darkroom technicians. Experience gained through processing film as a hobby is helpful. Two-year curriculums leading to an associate degree in photographic technology are offered by a few col leges. Completion of college level courses in this field is helpful to people who are interested in super visory and managerial jobs in pho tographic laboratories. Many darkroom technicians eventually become professional photographers. Others advance to supervisory positions in laborator ies. Technicians who acquire their experience in small laboratories need additional training before they can qualify for supervisory positions in large laboratories where mecha nized equipment is used. Training requirements for workers in semiskilled photographic laboratory occupations range from a few weeks to several months of onthe-job training. For example, film numberers and slide mounters usu ally can learn their jobs in less than a month, but printer operators and chemical mixers need several months or longer. For many semi skilled jobs, manual dexterity, good vision including normal color per ception, and good eye-hand coordi nation are important qualifications. However, some laboratories employ blind workers as film numberers and film strippers, since these jobs may be performed in the dark to prevent damage to exposed film. Completion of high school generally is not required for semiskilled jobs, but it frequently is needed for ad vancement to supervisory jobs. Employment Outlook Employment in photographic lab oratory occupations is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition, many job opportunities will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to create about a thou sand job openings annually. The need for semiskilled workers is tied closely to the growth of ama teur photography. Film purchases by amateur photographers are ex pected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of ris ing population and personal income, 560 more leisure time, and increased travel. Improvements in still and movie cameras that make them eas ier to load, unload, and operate also should contribute to increases in the use of film. However, the more widespread use of mechanized film processing equipment and improve ments in this type of equipment will tend to increase the efficiency of laboratory workers and keep em ployment from growing as fast as the volume of film processed. The need for all-round darkroom technicians is expected to increase as a result of the growing demand for photography in business and government. A major factor con tributing to this demand will be the increasing variety of printed matter, such as sales brochures, catalogs, and public relations literature that is illustrated with photographs. The growing use of photography in re search and development activities also will contribute to the demand for darkroom technicians. However, the generally favorable employment effects of these factors will be par tially offset by the greater use of mechanized film processing equip ment in small laboratories. Earnings and Working Conditions Information obtained from sev eral employers in 1970 indicates that earnings of workers in photo graphic laboratory occupations vary greatly and depend on factors such as skill level, experience, and geo graphic location. Beginning pay for inexperienced darkroom techni cian’s helpers generally ranged from $2 to $3.10 an hour. Most of the experienced all-round darkroom technicians earned between $2.50 and $5.00 an hour. In addition to all-round darkroom technicians, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK color technicians and printers gen erally had the highest earnings. Workers in semiskilled occupa tions earned from $1.70 to $3.50 an hour. Among these workers, printer operators and chemical mixers gen erally had the highest earnings. In the Federal Government, pho tographic laboratory technicians earned between $5,853 and $10,528 annually. Many photographic laboratories provide paid holidays, vacations, and other benefits such as medicalsurgical insurance. Workers in pho tofinishing laboratories operated by business and government organiza tions receive the same fringe bene fits as their fellow employees. The majority of photographic laboratory employees have a stand ard workweek of 40 hours and re ceive premium pay for overtime. In laboratories that specialize in proc essing film for amateur photogra phers, employees may work a con siderable amount of overtime during the summer and for several weeks after Christmas. Many laboratories employ additional workers tempo rarily during these seasonal peaks. Most photographic laboratory jobs are not physically strenuous. In many semiskilled occupations, workers perform their jobs while sitting, but the work is repetitious and the pace is rapid. Some of these workers (for example, printer oper ators and photocheckers and assem blers) are subject to eye fatigue. Photofinishing laboratories are gen erally clean, well lighted, and air conditioned. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about em ployment opportunities in photo graphic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology may be obtained from: Master Photo Dealers’ and Finish ers’ Association, 603 Lansing Ave., Jackson, Mich. 49202. Professional Photographers of Amer ica, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. POWER TRUCK OPERATORS (D.O.T. 892.883; 921.782 and .883; and 922.782 and .883) Nature of the Work In the past, manual workers in factories usually did the hard physi cal labor of moving raw materials and products. Today, many heavy materials are moved by workers who operate various types of selfpowered trucks. A typical truck op erated by these workers has a hy draulic or electric lifting mechanism and special attachments for use on particular jobs. For example, the truck may have a fork lift to move piles of cartons, a scoop to lift coal, or a tow bar to pull small trailers. The power truck operator uses pedals and levers to drive the truck and to control the lifting mechanism and attachments. The operator may be required to keep records of materials moved and do some man ual loading and unloading of mate rials. He also may be responsible for keeping his truck in good work ing condition by cleaning, oiling, checking the water in batteries, and making simple adjustments. The driver must use care and skill in driving his truck. For exam ple, when loading or removing ma terials from stock, which may be stacked from floor to ceiling, he 561 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS heavily populated areas where large manufacturing plants are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement must be able to judge distance so that no damage occurs. The opera tor also must know how much the truck can lift and carry and the kinds of jobs it can do. Places of Employment Approximately 200,000 power truck operators were employed in 1970. Power truck operators were employed in all types of manufac turing industries. Large numbers were employed in plants that manu factured automobiles and automo bile parts, machinery, fabricated metal products, and iron and steel. Many power truck operators also were employed in warehouses, de pots, dock terminals, mines, and other places where great quantities of materials must be moved. Because power truck operators work in many different industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are em ployed in small towns, most work in Most workers can learn to oper ate a power truck in a few days. It takes several weeks, however, to learn the physical layout and opera tion of a plant and the most efficient way of handling the materials to be moved. Large companies generally re quire applicants to pass a physical examination. Many large companies also have formal training programs for new employees. In these training programs, the employee learns to operate the power truck, to do sim ple maintenance work, and to han dle materials. He also learns plant layout and operation, and safe driving rules. Young persons who are planning to become power truck operators should have manual dexterity, me chanical ability and above average eye-sight including good depth per ception. Some opportunities for advance ment exist. A few operators may become materials-movement fore men or supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of power truck op erators is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The amount of goods manufac tured is expected to increase as the Nation’s population grows and its standard of living rises. More power truck operators will be needed to move these goods and the materials used to produce them. In addition, the growing use of containers for moving goods will increase the de mand for operators. Employment growth will be limited, however, by the development of more efficient power trucks and other mecha nized materials-handling equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering 85 metropolitan areas in 1969-70, power truck operators had average straight time hourly earnings of $3.27 in manufacturing industries and $3.34 in nonmanufacturing in dustries. The following tabulation presents average hourly earnings by region for operators employed in manufacturing. A v e r a g e s tr a ig h t- tim e h o u r ly e a r n in g s o f p o w e r tr u c k o p e r a to r s in m a n u fa c tu r in g , 1969-70 A rea United States ........... Northeast ................. South ....................... North Central ......... West ......................... H o u r ly r a te ...................$3.27 ................... 3.18 ................... 2.79 ................... 3.43 ................... 3.43 Power truck operators are sub ject to several hazards—such as falling objects and collisions be tween vehicles. Safety instruction is an important part of the job training in power truck work. The driver may operate his truck inside buildings or outdoors where he is exposed to various weather conditions. Some operators may handle loose material that may be dirty or dusty. Power truck operators have somewhat varied work in moving materials throughout a plant. Their work is likely to be less repetitive and routine than that of workers who do semiskilled machine opera tor work. Many power truck operators are members of labor unions. Most la 562 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK bor-management contracts in manu facturing plants provide for fringe benefits such as paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life in surance, and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information For further information on work opportunities for power truck oper ators, inquiries should be directed to the local office of the State em ployment service. PRODUCTION PAINTERS just the nozzle of the spray gun and the air-compressor so that the paint will be applied uniformly. Those who operate semiautomatic painting machines may load items into the machine or onto conveyors before applying paint. Although the duties of most production painters are simple and repetitive, the jobs of some are var ied. For example, they may have to make decisions involving the appli cation of finishes, thinning of paint, and the adjustment of spray equip ment. When required to mix paints and figure the size of the area to be painted, they use simple arthmetic involving decimals and fractions. Some production painters operate special spray guns such as those used to spray powdered plastics. Production painters may replace nozzles and clean spray guns and other equipment when necessary. In addition to the painting equipment, they use tools, such as wrenches and mixing paddles, and gages that indi cate the consistency of paint. Places of Employment About 115,000 production painters were employed in manufac turing in 1970, most of whom were men. More than four-fifths of the total worked in plants that manufac tured furniture, automobiles, house hold appliances, industrial machin ery, and other durable goods. Large numbers of production painters were employed in New York, Mich- Nature of the Work Almost every metal or wood product manufactured is given a coating of paint or other protective material. In mass-production indus tries, this painting is done by workers known as production painters. Most of them use spray guns to apply paint, lacquer, var nish, or other finishes. Some use brushes to apply paint and others operate semiautomatic paint spray ing machines, dipping tanks, or tumbling barrels. The work of pro duction painters in factories is differ ent from that of skilled painters who are employed in construction and maintenance work. (See statements on Painters and Automobile Painters.) Production painters may have to clean items before painting them. When working on items requiring more than one color, they also apply masking tape to prevent over lapping of colors. Those who oper ate spray guns pour paints into a spraygun container that is attached to an air-compressor unit. They ad Production painters apply acrylic enamel to automobile body. 563 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS igan, Ohio, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Texas, North Caro lina, and New Jersey. novations should raise output per worker. SHOE REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 365.381) Earnings and Working Conditions Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The new worker usually learns his job by observing and assisting experienced production painters. The length of training may vary from 2 weeks to several months. A person going into this work needs good eyesight so that he can distinguish between colors and see whether the paint is applied evenly. He also should have a steady hand and be capable of standing for long periods. High school graduation is not generally required. Opportunities for advancement are limited. A small number of production painters become inspec tors and foremen. Employment Outlook Employment of production painters is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. How ever, most openings will result as workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Overall, several thousand job openings will arise each year during the decade. Most manufacturing industries which employ production painters are expected to increase their out put during the 1970’s. Growth in population and personal income will increase the demand for consumer products such as automobiles and furniture. Business expansion will increase the demand for industrial machinery and equipment. Employ ment of painters, however, is not expected to keep pace with manu facturing output because automatic sprayers and other laborsaving in National wage data on produc tion painters are not available. However, information from a lim ited number of union-management contracts indicate that hourly rates ranged from about $2.05 to $4.10 in 1970. Painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredi ents. Some wear protective goggles and masks which cover the nose and mouth. When working on large ob jects, they may work in awkward and cramped positions. Many production painters are members of unions. Among the labor organizations to which they belong are the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Furniture Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Many union-management contracts provide for fringe benefits, such as holiday and vacation pay, health in surance, life insurance, and retire ment pensions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about em ployment opportunities in this field may be available from local offices of the State employment service. Nature of the Work Shoe repairmen replace worn heels, soles, and broken straps, and repair torn seams of all types of shoes. Highly skilled shoe repair men may design, make, or repair orthopedic shoes in accordance with the prescription of orthopedists and podiatrists. They also may mend handbags, luggage, tents, boat cov ers, and other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas. The most frequent tasks per formed by shoe repairmen are re placing worn heels and soles. To re sole a shoe, the repairman prepares the shoe by removing the worn sole and old stitching, and roughing the bottom of the shoe on a sanding wheel. Next, he selects a new sole or cuts one from a piece of leather and cements, nails, or sews it to the shoe. Finally, he trims the sole. To reheel a shoe, the repairman first pries off the old heel. He then se lects a replacement heel or cuts one to the required shape, and cements and nails the new heel in place. The heel is then trimmed. After the heels and soles have been replaced, the shoe repairman stains and buffs them so that they match the color of the shoes. Sometimes he cements leather tips or nails metal heels and toe plates to the new heels and soles to increase their durability. Before completing the job, the repairman may replace the insoles, restitch any loose seams, and polish the shoes. In large shops, shoe repair work often is divided into a number of specialized tasks. For example, some shoe repairmen may remove and replace heels and soles only; others only restitch torn seams. 564 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Shoe repairmen use handtools and power and manually operated machines in their work. For exam ple, they may use power operated sole stitchers and heel nailing ma chines, and manually operated sew ing machines, cement presses, and shoe stretchers. Among the handtools they use are hammers, awls, and nippers. Self-employed shoe repairmen have managerial, sales, and other responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They make estimates of repair costs, prepare sales slips, keep records, and receive payments for work performed. They also may supervise the work of other repair men. Places of Employment Nearly 60 percent of the esti mated 25,000 shoe repairmen em ployed in 1970 were proprietors of small, one-man shoe repair shops. Most of the remaining craftsmen were employed in large shoe repair shops. Many of these large shops offered cleaning and laundering serv ices in addition to shoe repairing. A few shoe repairmen worked in shoe repair departments of depart ment stores, variety chain stores, shoe stores, and cleaning establish ments. The geographic distribution of shoe repairmen is similar to that of the Nation’s population. For exam ple, large numbers of shoe repair men are employed in California, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most shoe repairmen are hired as helpers and receive on-the-job training in large shoe repair shops. Helpers begin by assisting experi enced repairmen with simple tasks, such as staining, brushing, and shin ing shoes, and progress to more dif ficult duties as they gain experience. Helpers having an aptitude for the work and initiative can become qualified shoe repairmen after 2 years of on-the-job training. Some repairmen learn how to re pair shoes in vocational schools that offer such training. Others re ceive their training under the provi sions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act; still others enter the occupation through ap prenticeship training programs. Skilled shoe repairmen who work in large shops can become foremen or managers. Those who have the necessary funds can open their own shops. hundreds of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Opportunities will be particu larly favorable for the highly skilled because the number being trained is insufficient to meet current needs. Although the sale of shoes will increase as the population grows, several factors are expected to limit the demand for repairmen. In re cent years, the popularity of canvas footwear, loafers, sandals, and cush ion-soled shoes, has increased. Be cause of their construction these types of shoes often cannot be re paired. In addition, many shoes are being made more durable, and need repair less frequently. Also, as per sonal income rises, many people buy new shoes rather than repair old ones. Employment Outlook Employment of shoe repairmen is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. Nevertheless, Earnings and Working Conditions National earnings data are not available for shoe repairmen. How ever, information obtained from a limited number of employers and union-management contracts in early 1970 indicated that many workers earned between $100 and $115 for a 40-hour week. Some highly skilled shoe repairmen, in cluding managers of shoe repair shops, earned more than $150 a week. Inexperienced trainees gener ally earned between $65 and $75 a week. Shoe repairmen generally work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. The workweek for the self-em ployed, however, is often longer, sometimes 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. Although shoe repair estab lishments are busiest during the spring and fall, work is steady with no seasonal layoffs. Employees in large shops receive from 1 to 4 565 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS weeks’ paid vacation, depending on the length of time employed. Usu ally, at least 6 paid holidays a year are provided. Working conditions generally are good in large repair shops, shoe re pair departments of shoe stores and department stores, and in the more modern shoe service stores. How ever, some repair shops may be crowded and noisy and have poor light or ventilation. Strong odors from leather goods, dyes, and stains may be present. Shoe repair work is not strenuous, but does require physical stamina, since shoe repairmen must stand a good deal of the time. Sources of Additional Information Information about local work op portunities can be obtained from the local office of the State employment service, as well as shoe repair shops in the community. The State em ployment service also may be a source of information about training opportunities available under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act, apprenticeship, and other training programs. tain the equipment according to State and local laws, since the safety of many people depends upon its proper functioning. Stationary engineers must detect and identify any trouble that devel ops by watching and listening to machinery and by analyzing their readings of meters, gauges, and other monitoring instruments. They operate levers, throttles, switches, valves, and other devices to regulate the machinery so that it works efficiently. They also record such in formation as the amount of fuel used and the temperature and pres sure of boilers. Stationary engineers repair equipment, using handtools of all kinds, including precision tools. Common repairs involve reseating valves; replacing gaskets, pumps, packings, bearings, and belting; and adjusting piston clearance. The duties of stationary engineers depend on the size of the establish ment in which they work and the type and capacity of the machinery. However, their primary responsibil- STATIONARY ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 950.782) Nature of the Work Stationary engineers operate and maintain boilers, diesel engines, tur bines, generators, pumps, and com pressors. This equipment is used to generate power and to control the temperature and humidity in facto ries and other buildings. Stationary engineers must operate and main ities are very much the same for all kinds of plants—safe and efficient operation of their equipment. In a large plant, the stationary engineer may have charge of the boiler room, and direct the work of assistant sta tionary engineers, turbine operators, boiler operators, and air-condition ing and refrigeration mechanics. In a small plant, the stationary engineer may operate and maintain equip ment by himself. Places of Employment In 1970, about 200,000 station ary engineers were employed in a wide variety of establishments, including power stations, factories, breweries, food-processing plants, steel mills, sewage and water-treat ment plants, office and apartment buildings, hotels and hospitals. Fed eral, State, and local governments also employed large numbers of these workers. The size of establish ments in which the engineers worked ranged from giant hydroelectric plants and large public buildings to small industrial plants. Most plants which operate on three shifts em ploy from 4 to 8 stationary engi neers, but some have as many as 60. In many establishments, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and commercial establish ments are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stationary engineer checks heat controls. Many stationary engineers start as helpers or craftsmen in other 566 trades and acquire their skills largely through informal on-the-job experience. However, most training authorities recommend formal ap prenticeship as the best way to learn this trade because of the increasing complexity of the machines and sys tems. In selecting apprentices, most joint labor-management apprentice ship committees prefer high school or trade school graduates between 18 and 25 who have received in struction in mathematics, mechani cal drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are im portant qualifications. A stationary engineer apprentice ship customarily lasts 3 to 4 years. Through on-the-job training, the ap prentice learns to operate, maintain, and repair boilers, pumps, air-con ditioning and refrigeration machin ery, and other equipment. He is taught to use electric grinders, lathes, and drill presses; precision measuring instruments, such as cali pers and micrometers; and equip ment used to move machines, such as chains and hoists. On-the-job training is supplemented by class room instruction and home study in practical chemistry, elementary phys ics, blueprint reading, applied elec tricity, and other technical subjects. Persons who become stationary engineers without going through a formal apprenticeship program usu ally do so only after many years of experience as assistants to licensed stationary engineers. This practical experience usually is supplemented by technical or other school training or home study. Eight States, the District of Co lumbia, and more than 50 large and medium-size cities have licensing requirements for stationary engi neers. Although requirements for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK obtaining a license differ from place to place, the following are typical: (1) The applicant must be over 21 years of age; (2) he must have resided in the State or locality in which the examination is given for a specified period of time; and (3) he must demonstrate that he meets the experience requirements for the class of license requested. A license is issued to applicants who meet these requirements and pass an ex amination which may be written, oral, or a combination of both types. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licen ses, which specify the steam pres sure of horsepower of the equip ment the engineer may operate. The first-class license permits the sta tionary engineer to operate equip ment of all types and capacities. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engi neer may operate without the super vision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, the engineer ad vances to these jobs as he obtains higher grade licenses. Advance ment, however, is not automatic. For example, an engineer having a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy requiring a first-class licensed engi neer occurs. In general, the broader knowledge he has of the operation, maintenance, and repair of various types of equipment, the better are his chances for advancement. Sta tionary engineers also may advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. Employment Outlook Employment of stationary engi neers is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. Nevertheless, several thousand job openings will arise annually because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Industrial growth will result in in creased use of large boilers and auxiliary equipment in factories, powerplants, and other buildings. The need for additional stationary engineers, however, will be limited by the trend to more powerful and more centralized equipment with automatic controls. For example, larger boilers make it possible to in crease capacity without correspond ing increases in the number of sta tionary engineers. In a growing number of plants, centralized con trol panels and closed circuit televi sion monitoring systems will reduce the need for on-site observation of equipment. Automatic control sys tems which regulate throttles, valves, and other devices previously regulated by hand, also will increase the efficiency of stationary engi neers. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering 75 metropolitan areas in 1969-70, stationary engineers had average straight-time hourly earnings of $4.14. Averages in individual areas ranged from $2.84 in Oklahoma City, Okla., to $4.98 in Chicago, 111. Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a straight 8-hour day and 40 hours a week. In plants that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three 567 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS shifts—often on a rotating basis— and to Sunday and holiday work. Many stationary engineers are employed in plants which have un ion-management contracts. Most of these contracts provide fringe bene fits, which may include hospitaliza tion, medical and surgical insur ance; life insurance; sickness and accident insurance; and retirement pensions. Similar benefits also may be provided in plants which do not have union-management contracts. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the Interna tional Union of Operating Engi neers and the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Most engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler rooms are clean and welllighted. However, even under the most favorable conditions, some stationary engineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, con tact with oil and grease, and fumes from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. They may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneeling position to clean or repair the inte rior. Because stationary engineers often work around boilers and electrical and mechanical equip ment, they must be alert to avoid burns, electric shock, and injury from moving machinery. If the equipment is defective or is not op erated correctly, it may be hazard ous to them and to other persons in the vicinity. ing Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Information about the occupation also may be obtained from: International Union of Operating En gineers, 1125 17th St., N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Power En gineers, Inc., 176 West Adam St., Chicago, 111. 60603. STATIONARY FIREMEN (BOILER) (D.O.T. 951.885) Nature of the Work Stationary firemen are semi skilled workers who operate and maintain the steam boilers which are used to power industrial ma chinery and to heat factories, offices, department stores, and other buildings. Highly experienced fire men may be responsible for in specting boiler equipment, lighting boilers, and building up steam pres sure. On the other hand, the re sponsibilities of some firemen are limited to keeping equipment in good working order by cleaning, oil ing, and greasing parts. In most plants, stationary firemen operate mechanical devices that control the flow of air, gas, oil, or powdered coal into fireboxes in order to keep proper steam pressure in boilers. Duties of these workers include reading meters and other in struments to be certain that the Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities in this trade may be obtained from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Union of Operat Stationary fireman lights boiler. 568 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK boilers are operating efficiently and according to safety regulations. In some plants they make minor re pairs. Stationary firemen often are su pervised by stationary engineers who are responsible for the opera tion and maintenance of a variety of equipment, including boilers, diesel and steam engines, and refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. (Additional information on station ary engineers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment About 70,000 stationary firemen were employed in 1970. Most of them worked in manufacturing in dustries. Plants that manufacture lumber, iron and steel, paper, chemicals, and transportation equip ment are among the leading em ployers of stationary firemen. Pub lic utilities also employ many of these workers. Stationary firemen are employed in all parts of the country. Al though some are employed in small towns and even rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large manufacturing plants are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some large cities and a few States require stationary firemen to be li censed. Applicants can obtain the knowledge and experience to pass the license examination by first working as a helper in a boiler room, or by working as a stationary fire man under a conditional license. License requirements differ from city to city and from State to State. However, the applicant usually must prove that he meets the expe rience requirements for the license, and pass an examination which tests his knowledge of the job. For spe cific information on licensing re quirements, consult your State or local licensing authorities. There are two types of stationary firemen licenses—for low and high pressure boilers. Low pressure fire men operate boilers generally used for heating buildings. High pressure firemen operate the more powerful boilers and auxiliary boiler equip ment used to power machinery and to heat large buildings. Both high and low pressure operators, how ever, may operate equipment of any pressure class if a stationary engi neer is on duty. Stationary firemen should under stand the operation of machinery, and must have normal vision and good hearing. Because of the mech anization of equipment, physical strength is no longer a major re quirement for this type of work. Stationary firemen may advance to jobs as stationary engineers. To help them qualify for advancement, firemen sometimes supplement their on-the-job training by taking courses in practical chemistry; ele mentary physics; blueprint reading; applied electricity; and the princi ples of refrigeration, air condition ing, ventilation, and heating. Sta tionary firemen also may advance to jobs as maintenance mechanics. Employment Outlook Employment of stationary fire men is expected to decline through the 1970’s. Hundreds of job open ings, however, will result each year from the need to replace experi enced firemen who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Although an increase in the use of stationary boilers and auxiliary equipment is expected during the 1970’s, the trend to automatic, more powerful, and more central ized equipment is expected to result in a decline in employment of sta tionary firemen. In large plants, however, where turbines and en gines are housed under a separate roof and where there is a need for constant surveillance of boilers, fire men will continue to be needed. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering 60 metropolitan areas in 1969-70, stationary firemen had average straight-time hourly earnings of $3.47. Averages in individual areas ranged from $2.18 in Greenville, S.C. to $4.53 in Detroit, Mich. Most stationary firemen, even under the most favorable condi tions, are at times exposed to noise, heat, grease, and fumes from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. They may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneeling position to do repair or maintenance work. Sta tionary firemen are subject to burns, falls, and injury from moving ma chinery. Boilers and auxiliary equipment that are not operated correctly, or are defective, may be dangerous to these workers and to other persons in the work vicinity. Modern equipment and safety pro cedures, however, have reduced ac cidents considerably in recent years. Many stationary firemen are em ployed in plants that have labormanagement contracts, most of which provide benefits that may in clude paid holidays and vacations, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident in surance, and retirement pensions. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the Interna tional Brotherhood of Firemen and SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Oilers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities in this trade may be obtained from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Information about the occupation also may be obtained from: International Brotherhood of Fire men and Oilers, 200 Maryland Ave. NE., Washington, D.C. 20002 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPERATORS (SEWAGE-PLANT OPERATOR) (D.O.T. 955.782) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for the health and recreational enjoyment of the population and for the exist ence of fish and other wildlife. Wastewater treatment plant opera tors protect America’s water re sources by controlling water pollu tion through removal of domestic and industrial waste. Domestic and industrial waste is carried by water through sewers and arrives at treatment plants in a di luted state. Frequently other mate rials such as sticks, boards, sand, rags, and grit also are present. Wastewater treatment plant opera tors control equipment and facilities to remove waste materials or render them harmless to human, animal, and fish life. By operating and maintaining pumps, piping, and valves that connect the collection system to the wastewater treatment facility, operators move the wastewater through the various treatment processes. Operators perform routine tasks according to a regular schedule. These routine tasks include reading meters and gages and entering the information on log sheets. For ex ample, an operator may monitor meters that record the volume of flow of wastewater (sewage) into a plant or he may read gages that measure the level of water in a well and provide information needed to ascertain normal pump action. Other tasks may include operating screening devices for removing larger objects; making minor re pairs on valves, pumps, and other equipment; sampling wastewater at various stages of treatment for labo ratory analysis and testing and cor recting the level of chlorine in the water. Operators also lubricate equipment and hose down walls and tanks to break up scum and sludge. In the performance of their duties, operators may be required to use wrenches, pliers, hammers, and other handtools. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions —for example, a pump may break down and incoming wastewater may flood the station. An operator may make emergency repairs or locate and report the malfunction to a foreman or supervisor. Duties of an operator depend largely on the size of the treatment plant and complexity. In smaller plants, the operator may be re sponsible for the entire system, in cluding repairs, filling out forms, handling complaints, as well as pa trolling and housekeeping duties such as painting and cutting grass. 569 In larger plants, the staff may in clude helpers, foremen, and chief operators. Their responsibilities range from those of helpers, who perform primarily housekeeping du ties, to those of chief operators who supervise the entire operation. Places of Employment Of the approximately 30,000 wastewater treatment plant opera tors in 1970, about 4,000 worked in industrial wastewater treatment plants, 25,000 in municipal plants throughout the Nation, and an other 1,000 in Federal installations. The geographical distribution of treatment plants parallels the popu lation pattern of the United States. About one-half of all wastewater treatment plant operators worked in the following eight States: Califor nia, Illinois, New York, Ohio, Texas, Pennsylvania, Florida and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry jobs generally do not re quire specific training, and most op erators learn their skills on-the-job. New workers usually start as help ers and are assigned to work under the direction of an operator. They learn by helping in routine tasks, such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple mainte nance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, valves, and pipes. They also are expected to perform housekeeping tasks such as cleaning and maintaining plant equipment and property. Many wastewater treatment plant operators are trained in programs approved under the provisions of the Manpower Development and 570 Training Act. Young people who are interested in entry positions should have some mechanical apti tude and be able to perform simple calculations. Employers generally prefer applicants who have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some treatment operators, particu larly in larger municipalities, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations covering elementary mathematics, mechani cal aptitude, and general intelli gence. Operators must be agile, since they have to be able to climb up and down ladders and move easily around heavy machinery. They must have the physical stamina to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Most State water pollution con trol agencies offer some short term course training to improve the skills OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of water treatment plant operators. These courses cover principles of sludge digestion, odors and their control, chlorination, sedimentation, biological oxidation, and flow meas urements. In some cases, operators take advantage of correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment. Some large munic ipalities will pay part of the tuition for courses leading to a college de gree in science or engineering. Operators may be promoted to foremen and chief operators. Chief operators of large and complex plants are expected to have a bach elor’s degree in science or engineer ing. A high school diploma or its equivalent, and successively re sponsible experience usually is suffi cient to qualify as chief operator of a small or medium-sized plant. A limited number of operators may become technicians employed by local or State water pollution con trol agencies to collect and prepare water and biological samples for laboratory examinations. Some technical-vocational school or junior college training is generally pre ferred for technician jobs. Some op erators become consulting engi neers. All but 3 of the 50 States have certification programs designed to improve treatment plant operations and raise employee stature. Twen ty-seven States (California, Con necticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illi nois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Mon tana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Vir ginia, West Virginia, and Wiscon sin) have adopted mandatory certification laws providing for the examination of operators and cer tification of their competence to supervise the operation of treat ment plants. In addition to requiring the certification of supervisory oper ators, these States encourage other operators to become certified. Vol untary certification programs are in effect in 22 States, and municipali ties in these States are urged to em ploy certified operators. Under a typical licensing pro gram, there are four classes of certi fication that relate as nearly as pos sible to corresponding classifications for wastewater treatment plants. For example, to be certified a Class I operator (corresponding to a Class I plant serving a population of less than 2,000), an applicant may be required to demonstrate general knowledge of treatment operations by passing a written examination, be a high school graduate, and have completed 1 year of acceptable em ployment at a treatment plant. Re quirements for certification as a 571 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Class IV operator (corresponding to a Class IV plant serving a popu lation in excess of 40,000) may be a college degree or completion of 2 years of college in science or engi neering; 5 years of treatment plant experience at a Class III plant or higher, 2 years of which were in a position of major responsibility; and specific knowledge of the entire field of wastewater treatment as demonstrated through a written ex amination. Employment Outlook Employment of operators is ex pected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s, mainly as a result of the construction of new treatment plants to process the increasing amount of domestic and industry wastewater. Employment growth also should result from expansion of existing plants to include more ad vanced treatment to cope more ef fectively with water pollution. In addition to the new jobs that will re sult from growth, approximately 1,200 job openings are expected each year due to deaths and retire ments. Larger and more complex munic ipal and industrial treatment plants and the consolidation of smaller plants are expected to increase through the 1970’s. In 1968, about 9 out of 10 communities having sewer systems had wastewater treat ment plants. By 1980, almost all communities are expected to have such services. Earnings and Working Conditions Information from a survey cover ing a number of municipalities re vealed earnings of operators ranged from approximately $5,000 to $11,000 a year in early 1971. Fore men earned up to $12,000 per year and chief operators as much as $22,000. Salaries for trainees were roughly 80 percent of the operators’ salaries in most cities. These data reflect information collected from a number of municipalities in various parts of the United States. Fringe benefits provided for plant operators usually are similar to those received by other municipal civil service employees. Many oper ators receive paid vacations and holidays, overtime, shift differential pay, sick leave, paid life insurance, paid hospitalization, and retirement benefits. Because pollution control is con tinuous, operators work different shifts and in an emergency may have to work overtime. When working outdoors, operators are exposed to all kinds of weather. Operators also may be exposed to unpleasant odors and hazardous conditions, dust, and toxic fumes in the atmosphere, as well as noise from the operation of electrical motors, pumps, and gas engines. However, odor is kept to a minimum by the use of chlorine. Many plants are modern, have good lighting, clean wash-rooms equipped with showers, and a lunch room for the operator. The site is usually landscaped with well groomed lawns and shrubbery. For the most part the tanks are open but the pipes and sludge digestion tanks are beneath the ground or covered. Young people interested in a ca reer in wastewater treatment should contact their local or State water pollution control agencies. Addi tional information may be obtained from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 3900 Wisconsin Ave., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20016. Division of Manpower and Training Federal Water Quality Adminis tration U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20242. Consumer Protection and Environ mental Health Services, Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, 200 C. St., SW., Wash ington, D.C. 20204. WELDERS AND OXYGEN AND ARC CUTTERS (D.O.T. 810. through 819.887) Nature of the Work Welding is one of the most com mon and dependable means of join ing metal parts. Many of the parts in automobiles, missiles and space craft, airplanes, household appli ances, and thousands of other prod ucts are joined by this process. Structural metal used in the con struction of bridges, buildings, stor age tanks, and other structures is often welded. Welding also is used widely to repair broken metal parts. Welding is a method of joining pieces of metal by applying heat, pressure, or both, with or without filler metal, to produce a permanent bond. Although there are more than 40 different welding processes, most of the processes fall under three basic categories; arc, gas, and resist ance welding. Arc and gas welding can be performed manually or by machine. Resistance welding is mainly a machine process. Closely related to welding is oxy gen and arc cutting (often referred to as flame cutting). Oxygen and arc cutters cut or trim metal objects to a desired size or shape. They also remove excess metal from castings and cut scrap metal into pieces of manageable size. Most manual welding is done by 572 skilled or semiskilled arc and gas welders. The skilled welder plans and lays out work from drawings, blueprints, or other written specifi cations. He knows the welding properties of steel, stainless steel, cast iron, bronze, aluminum, nickel, and other metals and alloys. He also is able to determine the proper se quence of work operations for each job and to weld all types of joints in various positions (flat, vertical, hor izontal, and overhead). The semi skilled manual welder usually does repetitive work which requires the welding of surfaces in only one po sition, and does not involve critical safety and strength requirements. In one of the most common arc welding processes, the welder ob tains a suitable electrode and ad justs the electric current. The welder first “strikes” an arc (creates an electric circuit) by touching the metal with the electrode. After the arc is made, the welder guides the electrode at a suitable distance from the edges to be welded. The intense heat caused by the arc melts the edges and the electrode tip. The molten metal from the electrode is deposited in the joint and, with the molten metal edges, solidifies to form a solid connection. Many welders specialize in arc-welding processes that use inert gas to shield the weld area. This type of welding is used mainly to join hard-to-weld metals such as aluminum and stain less steel. In gas welding, the welder uses a gas torch to apply an intensely hot flame (obtained from the combus tion of a mixture of fuel gas— mostly commonly acetylene and ox ygen) to the metal edges. After ob taining the proper welding rods and torch tips and adjusting the regula tors on the oxygen and acetylene cylinders, the welder lights the torch. He then adjusts the oxygen OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and acetylene valves to obtain the proper size and quality of flame— depending on the type of metal and the joint to be made. The welder di rects the flame against the metal until the heat begins to melt it. He then applies the welding rod to the molten metal to supply additional metal for the weld. In production processes, espe cially where the work is repetitive and the items to be welded are rela tively uniform, the welding may be done by semiskilled workers who operate welding machines. In resist ance welding, the most common type of machine welding, resistance welding operators (D.O.T. 813.885) feed and aline the work and remove it after the welding op eration is completed. Occasionally, they may adjust the controls of the machine for the desired electric cur rent and pressure. Workers other than welders fre quently use welding. In construction for example, the structural steel worker, plumber and pipefitter, and sheet-metal worker may do manual arc and gas welding. Also, mainte nance and repair work provide many welding opportunities for other metalworking and related oc cupations. (See Index for individual statements on these occupations.) Semiskilled oxygen cutters (D.O.T. 816.782 and .884) and arc cutters (D.O.T. 816.884), some times called flame or thermal cut ters, usually use hand-guided torches to cut or trim metals. The oxygen cutter directs a flame of fuel gas burning with oxygen on the area to be cut until the metal begins to melt. He then releases an additional stream of oxygen which cuts the metal. He guides the torch along previously marked lines or follows a pattern. He may mark guidelines on the metal by following blueprints or other instructions. Arc cutting dif fers from oxygen cutting because an electric arc is used as the source of heat. An arc with a hollow electrode through which oxygen passes is used in underwater cutting. Other special forms of the arc, such as the plasma arc, are used to cut ferrous and nonferrous metals. Oxygen and arc cutters also may operate a torch or torches mounted on an electrically or mechanically Flame cutters operate a travel graph and oxyacetylene cutting machine. SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS controlled machine which automati cally follows a pattern. Training requirements for the re sistance-welding machine operator’s job depend upon the particular type of equipment used; most of these operators learn their work in a few Places of Employment weeks. Little skill is required for In 1970, an estimated 535,000 most oxygen and arc-cutting jobs; welders and oxygen and arc cutters generally, they can be learned in a were employed throughout the few weeks of on-the-job training. country. About 385,000 of these However, the cutting of some of the workers were employed in manufac newer alloys requires a knowledge turing industries, mostly in those of the properties of metals as well making durable goods, such as as greater skill in cutting. A young person planning a career transportation equipment and fabri cated metal products. Of the ap as a welder or cutter needs manual proximately 150,000 welders and dexterity, good eyesight, and good cutters in other industries, the great eye-hand coordination. He should est number were employed in con be able to concentrate on detailed struction firms and establishments work for long periods. He must be performing miscellaneous repair free of any physical disabilities that services; the remainder were widely would prevent him from bending, scattered among other nonmanu stooping, and working in awkward positions. facturing industries. For entry in manual welding jobs, The widespread use of the weld ing and cutting processes enables most employers prefer to hire young these workers to find jobs in every men who have high school or voca State. Most of the jobs, however, tional school training in welding are found in the major metalwork methods. Courses in mathematics, ing areas. In 1970, about half of the mechanical drawing, and blueprint welders and cutters were employed reading also are valuable. Beginners often start in simple in seven States—Pennsylvania, Cal ifornia, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, manual welding production jobs where the type and thickness of Texas, and New York. metal, as well as the position of the welding operation, rarely change. Occasionally, they are first given Training, Other Qualifications, jobs as oxygen or arc cutters; they and Advancement later move into manual welding Generally, several years of on- jobs. Some large companies employ the-job training are required to be general helpers in maintenance jobs come a skilled manual arc or gas who, if they show promise, may be welder, and somewhat longer to be given opportunities to become weld come a combination welder (an in ers by serving as helpers to experi dividual skilled in both arc and gas enced welders and learning the welding). Some skilled jobs may skills of the trade on the job. A formal apprenticeship gener require a knowledge of blueprint reading, welding symbols, metal ally is not required for manual properties, and electricity. Some of welders. However, a few large com the less skilled jobs, however, can panies (for example, automobile be learned after a few months on- manufacturers) offer apprenticeship the-job. programs that run as long as 8,000 573 hours for the welding occupations. Also, the U.S. Department of the Navy, at several of its installations, conducts 4-year welding apprentice ship programs for its civilian em ployees. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry level welding jobs or to up grade welding skills were operating in many cities in 1970 under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. The training, which may be in the classroom or on-the-job and last from several weeks up to 1 year, stresses the fundamentals of welding. Additional work experi ence and further on-the-job training may qualify graduates as skilled welders in a relatively short time. Before being assigned a job where strength of the weld is criti cal, welders may have to pass a qualification test given by an em ployer, municipal agency, naval fa cility, or private agency designated by local inspection authorities. In addition, some localities require welders to obtain a license for cer tain types of outside construction. Skill requirements are being in creased in some industries, particu larly in fields such as atomic energy or missile manufacture, which have high standards and require precise work. After 2 years’ training at a voca tional school or technical institute, the skilled welder may qualify as a welding technician. Generally, workers in this small but growing occupation interpret engineers’ plans and instructions. Occasionally, a welder may be promoted to inspector to check welds for general conformance with specifications and quality of workmanship. Welders also may become foremen. A small number of experienced welders es tablish their own welding and re pair shops. 574 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK motor vehicles, aircraft and mis siles, railroad cars, and other prod ucts. The use of faster and more highly automatic welding machines, however, will slow down the growth in the number of these welders. The number of jobs for oxygen and arc cutters is expected to rise somewhat during the years ahead as the result of the general expansion of metalworking activity. The in creased use of oxygen- and arc-cut ting machines, however, will tend to restrict the growth of this occupa tion. / Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Employment of welders is ex pected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of the gener ally favorable longrun outlook for metalworking industries and the wider use of the welding process. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, several thou sand openings will arise annually because of the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Many more manual welders will be needed for maintenance and re pair work in the growing metal working industries. The number of manual welders in production work is expected to increase in plants manufacturing sheet-metal prod ucts, boilers, storage tanks, ships, and other structural-metal products. The construction industry will need an increasing number of welders as the use of welded steel structure ex pands. Employment prospects for resist ance welders are expected to con tinue to be favorable because of the increased use of machine resist ance-welding in the manufacture of A welder’s earnings depend to a great extent on the skill require ments of his job and on the industry or activity in which he is employed. Earnings of highly skilled manual welders generally compare favora bly with those of other skilled metalworking occupations. Machine welders, such as resistance welders, who require little training, usually earn less than manual welders. Skilled manual welders in the fabricated structural steel industry averaged $3.29 an hour in late 1969, according to a survey con ducted in 6 major cities. Averages for these workers in individual cities ranged from $2.81 in Houston to $3.74 in Los Angeles. Many welders and cutters are union members. Among the unions organizing these workers are the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; the United Association of Jour neymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Only one labor organization —the International Union, United Weldors (Ind.), is known to be composed entirely of welders, em ployed largely in the aircraft indus try on the west coast. Labor-management contracts cov ering welders and cutters provide benefit programs which may in clude paid holidays and vacations, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, life insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retire ment pensions. Safety precautions and protective devices are extremely important for welders and cutters because of the many hazards associated with the work. They use protective clothing, goggles, helmets with protective len ses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries. Although lighting and ventilation are usually adequate, they occasionally work in the presence of toxic gases and fumes generated by the melting of some metals. They are often in con tact with rust, grease, paint, and other elements found on the surface of the metal. Operators of resist ance-welding machines are largely free from the hazards associated with hand welding. A clear eyeshield or clear goggles generally offer adequate protection to these operators. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for welders and cutters, inquiries should be directed to local employers or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General in formation about welders may be ob tained from: The American Welding Society, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. International Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Black 575 smiths, Forgers and Helpers, 8th at State Ave., Kansas City, Kans. 66101. International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. State Supervisor of Trade and In dustrial Education or the local Di rector of Vocational Education in the State or city in which a person wishes to receive training. S O M E MAJOR IN D U S T R IE S AND T H E IR O C C U P A TIO N S * A G R IC U LTU R E The United States is in the midst of an agricultural revolution that is having a tremendous impact on the employment outlook in agriculture. In brief, fewer and fewer farmers are producing more and more of America’s farm products. Employ ment on U.S. farms has declined from 9.9 million in 1950 to 4.5 mil lion in 1970. Agricultural econo mists predict that by 1980 U.S. farms will employ only 3 million to 3 Vi million persons. The reason is simply that each farmer today can produce far more than his predecessors. A modern corn farmer, for instance, will use 6-row or 8-row field equipment, in cluding tractors, costing a total of about $22,000, trucks and field im plements costing about $18,000, a self-propelled combine harvester worth $18,000, and grain drying equipment valued at about $18,000. To make this high-capacity equip ment profitable, he may need to grow 600 to 1,000 acres of corn. His father, using 2-row equipment, probably earned a good living from 320 acres. His grandfather, using horsedrawn equipment, could work only about 120 acres. There has been a vast reduction in the man-hours needed to produce most of the major farm commodi ties. It used to take 135 man-hours to produce 100 bushels of corn in 1910; today it takes 7 hours. Man hours needed to produce 100 bushels of wheat dropped from 106 to 9 in the same period. It took 31 hours to produce 100 pounds of tur key in 1910 but takes only 1.1 today. 579 O P P O R T U N IT IE S Since the demand for farm prod ucts is growing much more slowly than productivity, the number of opportunities in farming is declining steadily. The increasing productivity of our farmers has been a boon to consumers and the nonfarm econo my—but today farmers find them selves in an industry that requires ever-larger farms, more investment, and better management to stay in business. Management is the key to success in modern farming. Today’s farmer needs a much higher level of knowl edge and skills than his predecessor. For example, the dairy farmer used to feed each cow an amount of grain based on the amount of milk she had produced the previous day or week. The modern dairyman feeds his cows on the basis of their potential—“pushing” potential highperformance cows to their limits, cutting back on expensive feed for cows that already have peaked out. Figuring the potential is a much more difficult technique than weigh ing milk. Similar management problems face the modern farmer in most areas—which is why college train ing is becoming the rule rather than the exception for the young com mercial farmer. It gives him the technical basis he needs to keep up with research and technology and to apply them intelligently on his own farm. Biology, engineering, soil sci ence, and agronomy—not to men tion economics and accounting—are part of the necessary kit of tools for a successful farmer today. Capital requirements are another barrier the beginning farmer must over come. The average commercial farm in 1969 had 550 acres, with a value of more than $100,000 in 580 ON FARM S land and buildings alone. Re gionally, the value of commercial farms vary from an average of $46,000 in Appalachia to nearly $300,000 in the Pacific region. For the person who has the train ing, the capital, and the manage ment ability, the modern farm can offer much higher incomes than the old-style farm ever did. About 210,000 farms in the United States sold $40,000 worth of farm products or more during 1969. These large farms averaged $37,503 in net income. Another 357,000 farms sold an average of $20,000 to $39,999 worth of farm products in 1969. These medium sized farms averaged $10,466 in net income. Together, these two groups—the large and medium sized—make up nearly 20 percent of U.S. farms and accounted for nearly 72 percent of U.S. farm sales in 1969. These two groups represent the expanding sector of U.S. agriculture. Although an additional one-half million farms had gross sales of $10,000 to $19,999 in 1969, these small sized farms averaged only $6,481 in net income. Most of these farm owners would need to expand their operations or else supplement their incomes with off-farm work to equal the income they could get in some other type of employment. Agriculture still offers challenging and rewarding careers, with larger incomes and better living conditions than it used to—but it offers them to fewer and fewer people. Many people, of course, prefer living in the country, and modern transportation and communications, public services, and household and farming appliances have eliminated most of the disadvantages that at tended rural living a generation or two ago. Although the number of oppor tunities in farming is shrinking, the number of jobs in farm-related in dustries that supply products and services to the farmer and which handle marketing activities for farm products. They have a continuing need for young people who have a farming background—plus training for their specialized functions. Training Opportunities Available for Farming A good initial background in farming is obtained by growing up on a farm. Necessary experience also may be gained by working as a closely supervised tenant or hired worker on a successful farm. Col lege training in agriculture and in agricultural business management are of substantial value to the mod ern farmer. Several types of vocational train ing are available under federaly as sisted programs of vocational edu cation. Training is offered in the fol lowing ways: 1. High school courses in agri culture are taught by teachers who are agricultural college graduates. 2. Short courses for young farm ers at schools of agriculture, includ ing intensive training in farm plan ning, farm structures, construction, welding and related shop and repair work, as well as instruction in crop production, livestock feeding and management, record keeping, and other aspects of farming. 3. Adult farmer programs in eve ning classes (or day classes in off seasons) providing intensive in struction in subjects such as land and soil management, crop and live stock production, new technology and equipment, and financial man agement. The most significant general OPPORTUNITIES ON FARMS sources of information and guidance available to farmers are the services provided by the land-grant colleges and universities and the U.S. De partment of Agriculture. These ser vices include research, publications, teaching, and extension work. The 581 county agricultural agent is often the best contact for the young per son seeking advice and assistance in farming. The Farmers Home Ad ministration system of supervised credit is one example of credit facil ities combined with a form of exten sion teaching. Organized groups, such as the Future Farmers of America and the 4-H Clubs, also furnish valuable training to young farm people. O P P O R T U N IT IE S O N S P E C IF IC TYPES OF FARM S Although the number of farms and farm jobs are decreasing, desir able and rewarding opportunities occur from time to time in agricul ture and related pursuits. The deci sion to enter farming may be made simply because an opening exists on the family farm or on a farm nearby. To be successful, a young man should appraise carefully the requirements in specific types of farm operations, and the prospects for success in them, taking into con sideration his aptitude, interests, preferences, experience, knowledge, and skills in directing labor and handling livestock and machinery. He also must consider his family labor supply and his financial re sources, as the labor and capital re quirements for an operation of ade quate size vary widely from one type of farm to another. A realistic decision to go into farming can be made only in terms of a particular area or community. This section evaluates, from an oc cupational standpoint, some of the more common farm types. The ac companying table gives illustrative data on size of farm, capital re quirements, and net farm incomes received by operators of typical or representative farms in various parts of the country. Many farms are larger than these and offer more return than is shown here. Some are smaller and offer the operator little income or opportunity to improve his status without major changes. On most of the farms, the major part of the work is done by the farm operator and his family. Whereas, some of the smaller farms hire workers only during the peak labor 582 season, large ones often use hired labor the whole year. The figures in the table on capital invested mean that the operator controls or uses resources valued at that amount. Many farmers supple ment their own capital with bor rowed funds; others rent part or all of the land they use, thus allowing more of their funds for the purchase of livestock, feed, machinery, and equipment. Still others have part ners who provide most of the work ing capital. For example, many farmers who raise broilers are in partnership with a feed dealer. No brief general statement can be made about specialization versus diversification in farming opera tions that would apply in all parts of the country. The general trend is for more specialized farming. Farms that produced many products a gen eration ago now may produce only two or three. Efficient production of most farm products requires a sub stantial investment in specialized equipment. If the farm operator is to receive the full benefit from his investment, he must produce on a large scale. Two other factors con tributing to specialization are the in creased emphasis on quality of farm products, and the greater knowledge and skill required for effective prod uction. Few farmers, however, find it advantageous to produce only one product. The main reasons for producing more than one product are the desirability of spreading price and production risks, the more effective use of labor (particularly family labor), and the fuller utiliza tion of most other resources than can be realized in a one-product system. Dairy Farms Dairy farms are common in most parts of the country. Despite mod em methods of processing and transporting milk, production is still concentrated near the large popula tion centers particularly in the North east and the Great Lakes States. However, many areas in the Far West and the South are becoming large producers of dairy products. Many of the newer type large dairy farms are “drylot” or barn opera tions with little or no pasture land. Some are cooperatively operated units. However, on typical dairy farms in the Lake States, and to a lesser extent in the Northeast, crops are important, often requiring oper ators to hire or exchange labor at harvest time. There is work every day throughout the year on dairy farms, so that effective use can be made of labor, and a regular force can be occupied most of the time. Although most people do not like to be “tied down” 7 days a week, this obstacle presents no great hard ship for the man who enjoys work ing with cattle. Dairying is also a good choice for the man who likes to work with mechanical equipment. Dairy farmers who produce much of their own feed find variety in the many different jobs that must be done. The dairyman’s sales and income are distributed evenly throughout the year. Moreover, the prices he receives are less subject to year-toyear fluctuations than are prices re ceived by operators in most other types of farming. The accompany ing table shows the average net farm income on dairy farms in cen tral and southeastern Wisconsin for 1968-69. Compared with farmers in most other areas, dairy farmers in the more concentrated milksheds of the Northeast (such as the dairy farms in the Central Northeast shown in 583 OPPORTUNITIES ON SPECIFIC TYPES OF FARMS the table) generally have larger herds, purchase a larger proportion of their feed, and buy rather than raise their herd replacements. In the most highly specialized producing area near Los Angeles, dairy farms are drylot operations. They are quite small in acerage but large in milk production and number of cows milked. No crops are pro duced; these dairy operators buy their entire feed requirements from outside the area. Most of the cows are bought at freshening time and are replaced when their lactation period is completed. Net farm income represents the return to the farm operator and his family for their labor and the capital invested in the farm business—pro vided the operator owns his land and is free from debt. If he rents part or all of his farm, not all of net farm income is available for family living; part of it must be used for rent. Similarly, the farmer who is in debt must deduct interest costs and payments on the principal. Livestock Farms and Ranches A general livestock farm is a good choice for the farmer who is interested and skilled in working with livestock and mechanical equipment. Many farmers prefer general livestock farms—such as the hog-beef feeding farms in the Corn Belt (see table)—because in much of the year they require fewer chores than dairy farms. The tim ing of daily hog and beef cattle chores also is more flexible than the milking schedule on dairy farms. Practically all of the regular labor on most general livestock farms is provided by the operator and his family. During some seasons of the year, there is full-time or part-time work for several members of the family, but there are usually slack labor periods when there is time for leisure or nonfarm activities. The livestock farmer’s income is not as well distributed throughout the year as the dairyman’s, and it is less likely to be uniform from year to year. Financial and management problems result, increasing the risks of operation. Moreover, on farms of limited acerages—often found in the Eastern States—the level of in come from general livestock farm ing is usually lower than from a dairy herd on similar acreage. Most hog producers have their own breeding stock and raise the pigs they fatten for market. Some farmers who fatten cattle and sheep also raise their calves and lambs. But most of the cattle and sheep fat tened and marketed by the livestock farmer are bred and raised origi nally by someone else—usually the livestock rancher of the West. The accompanying table includes data for four types of Western livestock operations: Northern Plains and Northern Rocky Mountain cattle ranches, sheep ranches in Utah, Ne vada, and cattle ranches in the Southwest. In these areas of low rainfall, the main source of feed is range grass, and several acres are required to support one animal. Large acreages are required to pro vide enough pasture for their stock; ranchers spend much of their time in the saddle, truck, or jeep manag ing their herds. Much of this range comes from the public domain. Ex cept where irrigation is available, feed crops usually are not grown. Poultry Farms One-third of the farmers in the United States raise some poultry, but in 1964, fewer than 3 percent were classified as poultry farmers. Many poultry farms concentrate on egg production. Most of the larger and more specialized of these farms are in the southeast, northeast and in California; others produce broil ers. Many highly concentrated cen ters of broiler production are east of the Mississippi River, and a few are on the West Coast. Turkey produ cers also are specialized. A concen tration of specialized producers of ducks is located in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Very few poultry men produce crops for sale. They purchase spe cial poultry feeds and laying mash. Crops are not grown by most spe cialized poultry producers, particu larly those who produce broilers or large laying flocks. Commercial poultry farmers in New Jersey, for example, buy all their feed. The typical broiler producer in Maine, the Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) peninsula, and Georgia devotes almost all of his capital and labor to the production of broilers. Poultry farming requires special ized skill in handling birds, chiefly on the part of the operator. Bulk handling of feed and mechanical feeding is widespread and requires little physical strength. For these reasons, poultry farms make consid erable use of family help. Data on average capital invest ment and net farm income for rep resentative egg producers in New Jersey and broiler operators in Georgia for 1968-69 are given in the table. These averages do not re veal the sharp year-to-year fluctua tions in income that occur. Because they have a high proportion of cash costs and a thin margin of profit, relatively small changes in prices of feed, broilers, and eggs can bring about sizable fluctuations in net farm income. The incomes of most broiler producers, however, are fairly sta- 584 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Size of farm, capital invested, and net farm income on commercial farms, by type, and location, 1968-69 average Capita! invested in — Type of farms and location Size of farm as measured by Dairy farms: Central N ew York ...................................................... Southeastern W isconsin ........................................... Egg-producing farms. N ew Jersey................................ Broiler farms, Georgia ...................................................... Corn Belt farms: Hog-beef feeding ........................................................ Cash grain ..................................................................... Cotton farms: Mississippi Delta ........................................................ Southern High Plains, Texas Irrigated ................................................................ Nonirrigated ........................................................ Tobacco farms, Coastal Plan, North Carolina........ Tobacco-livestock farms, Bluegrass area, Kentucky.. Wheat-fallow farms: Northern Plains .......................................................... Southern Plains .......................................................... Pacific Northwest ........................................................ Cattle ranches: Northern Plains .......................................................... Northern Rocky Mountain .................................. .. Southwest ....................................................................... Sheep ranches, Utah-Nevada ........................................ Corn and Wheat Farms For the man who likes working with crops and farm machinery, cash grain farming (growing soy beans, corn or wheat) has much to offer. Many people dislike being tied down with daily responsibilities Machinery and Livestock equipment N et farm incom e1 Crops Total 40 milk cows.............................. 40 milk cows............................. 5550 layers ................................ 44,600 produced annually...... $ 37620 63300 43320 21640 $17150 18090 2730 4940 $18840 17630 8330 860 $ 6120 9050 0 160 $ 79730 108070 54380 27600 $14372 18669 10592 1973 280 acres of cropland............ 375 acres of cropland............ 142400 278000 18750 30000 40000 0 19000 2000 220150 310000 22944 19000 900 acres of cropland............ 453750 76450 0 0 530200 48700 870 acres of cropland............ 860 acres of cropland............ 50 acres of cropland.............. 64 acres of cropland.............. 413700 193750 43860 123000 41000 16100 5520 7020 0 0 680 10520 0 0 690 2280 454700 209850 50750 142820 20350 20950 5888 10998 1800 acres o f cropland.......... 1800 acres o f cropland.......... 1800 acres o f cropland.......... 172000 227000 338000 42000 35000 50000 0 0 0 0 0 0 214000 262000 388000 8312 6698 13007 308 beef cows........................... 307 beef cows........................... 306 beef cows........................... 2025 breeding ewes................ 315690 209200 423170 129260 18760 17840 11610 13600 78580 68280 65670 66220 5050 10220 0 2100 418080 305540 500450 211180 22668 22242 9700 19750 1 The information presented here is on an owner-operated basis, primarily for comparability between types of farms. N et farm income is the return to operator and unpaid members of the family for their labor and management on the farm and return to total capital. N o allowance has been made for payment of rent, interest or mortgage. ble because they produce “under contract.” Contract production is more widespread in broiler produc tion that in any other major type of farming. Under these arrangements, the financing agency (usually a feed dealer) furnishes the feed, chicks, and technical supervision—almost everything except the buildings, equipment, and the direct produc tion labor. The grower receives a stipulated amount per 1,000 birds marketed, and often a bonus for su perior efficiency. Many turkey pro ducers operate under similar con tracts, but these arrangements are not nearly so universal for the pro duction of turkeys as for broilers. Land and buildings N ote: Prepared in the Farm Production Economics Division, E co nom ic Research Division, U .S. Department of Agriculture. the year around, as with livestock chores. They prefer, instead, to work long days with large laborsav ing equipment during the busy sea sons, as in soil preparation, plant ing, and harvesting, and then to have some free time in slack pe riods. The table shows the investment required and the recent income ex perience of some representative cash grain farms. Farms of this type include cash grain farms in the Corn Belt, spring wheat-fallow farms in the Northern Plains, winter wheatfallow farms in the Southern Plains, and wheat-fallow farms in the Pa cific Northwest. Some of these farms—particularly in the Northern Plains—raise some beef cattle for sale as feeders, and a small number keep a few milk cows. However, this livestock production is usually of secondary importance. Many of these cash crop farmers do not raise any livestock. Two of the main risks faced by the commercial wheat grower are unfavorable weather and low prices. However, crop insurance has re duced the risk of low yields, and Government price support programs have lessened the risk of low prices. Cotton, Tobacco, and Peanut Farms In terms of number of farmers, the production of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts makes up a large part of the agriculture in the Southeast ern and South Central States. These products are grown on farms that range from very small operating units to comparatively large ones. Market competition in these crops has been keen, and many growers have been forced to diversify and enlarge their farms—adjustments which require capital investment. Competition from cotton growers in the irrigated areas of the West and Southwest have forced many farm ers in the Southeast to discontinue cotton production. Some of them OPPORTUNITIES ON SPECIFIC TYPES OF FARMS have diversified their operations, and others have found better oppor tunities in Southern Industrial ex pansion. well rewarded for their ability to manage, produce, and market their products. Private Outdoor Recreation Farms Crop Specialty Farms Many farmers throughout the country have unique background, skills, resources, or other advan tages for particular kinds of farming chiefly because of their location, home training, or neighborhood practices. They may specialize in the production of a single crop— such as grapes, oranges, potatoes, sugarcane, or melons—or a combi nation of related specialty crops. Operators of these enterprises usually employ many seasonal workers and require relatively ex pensive specialized equipment. They need specific skills many of which can be obtained only through experience. Enterprises of this kind should be under taken only by per sons with considerable experience and some of the special skills and techniques required. An individual having an aptitude for these skills usually can learn them by working a few years as a hired hand on such a specialty farm or as a tenant for a landlord who can give direction and assistance. Annual returns from these spe cialty farms usually vary greatly from year to year because of the va garies of nature and the changes in prices. Operators of these farms who keep abreast of production and marketing conditions are usually 585 improve their ponds or irrigation reservoirs. They stock ponds for fishing and have swimming areas in the summer and skating areas in the winter. Old farm buildings, sheds, and barns are converted into riding stables or horse boarding stables, or a combination of both. Shore and backwater areas are used to dock privately owned craft. In so doing, many farmers have converted a lia bility into an asset. Farmers become guides for hunter during the game season and mechanics and service engineers for watercraft. Guides are also in demand for nature trails and scenic tours. Public demand for outdoor recre ation is far in excess of the existing and projected supply of public facil ities. The public sector is not flexi ble enough to supply the specialized types of recreation or services de mand by smaller groups. The pri vately owned outdoor recreation en terprise, particularly the farm-base type, is in a unique position to sup ply these types of recreation ser vices and activities to the public. Other Specialties The 1964 Census of Agriculture reported over 3 million farms in the Other highly specialized opera United States. Of this total, about tions, such as fur farms, apiaries, 28,000 earned money from some greenhouses, nurseries, and flower type of recreation activity. farms, require special knowledge Many farm operators in the vicin and skilled management. Special ity of national, State, and local skills and equipment are required, parks, or near wildlife reservations and risks are high. Even with the have taken advantage of the loca high risk, from the standpoint of tion in establishing recreation busi capital invested and income, the nesses. The average amount re venture is often rewarding to indi ceived from this activity was about viduals who have the ability and the $1,500 per farm reporting. resources. These farmers sell hunting or fish ing rights to individuals, form hunt ing clubs, or establish private camp Sources of Additional Information grounds. They absorb the overflow Additional information may be from public campgrounds or cater to the individuals who want more obtained from the U.S. Department privacy in their camping. Vacation of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. farms cater to family groups during 20250; the Department of Com the summer and allow hunting later merce, Washington, D.C. 20230; in the year when children are in and from State Land Grant Colleges school. Many farmers enlarge and and Universities. O C C U P A T IO N S R E L A T E D T O A G R IC U L T U R E Because of the increased scale and complexity of modern farming, farmers are buying a greater range and volume of production inputs and services from off-farm sources. Thus, larger numbers of people are needed in occupations related to ag riculture. These occupations are many and diverse and offer a wide range of choice to the person who is interested in agriculture but does not have the opportunity, resources, or desire to enter agriculture di rectly. The salary range in occupa tions related to agriculture varies widely, depending on education, ex perience and type of job. Salaries of $10,000 a year or more are not un common. The professional and technical vocations usually require college training; however, other vo cations may be learned on the job. Some of these occupations are dis cussed below. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE WORKERS (D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of the Work Extension Service workers are engaged in educational work in ag riculture, home economics, youth activities, and community resource development. They are employed jointly by State landgrant universi ties and the U.S. Department of Ag riculture. Extension workers must be proficient in both subject matter and teaching methods. Extension workers help people 586 analyze and solve their farm and home problems and aid in commun ity improvement. Much of this edu cational work is carried on in groups, through meetings, tours, demonstrations, and local voluntary leaders. Individual assistance is given on problems that cannot be solved satisfactorily by group meth ods. Extension workers rely heavily on mass communication media such as newspaper, radio, and television. County extension workers help farmers produce higher quality crops and livestock more efficiently and assists them in developing new market outlets and in planning production to meet market de mands, including quality standards and varieties. This also helps com munity leaders to improve the com munity and to plan and provide for economic development, recreation, and more adequate public facilities such as schools, water supply and sewer systems, and libraries. They assist homemakers to provide more family enjoyment from existing re sources, a higher level of nutrition, and a more pleasant home environ ment. Some extension workers help youth to become more useful citi zens and gain more personal satis faction through programs in career selection, recreation, health, and leadership. The essence of exten sion work is to help people help themselves to achieve the goals they think are important. County extension workers are supported by State Extension Spe cialists. Their job is to keep abreast of the latest research in their par ticular field of interest, interpret this for use in extension programs, and assist county extension workers in developing educational programs, activities and events to demonstrate use of this new knowledge. Cooperative Extension Services employ persons with a wide range of skills. Extension staffs include people skilled in all phases of crop and livestock production, conserva tion, environmental improvement, farm management and marketing, family living, human development, nutrition, home management, child development, sociology, psychology, veterinary medicine, engineering, textiles and clothing, resource eco nomics, and business and public ad ministration. Places of Employment Extension workers are located in county offices, area offices serving multi-county units, and State offices which are usually located on the campus of the land-grant college or university. Agents are located in nearly every county in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia. The county staffs range in size from one agent serving a wide variety of clientele interests to staffs of a dozen or more specialized agents in counties with high-density population and great diversity of in terests. Staffs are located in coun tries ranging from the most rural to the most urban. Training and Other Qualifications Cooperative Extension agents as signed to counties are required to be proficient in a discipline related to the needs and programs of the clientele with whom they work. They must have a B.S. degree in their subject-matter, and some training in educatical techniques is desirable. Often they receive training in ex tension techniques in a pre-induc 587 OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO AGRICULTURE tion training program and are up graded through regular in-service training programs in both educa tional techniques and the subjectmatter for which they are responsi ble. In addition to subject-matter proficiency and extension tech niques, successful extension workers must like to work with and to help people. In most States, specialists and agents assigned to multicounty and State staff jobs are required to have at least one advanced degree and many must have the Ph. D. from assistant county agent to more responsible jobs within that county, or in another county in the State, to assignments on the State extension staff. Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from county extension offices, the State Director of the Co operation Extension Service located at each land-grant university; or the Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Employment Outlook Extension services employ more than 15,000 professional people. The demand for additional work ers is expected to continue, especially in depressed rural areas. As agricultural technology becomes more complicated, and as farm peo ple become more aware of the need for organized activity, more help will be sought from trained Exten sion Service personnel. The Exten sion Service also is being extended to new segments of the population, as residents recognize the value of their assistance, particularly in help ing the disadvantaged. Counterparts of the Cooperative Extension Service are being estab lished in many countries, and Ex tension Service personnel often are recruited to help initiate and orga nize these programs. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of extension workers vary from State to State and county to county. In the main, however, they are fully competitive with simi lar jobs in industry and government. Generally speaking, the career lad der for extension workers proceeds search to determine the physical and chemical properties of soils and their water relationships, in order to understand their behavior and ori gin. They predict the yields of culti vated crops, grasses, and trees, under alternative combinations of management practices. Soils science offers opportunities for those who wish to specialize in soil classification and mapping, soil geography, soil chemistry, soil phys ics, soil microbiology, and soil man agement. Training and experience in soil science also will prepare per sons for positions as farm managers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. Places of Employment SOIL SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical and biological characteris tics and behavior of soils. They in vestigate the soils both in the field and in the laboratory and grade them according to a national system of soil classification. From their re search, scientists can classify soils in terms or of response to management practices and capability for produc ing crops, grasses, and trees, as well as in terms of their utility as engi neering materials and foundations for buildings and other structures. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on-aerial photographs, on which they plot the individual kinds of soil and other landscape features significant to soil use and manage ment in relation to land lines, field boundaries, roads, and other con spicuous features. Soil scientists also conduct re Most soil scientists are employed by agencies of the Federal Govern ment, State equipment stations, and colleges of agriculture. However, many are employed in a wide range of other public and private institu tions, including fertilizer companies, private research laboratories, insur ance companies, banks and other lending agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State high way departments, State conserva tion departments, and farm manage ment agencies. A few are indepen dent consultants, and others work for consulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, con sultants, and agricultural managers. Training and Advancement Training in a college or university of recognized standing is important in obtaining employment, as a soil scientist. For Federal employment, the minimum qualification for en trance is a B.S. degree with a major in Soil Science or in a closely re 588 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lated field of study, and having 30 semester hours of course work in the biological, physical, and earth sciences, including a minimum of 15 semester hours in soils. Those hav ing graduate training—expecially those with the doctor’s degree—can be expected to advance rapidly into a responsible and high paying posi tion. This is particularly true in soil research, including the more re sponsible positions in soil classifica tion, and in teaching. Soil scientists who are qualified for work with both field and laboratory data have a special advantage. Many colleges and universities offer fellowships and assistantships for graduate training or employ graduate students for part-time teaching or research. Employment Outlook The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the sci entific classification and evaluation of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major programs objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is to complete the soil survey of all rural lands in the United States. This program includes research, soil classification and correlation, inter pretation of results for use by agri culturists and engineers, and train ing of other workers to use these re sults. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. Earnings The incomes of soil scientists de pend upon their education, profes sional experience, and individual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for graduates having a B.S. degree was $6,938 since Jan uary 1971. They may expect ad vancement to $8,522 after 1 year of satisfactory performance. Further promotion depends upon the indi vidual’s ability to do high-quality work and to accept responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil scientists with several years ex perience range from $12,615 to $20,815 per year. Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415: Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. Also see statements on Chemists and Biologists. SOIL CONSERVATIONISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil conservationists supply farm ers, ranchers, and others with tech nical assistance for soil and water conservation. Farmers and other land managers use this technical as sistance in making adjustments in land use; protecting land against soil deterioration; rebuilding eroded and depleted soils; stabilizing runoff and sediment-producing areas; improv ing cover on lands devoted to crop raising, forest, pasture, range, and wildlife; conserving water for farm and ranch use and reducing damage from flood water and sediment; and in draining or irrigating farm or ranches. The types of technical services provided by soil conservationists are as follows: Maps presenting inven tories of soil, water, vegetation, and other details essential in conserva tion planning and application; infor mation on the proper land utiliza tion and the treatment suitable for the planned use of each field or part of the farm or ranch, groups of farms or ranches, or entire wat ersheds; and estimates of the rela tive cost of, ranches, or entire wat ersheds; and estimates of the rela tive cost of, and expected returns from, various alternatives of land use and treatment. After the landowner or operator decides upon a conservation pro gram that provides for the land to be used within its capability and treated according to the planned use, the conservationist records the relevant facts as part of a plan which, together with the maps and other supplemental information, constitute a plan of action for con servation farming or ranching. The soil conservationist then gives the land manager technical guidance in applying and maintaining the con servation practices. Where Employed Most soil conservationists are employed by the Federal Govern ment, mainly by the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture’s Soil Conser vation Service and by the Depart ment of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some are employed by colleges and State and local gov ernments; others by banks and pub lic utilities. OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO AGRICULTURE 589 Training and Advancement Sources of Additional Information A Bachelor of Science degree with a major in soil conservation or one of the closely related natural science or agricultural fields, and having 30 semester hours in fields of natural science or agriculture, including the equivalent of a 3-se mester-hour course in soils, consti tute the minimum requirement for professional soil conservationists. Those who have unusual aptitude in the various phases of the work have good chances of advancement to higher salaried technical administra tive jobs. Additional information on em ployment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Office of Personnel, U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. OTHER PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained soil conservationists are good. Opportunities in the profes sion will expand because govern ment agencies, public utility compa nies, banks, and other organizations are becoming interested in conser vation and are adding conservation ists to their staffs. Other new open ings will occur in college teaching, particularly at the undergraduate level. In addition, some openings will arise because of the normal turnover in personnel. Earnings Since January 1971, soil conser vationists having a bachelor’s de gree and employed by the Federal Government received $6,938 a year. Advancement to $8,582 could be expected after 1 year of satisfac tory service. Further advancement depends upon the individual’s abil ity to accept greater responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil conservationists with several years’ experience range from $12,615 to $20,815 a year. Nature of the Work The discussion that follows deals primarily with job categories that are generally termed professional fields. These occupations generally require at least a bachelor’s degree, and master’s and Ph. D. degrees are becoming increasingly valuable both from the standpoint of salary and of executing the functions required on the job. Some of these jobs are dis cussed more fully elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index.) Agricultural economists (D.O.T. 050.088) deal with problems re lated to production, financing, pric ing, and marketing of farm products both in the United States and in sev eral foreign countries. They are factfinders, evaluators, analysts, and interpreters who provide economic information to farmers, policymak ers, and other interested persons. They provide cost-benefit analyses for evaluating farm programs at the National, State, and farm level. They study the effects of mechani zation, technological advances, and other developments that influence the supply and demand for farm products and its accompanying ef fects on costs and prices of farm products. Agricultural engineers (D.O.T. 013.081) develop new and im proved farm machines and equip ment, deal with the physical aspects of soil and water problems in farm ing; design and supervise installa tion of irrigation systems, watershed protection, flood prevention, and re lated works; devise new techniques for harvesting and processing farm products; and design more efficient farm buildings. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.081) are concerned with growing, breed ing, and improving field crops such as cereals and grains, legumes and grasses, tabacco, cotton, and others. They also do research in the funda mental principles of plant sciences and study and develop seed propa gation and plant adaption. Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen (D.O.T. 040.081) study and do research in the envi ronmental influences in relation to efficient management of farm ani mals; they also are concerned with the breeding, growth, nutrition and physiology of livestock. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073.081) inspect livestock at public stockyards and points of entry into the U.S.; inspect establishments that produce veterinary biological sup plies; administer tests for animal diseases; conduct programs for the control and eradication of animal disease; research livestock diseases and vaccines for disease control; work directly with farmers in pro tection or restoration of livestock health; and provide services for the care of small animals and pets. (See statement on veterinarians else where in the Handbook for addi tional information.) Geneticists (D.O.T. 041.081) try to develop strains, varieties, breeds, 590 and hybrids of plants and animals that are better suited than those presently available for the produc tion of food and fiber. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.081) study bacteria and the relation of other micro-organisms to human, plant, and animal health and the function of these micro-organisms in the making of products such as vitamins, antibiotics, amino acids, sugars, and polymers. Plant scientists (D.O.T. 041.081) study plant diseases and their nature, cause, and methods of con trol. They also study the struc ture of plants and the growth factors in plants. Methods of improving fruits, vegetables, flowers, and orna mentals, and means by which im provements may be made by better management, environment, and propagation are also of major concern. Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspectors (D.O.T. 041.081) who are trained in the biological sciences, supervise and perform professional and scientific work in enforcing plant quarantine and pest control laws. Plant Quar antine Inspectors inspect ships, planes, trucks, and autos coming into the country to keep out danger ous insect pests. Plant Pest Control Inspectors conduct programs to pro tect the crops of the country by prompt detection, control, and eradi cation of plant pests. Entomologists (D.O.T. 059.088) study insects, both beneficial and harmful to farming. They are con cerned particularly with identifying the populations and distributions of insects that injure growing crops and animals; harm human beings; and damage agricultural commodi ties during shipping, storage, pro cessing, and distribution. These concerns are involved particularly OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK toward finding means by which these insects may be controlled. Foresters (D.O.T. 040.081) are concerned with the protection, production, processing, and distri bution of our timber resources. They also study means by which wood may be seasoned, preserved, and given new properties. Human nutritionists (D.O.T. 077.128) study the means by which the human body utilizes food sub stances. Rural sociologists (D.O.T. 054.088) study the structure and functions of the social institutions (customs, practices, and laws) that are a part of and or affect rural society. School teachers (D.O.T. 041.081) in vocational agriculture and related fields supervise and give instructions in farm management, communications, mechanics, engi neering, and related fields. Farm managers, including agri culture management specialists, su pervise and coordinate the produc tion, marketing, and purchasing and credit activities of one farm or a group of farms. Places of Employment Persons trained in these spe cialties work in various capacities that relate to agriculture. Govern ment agencies, colleges, agricultural experiment stations, and private businesses that deal with farmers hire many research workers. They also hire people to take technical and administrative responsibilities in public agencies involving farmers or programs affecting farmers. Agri business and farmer cooperatives, private business, commercial, and financial companies that buy from, sell to, or serve farmers also employ many people. State, county, and municipalities hire many who serve as vocational agriculture teachers and workers in agricultural com munications, in farmers’ organiza tions, or in trade associations whose members deal with farmers. The number of research activities related to agriculture has increased very rapidly. The largest agencies in this field are the State agricultural experiment stations connected with the land-grant colleges and the vari ous research branches of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Such agricultural specialists work for other research organizations in in dependent research, and in compa nies that finance farming operations, market farm products, or produce chemicals, equipment, and other supplies or services for farmers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture employs workers in research posi tions in various parts of the coun try: in Washington, D.C., at the Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, Md.; and at land-grant colleges. Other Government depart ments also have many agricultural research jobs. Various independent research or ganizations, foundations, and pri vate business groups in many parts of the country recently have ini tiated research related to agricul ture. They tend to be located either in industrial centers or in areas of high agricultural activity, and in clude producers of feed, seed, ferti lizer, and farm equipment; and of insecticides, herbicides, and other chemical dusts and sprays. Public and private lending insti tutions, which make loans to farm ers, employ men with broad training in agriculture and business. These workers ordinarily are required to have had practical farm experience, as well as academic training in agri culture, economics, and other sub jects. Making financially sound OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO AGRICULTURE loans involves careful analysis of the farm business and proper evalu ation of farm real estate and other farm property. These workers are employed by the cooperative Farm Credit Administration in its banks and in associations operating under its supervision throughout the coun try; by the Farmers Home Adminis tration in its Washington, State and county offices throughout the coun try; by rural banks; and by insur ance companies that have substan tial investments in farm mortgages. The Federal and State Govern ments also employ various special ists in activities relating to agricul ture. These specialists have techni cal and managerial responsibilities in activities such as programs relat ing to the production, marketing, inspection, and grading of farm products; prevention of the spread of plant pests, animal parasites, and diseases; and management and con trol wildlife. Large numbers of professionally trained persons are employed by cooperatives (businesses owned and run by the farmers) and business firms that deal with farmers. Em ployment in these organizations may be expected to expand, as farmers rely increasingly on them ro provide farm supplies, machinery, equip ment, and services, and to market farm products. The size of the or ganization and the types of services it offers determine the number of its employees and the nature of their jobs. Large farm supply coopera tives and businesses, for example, may have separate divisions for feed, seed, fertilizer, petroleum, chemicals, farm machinery, public relations, and credit, each super vised by a department head. In smaller businesses and cooperatives, such as local grain-marketing eleva tors, the business is run almost en tirely by the general manager who has only two or three helpers. Agricultural communications is another expanding area of special ization. Crop reporters and market news reporters are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop reporters gather infor mation on crop production during all stages of the growing season. Market news reporters collect infor mation on the movement of agricul tural produce from the farm to the market. Radio and TV farm direc tors are employed by many radio and TV stations to report prices, sales, grades, and other agricultural information to farm people. Agri cultural reporters and editors com pile farm news and data for farm journals, bulletins, and broadcasts. Closely related to agricultural com munications is employed in farmers’ organizations or in trade associa tions whose members deal with farmers. The Nationwide, federally aided program of vocational education of fers employment for persons techni cally trained in agriculture and re lated subjects. Teachers of voca tional agriculture not only teach high school students interested in farming, but provide organized in struction to assist young farmers in becoming satisfactorily established in farming and in becoming com munity leaders. They also provide organized instruction for adult farmers, giving individual consulta tion on their farms to keep them abreast of modern farm technology. The qualifications of workers in all of these fields ordinarily include a college education and special training in a particular line of work. In most of these fields, the demand for workers exceeds the supply. In recent years, the demand has been increased because of the need to re 591 cruit professional personnel to staff agricultural missions and to give technical aid to agricultural institu tions and farmers in other countries. Sources of Additional Information Opportunities in Research. Addi tional information on research op portunities at land-grant colleges may be obtained from the dean of agriculture at the State land-grant college. Information on employment in the U.S. Department of Agricul ture is available from the USDA re cruitment representatives at landgrant colleges and from the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The following publications will be valuable: “Profiles-Careers in the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture,” U.S. De partment of Agriculture, October 1968. Superintendent of Docu ments, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $3.25. “Rewarding Careers in the Dynamic Industry—Agriculture.” American Association of Land-Grant Col leges and State Universities, Wash ington, D.C. 1966. Copies can be obtained free from your State Agricultural College. Opportunities in Agricultural Fi nance. Inquiries on employment op portunities in agricultural finance may be directed to the following: Farm Credit Administration, Wash ington, D.C. 20578. Farm Credit District—Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; Columbia, S.C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Orleans, La.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Nebr.; Wichita, Kans.; Houston, Tex.; Berkeley, Calif.; Spokane, Wash. Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250. Agricultural Director, American Bankers Association, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. 592 Opportunities with Cooperatives. About 22,000 cooperatives serve rural people in every area of the United States. These include mar keting and farm supply coopera tives, rural electric telephone asso ciations, rural credit unions, farm credit cooperatives, mutual irriga tion and insurance associations, and artificial breeding associations. They range from small local cooperatives serving one area to the large regional cooperatives made up of local cooperatives and their farmer members in several States. The locals usually have their head quarters in small towns, the re gional in larger towns or cities. Some regionals hire from 3,000 to 4,000 employees. Cooperatives in the individual communities are a good source of information on jobs either in their own organizations or in other coop eratives. Most States have a State council or association of coopera tives that can provide information on cooperative locations and some job information. The Cooperative Foundation, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111., 60605, has a publication, Ca reers in Cooperatives. It describes about 100 different kinds of jobs available in these businesses. Among the several hundred thou sand jobs these cooperatives prov ide are included: —Management positions—jobs ranging from managing small local grain elevators to managing cooper atives that do several hundred mil lion dollars worth of business a year. —Marketing positions—jobs ranging from responsibility for har vesting, transporting, assembling, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK grading, storing, and selling raw products to processing, packaging, selling, and distributing farm prod ucts to retail outlets. —Farm supply positions—jobs ranging from those in petroleum re fineries, and feed mills, or fertilizer manufacturing plants, to those working on the floor of a supply center. —Farm service positions—jobs such as those of field men who ad vise farmers on soil, seeds, and fer tilizer usage, and who do soil test ing; bulk feed deliverymen, machine operators who deliver supplies di rect to farms, spread fertilizer on the field, or haul products to market for the farmer. —Personnel administration posi tions—jobs such as those of inter viewers, position classifiers, counse lors, and placement specialists. —Research positions—jobs cov ering product development, product testing, quality evaluation of prod ucts, and economics research. —Transportation—jobs such as physical distribution specialists, truck drivers, garage mechanics, traffic managers. —Office positions—jobs such as secretaries, typists, clerks, recep tionists. Requirements for the jobs vary widely. Some demand college or graduate degrees, others high school education. Still others require no formal educational background but do require basic skills such as those for writing up an invoice or han dling a fork lift truck in a ware house. Opportunities for Agricultural Economists. For additional informa tion about opportunities in agricul tural economics, check with the De partment of Agricultural Economics at State land-grant colleges. For in formation on Federal employment opportunities, applicants may get in touch with USDA recruitment rep resentatives at the State land-grant college or write directly to the Office of Personnel, U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Opportunities as Vocational Ag riculture Teachers. As salaries, travel, and programs of vocational agriculture teachers vary slightly among States, prospective teachers should consult the Head Teacher Trainer in Agriculture Education at the land-grant college or the State Supervisor of Agricultural Educa tion at the State Department of Public Instruction in their respec tive States. FARM SERVICE JOBS In almost every type of agricul ture, farmers require specialized services which readily can be learned and performed by other workers. A person can enter many of these services, either as an inde pendent operator or as an em ployee. Some services require an extensive outlay of capital, and oth ers require very little. Some are highly seasonal; others are per formed year round. These services and the operation of a small farm can sometimes be combined. Services that provide year-round employment include the following: Cow testing, artificial breeding, live stock trucking, whitewashing, well drilling, fencing, and tilling. M IN IN G The mining industry is a major supplier of the basic raw materials and energy sources required for in dustrial and consumer use. Metal mines provide iron, copper, gold, and other ores. Quarrying and other nonmetallic mining produce many of the basic materials such as lime stone, gravel, and fire clay needed to build the country’s schools, offices, homes, and highways. Petro leum, natural gas, and coal are the primary sources of nearly all our energy, both for industrial and per sonal use. Few products extracted from mines reach the consumer in their natural state. Nearly all re quire further processing in one of several of the manufacturing indus tries. Mining is the smallest major in dustry division, employing about 620,000 wage and salary workers in 1970. About 43 percent of these workers are employed in the explo ration and extraction of crude pe troleum and natural gas. Coal min ing accounts for about 23 percent of the industry’s workers, and quarry ing and nonmetallic mineral mining nearly 19 percent. The remaining 15 percent are employed in mining metal ores. The mining industry employs only a small number of women; most are in clerical positions. As shown in the accompanying tabula tion, nearly 70 percent of all workers in mining are employed in blue-collar jobs, primarily as opera tives and kindred workers. Included in the operative group are miners and mine laborers; mining machin ery operators such as drilling and cutting machine operators, crusher operators, conveyor operators, and oil well drillers; and most other workers engaged in underground mining operations. Also included, and especially important in surface mining, are truck and tractor driv ers. Skilled craftsmen and foremen constitute the second largest occu pational group. Mechanics and re pairmen maintain the complex equipment and machinery used in mining. Many heavy equipment op erators, such as power shovel and grading operators, are employed in open pit mining. Large numbers of pumpers, gagers, and enginemen are needed in the extraction and transportation of petroleum and natural gas. Foremen also constitute an important part of the industry’s work force. The industry’s white-collar em ployees are divided nearly equally among three occupational groups —professional and technical, cleri cal, and managerial workers. Taken together, these groups make up the remaining three-tenths of the indus try’s employment. Professional, technical, and kindred workers are concentrated largely in the petro leum and gas extraction industry. Most of them are engineers, geolo gists, or technicians engaged in ex ploration and research. Two out of three clerical employees work in the petroleum and gas extraction indus try. Most are secretaries, office ma chine operators, and typists. Estimated employment, 1970 (percent Major occupational group distribution) All occupational groups 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers .................. 12 Managers, officials, and proprietors ............................. 8 Clerical and kindred workers.. 10 Sales workers............................. 1 Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .................. 23 Operatives and kindred workers1 ............................... 46 Service workers ....................... 1 Laborers .............................................. 1 Includes mine laborers. N ote : Because of rounding, sums of individ ual items may not equal total. Employment in mining is ex pected to decline slowly through the 1970’s, despite increases in output. Increased demand for mining prod ucts will be met largely through the use of improved equipment oper ated by a more highly skilled work force. Even though employment as a whole is expected to decline, dif ferent growth patterns are likely within the industry. Employment in coal mining probably will decline more rapidly than employment in metal mining and petroleum and natural gas extraction. Employment in quarrying and nonmetallic min ing, on the other hand, is expected to increase. The statement that follows prov ides information on employment opportunities in the petroleum and natural gas extraction industry. More detailed information about occupations that are found in min ing as well as other industries ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in back of book.) PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING Nature and Location of the Industry Petroleum is one of the fossil fuels formed from the decay of liv 593 594 ing matter. It is extracted mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. Many thousands of petroleum companies specialize in a single ac tivity, such as gas or oil exploration or drilling wells. A small number of large integrated firms do much of the petroleum business and provide a large share of the industry’s jobs. This chapter deals with the activ ities and jobs involved in (1) find ing oil and gas and bringing them to the surface of the earth, and (2) converting natural gas to usable products. It excludes petroleum re fining, and the transporting and marketing of petroleum products. Occupations in petroleum refining are discussed in a separate chapter in the Handbook. Crude Oil and Natural Gas Prod uction. Because the processes of finding and extracting crude oil and natural gas are the same, jobs in volved are similar until the gas or oil well starts producing. In this chapter, “petroleum production” covers the discovery and extraction of natural gas and includes three broad fields of work: exploration, drilling and oilfield servicing, and well operation and maintenance. Firms that specialize in one or more of these activities under contract to oil companies employ almost onehalf of all workers in petroleum production. Major oil companies also engage in all of these produc tion activities. Since oil is difficult to find— rarely do any signs appear on the earth’s surface—an important part of petroleum production involves scientific methods. After studies in dicate the possible presence of oil beneath the earth’s surface, a site is selected and drilling begins. Before a well can be drilled, a towerlike steel rig is installed to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK support the tools and pipes used to drill and line. Today most rigs are portable but some are built at the site. Although a few large firms do some of their own drilling, over 95 percent of this work is done by con tractors. Other services connected with drilling include building roads, hauling supplies, cementing wells, cleaning, treating and testing wells. Contractors handle much of this work. When oil is reached and the well is completed, the drilling crew is fin ished and the well-operating crew begins. About half of all petroleum production workers operate or maintain the approximately 665,000 producing oil and gas wells in the United States. These wells are operated by thousands of com panies ranging in size from large firms with wells all over the world to small firms with only a single well. Oil or gas is brought out of the ground and is transported to refi neries or processing plants by pipe lines or in the case of oil also by ship, barges and trucks. Processing plants are usually lo cated at or near gas fields to remove dissolved liquid compounds and to let natural gas flow more easily through pipelines for long distances. The liquid compounds—chiefly ethane, propane, butane, and natu ral gasoline—have important uses as raw materials for the chemical industry and oil refineries and as a fuel for rural areas. In addition, nat ural gas may be compressed for de livery to pipeline transportation companies, or for use by oil well operators to force oil out of the ground. In 1970 about 266,800 wage and salary workers were employed in the United States in petroleum production, including the produc tion and processing of natural gas. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in about three-fourths of the States, nearly 90 percent of the workers are employed in 10 States. Texas is the leading State in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisiana, California, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Wyoming, Colorado, Illinois and Mississippi. About 15,000 additional American workers employed by oil companies work in foreign countries, particu larly the Middle East, Africa, West ern Europe, South America, and In donesia. Occupations in the Industry Workers in petroleum explora tion and production are required to have a wide range of education and skills to drill, operate, and maintain wells. Exploration. Exploring for oil is the first step in petroleum produc tion. Small crews of specialized workers travel to remote areas to search for geological formations likely to contain oil. Exploration parties, led by a petroleum geologist (D.O.T. 024.081), study the surface and subsurface composition of the earth. Geologists seek clues to the possibility of oil traps by examining types of rock formations on and under the earth’s surface. Besides making detailed, foot-by-foot ground surveys, petroleum geolo gists depend on aerial exploration and magnetic surveys for a broad picture of the surface and subsur face features of the area. They also may obtain rock samples from the bottom of the sea in their search for clues to oil-bearing formations. Geologists can determine the age of rocks by measuring their radioactiv ity and by studying their fossil re mains. Sub-surface evidence is col lected by making test boring and 595 MINING bringing up core samples of the rocks, clay, and sands that form the layers of the earth. From these ex aminations, geologists draw crosssection maps of the underground formations being surveyed to pin point areas where oil or gas may be located. Geologist and petroleum engineer inspect core sample. Many geologists work in district offices of oil companies or explora tion firms where they prepare and study geological maps. They also study core samples from test drilling to find any clue to the presence of oil. In addition to the petroleum geol ogist, exploration parties may in clude other geologists specialists : Paleontologists (D.O.T. 024.081) who study fossil remains in the earth to locate oil-bearing sands; mineralogists who study physical and chemical properties of mineral and rock samples; (D.O.T. 024.081) stratigraphers (D.O.T. 024.081) who determine the rock layers most likely to contain oil and natural gas; photogeologists (D.O.T. 024.081) who examine and interpret aerial photographs of land surfaces; and petrologists (D.O.T. 024.081) who investigate the his tory of the formation of the earth’s crust. Exploration parties may also include draftsmen (D.O.T. 010.281), and surveyors (D.O.T. 018.188) who assist in surveying and mapping operations. More than 95 percent of geo physical exploration is done by seis mic prospecting. The seismograph is a sensitive instrument which records natural and manmade earthquakes. Manmade earthquakes in petroleum exploration are commonly made by detonating charges of explosives in the ground. The time it takes for sound waves to reach an under ground rock layer and return indi cates the depth of the layer. The seismograph records give informa tion by wavy lines on a chart. In creasingly, this information is re corded on magnetic tape which is then placed in a computer and ana lyzed automatically. By setting off explosions at a number of points on the surface underground formations can be mapped with considerable accuracy, thus providing a clue to the whereabouts of traps which may contain oil. A geophysicist (D.O.T. 024.081) usually leads a seismo graph crew which may include prospecting computers (D.O.T. 010.288) who perform the calcula tions and prepare maps from the in formation recorded by the seismo graph; observers (D.O.T. 010.168), who operate and main tain electronic seismic equipment; shothole drillers (D.O.T. 930.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 930.886), who operate portable drilling rigs to make holes into which explosive charges are placed; and shooters (D.O.T. 931.381), who place and detonate explosive charges. Before geophysical exploration the oil company must obtain per mission to use the land. The landman or leaseman (D.O.T. 191. 118) makes the necessary business arrangements with land owners or with owners of mineral interests. Drilling. Despite all the explora tion methods developed, no device actually will locate petroleum. Only by drilling can the presence of oil be proved. Overall planning and super vision of drilling are usually the re sponsibilities of the petroleum engi neer who helps to prepare drilling sites. No matter which method of drill ing is used—rotary or cable-tool, all wells are started in the same way. Rig builders (D.O.T. 869.884) and a crew of helpers (D.O.T 869.887) install a drilling rig to support the machinery and equip ment which raise and lower the drilling tools. The rotary method drills deep wells through rock as well as sand and clay formations. In rotary drilling, a revolving steel drill bit, with cutting teeth at its lower end, bores a hole in the ground by chipping and cutting rock. The bit is attached to a length of joined pipe (drill stem), which is rotated by a rotary table, driven by a steam, diesel, or gasoline engine or an electric motor. As the bit cuts through the earth, the drill stem is lengthened by the addition of more pipe which is screwed on at the upper end. A stream of mud is con tinuously pumped through the hol low pipe and through jet ports in the drill bit. This mixture of clay chemicals, and water cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, and carries the 596 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Driller guides drill bit. cuttings to the surface. Its weight helps to prevent blowouts from pockets of high-pressure gas. A typical rotary drilling crew consists of a driller and four or five helpers. Divided into three crews, 15 to 20 workers generally operate a rig 24 hours a day 7 days a week. A rotary driller (D.O.T. 930.782) operates the machinery which con trols speed and pressure, selects the proper drill bit, and records opera tions. He must meet any emergency, such as a breakdown of equipment or unusual geological formations. A derrickman (D.O.T. 930.782), second in charge will work on a small platform high on a rig whenever running in or pulling pipe from a drilled hole. From that position he can better assist in re moving the drill pipe from a well opening to bring a worn bit to the surface for replacement. Whenever in the hole and drilling, he starts and operates pumps to circulate mud through drill pipe and borehole to cool the drill bit. Other members of a typical ro tary drilling crew include rotary helper (D.O.T. 930.884), (also known by several other titles such as roughneck or piperacker) who guide the lower end of the pipe to and from the well opening and con nect and disconnect pipe joints and drill bits. An engineman (D.O.T. 950.782) (if diesel or electric power is used) may be added to op erate the engines which provide power for drilling and hoisting. The tool pusher or chiefdriller (D.O.T. 931.130) acts as foreman of one or more drilling rigs and sup plies materials and equipment to rig builders and crews. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.884) or general labor ers, though not considered part of the drilling crews, are general oil field maintenance and construction men who string pipe, clean tanks, construct foundations and roads, and work as helpers with welders and other craftsmen. In cable-tool drilling, a hole is broken through rocks by contin uously raising and dropping a heavy, sharpened bit attached to the end of a cable. Cable-tool drilling is used mainly to drill shallow wells in soft rock formations mostly in Ken tucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Penn sylvania, and certain areas of Texas and Oklahoma. Cable-tool drilling, however, is becoming obsolete as deeper holes are required each year to reach new oil reserves. The cable-tool driller (D.O.T. 930.280), who works with a tool dresser, maintains a detailed record of drilling. He controls the force with which the drilling bit strikes the rocks at the bottom of the well. He also supervises and helps to set the machinery and derricks. Well Operation and Mainte 597 MINING nance. Production begins when oil is found and the equipment is in stalled. Drill pipe and a bit are pulled from the well and casing is lowered and cemented in place. The upper ends of the tubing and casing are fastened to a system of valves called a “Christmas tree.” Pressure in the well forces crude oil and gas to the surface, through the Christ mas tree, and into gas traps and storage tanks. If natural pressure is not great enough to force the oil to the surface, pumping or other meth ods are used to produce an artificial flow. Petroleum engineers generally plan and supervise the operation and maintenance of wells. To prev ent waste, they decide the rate of oil flow and anticipate performance of oil reservoirs by daily analyzing pressure readings and other data of oil wells. For this purpose engineers are increasingly using simulation methods with computers which ena bles them to analyze the most com plex oil and gas underground reser voirs. They may specialize in over coming effects of corrosion on well casings, in the selection and design of production equipment and pro cesses, or in the prevention of pollu tion. Some companies hire engineer aides for running tests, keeping rec ords, posting maps, and making standard calculations. Pumpers (D.O.T. 914.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 914.887, usu ally referred to as roustabouts) op erate and maintain motors, pumps, and other equipment to force an ar tificial flow of oil from wells. Their chief duty is to regulate the flow of oil according to a schedule set up by the petroleum engineer and produc tion foreman. Generally, a pumper operates a group of wells. Switchers work in fields where oil flows under natural pressure and does not re quire pumping. They open and close valves to regulate the flow of oil from wells to tanks or into pipe lines. Cagers (D.O.T. 914.381) measure and record the flow of oil into tanks or pipelines and take samples to check quality. Treaters (D.O.T. 541.782.) test crude oil for water and sediment and remove these impurities by opening a drain at the base of the tank or by using special chemical or electrical equip ment. In some fields, pumping, switching, gaging, and treating oper ations are automatic. Some fields have computer systems at a central site enabling an operator to control the oil flow from a large number of wells into several pipelines. Many skilled workers are em ployed in maintenance operations. Welders, carpenters, electricians, and machinists repair and install pumps, gages, pipes, and other equipment. Natural Gas Processing. Opera tors have duties very similar to those of the oil refinery workers. The dehydration-plant operator (D.O.T. 541.782) tends an auto matically controlled treating unit which removes water and other im purities from natural gas. The gaso line-plant operator, or gasolineplant engineer (D.O.T. 950.782), operates equipment which removes natural gasoline and sulfur from natural gas. The compressor-station operator, or compressor-station en gineer (D.O.T. 914.132), operates a compressor which raises the pres sure of the gas for transmission in the pipelines. The gas-compressor operator (D.O.T. 950.782), assists either of the last two employees named above. As in oil refineries, many workers in the larger natural gas processing plants are employed in maintenance activities. However, the equipment in such plants is subject to less cor rosion and wear than that in oil refi neries and it is generally more auto mated. As a result, the instrument repairman and the electrician are two key workers needed to maintain the instruments that control the au tomatic equipment. The welder and his helper also do much mainte nance work in the processing plant. Other maintenance workers include engine repairmen, roustabouts, helpers or laborers. A smaller proportion of clerks, administrators, professional, and technical workers are employed in the larger gas processing plants than in oil refineries. In numerous smaller natural gas plants, workers combine skills, usu ally of operator and maintenance man. In addition, many small plants are so highly automated they are virtually unattended. They are checked by maintenance workers or operators at periodic intervals, or they are monitored continuously by instruments which automatically re port malfunctions and shut down the plant if an emergency develops. Other Oilfield Services. Compa nies which offer services on a con tract basis provide another impor tant source of employment. Among these employees are skilled workers such as cementers (D.O.T. 930.281), who mix and pump ce ment into the space between steel casings and side walls of the well to prevent cave-ins; acidizers (D.O.T. 930.782), who force acid into the bottom of the well to increase the flow of oil; perforator operators (D.O.T. 931.782), who pierce holes in drill pipes or casings by using subsurface “guns” to make passages through which oil can flow; sample-taker operators (D.O.T. 931.781), who obtain samples of soil and rock formations from wells to help geologists determine the presence of oil; and well puller 598 (D.O.T. 930.883), who remove pipes pumps and other subsurface devices from wells for cleaning and repairing or for salvaging. Offshore Operations. Most explo ration, drilling, and producing activ ities are done on land, but an in creasing amount of this work is done offshore, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico off the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Some addi tional offshore work is being done in the Pacific Ocean off California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and in many foreign locations Nigeria, Per sian Gulf, Indonesia, Bass Strait, and North Sea. Some wells have been drilled more than 100 miles from shore and in water more than 1,000 feet deep. These offshore op erations require the same types of drilling crews as are employed on land operations. In addition, offshore operations require employ ment of radio men, ablebodied sea men, cooks, mess boys, and pilots for work on drilling platforms, crewboats, barges, and helicopters. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum and natural gas prod uction industry, but in other indus tries as well, are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections cov ering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Exploration. Most workers in nonprofessional jobs with an explo ration crew begin as helpers and ad vance into one of the specialized jobs. Their training may vary from several months to several years. New workers usually are hired in the field by the party chief or by local company representatives. For OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK many nonprofessional jobs, compa nies hire young men who have a high school or vocational school ed ucation, including training or apti tude in mathematics, drafting, and mechanics. College students major ing in physical or earth sciences or in engineering often work part-time or summer with an exploration crew. This may be a means of work ing into a full-time job after gradua tion. For entry into professional occu pations, such as geologist, geophysi cist, chemist, or engineer, college training with at least a bachelor’s degree is required. Professional workers usually start at junior levels and after several years of experi ence in field surveys, are eligible for promotion to the job of party chief. After much field survey experience they may get a position of responsi bility in an area or division office and then perhaps in the central office. Scientists and engineers hav ing research ability, preferably those with advanced graduate de grees, may transfer to research or consulting work. Drilling. Members of drilling crews usually begin work in the in dustry as roughnecks. As they ac quire experience, they may advance to more skilled jobs. In rotary drill ing, for example, a worker may be hired as a roughneck, advance to the job of derrickman. And after several years, he may become a driller. He then may be promoted to the job of tool-pusher, in charge of one or more drilling crews. Some drilling companies hire high school and college students for jobs during the summer months. Drilling requires men capable of doing heavy physical labor. Drilling crew members usually are between the ages of 20 and 40. Some com panies, however, report that their best drillers are over 50 and even in their sixties, for the job of driller re quires good judgment combined with practical experience. The drill ers job is less demanding physically than roughneck or derrickman. Well Operation and Mainte nance. Companies generally hire persons who live near operating wells for well operation and mainte nance jobs. They prefer men who have mechanical ability and a knowledge of oilfield processes. Be cause this type of work is less stren uous and offers the advantage of a fixed locale, members of drilling crews or exploration parties who prefer not to travel often transfer to well operation and maintenance jobs. New workers may start as rousta bouts and advance to jobs as switch ers, gagers, or pumpers. Training usually is acquired on the job; at least 2 years of experience are needed to become a good all-round pumper. The preferred educational quali fication for a petroleum engineer is a college degree with specialization in courses on the petroleum indus try. However, college graduates having degrees in chemical, mining, or mechanical engineering, or in geology, geophysics, or other re lated sciences, sometimes are hired for petroleum engineering jobs. Pe troleum engineering aids frequently are people with 2-year technical de grees but also include former rous tabouts or pumpers who are given several months of specialized onthe-job and classroom training. Information on occupational training, qualifications, and ad vancement in natural gas processing plants is similar to that for occupa tions in petroleum refining, dis cussed on page 709. 599 MINING Employment Outlook Many thousants of new workers will be hired each year during the 1970’s for exploration, drilling, and oil and gas production, to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment in petroleum and natural gas production during the 1970’s is expected to show little change. More intensive exploration and drilling anticipated during the 1970’s, particularly in Alaska and offshore, is expected to keep the number of workers at present levels despite the use of data-processing equipment and improved seismic techniques. In addition to untrained field workers, the petroleum industry will need workers who have electrical and mechanical training or experi ence to maintain and repair the in creasingly complex equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970 earnings of nonsupervisory employees in oil and gas ex traction averaged $153.87 a week, or $3.57 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $133.73 weekly or $3.36 an hour for all production workers in manufactur ing establishments. Most oilfield employees work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Al though some fields may be near cit ies, they are more often far from sizeable communities, sometimes in swamps or deserts. Increasingly oil field employees are involved in offshore operations. Drilling em ployees may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in less than a year. Exploration field personnel move even more fre quently. They may be away from home for weeks or months at a time and live in a trailer or tent. Well op eration and maintenance workers often remain in the same location for long periods. Drilling is one of the most hazardous occupations in all industry. Most workers in natural gas pro cessing plants and oil refineries have similar working conditions. Only a moderate amount of physical effort is involved. Some workers open and close valves, climb stairs and lad ders to considerable heights, and work 1 of 3 shifts in relatively safe plants. Employees in some natural gas processing plants have unusual working conditions. They travel rough, unpaved terrain periodically in all kinds of weather to check sev eral small, unattended automated plants in widely separated, isolated locations. These maintenance jobs may be very satisfying to those who like working outdoors alone. In offshore operations, earnings usually are higher than those in land operations. Except for drilling activ ity that is close to shore, workers living quarters are on platforms held fast to the ocean bottom or on ships anchored nearby. In offshore operations many work 7 days on at 12 hours a day followed by 7 days o ff. Sources of Additional Information Further information, concerning jobs, processes, and working condi tions in the petroleum industry can be obtained from the public rela tions department of individual pe troleum companies and from: American Petroleum Institute, 1801 K St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 National Petroleum Refiners Asso ciation 1725 DeSales St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 American Association of Petroleum Geologists P.O. Box 979 Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101 American Institute of Mining, Metal lurgical, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME) 345 East 47th Street New York, N.Y. 10017 C O N S T R U C T IO N The activities of the construction industry touch nearly every aspect of our daily lives. The houses and apartments we live in; the factories, offices, and schools in which we work; and the roads we travel upon are examples of some of the prod ucts of this important industry. The industry encompasses not only new construction projects but also in cludes additions, alterations, and re pairs to existing structures. In 1970, about 3.3 million per sons were employed in the contract construction industry. An additional 1.4 million workers are estimated to be either self-employed—mostly owners of small building firms—or are State and local government em ployees engaged in building and maintaining our Nation’s vast high way system. The contract construction indus try is divided into three major seg ments. About half of the work force is employed by electrical, air condi tioning, plumbing, and other special trade contractors. Almost one-third work in the general building sector where most residential, commercial, and industrial construction occurs. The remaining one-fifth, are en gaged in building dams, bridges, roads, and similar heavy construc tion projects. As illustrated in the accompany ing tabulation, workers in all bluecollar occupations made up nearly four-fifths of the construction indus try employment in 1970. Craftsmen and foremen alone account for more than one-half of the total em ployment in this industry—a much higher proportion than that of any other major industry. Most of these skilled workers are employed as carpenters, painters, plumbers and pipefitters, construction machinery operators, and bricklayers, or in one of the other construction trades. La borers are the next largest occupa tional group and account for 1 out of 6 workers. They provide mate rial, scaffolding, and general assist ance to the craftsmen at the work site. Semiskilled workers (opera tives and kindred workers), such as truck drivers, welders and appren tices, represent about one-tenth of the industry’s total work force. Managers, officials, and proprietors —mostly self-employed—also ac count for about the same share of employment. Professional and tech nical workers make up 5 percent of the work force employed in con struction. Engineers, together with engineering technicians, draftsmen, and surveyors account for most of the employment in this occupational Estimated employment, 1970 (percent Major occupational group distribution) All occupational groups 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers .................. 5 Managers, officials, and proprietors ................................ 12 Clerical and kindred workers.. 5 Sales workers ........................... 0) Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers ...................... 51 Operatives and kindred workers ..................................... 10 Service workers ...................... (*) Laborers ....................................... 17 1 Less than 0.5 percent. group. Clerical workers, largely women working as stenographers, typists, and secretaries, and in gen eral office work, constitute another 5 percent of the industry’s employ ment. Through the 1970’s, employment requirements are expected to rise rapidly in the construction industry. As the national economy expands, as population increases, and as per sonal and corporate incomes rise, the demand for contract construc tion activities are expected to un dergo a substantial increase. Like wise, the number of construction workers employed by State and local highway departments also is expected to increase because of the need to meet the demands of the country’s expanding highway sys tems. Even though employment in the construction industry is likely to grow, the increasing application of the latest technology in tools, mate rial, and work methods, together with the rising skill level of he work force, will make it possible to increase the level of construction activity without a correspondingly large increase in employment. Contract construction is the major source of employment for skilled craftsmen such as bricklay ers, painters, carpenters, and others who are discussed more fully else where in the Handbook. For in formation on these and similar construction occupations, see the Building Trades chapter of the Handbook. For information on oc cupations which are found in many other industries, see the index in back of the book. 601 ■ '■ ■» ' < .: V . \ ‘' M A N U F A C T U R IN G Manufacturing is the activity around which our Nation’s economy revolves. From factories flow the goods that have provided a standard of living unmatched elsewhere in the world. The products of the man ufacturing industries range in com plexity from a simple plastic toy to an intricate electronic computer, and in size from miniature elec tronic components to gigantic nu clear powered aircraft carriers. Many diverse processes are carried out in manufacturing. Workers re fine ores and petroleum, process foods and chemicals, print books and newspapers, spin and weave textiles, fabricate clothing and foot wear, and produce the thousands of products needed for our personal and national benefit. Our society, as we know it today, could not have reached its present level of prosper ity without the goods provided by the manufacturing industries. About 19.4 million persons worked in manufacturing—the larg est of the major industries—in 1970. Within manufacturing, dura ble goods industries accounted for nearly three-fifths of all workers. The largest employers in the dura ble goods industries were the ma chinery, electrical equipment, and transportation equipment industries, and the fabricated metal and pri mary metals industries. Each of these industries accounted for at least 1 million workers and ranged from 1.3 million in primary metals to nearly 2 million in machinery. Producers of nondurable goods ac count for another two-fifths of total employment in manufacturing. The food processing industries had the largest single work force within this group— 1.8 million workers—more than one-fifth of all nondurable goods employment. Other large em ployers in the nondurable goods in dustries are the apparel, printing, chemicals, and textile industries. Employing fewer than 80,000 workers, tobacco manufacturers are the smallest industry in manufactur ing. In 1970, nearly 5.5 million women were employed in manufac turing, and accounted for more than 1 out of every 5 women who worked. Large numbers are em ployed as secretaries, typists, office machine operators, and in many other office clerical occupations. Women represent a large propor tion of the production workers in some industries, particularly the ap parel, textiles, tobacco, and leather products industries. Thousands of women hold jobs as assemblers, sewers, checkers and sorters, inspectors, and other types of prod uction workers. In heavy industries such as primary metals, transporta tion equipment, petroleum refining, and lumber and wood products, women are employed almost exclu sively in white-collar occupations and consequently make up only a small part of the total work force. As illustrated in the following table, blue-collar jobs made up 67 percent of the employment in man ufacturing in 1970. Operatives and kindred workers alone accounted for 43 percent of the work force. Many of these semiskilled workers were spinners and weavers (textile industry), sewing machine opera tors (apparel and leather indus tries), machine tool operators and welders (metalworking industries), furnacemen and heaters (primary metals), or operators of the special ized processing equipment used in the food, chemical, paper, and pe troleum industries. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers make up the next largest group of workers and account for nearly one-fifth of the employment in manufacturing in 1970. Many of these skilled workers install and maintain the wide assortment of machinery and equipment required in all manufacturing industries. Oth ers are employed in skilled produc tion occupations and are engaged directly in the manufacturing pro cess. Machinists, for example, are especially important in the metal working industries, as are skilled inspectors and assemblers. In the printing and publishing industries, compositors and typesetters, pho toengravers and lithographers, and pressmen make up a large share of the work force. Bakers, millers, stillmen, tinsmiths, millwrights, and tool and diemakers are a few of the other important skilled occupations in manufacturing. Clerical workers represent the third highest concentration of workers—approximately 1 out of every 8—and in manufacturing were the largest white-collar occu pational group. Professional, technical, and kin dred workers accounted for 1 out of every 10 workers employed in man ufacturing. Engineers, scientists, and technicians represent a large share of the professional workers employed in manufacturing. These highly trained workers are required not only to oversee and guide the production processes, but also to carry out the extensive research and development activities needed in the aerospace, electronics, chemical, petroleum, and other industries. Other important professional occu 603 604 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pations in manufacturing are editor and reporter, accountant, and per sonnel and labor relations worker. E s tim a te d e m p lo y m e n t, 1970 (p e r c e n t M a j o r o c c u p a tio n g r o u p d i s t r i b u ti o n ) All occupational groups.......... Professional, technical, and kindred workers.... Managers, officials, and proprietors .................. Clerical and kindred workers ......................... Salesworkers ..................... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .......... Operatives and kindred workers ......................... Service workers .............. Laborers ........................... 100 10 7 12 3 19 43 1 5 N ote : Because of rounding, sums of individ ual items may not add to total. Population growth, rising per sonal income, and expanding busi ness activity will stimulate a sub stantial increase in the demand for manufactured products through the 1970’s. Employment in manufactur ing, however, is expected to in crease at a slower pace or about 13 percent between 1970 and 1980. The increasing application of mod ern technology to manufacturing processes, together with the rising skill level of the work force, will make possible substantial increases in production of goods without a corresponding increase in the work force. Although the average rate of employment growth will be slow, employment trends of individual in dustries within manufacturing will vary widely. In the rubber and mis cellaneous plastics products and fur niture and fixtures industries, em ployment is expected to increase about one-third, far above the aver age increase. Employment in sev eral other industries—including ma chinery, apparel, instruments, and stone, clay, and glass—is expected to increase more rapidly than the average for all manufacturing. On the other hand, some manufacturing industries expect employment to decline. Petroleum refining, to bacco, food, and textiles all may de crease in employment during the 1970’s. The statements that follow pro vide information on employment op portunities in several of the manu facturing industries. More detailed information about occupations that are found in many industries ap pears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) O C C U P A T I O N S IN A IR C R A F T , M IS S IL E , A N D S P A C E C R A F T M A N U F A C T U R IN G Known generally as the “aero space” industry, the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft is among the largest and most rapidly changing industries in the country. Some 1.25 million persons were employed in the industry in 1970, many of them work with develop ments in supersonic flight and space exploration. These and other activi ties in research and development have made the industry different from most manufacturing. Intensive effort has been required to develop the materials, products, and con cepts for activities such as space travel. Because this industry’s products are complex and changing, scien tists, engineers, and technicians re- Electronic technician conducts system tests. present a large proportion of total employment, and probably will ac count for an even larger proportion through the 1970’s. Nature and Location of the Industry Aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft have the same main components: A frame to hold and support the rest of the vehicle, an engine to propel the vehicle, and a guidance and control system. Missiles and space craft reach into space and attain speeds many times that of sound, whereas aircraft fly in the earth’s at mosphere at slower speeds. Aircraft are manned and missiles and some spacecraft are not. Types of aircraft vary from small personal planes, costing not much more than an automobile, to multimillion-dollar giant transports and supersonic fighters. Aircraft plants also produce smaller planes for business and personal use, and helicopters. One-half to two-thirds of aircraft production in dollar value is manufactured for military use; however the proportion for nonmilitary purposes—for commer cial passenger and freight traffic, private business and pleasure use and civilian flying instruction has been increasing. Missiles and spacecraft also vary greatly in the purposes for which they are made, and in their size, and capabilities. Missiles are produced chiefly for military use and gener ally carry destructive warheads. Some can travel only a few miles and are intended for purposes such as the support of ground troops and defense against low flying aircraft. Others, such as the Atlas, Titan, and Minuteman, have interconti nental ranges of 7,000 miles or more. Some missiles are designed for launching from land or under ground sites; others, for firing from aircraft, submarines, or ships. Spacecraft are sent aloft carrying instruments which can measure and record conditions in space and transmit the data to receiving sta tions on earth. Manned spacecraft also include a cabin capsule for as tronauts. The first American space vehicles had payloads (useful cargo) weighing only 20 to 30 pounds or less; the Saturn V launch vehicle is able to lift almost 150-ton payloads into near-earth orbit, or send 50 tons to the moon. Some space vehicles probe the space envi ronment and then fall back to earth. Others are put into orbit and be come artificial satellites around the earth, sun, or other celestial bodies or land on the moon. Nearly all of this country’s missies and spacecraft are built for the Air Force, Navy, Army, or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Because the aerospace industry makes many kinds of finished prod ucts, it uses many kinds of engines, electronic systems, and other com ponents. Aircraft engines are reci procating (piston), jet, or rocket. Missile engines are jet or rocket. Spacecraft are rocket powered be cause rockets are the most powerful type of engine and can operate in airless space, whereas other engine types need oxygen from the air for combustion. Today’s rocket engines are powered by chemical propel lants, either liquid or solid. New sources of rocket propulsion, such as nuclear or electric energy, are being investigated and may be avail able in the future. Guidance, con trol, and instrument payload sys tems are largely electronic. Missies and spacecraft generally have more 605 606 complex guidance and control sys tems than aircraft. Inspector makes final check on attitude control engine for spacecraft module. An aircraft, missile, or spacecraft is manufactured usually under the technical direction of a prime con tractor. He manages and coordi nates the entire project, subject to periodic inspections by the Federal agency or the airline ordering the vehicle. His engineering department prepares design drawings, blue prints, and other specifications. These go to the production depart ment, where planners work on the many details regarding machines, materials, and operations needed to manufacture the vehicle in the num bers required. Decisions must be made as to what part of the produc tion work will be done by the prime contractor, and what part will be subcontracted to outside firms. Special tools, dies, jigs, and fix tures are required in manufacturing the vehicle. Many sheet-metal workers, machinists, machine tool operators, and other metal proces sors produce these tools and the thousands of parts and components which make up the craft. All parts OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and equipment must be inspected flects decreased aircraft require and tested many times, both before ments for Vietnam, reduced ex and after they are assembled, and penditures for space exploration, all assembly work must be thorough and lower commercial aircraft sales. ly inspected and checked. In every About 400,000 of these workers stage of the production process, as were producing missiles and space semblers and installers are needed craft; approximately 600,000 were to fit together, hook up, and install making aircraft, aircraft engines, systems and components. After its and propellers; and about 200,000 final assembly, the vehicle is checked produced electronic equipment for out by a team of mechanics, flight aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. tested if an aircraft, and then pre The remainder, mostly civilian em ployees of the Federal Government, pared for delivery. Many thousands of subcontrac worked in the Department of De tors participate in the production of fense and NASA. In addition, thou parts and subassemblies that make sands of other Federal workers up aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. were engaged in the negotiation, ad Some subcontractors make individ ministration, and supervision of re ual parts or supplies such as metal lated contracts. Workers with many different forgings, bearings, plastic material, rocket fuels, or special lubricants. kinds of educational backgrounds Others produce subassemblies, such and job skills are needed to design as communications or telemetry and manufacture aircraft, missies, equipment, guidance instruments, or and spacecraft; for example, engi jet engines, and may depend on neers and scientists who have ad other subcontractors to supply parts vanced degrees, as well as plant for the subassemblies. The prime workers who can learn their jobs contractor, too, may manufacture after a few days or weeks of train components of a craft and may do ing, are employed. Depending on the work, occupa the final assembly work. Aerospace plants range in size tional needs vary among estab from the large factories of major lishments in the industry. Manu manufacturers, each with thousands facturers, universities, independent of employers, to the shops of small research organizations, and Govern subcontractors and suppliers that ment agencies, such as the Air employ only a few workers each. Force and NASA, operate research Jobs in aerospace work may be and development laboratories em found in practically every State, al ploying mainly engineers and scien though roughly one-third are con tists, and supporting technicians and centrated in California. Other States craftsmen. On the other hand, prod with large numbers of aerospace uction operations in factories have jobs include New York, Washing mostly plant workers, such as as ton, Connecticut, Texas, Florida, semblers, inspectors, and machin Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Mas ists. sachusetts, Kansas, Alabama, Mary Some of the more important jobs land, New Jersey, and Georgia. in aerospace are described under An estimated 1.25 million people three main categories: Professional —more than one-sixth of them and technical; administrative, cleri women—worked in aerospace in cal, and related occupations; and 1970. Employment has dropped plant occupations. Many of these sharply from 1968 highs and re jobs are found in other industries as OPPORTUNITIES IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING well and are discussed in greater de tail elsewhere in the Handbook in sections covering individual occupa tions. Physicist uses laser beam during research on laser development. Professional and Technical Occu pations. Before production of an aircraft, missile, or spacecraft can begin, a design must be approved. This requires many experiments and “feasibility” studies to determine how well various design possibilities meet the conditions under which the vehicle will be operating. A scale model is made from the approved design. It is tested in wind, tempera ture, and shock tunnels, on ballistic ranges, and in centrifuges where ac tual flight conditions are simulated. The next step is to develop a fullsized experimental model or proto type, which is thoroughly tested in the air and on the ground. If test re sults are satisfactory, production may begin. Many modifications in the craft normally are made during the course of design and develop ment, and often even after produc tion has started. The pace of discovery and change is so rapid that much equip ment becomes obsolete while still in the experimental stage or soon after being put into operation. Research and development are vital in the in dustry, particularly in missies and spacecraft. Efforts are being made to develop aerospace vehicles with greater speeds, ranges, and reliabil ity; engines with more power; and metals and plastics with wider capa bilities. The industry’s research and development capability has encour aged aerospace firms to apply their abilities to other areas of explora tion such as oceanographic research and hydrofoil ocean vessels. Emphasis on research and devel opment makes the aerospace indus try an important source of jobs for engineers, scientists, and techni cians. In 1970, almost one-fourth of all employees were engineers, scien tists, and technicians, a considerably higher proportion than in most other manufacturing industries. Many kinds of engineers and sci entists are employed in aerospace work. For example, over 30 differ ent college degree fields are repre sented among the engineers and sci entists employed by NASA. Electronic, electrical, aerospace, chemical, nuclear, mechanical, and industrial engineers are among the larger engineering classifications. Scientists in the industry include physicists, mathematicians, che mists, metallurgists, physiologists, and astronomers. Aerospace engi neers and scientists work in a wide and varied range of applied fields such as materials and structures, en ergy and power systems, and space sciences. Engineers and scientists are as sisted by many types of workers, such as draftsmen, mathematics 607 aids, and laboratory and electronics technicians. They also work with production planners (D.O.T. 012.188), who plan the layout of machinery, movement of materials, and sequence of operations so that manufacturing processes will flow efficiently from one step to the next; and they work with technical writers (D.O.T. 139.288) and technical il lustrators (D.O.T. 017.281), who produce technical manuals and other literature used to describe the operation and maintenance of air craft and spacecraft and their many parts. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Managerial and administrative jobs generally are comparable with similar jobs in other industries, except that they are related most closely to engineer ing because of the importance of research and development in the aerospace field. Personnel in these jobs include executives, responsible for the direction and supervision of research and production; and officials in departments such as sales, purchasing, accounting, and industrial relations. Many thousands of clerks, secretaries, stenographers, typists, tabulating machine opera tors, and other office personnel also are employed. Plant Occupations. About half of all workers in the aircraft, missile, and spacecraft field were employed in plant jobs in 1970. Plant jobs can be classified in the following groups: Sheet-metal work; machin ing and tool fabrication; other metal processing; assembly and installa tion; inspecting and testing; flight checkout; and materials handling, maintenance, and custodial. Sheet-Metal Occupations. Sheetmetal workers shape parts from 608 sheet metal by hand or machine methods. When hand methods are used, the workers shape the part by pounding them with mallets and by bending, cutting, and punching them with handtools. Machine methods involve the use of power hammers and presses, saws, tube benders, and drill presses. The all round sheet-metal worker (D.O.T. 804.281) lays out the sequence of operations on the basis of blueprints and other engineering information. He then fabricates complicated metal shapes, using handtools or machines. Less complex parts, as well as those produced in large numbers, are fabricated by less skilled sheet-metal workers or workers who specialize in operating a single machine. They have titles such as power brake operator (D.O.T. 617.380), power hammer operator (D.O.T. 617.782), power shear operator (D.O.T. 615.782 and 615.885), punch press operator (D.O.T. 615.782), and profile cut ting machine operator (D.O.T. 816.782). Machining and tool fabrication oc cupations. Another important group of workers engaged in shaping and finishing metal parts with machine tools are machinists (D.O.T. 600.280 and .281) and machine tool operators (D.O.T. 609.885). The most skilled of these are the all-round or general machinists who can lay out the work and set up and operate several types of machine tools. They perform machining op erations of a highly varied and nonrepetitive nature. They are em ployed most frequently in depart ments engaged in experimental and prototype production. Machine tool operators produce metal parts in large volume. They generally operate a single type of machine tool such as a lathe, drill OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK press, or milling machine. More skilled operators set up work on a machine and handle difficult and varied jobs. Less skilled operators do repetitive work. Machinists and machine tool op erators represent a higher propor tion of the work force in engine and propeller plants, which are basically metalworking establishments, then in plants performing the final as sembly of air and space vehicles. Among engine plants, those manu facturing reciprocating engines do relatively more machining and less sheetmetal woik than those produc ing jet or rocket engines. Many plants in aerospace make a large proportion of the jigs, fixtures, tools, and dies they use. Fabrication of these items requires skilled metal-processing workers, chiefly jig and fixture builders (D.O.T. 761.381) and tool and die makers (D.O.T. 601.280). Jig and fixture builders make the workholding and tool-guiding devices used in produc tion and assembly operations. On the basis of information received from the engineering department, they plan the sequence of metal machining operations involved in making a jig and carry the job through to completion. Tool and die makers make the cutting tools and fixtures used in machine tool opera Assemblers rivet wing sections in floor jigs. OPPORTUNITIES IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING tions, and the dies used in forging and punch press work. They must be experts in the use of machine tools. Other metal-processing occupations. Other metalworkers, such as tube benders, riveters, and welders also are employed. Tube benders (D.O.T. 709.884) form tubings used for oil, fuel, hydraulic, and electrical conduit lines. Riveters (D.O.T. 800.884) and welders (D.O.T. 810.782 and .884; 811.782 and .884; 812.884 and 813.380 and .885) join fabricated parts by hand or machine riveting and by electric arc, gas, or electric resistance welding. Additional metal fabricating is performed by skilled foundry workers such as patternmakers, molders, and coremakers. Drop hammer operators and other forge shop workers are employed in the forging departments. Many aircraft, missile, and space craft parts are chemically and heattreated during several stages of their manufacture to clean, change, or protect their surface or structural condition. Sheet-metal parts are heat-treated to keep the metal soft and malleable while it is being worked into the required shape. Many processes, such as painting and plating, are used on the sur faces of parts. Workers in these me tal-processing jobs have titles such as heat treater (D.O.T. 504.782), painter (D.O.T. 845.781), and pla ter (D.O.T. 500.380). Assembly and installation occupa tions. Assembly and installation workers are a major occupational group, employed in practically all plants in the industry. Some work in the production of engines, electronic equipment, and auxiliary compo nents, but most are employed in as sembling complete air or space craft. They perform final assembly work such as the fitting together of major subassemblies and the install ing of major components. In air craft, for example, this work in volves joining wings and tail to the fuselage and installing the engine and auxiliary equipment such as the fuel system and flight controls. As semblers perform operations such as riveting, drilling, bolting, and sol dering. A large proportion of assemblers are semiskilled and do repetitive work, but some are skilled mechan ics and installers. Many of the latter perform diversified assembly or in stallation operations, and often work on experimental, prototype, or special craft. They assemble, take apart, inspect, and install complex 609 mechanical and electronic assem blies. They read blueprints and in terpret other engineering specifica tions. They may be called final as semblers of complete aircraft (D.O.T. 806.781), missile assem bly mechanics or rocket assembly mechanics (D.O.T. 625.281). Some skilled assemblers are em ployed in plants which produce rel atively large numbers of aircraft and missiles rather than a few experi mental types. These assemblers usu ally specialize in one field of work or more. They often are assisted by less skilled assemblers who do the more routine work. For example, a class A armament assembler (D.O.T. 801.381) typically does work such as assembling, installing, and alining power turrets, weapons, gun cameras, and related acces- Assembler works on section of fuselage frame. 610 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sories. Lower rated armament as semblers typically do work such as uncrating and cleaning weapons, loading ammunition, installing armor plate, and placing parts in jigs. Power plant installers (D.O.T. 621.381), sometimes known as en gine mechanics, install, aline, and check the various types of engines and accessories. Skilled electrical assemblers (D.O.T. 728.884), sometimes called electricians, in stall, hook up, and check major units in electrical or radio systems. They are assisted by less skilled as semblers, who do the more routine installations and wire routings by following standard wiring diagrams and charts. Assemblers also special ize in other systems such as plumb ing, hydraulic, heating and ventilat ing, and rigging and controls. Among the most skilled inspec tors, especially in final assembly plants, are outside production inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381). They examine machined parts, subassem blies, and tools and dies which have been ordered from other firms. They also serve as liaison men be tween their own engineering depart ments and supplying companies. Other inspectors, frequently known as receiving inspectors (D.O.T. 806.384), with less responsibility than outside production inspectors, check purchased materials and parts for conformity with blueprints, armed services requirements, and other established standards. They operate testing equipment and must be familiar with specifications of the parts and materials purchased from different sellers. Inspecting and testing occupations. Because aircraft, missies, and spacecraft are extremely complex, thousands of painstaking inspections and tests must be made as each component and part moves toward final assembly of the whole system. Inspections are made not only by employees of the manufacturers but also by civilian employees of Fed eral agencies which have contracted for the equipment. Some inspectors specialize in ex amining materials and equipment purchased from the outside; others inspect components during fabrica tion and subassembly within their own plants; still others inspect com pleted craft after their final assem bly. Many inspection jobs require highly skilled workers. On the other hand, some tests are made by auto matic equipment which can be run by relatively unskilled persons. Such equipment not only checks the com ponent or assembly under test but may run simultaneous checks on it self. In the production department, machined parts inspectors (D.O.T. 609.381) determine, by the use of precision testing instruments, whether or not a part has been machined properly to conform to blueprint specifications. They also may test for hardness and porosity and determine the “machineability” of castings and forgings. Fabrication inspectors (D.O.T. 807.381) are generally skilled - sheet-metal workers. They inspect fabricated sheet-metal work and complex parts which have required numerous fab ricating operations. As the parts are fitted together, they undergo numerous inspections by assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381) . These inspectors are em ployed, for the most part, in the later stages of the assembly process. They usually inspect complete major assemblies and installations, such as fuselage, wing, and nose sections, to insure their proper final fitting. They also check the func tioning of systems such as hydrau lics, plumbing, and controls. Less skilled assembly inspectors usually check subassemblies. Flight checkout occupations. Checking out an aircraft or space craft before its first flight requires a team of mechanics having different levels and types of skills. Sometimes the checking-out process involves making repairs or returning the craft to the plant for repairs. The chief mechanic or crew chief, who is the most skilled worker of the team, is responsible for the entire checking-out operation, including repair work. He usually directs the work of a crew of mechanics, each of whom specializes in one field or more. For example, engine mechan ics specialize in checking out the powerplant, including the engine, propellers, and oil and fuel systems. They use handtools, testing equip ment, and precision measuring in struments. The electronics checkout men perform or supervise the final operational checkout of systems such as radio, radar, automatic pilot, fire control, and complete electronic guidance systems. Other skilled workers may specialize in checking out and repairing arma ment, instruments, rigging and con trols, plumbing, and hydraulic sys tems. In some cases, less skilled me chanics help conduct tests and make repairs. Materials handling, maintenance, and custodial occupations. Aero space plants employ large numbers of materials handlers such as truckdrivers, shipping clerks, and tool crib attendants. Maintenance workers, who keep equipment and buildings in good operating condi tion and make changes in the layout of the plant, include maintenance mechanics, millwrights, electricians, carpenters, and plumbers. Guards, 611 OPPORTUNITIES IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING firemen, and janitors make up a major portion of the plant’s protec tive and custodial employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree in engineering or in one of the sciences usually is the minimum requirement for engi neering and scientific jobs in the aerospace industry. A few workers become professional engineers with out a college degree, but only after years of semiprofessional work ex perience and some college-level training. Since many kinds of engi neers and scientists are employed in aerospace, college graduates in many different degree fields may qualify for professional jobs. Re gardless of his field, the undergrad uate preparing for professional aerospace work is advised to get as solid a background as possible in fundamental concepts of engineer ing and science. Mathematics and physics courses are especially im portant. Education or training in the more specialized fields of the aero space industry generally is received in graduate school or on the job. An increasing number of semiprofessional workers, such as elec tronics-technicians, engineering aids, and draftsmen take 2 years of formal education in a technical in stitute or junior college. Others qualify through several years of di versified shop experience. Training requirements for plant jobs vary from a few days of onthe-job instruction to several years of formal apprenticeship. Appren ticeship programs develop crafts men such as machinists, tool and die makers, sheetmetal workers, pat ternmakers, aircraft mechanics, and electricians. These programs vary in length from 3 to 5 years, depending on the trade; during this time, the apprentice handles work of progres sively increasing difficulty. Besides on-the-job experience, he receives classroom instruction in subjects re lated to his craft. Such instruction for a machinist apprentice, for ex ample, would include courses in blueprint reading, mechanical draw ing, shop mathematics, trade theory, physics, safe working practices, and other subjects. Many levels of skill are required for other factory jobs. Workers who have little or no previous training or experience are hired for the less skilled assembly jobs. On the other hand, skilled assemblers may need 2 to 4 years of plant experience in ad dition to a high school or vocational school education or its equivalent. Skilled assemblers must be able to read and interpret engineering blueprints, schematic diagrams, and production illustrations. Skilled inspectors often have sev eral years of machine shop experi ence. They must be able to install and use various kinds of testing equipment and instruments, read blueprints and other specifications, and use shop mathematics. New workers who have little or no expe rience in shop trades also may be hired and trained for jobs requiring less skilled inspectors. Mechanics who do the final checkout of aircraft and spacecraft qualify for their jobs in several ways. Many gain experience work ing in earlier stages of the produc tion line; others receive all their training in checkout work or in “line maintenance” jobs with com mercial airlines. Chief mechanics usually need 3 to 5 years of experience in the man ufacture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, including at least 1 year as a checkout mechanic. Specialized mechanics, working under the su pervision of the chief mechanic, usually are required to have at least 2 years’ experience. Less experi enced helpers or assistants learn on the job and through plant training courses. Because complex and rapidlychanging products require highlytrained workers aware of new de velopments, most aerospace plants support some kind of formal train ing to supplement day-to-day expe rience and help workers advance more rapidly. Many major produ cers conduct educational and train ing classes or pay tuition and re lated costs for outside courses. Some classes are held during work ing hours in which case trainees are paid for class time; other classes are conducted after working hours. Courses are available for practically every occupational group and cover many skills and areas, for example, blueprint reading, drafting, welding, aircraft maintenance, and electronic data processing. Most trainees take short-term courses to meet immedi ate needs. Few employees are en rolled in long-term programs, such as apprenticeships. Employment Outlook By 1980, employment in aero space is expected to be slightly above 1970 levels. In addition, tens of thousands of job opportunities will occur annually to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Aerospace products have been developed primarily to assure our national security and to advance our goals in space. Therefore the indus try’s future depends largely on the level of Federal expenditures. Changes in these expenditures usu ally have been accompanied by sharp fluctuations in aerospace em 612 ployment. Many workers, including some scientists, engineers, and tech nicians, have been laid off during production cutbacks. The outlook in this industry is based on the as sumption that defense expenditures (in constant dollars) in the late 1970’s will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Vietnam buildup, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If they should dif fer substantially, demand for workers will be affected accord ingly. By the late 1970’s employment in aircraft manufacturing is expected to be slightly higher than the cur rent level. Reflecting a drop in com mercial aircraft sales and a decrease in requirements for the Vietnam War, employment has dropped sharply since 1968. Jobs in the spacecraft field may increase mod erately because of increased ex penditures for space exploration. Employment in plants that produce electronic units for this industry also should increase. Expenditures for research and development are expected to rise above current levels. Employment opportunities should be more favor able for highly trained workers, such as engineers and technicians. Many openings will become availa ble in manufacturing, university lab oratories, independent research or ganizations, and Federal agencies, such as the Air Force and NASA. Some job openings also will be come available for skilled plant per sonnel such as machine repairmen. Because many diversified products are custom made, employment of semiskilled and unskilled assembly line workers is expected to de crease. Earnings and Working Conditions Plant workers’ earnings in the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK aerospace industry are higher than those in most other manufacturing industries. In 1970, for example, production workers in plants mak ing aircraft and parts averaged $168.92 a week or $4.12 an hour; production workers in all manufac turing industries as a whole aver aged $133.73 a week or $3.36 an hour. Production workers in the Department of Defense and other Federal agencies receive wages equal to prevailing rates paid for comparable jobs by local private employers. Earnings of professional and technical workers in the aerospace field are often higher than those for similar workers in other industries. The following tabulation indi cates an approximate range of hourly wages for selected occupa tions in mid-1970 obtained from the collective bargaining agreements of a number of major aerospace com panies; these rates do not include incentive earnings. The ranges in various jobs are wide, partly be cause wages within an occupation vary according to workers’ skills and experience, and partly because wages differ from plant to plant, de pending upon type of plant, locality, and other factors. Aircraft mechanics ...................$3.00-4.50 Assemblers ............................... $2.80-4.00 Electronics technicians ............ $3.90-4.80 Heat treaters ............................. $3.00-4.30 Inspectors and testers .............. $3.00-4.90 Jig and fixture builders............ $3.70-4.90 Machine tool operators............ $3.00-4.10 Machinists ................................. $3.70-4.90 Maintenance craftsmen .......... $3.00-4.70 Riveters ......................................$3.00-3.80 Tool and die makers................ $3.80-4.90 Welders ......................................$2.90-4.30 Fringe benefits in the industry usually include 2 weeks of paid va cation after 1 or 2 years of service, and 3 weeks after 10 to 12 years. Employees generally get 8 to 10 paid holidays a year and 1 week of paid sick leave. Other major bene fits include life insurance; medical, surgical, and hospital insurance; ac cident and sickness insurance; and retirement pensions. For fringe ben efits in Federal aerospace employ ment, see statement on Federal ci vilian employment. Most employees work in modern factory buildings which are clean, light, and airy. Some work out of doors. Operations such as sheetmetal processing, riveting, and weld ing may be noisy, and some assem blers may work in cramped quar ters. Aerospace plants are compara tively safe; the injury-frequency rate in 1969 averaged only about onethird of that for manufacturing as a whole. Most plant workers in the aero space field are union members. They are represented by several un ions, among them the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Some craftsmen, guards, and truck drivers are members of unions which repre sent their specific occupational groups. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about ca reers in the aerospace field may be obtained from: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. 20546. Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc., 1725 DeSales St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 OPPORTUNITIES IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 613 Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E A L U M IN U M IN D U S T R Y More than 99,000 workers were employed in the aluminum industry in 1970. Employment was concen trated mainly in the rolling and ex truding sector, although individual primary reduction plants in some cases employed more workers than rolling and extruding plants. Considered a specialty metal hav ing limited application only a short time ago, aluminum today is massproduced in quantities second only to iron and steel. It is used in prod ucts ranging from appliances and cooking utensils to automobiles and aircraft and aerospace applications. Aluminum siding, containers, and electrical cables are among the more important applications of this versatile metal. During 1970, the industry produced more than 7.9 billion pounds of primary aluminum or twice the output of only 10 years earlier. This chapter describes occupa tions in the primary aluminum in dustry which comprises plants en gaged in producing aluminum and aluminum alloys from aluminum hydrooxide (alumina). It also de scribes occupations in plants en gaged in rolling, drawing, and ex truding aluminum and aluminumbase alloys. The so called secondary aluminum industry, which produces aluminum primarily from aluminum scrap, is excluded as are the mining of bauxite, fluorspar, and other raw materials, and the refining of baux ite to alumina. Occupations con cerned with casting, stamping, forg ing, machining, and fabrication of aluminum are discussed separately in the Handbook chapters dealing with forging, foundry, and machin ing occupations. Some companies that produce aluminum are integrated completely —that is, they operate bauxite mines, maintain a fleet of ships to transfer the ore or alumina to proc essing plants, refine the ore into al umina, reduce alumina to alumi num, and form aluminum into semi finished and finished products by rolling and a wide variety of fabri cating methods. Other companies fabricate metal that they produce but buy alumina from other sources. The great majority of companies do not produce the basic metal, but purchase aluminum from primary or secondary (scrap) sources and form the metal into semifinished and finished products. The South Central area of the country, which includes Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Texas, leads in the production of primary aluminum, although the State of Washington is the Nation’s largest producer. Plants within its borders represent about one-fifth of national primary aluminum capac ity. The North Central area, consist ing of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, is the center for alumi num rolling, drawing, and extruding plants. Occupations in the Industry Rolling mill operator produces aluminum foil. 614 Employment in the aluminum in dustry falls into several categories. First, there is a wide assortment of jobs directly concerned with smelt EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY ing and transforming aluminum into industrial and consumer products. Workers in another group of occu pations maintain and service the complex machinery and equipment used in the manufacturing process. In addition, a fairly large group of clerical, sales, professional, techni cal, administrative, and supervisory positions is needed to facilitate the production process and to operate the companies. About 3 out of 4 workers em ployed in the industry work in pro duction occupations. They produce aluminum from alumina and form the metal, maintain plant machinery and equipment, and facilitate the flow of materials throughout the plant. The remaining one-fourth are in clerical, sales, professional, tech nical, administrative, research, man agerial, and supervisory occupa tions. Women make up only 3 percent of the work force in primary alumi num plants and are employed mostly in secretarial and other cleri cal occupations. In rolling and drawing plants, on the other hand, women make up 10 percent of the work force and are found in clerical and other occupations, such as sorter and inspector. Processing Occupations The largest proportion of em ployees in the aluminum industry are in factory jobs processing the metal. To illustrate the types of processing occupations found in the industry, a description of the major steps in the production (reduction) and fabricating of aluminum fol lows. To produce aluminum, the metal is separated by electrolysis from the oxygen with which it is combined in alumina. This process involves mix ing alumina and other additives in a bath of cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride) and occurs in deep rectan gular cells or “pots” of thermally in sulated steel, lined with carbon. The cells or furnaces are generally about 20 feet long, 10 feet wide, and about 3 feet deep. Reduction—The cells containing molten cryolite are lined with car bon which serve as the cathode or one electrode. Depending on the type of cell used, either one large block of carbon (Soderberg) or a number of small blocks of carbon (prebaked) suspended from the top of the cell acts as the anode or other electrode. Direct electrical current is introduced, and the alumina is re duced to aluminum and accumu lates at the bottom of the cell. The oxygen is deposited on the anode and is oxidized to carbon dioxide. Anode men (D.O.T. 630.884) are responsible for maintenance of the anodes on the reduction cells. Among their duties are pulling pins from the anodes by means of hy draulic pullers and cleaning scales from the pins using a sandblasting device. They may replace the pins using a steel driver. Pot liners (D.O.T. 519.884) re build the Soderberg type anode and reline the reduction furnaces when they burn out. To line the pot, the pot liners pour water into it to loosen the sediment. They then dig out the material using jackhammers or diggers. Next, they lay a brick base in the pot floor and drop car bon mix into the cell. The potliners line the walls and floor with carbon blocks and tamp carbon paste into cracks using a pneumatic hammer. Potmen (D.O.T. 512.885) tend the reduction pots and are responsi ble for their continuous operation. Each potman attends a number of different cells. During the operation of the pot, the alumina gradually is 615 consumed. When the dissolved alu mina content of one of the cells de creases from approximately 5 per cent to 2 percent of the electrolyte, the electrical resistance of the pot rises suddenly from about 5 to 30 volts or more causing an electric bulb on the side of the pot to light. This development, known as “anode effect,” signals the potman to break the crust of the electrolyte bath and stir in hot alumina which has been laying on the surface. This opera tion causes the voltage to return to normal levels and the crust re-forms. In operating the pots, operators try to reduce anode effects by adding specified amounts of materials at designated time intervals. Every 24 to 72 hours, part of the molten aluminum is syphoned from the bottom of the reduction cells into huge cast-iron crucibles which have airtight lids. The tapper (D.O.T. 514.884) and tapper helper (D.O.T. 514.887) signal the hot-metal crane operator (D.O.T. 921.883) to place the overhead crane near the pot to be tapped. They then break a hole in the elec trolytic crust by using an automatic pot puncher. One end of a curved cast iron tube is inserted into the pot, the other into a crucible of up to 8,000 pounds capacity. A com pressed air hose is attached to the siphon and the molten metal is drawn into the crucible. After the completion of several tappings, an overhead crane removes the loaded crucible to a remelting or holding furnace. A scaleman (D.O.T. 502.887) weighs and samples the molten metal for laboratory analysis, and separates grades and types of alloys to be blended with the molten alu minum. The molten metal in the crucibles is poured into a “charging hearth” or remelt furnace. A remelt operator (D.O.T. 512.885) adds OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 616 Tapper directs aluminum from potline. specified portions of aluminum scrap and molten metal from other crucibles. Other metals are added (alloying) to the furnace to obtain desired properties. Final steps in the preparation of the metal are fluxing and degassing. A compound is added to flux the molten metal and force oxides of aluminum to the surface for a hand skimmer to remove. Before the molten metal is removed from the charging furnace, nitrogen or chlor ine gas is added to eliminate the hy drogen gas. After the alloying and fluxing processes, the metal is transferred to the second compartment of the furnace, the “holding” section, until a sufficient supply is obtained for pouring. The d.c. casting operator (D.O.T. 514.782) has charge of the pouring station in which the molten metal is cast into ingots. He controls the cooling condition of the casting unit by maintaining a constant level of metal in the molds and operates a series of instruments which spray water against the molds to produce ingots of uniform crystal-line struc ture. Rolling—Over half of aluminum wrought products consist of plate, sheet, and strip, which are produced by rolling. The first step in rolling operations is to remove surface im purities from the ingot. The scalper operator (D.O.T. 605.782) manip ulates levers of a scalper machine and cuts approximately one-fourth inch layers of metal from the ingots. To improve corrosion resistance of the surface, ingots are sometimes clad with thin layers of high purity aluminum. These layers which are clamped on the sides of the ingot join with the central layer of the sheet during the rolling process. The ingots are brought to proper working temperatures for rolling by heat treating. Overhead cranes lower the ingot vertically into fur naces, or “soaking pits,” where they are kept hermetically sealed for 12 to 18 hours. The soaking pit op erator (D.O.T. 613.782) manages the furnace and sets controls to adjust temperature and heating time. The huge rolling ingots are posi tioned on the “breakdown” or hot rolling mill where they are con verted into elongated slabs of alumi num. Reduction operations are con trolled by trained rolling mill opera tors (D.O.T. 613.782) who manip ulate the ingots back and forth be tween powerful rollers of a large tandem hot reversing mill until they are reduced in thickness to about 3 inches. The slabs then move down the line on rollers to additional hot mills where they are worked down to about one-eighth of an inch thick. At the end of the hotline, a coiler o p era to r (D.O.T. 613.885) tends a coiler which automatically winds the metal onto reels. Coiled aluminum is cooled at room temperature and then cold rolled to a still thinner size. Cold rolling assures a better surface finish and increases the metal’s strength and hardness. Since continual cold rolling could make the metal too brittle, intermediate steps of heat treating are necessary. Heat treating (annealing) takes place in furnaces under the control of an annealer (D.O.T. 504.782). After annealing, the metal may be further cold rolled to a specified thickness and again heat treated to soften it for future fabrication. To relieve internal stress from rolling and annealing or contour defects, the EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY Cable mill worker operates machines and strands aluminum wire into thick electrical tape. finished sheet or plate may be placed in large stretchers which pull the metal from end to end. Stretcherleveler-operators (D.O.T. 619.782) and stretcher-leveler-operator help ers (D.O.T. 619.886) position the metal in a stationary vise, determine stretch requirements to meet pro duction specifications, and operate the machine. During both the production and fabricating processes, the metal is inspected to assure quality and con sistency. Radiographic testing and ultrasonic testing are two processes used for inspection. Radiographers (D.O.T. 199.381) operate various types of X-ray equipment to take radiographs of the metal. Comput ers monitor operations and adjust any differences that may occur be tween scheduled temperatures, di ameter of metals, and speed of op erations. Fabrication of Rods, Bars, and Structural—In the rod and bar mill, square castings called “blooms” are heated to make them softer and then rolled through pairs of open ings, each progressively smaller, until the proper size is reached. To produce wire, hot rolling is con tinued until the rod is about threeeights of an inch in diameter. Then it is cold-worked and drawn through dies which have openings smaller than the rod to reduce cross-sec tional dimensions. Wire draw op erators (D.O.T. 614.782) operate machines which draw the wire through the series of dies and auto matically coil it on revolving reels. 617 Structural shapes such as I beams and angles may be hot rolled or ex truded. Hot rolled structurals are made by passing a square bloom with rounded corners between rolls having a series of grooves. As the grooves become smaller, the bloom is reduced in cross section and elon gated. The shape of the structural is determined by the contour of the grooves in the rolls. Extrusion. Extruding of metal often is compared with squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Extruded aluminum shapes are produced by placing heated billets (aluminum logs) in an enclosed cylinder in a powerful press. A hydraulic ram which usually has a force of several million pounds pushes the metal through a design cut in a die at the other end of the cylinder. The metal takes the contour of the die in cross-section and then may be cut into desired lengths. By designing different dies, almost any shape of aluminum product may be formed. The press is operated by an ex trusion press operator (D.O.T. 614.782) who regulates the rate of extrusion to prevent metal rupture and adherence of metal to contour walls. Another type of extrusion is im pact extrusion, a combination of ex trusion and forging. Shapes of alu minum are inserted in dies of pow erful presses. A punch gives the slug a forceful downward blow, and the metal of the slug is forced around the punch. The production process is basically complete in the one blow. Maintenance, Transportation and Plant Service Occupations Large numbers of workers are employed in the aluminum industry to keep machines and equipment 618 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Professional, Technical, and Related Occupations Workers check aluminum being shaped by extrusion press. operating properly. Others are en gaged in moving materials, supplies, and finished products throughout the plants; still others are employed in service occupations such as guard, policeman, and custodian. Many of these occupations also are common to other industries. (See index to the Handbook.) The critical importance of elec tricity to the reduction process re quires a relatively large number of electricians to install electrical wir ing and maintain electrical fixtures, apparatus, and control equipment. Electronics mechanics repair com puters, industrial controls, radiogra phy equipment, and other complex electronic gear. Millwrights move, maintain, and repair mechanical equipment. They take apart and restore to operating use machinery essential to alumi num production and fabrication. Maintenance machinists are em ployed in plant machine shops to make and repair mechanical parts used in the plant machinery and equipment. Stationary engineers op erate and maintain the powerplants, turbines, steam engines, and motors used in aluminum plants. Diemakers lay out, assemble, and repair dies used in aluminum metal working operations. Bricklayers build, rebuild, and reline boilers, furnaces, soaking pits, and similar installations. Plumbers and pipefit ters lay out, install, and maintain piping and piping systems for steam, water, and industrial materials used in aluminum manufacture. Mainte nance welders join metal parts by hand or machine riveting and by re sistance welding and electric arc and gas welding. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians make up a significant propor tion of nonproduction worker em ployment in the industry. Quality control is essential in producing aluminum. Companies employ quality control chemists to analyze the aluminum and the raw materials used in its production. Process metallurgists determine the most efficient methods of producing aluminum from raw materials. Physical metallurgists conduct mi croscopic, X-ray, spectroscopic, and physical and mechanical property tests of aluminum and alloys to de termine their physical characteris tics. They also develop new alloys and new uses for aluminum and al loys. Chemical engineers and mechani cal engineers design and supervise the construction and operation of reduction and fabricating facilities. Most mechanical engineers are em ployed in the fabricating sectors of the industry, where they may de sign, regulate, and improve rolling mills and related equipment. Electrical engineers plan and oversee the installation, operation, and maintenance of the electric gen erators, transmission, and distribu tion systems used in the manufacture of aluminum. Industrial engineers conduct work measurement studies, develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analy sis, and, in general, determine the most effective methods of using the basic factors of production: man power, machines, and materials. Engineering technicians, labora tory technicians, and chemical ana lysts assist engineers and chemists in research and development work. Draftsmen prepare the working EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY drawings that are required for the manufacture and repair of reduction and fabricating machinery. A wide range of other profes sional and administrative occupa tions is needed to facilitate the manufacture of aluminum. Top executives manage the companies and determine policy decisions. Mid dleline managers and superintend ents direct individual departments, offices, and operations. The industry also employs accountants, lawyers, statisticians, economists, and mathe maticians, and other administrative personnel. Clerical and Related Occupations A large group of clerical workers, including bookkeepers, secretaries, stenographers, clerk typists, and keypunch and computer operators keep records for the company and transact everyday business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aluminum companies generally hire and train inexperienced workers for processing and mainte nance jobs. For most professional occupations, the minimum require ment is a bachelor’s degree. For re search and development work, most companies prefer graduate degrees. Administrative and managerial posi tions usually are filled by people who have engineering or other spe cialized backgrounds and have been promoted to such jobs. Sales posi tions often are filled by people hav ing engineering or related technical backgrounds. Applicants and employees who demonstrate a capacity for technical work have opportunities to qualify as technicians, laboratory assistants, and other semiprofessionals. Some college background in science or graduation from a technical institute or community college is required for many technical jobs. Some jobs in the industry can be learned in a few days; craft, engi neering, and scientific positions re quire years of preparation. New, unskilled workers often begin their careers in labor pools from which they are assigned to fill in for regu lar workers who are absent. After working in the pool for a specified period, they become eligible for a permanent position in a shop or de partment. As workers acquire addi tional skills and seniority with the company, they usually move to more responsible and better paying positions. Former production and maintenance workers fill many fore men and supervisory positions. Craftsmen are trained most often on the job. A number of companies, particularly the larger ones, have apprenticeship programs. Under these programs, apprentices take re lated instruction courses in class rooms or at home and also work with experienced craftsmen to ob tain practical on-the-job experience. The length of the apprenticeship varies according to the requirements of the particular craft, although most require 3 or 4 years. The fol lowing crafts are included among the apprenticeship programs cur rently in force in the industry: elec trician, welder, brickmason, carpen ter, pyrometer man, machinist, maintenance mechanic, pipefitter, diemaker, roll grinder, sheet-metal worker, and automotive mechanics. Generally, candidates for programs are chosen from promising young men already employed by the com pany. 619 expected to rise moderately through the 1970’s, although the amount of aluminum produced annually is likely to increase much more rapidly. Most job opportunities will stem from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. Openings arising from deaths and retirements alone are expected to average sev eral thousand a year. Demand for aluminum is ex pected to continue to grow at a fast rate because of its natural prop erties and the industry’s aggressive marketing program. Moreover, in dustries that represent major mar kets for aluminum are growing in dustries with potential for new product development. For example, motor vehicle manufacturers are ex panding the use of the metal in au tomobile components, and virtually the entire bodies of many trucks and buses are made of aluminum. Aluminum is being used widely in the construction of large office and institutional buildings and for resi dential construction and remodel ing. To take advantage of this potential, the aluminum industry supports a strong research and de velopment program which should continue to develop new alloys, processes, and products. As a result, the number of engineers, scientists, and technical personnel is expected to increase as a proportion of total employment. On the other hand, larger cell and plant capacities and technological developments, such as continuous casting and computer controlled rolling operations, will limit employment growth among some production occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Employment in the industry is Earnings of plant workers in the aluminum industry are higher than 620 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the average for other manufacturing industries. For example, in 1970, production workers in primary alu minum plants averaged $167.69 a week or $4.09 an hour for a 41.0 hour week. Production workers in aluminum rolling and drawings plants averaged $154.84 a week or $3.74 an hour for a 41.4 hour week. This compared with average earnings of $133.73 per week or $3.36 an hour for a 39.8 hour week for production workers in all manu facturing. Skilled operators and skilled maintenance and craft workers hold the highest paying plant jobs. Stand ard hourly rates effective in early 1971 for selected occupations in a number of plants of a large alumi num producer are shown as follows: O c c u p a tio n H o u r ly w a g e r a te Reduction: Laborer ................................. $ Scaleman ............................. Industrial trucker................ Soaking pit operator .......... Annealing furnace operator.. Potman ................................. Pourer ................................... Tapper ................................. 3.092 3.482 3.417 3.547 3.612 3.687 3.417 3.947 Fabricating: Mill helper........................... Stretcher-leveler operator.... Scalper operator ................ Inspector ............................... Hot mill operator .............. Continuous mill operator.... 4-Hi mill operator.............. 3.157 3.547 3.547 3.612 4.067 4.132 4.132 Maintenance: Boiler fireman ..................... 3.872 Carpenter ............................. Welder, pipefitter, millwright ....................... Layout man ......................... Electrician, machinist, pyrometer man .............. 4.197 4.262 4.392 4.459 In addition to the above rates, premium pay is given for over-time work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Aluminum workers also receive other benefits, such as paid vacations and holidays; retirement benefits; life, sickness and accident hospital, medical and surgical insur ance; shift differentials; supplemen tal jury pay; and supplemental un employment benefits. Most workers receive vacation pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depending on length of service. In addition, an extended vacation plan provides 13-week va cations (including regular vacation time) every 5 years. Salaried personnel generally re ceive benefits comparable to those for hourly employees. Starting sala ries are determined by the job being filled, the applicant’s qualifications, comparable area and industry wage scales, and the structure of the hourly pay scale at the plant. Grad uates of accredited colleges receive good starting salaries, and engineer ing graduates usually receive the highest offers. The reduction of alumina to alu minum requires high temperatures. The potroom is often hot, dusty, and smoky. In recent years working conditions in reduction plants have been improved as a result of fume control programs and other proj ects. The fabricating side of the in dustry offers more favorable work conditions though workers in cer tain jobs are subject to high temperatures, noises, and other dis comforts. Maintenance shops offer favorable working atmosphere. Be cause aluminum reduction is a con tinuous operation, some workers are required to work at night and on weekends. The industry stresses safe work ing conditions and conducts inten sive programs of worker safety edu cation. For example, reduction plants have had a consistently lower frequency rate of injuries per man hour than in other primary nonferrous metal smelting and refining plants. Most process and maintenance workers in the aluminum industry belong to labor unions. In addition, labor organizations represent some office, technical, and security per sonnel. The unions having the greatest number of members in the industry are United Steelworkers of America; Aluminum Workers Inter national Union; and International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Sources of Additional Information The Aluminum Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E A P P A R E L IN D U S T R Y Although apparel factories are located in nearly all States, approxi mately 7 out of every 10 of the workers are employed in 10 States: New York, Pennsylvania, New Jer sey, California, Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Texas, Massachu setts and South Carolina. In women’s outerwear manufac turing—of dresses, blouses, skirts, suits, and coats—almost one-half of the workers were employed in plants located in the New YorkNortheastern New Jersey metropol itan area and in areas of Pennsylva nia such as Wilkes-Barre-Hazelton, Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, and Philadelphia. However, many jobs for workers manufacturing women’s outerwear also are found in Los Angeles-Long Beach and San Fran Nature and Location of the Industry cisco, California; Fall River-New Bedford, Massachusetts; Miami, About 1.4 million men and Florida; Dallas, Texas; Chicago, Il women were employed in the ap linois; and St. Louis, Missouri. parel industry in 1970. Approxi In the men’s and boy’s tailored mately 624,000 produced women’s clothing industry—suits, coats, and and children’s apparel and about overcoats—the majority of jobs are 506,000 men’s. Among women’s in metropolitan centers, namely; and children’s garment workers, Philadelphia, New York City, Balti about 432,000 workers made more, Chicago, Rochester-Buffalo, dresses, skirts, blouses, suits, and Cleveland, Boston, St. Louis, Los coats for women and girls and an Angeles-Long Beach, Knoxville, other 118,000, undergarments for and Cincinnati. In manufacture of women and children. In the men’s men’s, youths’ and boys’ furnishings apparel industry, 126,000 workers such as work clothing and shirts, produced tailored clothing (suits, and undergarments for women and overcoats, topcoats, and sportcoats) children, most jobs are located in for men and boys and 380,000 the South, Southwest, and Central made men’s and boys’ shirts, slacks Atlantic states, primarily in small and trousers, work clothes, night wear, undergarments, and other communities. Most apparel factories are small. furnishings. Another 92,000 made such items as fur goods, raincoats, Although plants have been growing hats, gloves, and dressing gowns. larger in recent years, only about About 163,000 workers produced one out of seven of them employ more than 100 workers. Many of curtains and draperies. The apparel industry is an impor tant source of jobs for a range of workers who have widely different skills and interests. Many of the jobs in this industry can be learned in a few weeks; others take several years. The apparel industry is the Na tion’s largest employer of women in manufacturing. Four out of five gar ment workers are women. Most sewing machine operators are women. However, many others work in jobs such as hand sewer and de signer. Men usually predominate in jobs such as cutter and marker, presser, production manager, engi neer, and salesman. the large plants make men’s and boys’ apparel. Plants that manufac ture garments that are subject to rapid style change tend to be smaller than those making stan dard-type garments such as work pants. Occupations in the Industry The major operations in making apparel are designing the garment, cutting the cloth, sewing the pieces together, and pressing the assem bled garment. Generally, high-grade apparel and style-oriented garments are more carefully designed and in volve more handwork and fewer machine operations than the cheaper, more standardized gar ments. For example, much hand-de tailing goes into a woman’s highpriced fashionable cocktail dress or into a man’s high-priced suit or coat. In contrast, standardized gar ments such as men’s undershirts, overalls, and work shirts usually are sewn entirely by machine. To make the many different types, styles, and grades of garments, workers with various skills and edu cational backgrounds are employed in the apparel industry. Designing Room Occupations. Typ ically, the manufacturing pro cess begins with the designer (D.O.T. 142.081) who creates original designs for new types and styles of apparel. The designer usu ally works with one type of apparel, such as men’s suits or women’s dresses. Due to some manufacturers who have diversified, especially in sportswear, designers work with more than one type of apparel. For women’s apparel, the designer may get ideas by visiting museums, libraries, and major fashion centers in both the United States and Eu rope. The designer makes sketches of his designs and presents them to 621 622 the management and sales staff of his company for approval. The sketches include information about the type of fabric, trim, and color. In designing women’s or children’s garments, he may make an experi mental garment in muslin from ap proved sketches. He cuts, pins, sews and adjusts the muslin on a dress form or on a live model until the garment matches his sketch. In large manufacturing plants, a sam OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ple stitcher (D.O.T. 785.381 ) pre pares these sample garments by fol lowing the designer’s sketch and performing all necessary machine and hand sewing operations. Since designing is a creative job, designers usually work without close supervision, but they must produce a satisfactory number of successful styles during a season, especially when designing women’s fashion garments. A large garment manufacturer generally has one de signer and several assistants who often have specialized designing re sponsibilities of their own. Many small plants and plants making stan dardized garments do not employ designers but purchase ready-made designs or patterns. When the sample garment or sketch has been approved, it is sent to a patternmaker (D.O.T. 781.381) who constructs a full-size master pattern. Working closely with the designer, the patternmaker translates the sketch or sample gar ment into paper or fiberboard pat tern pieces to be used as guides for cutting fabric. In drawing and cut ting pattern pieces, the pattern maker must make allowances for pleats, tucks, yokes, seams and shrinkage. In some shops designers or all-round tailors make patterns; in others, the assistant designer per forms the patternmaking tasks. The master pattern serves as a guide for the pattern grader (D.O.T. 781.381) who makes a wide range of sizes in each garment style. In a sense, the pattern grader is a specialized draftsman. He mea sures the pieces that make up the master pattern and modifies them to fit all sizes. The pattern grader then outlines each revised pattern piece on fiberboard and cuts out the pieces by following the outlines. After he completes a set of pattern pieces for each garment size, he at taches a label to identify the part and size of the garment. Some large plants use computers to reduce the length of time required to draw up the pattern for each garment size from the master pattern. Cutting Room Occupations. Work ers in the cutting room prepare cloth for sewing into articles of wearing apparel. There are five basic operations in the cutting de- 623 OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY partment: spreading marking, cut ting, assembling, and ticketing. Small shops may combine two or more of these operations into a sin gle job. Most jobs in the cutting room are held by men. parts will match when the garment is assembled. Before making the full-size paper markers, larger plants may photograph miniature (D.O.T. 781.687) bring together and bundle garment pieces and ac cessories (linings, tapes, and trim mings) needed to make a complete Marker traces outline of pattern. Hand spreaders (D.O.T. 781.887) lay out neat bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting board. Machine spreaders (D.O.T. 781.884) are aided by machines in laying the cloth evenly back and forth across the table. In most plants, markers (D.O.T. 781.484) trace the fiber-board pat tern pieces on large sheets of paper and make several carbons of these tracings. Some plants that make men’s and boys’ suits and coats trace the pattern pieces with chalk directly on the cloth itself, rather than on paper. To get the greatest number of cuttings from a given quantity of cloth, markers arrange pattern pieces so that there is just enough distance between them for the cutter to work. Plaids, stripes, and other patterned fabrics must be marked so that adjoining garment Cutter directs electrically powered cutting knife. patterns which have been arranged in acceptable positions to minimize fabric waste. A cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts out the various garment pieces from the layers of cloth which are spread on the cutting table. He follows the outline of the pattern on the cloth with an electrically powered cutting knife which cuts through all the lay ers at once. Sometimes layers of cloth are as high as 9 inches. The work of a cutter and a marker fre quently is combined into a single job of cutter-marker. The pieces of cloth that have been cut are prepared for the sew ing room by another group of spe cialized workers. Assemblers, some times called bundlers or fitters, garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark locations for pock ets, buttonholes, buttons, and other trimmings. They identify each bun dle with a ticket, which is also used to figure the earnings of workers who are paid for the number of pieces they produce. The bundles are then routed to the various sec tions of the sewing room. Sewing Room Occupations. Almost half of all apparel workers are handsewers and machine stitchers. Most of the employees in these jobs are women. The quality and style of the finished garment usually deter mine how much hand sewing is in volved. Generally, higher priced 624 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK stitch machine operator, and by the type of work performed, such as collar stitcher or sleeve finisher. Most hand sewing is done on bet ter quality or highly styled dresses, suits and coats to produce garments for better fit. Hand sewers (D.O.T. 782.884) use needle and thread to perform various operations ranging from simple sewing to complex stitching. Many hand sewers spe cialize in a single operation, such as lapel basting or lining stitching. In a typical apparel plant, bun dles of cut garment pieces move through the sewing department, where the garments take form as they pass through a series of sewing operations. Each operator performs clothing, such as suits and coats, re quire more hand sewing than do standardized garments. In the aver age plant, however, the work is bro ken down into a large number of machine operations. Some hand sewing is done when the garment nears completion. Sewing machine operators (D.O.T. 787.782) use sewing machines that are generally heavier and capable of faster speeds than the sewing machines found in the home. Special devices or attach ments that hold buttons, guide stitches, or fold seams are often used. Sewing machine operators generally specialize in a single oper ation such as sewing shoulder seams, attaching cuffs to sleeves, or hemming blouses. Some make gar ment sections such as pockets, col lars, or sleeves; others assemble and join these completed sections to the main parts of the garment. Sewing machine operators employed in shops making high priced dresses and women’s coats and suits may perform all the machine operations on a garment. Sewing machine operators gener ally are classified by type of mach ine they use, such as single-needle sewing machine operator or blind- one or two assigned tasks on each piece in the bundle and then passes the bundle to the next operator. Many plants employ material han dlers (D.O.T. 929.887) often called floor boys or floor girls who move garment bundles from one sewing operation to another. At various stages of the sewing operations, inspectors and checkers (D.O.T. 789.687) examine gar- OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY ments for proper workmanship. They mark defects such as skipped stitches or bad seams, which are re paired before the garments are passed on to the next sewing opera tion. Inspectors sometimes make minor repairs. Trimmer, hand (D.O.T. 781.887) often called thread trimmers and cleaners, re move loose threads, basting stitches, and lint from garments. This is called “in-process inspection.” Tailoring Occupations. Tailors (D.O.T. 785.381 and .261) and dressmakers (D.O.T. 785.361) are able to make garments from start to finish by hand or by machine. Some skilled tailors who are employed in plants to make men’s, women’s, and children’s outer garments may make up sample garments from the de signer’s specifications. Bushelmen (D.O.T. 785.281), repair defects in finished garments that were rejected by the inspector. They alter garment parts that have not been sewn correctly, rearrange padding in coats and suits, and do other sewing necessary to correct defects. Pressing Occupations. The shape and appearance of the finished gar ments depend, to a large extent, on the amount of pressing that is done during and after sewing operations. Pressing is particularly important in making high-quality garments. For example, from time to time during the sewing of suits, coats, and better quality dresses, seams are pressed open in order to produce a better fit ting and neater garment and to make it easier to assemble the gar ment. This is called “under-press ing.” In the manufacture of lighter weight garments, on the other hand, pressing is done only after comple tion of all the sewing operations. Pressers (D.O.T. 363.782, .884, and .885) use various types of steam pressing machines, and may work with manikins and body forms, or use hand irons to flatten seams and to shape garment parts and finished garments. Pressers may specialize in one type of pressing or ironing. For example, in a shirt fac tory, a collar pointer (D.O.T. 583.885) operates a pressing ma chine that shapes and presses points of shirt collars. There are two basic types of pressers—underpressers and finish pressers. Underpressers specialize on particular garment parts, such as collars, shoulders, seams, or pock ets. Their duties vary from simple smoothing of cloth and flattening of seams to skillful shaping of garment parts. Finish pressers generally do final pressing and ironing at the end of the sewing operations. Fur Shop Occupations. The apparel industry includes plants that manu facture garments made of fur. Be cause furs are expensive and diffi cult to work with, each operation in making a fur garment requires skilled handwork by an experienced craftman. Many of these workers have special skills not found in plants that make other types of ap parel. The most skilled job in a fur gar ment manufacturing plant is that of a cutter who sometimes is also the foreman in the shop. A fur cutter (D.O.T. 783.781) selects and matches enough fur skins to make a single garment, such as a fur coat or jacket. He arranges and cuts the skins on pattern pieces so that the choice sections of fur are placed where they will show. Following the sewing instruction given by the cut ter, fur machine operators (D.O.T. 787.782) stitch these pelts together to form the major garment sections. A fur nailer (D.O.T. 783.884) wets 625 the sewn garment sections, stretches them by hand, and nails them on a board so that they will cover the pattern. When the sections are dry, the nailer removes the nails and trims the fur exactly along the out line of the pattern. The fur machine operator then finishes sewing the various sections together to make the complete garment. Fur finishers (D.O.T. 783.381) sew in the lining, tape edges, make prockets and sew on buttons and loops. Administrative, Sales and Mainte nance Occupations. The majority of the administrative positions in an apparel plant are in the production department. The production man ager occupies a strategic position in apparel firms. He is responsible for estimating production costs, sched uling the flow of work, hiring and training workers, controlling qual ity, and supervising the overall production activities of the plant. The industrial engineer advises management about the efficient use of machines, materials, and workers. (Further discussion of in dustrial engineers is included else where in the Handbook.) Clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra phers, and other office workers make up payrolls, prepare invoices, keep records, and attend to other paper work required in this industry. In some larger plants, many clerical functions are being handled with computers. This requires keypunch operators, computer programers and operators, and systems analysts. Salesmen, purchasing agents, mod els, credit managers, and accoun tants are among other types of workers in the apparel industry. Sewing machine mechanics are re sponsible for keeping the industry’s large number of sewing machines in good running order. (Discussions of 626 many of these jobs can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for prod uction (plant) jobs in the apparel industry range from a few weeks of on-the-job training to several months of training and experience. The difference in training time needed before an employee can reach his maximum speed and efficiency depends on the type of job, the worker’s aptitude, and the employer’s training program. Many plant workers pick up their skills while working as helpers or assist ants to experienced workers. Ap prenticeship is infrequent and is limited mainly to designing, cutting, or tailoring jobs. Some private and public schools in garment manufac turing centers offer instruction in occupations such as designing, pat ternmaking, and cutting, as well as sewing by machine and by hand. Good eyesight and manual dex terity are essential for most produc tion jobs in the apparel industry. Many occupations are well suited for handicapped workers since most jobs are performed while the worker is seated. Little physical ex ertion is required. Older workers and women also perform well in a variety of jobs. Many workers in their fifties and sixties are among the most skilled and productive. Women are employed in most of the occupations in this industry, al though men hold most of the cut ting, tailoring, and pressing jobs. Designers enter the industry in various ways. Many receive their training by working on the job with experienced designers, by advancing from cutting or pattemmaking jobs, or through apprenticeship. There is OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK an increasing tendency for apparel firms to recruit designers from col leges that offer specialized training in design. Some young people with a background in designing may take jobs as designers with small firms, and once their reputations have been established, transfer to jobs in larger, better paying firms. In large firms, young people may start as as sistant designers. A designer should have artistic ability, including a talent for sketch ing, a thorough knowledge of fab rics, a keen sense of color, and the ability to translate design ideas into a finished garment. He should also be acquainted with garmentmaking techniques which he may learn by working briefly at various operative jobs, such as machine sewing, drap ing, sample making, and cutting. The production manager usually begins as a management trainee, and the industrial engineer as a jun ior engineer. A college education is increasingly being required for these jobs. For those without this educa tional background, many years of on-the-job training in all production processes, ranging from selection of fabrics to shipment of finished ap parel, are often required to qualify as a production manager. Most patternmakers pick up the skills of the trade by working for several years as helpers to experi enced patternmakers. Pattern grad ers and cutters are occasionally promoted to patternmaking jobs. Patternmakers must have the ability to visualize from a sketch or model, furnished by the designer, the size, shape, and number of pattern pieces required. Patternmakers must also have a detailed understanding of how garments are made as well as a knowledge of body proportions. Like the designer, they must also have a thorough knowledge of fab rics. Pattern graders usually are se lected from employees working in the cutting room or in other plant jobs. Training in drafting is helpful since much of the work requires the use of drafting tools and techniques. Most workers enter the cutting room by taking jobs as assemblers (bundlers or fitters). Patience and the ability to match colors and pat terns are necessary qualifications for these jobs. Assemblers (bundlers, or fitters), may be promoted to jobs such as spreader. Several years of experience in the cutting room are required before an employee can become a skilled marker or cutter. A small number of the larger plants have apprenticeship programs which usually last 4 years and in clude training in spreading, cutting, marking, and patternmaking. Entry into beginning hand- or machine-sewing jobs is relatively easy for young women, since there are few restrictions regarding edu cation and physical condition. Some previous training in sewing opera tions is preferred, but many apparel plants hire workers who have had no experience in sewing. Generally, training is informal and received on the job. New workers usually start by sewing straight seams, under the supervision of a section foreman or experienced worker. Some large companies have for mal on-the-job training programs for sewing machine operators. Training usually consists of learning how to perform a single operation with minimal finger, arm, and body movements. Most sewing jobs require the ability to do routine work rapidly. The same sewing operation is re peated on each identical garment piece. Since almost all these workers are paid on the basis of the number of pieces produced, any clumsiness of hand may reduce the 627 OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY worker’s earnings. Good eyesight and ability to work at a steady and fast pace are essential for both hand- and machine-sewing jobs. The average sewing machine op erator has little opportunity for pro motion beyond section forelady, al though some sewing machine opera tors have worked their way up to production manager. Most sewers stay on the same general type of op eration throughout most of their working lives. However, some workers may be moved from sim pler sewing operations to more complicated tasks that pay higher piece rates. Some tailors and dressmakers learn the trade through vocational training in day or evening schools. Graduates from vocational schools frequently are hired and given addi tional training on the job. Others learn the trade informally, on the job starting with relatively easy sew ing operations and progressively advancing to more difficult opera tions. It requires several years of experience to become an all-round tailor or dressmaker. Tailors and dressmakers may qualify for jobs as fitters or altera tion tailors in department stores, clothing stores, and cleaning and dyeing shops. Pressers usually begin as underpressers working on simple seams and garment parts. This job can be learned in a very short time. After the pressers gain experience, they work on more difficult operations and eventually may be promoted to the job of finish presser. Pressing, like tailoring, is one of the few nee dle trades in which workers can find similar employment in stores and in cleaning and dyeing shops. There is some transferring back and forth between pressing jobs inside and outside the apparel industry. automatically position fabric pieces under the needle and remove and Employment in the apparel in stack completed pieces; equipment dustry is expected to increase that automatically spreads fabrics moderately through the 1970’s. In on cutting tables; and the more addition to the thousands of job widespread use of computers and opportunities expected to result from conveyor systems for controlling employment growth, a considerable and improving the movement of number of opportunities for young fabrics and apparel. The major im people will occur because of the pact of machanization is expected to tens of thousands of experienced be in reducing the time an operator workers who will leave the industry. must spend in positioning and re About 4 out of 5 of the industry’s moving work done at each stage of workers are women, a large number a production process. Most sewing, of whom leave the industry each pressing, and cutting operations are year to marry or to raise families. expected to continue primarily as Also, this industry employs more manual operations through the older workers than many industries. 1970’s. It is estimated that deaths and re Most employment opportunities tirements alone will provide 74,000 will be in sewing machine operator job openings annually. jobs because this occupational Demand for apparel in the years group is the largest and is made up ahead is expected to increaee mostly of women who have a high rapidly. The increased demand for turnover rate. Designers will have apparel will result mainly from in many opportunities because a large creasing population and affluence. proportion of this group also is Increased emphasis on styling by composed of women. Some job the industry is also expected to be openings will occur also in tailoring reflected in more frequent pur occupations in which a large pro chases of apparel. Rising per capita portion of the employees are older income during the 1970’s should workers. Several thousand job opportuni whet the consumer appetite for greater novelty in clothing. Further ties will develop for industrial and more, as per capita income increases mechanical engineers, salaried man people will, undoubtedly, go in for agers, and skilled machine mechan more leisure activities which should ics. Shortages of these workers generate demand for special pur probably will continue because of expected growth in the size of indi pose apparel such as ski clothing. Employment in the industry, how vidual apparel establishments, in the ever, is not expected to increase as number and size of companies oper rapidly as demand for apparel. ating more than one establishment, Gradual increases in the use of and in the installation of new me mechanized equipment and other chanical equipment. Openings for tailors, sample laborsaving devices resulting from anticipated increases in research makers, and other skilled personnel and development expenditures are in the apparel industry will continue expected to result in greater output to be found mainly in the metropoli per worker. Examples of such tan centers where plants manufac equipment include sewing machines turing dresses, women’s suits and that can position needles and trim coats, or men’s and boys’ suits and threads automatically; devices that coats are located. There will be a Employment Outlook 628 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK small number of new jobs in men’s clothing designing, patternmaking, and cutting room jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, average earnings of production workers in the apparel industry were $84.37 a week or $2.39 an hour, compared with $133.73 a week or $3.36 an hour for those in all manufacturing indus tries. Production workers in this in dustry generally worked fewer hours per week than those in manu facturing as a whole. Production workers have much higher earnings in some kinds of garment factories than in others. For example, those making men’s and boy’s suits and coats averaged $101.85 a week in 1970, whereas those producing men’s work clothing averaged $73.53 a week. Earnings of apparel workers also vary by occupation and geographical area. For exam ple, average hourly earnings of cut ters and pressers in almost all areas are higher than those of sewing machine operators; and average hourly earnings generally are lower in the South than in the Middle At lantic States. The following tabula tion gives estimated average hourly earnings for selected occupations and geographical areas in one seg ment of the apparel industry in April 1970. Because most production workers in the apparel industry are paid on the basis of the number of pieces M e n ’s a n d B o y s ’ S u its a n d C o a ts C o a t F a b r ic a tio n they produce their total earnings depend upon speed as well as skill. Sewing machine operators, hand sewers, and pressers generally are paid on a piecework basis. Cutters are paid either piecework rates or hourly wages, depending upon the practice in the area or shop in which they work. Most of the other workers, including tailors, pattern makers, graders, inspectors, and work distributors, are generally paid by the hour or week. In most metropolitan areas, most apparel employees work in shops that have union contracts. New em ployees in plants which have these agreements are required to join the union after 30 days of employment. These agreements deal with such subjects as wages; hours of work; vacation and holiday pay; seniority; health, insurance, and pension plans; and other employment mat ters. Among the unions to which ap parel workers belong are the Amal gamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA), International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU), and United Garment Workers of America (UGW). The ILGWU sponsors vacation resorts for union members and their fam ilies. Both the ACWA and the ILGWU operate health centers for garment workers in major produc ing areas. The Amalgamated Cloth ing Workers of America operates child day care centers in the Balti more, Maryland area and in Chi cago and cooperative housing in E s t i m a te d a v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s P h ila d e lp h ia C h ic a g o S t. L o u is $3.06 4.45 4.02 2.60 3.17 3.71 3.38 3.05 $3.26 4.34 3.82 2.82 3.24 3.21 3.07 3.07 $2.52 2.75 3.59 2.50 2.50 2.67 2.52 2.45 New York City, Chicago, and Phila delphia. The International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union also spon sors cooperative housing in New York City. Workers in the apparel industry can expect to lose very little work time as a result of strikes or other work stoppages because the indus try has had many years of peaceful labor-management relations. How ever, workers making certain type of garments may have layoffs of several weeks during slack seasons. Generally, such layoffs occur more often in plants making seasonal gar ments, such as women’s coats and suits, than in plants producing stan dardized garments, such as pajamas and men’s shirts, which are worn all year long. In many plants, the avail able work during slack periods is di vided so that workers can be as sured of at least some earnings. Many apparel establishments, especially those in metropolitan areas are housed in old buildings whose surroundings and facilities may frequently leave much to be desired. Newly constructed plants usually have ample space, good lighting, and air conditioning. Some of the new plants have cafeterias and health clinics with a registered nurse on duty. Most sewing jobs are performed while sitting and are not physically strenuous. The working pace is rapid because workers’ earnings de pend on their production. In addi tion, many tasks are extremely mo notonous. Serious accidents among sewers are rare, although a sewer may occasionally pierce a finger with a needle. On the other hand, pressing may be strenuous work and involves working with hot steam. Working conditions in cutting and designing rooms are pleasant. In manufacturing establishments, designing and cutting are often per- OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY formed in a separate area away from the main sewing and pressing operations. Jobs in designing and cutting operations are more inter esting and less monotonous than most other apparel jobs. Moreover, since accuracy, skill, individual tal ent, and judgment are valued more than speed in these jobs, the work pace is less rapid. Information concerning appren ticeships may be obtained from the Apprenticeship Council of the State Labor Department or the local office of the U.S. Employment Ser vice. Some local Employment Ser vice offices give tests to determine hand-eye coordination, which is im portant for many apparel industry jobs. Information may be obtained from the following sources: Sources of Additional Information Information relating to vocational and high schools that offer training in designing, tailoring, and sewing may be obtained from the Division of Vocational Education of the De partment of Education in the State capital. Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 15 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. American Apparel Manufacturers Association, Inc., 2000 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated Fur Manufacturers, Inc., 101 West 30th St., New York, N.Y. 10001. 629 Clothing Manufacturers Association of U.S.A., 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. National Outerwear and Sports wear Association, Inc., 347 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, 1710 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. United Garment Workers of Amer ica, 31 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. International Association of Cloth ing Designers, 12 South 12th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. National Board of the Coat and Suit Industry, 450 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y. 10001. National Dress Manufacturers’ As sociation, Inc., 570 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y. 10018. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E A T O M IC E N E R G Y F IE L D Atomic energy is a very compact for propulsion of submarines and source of enormous heat and radia surface vessels. By eliminating re tion that can be used for peaceful as fueling, nuclear propulsion extends well as military purposes. Peaceful the range and mobility of our naval applications are still in the early forces. Research towards develop stages of development, and continu ing nuclear propulsion for space ve ing research and development pro hicles may extend space flights be grams will be needed during the yond lunor-range. Although existing reactors gener next several decades to find new and more efficient ways of utilizing ate tremendous amounts of power from a small amount of uranium, this force. In 1970 more than 225,000 research is continuing to develop workers were employed in a variety more efficient reactors. Scientists al of atomic energy activities. Large ready have produced uncontrolled numbers were engaged in research fusion in the hydrogen bomb, but and development work. Others were have not yet produced a controlled in activities such as the manufacture fusion reaction on a relatively small of nuclear weapons and other de scale. Research is being conducted fense materials, the design and in the “Plowshare” program to de manufacture of nuclear reactors, velop peaceful uses for nuclear ex and the production of nuclear fuels. plosives. The program has many Most atomic energy workers are sci potential applications in areas such entists, engineers, technicians, or as gas and oil recovery, and the ex craftsmen. Employment opportuni cavation of harbors, canals, and ties for these workers will be favor mountain passes. able through the 1970’s. Another application is in the use of radioisotopes which decay or dis integrate spontaneously, by emit ting radiation that special instru ments, such as thickness gages, can detect. Radioisotopes are valuable as research tools in agriculture, medicine, and industry. Nuclear radiation also has good potential as an aid in the preserva tion of food. One of the major causes of food spoilage is the activ ity of micro-organisms. When food is treated with radiation, these or ganisms are killed and the spoilage is greatly inhibited. This treatment makes possible the long term stor age of certain foods without refri geration, and extends the time for marketing perishable refrigerated items. How Atomic Energy Is Produced Atomic energy, or more accur ately nuclear energy, may be prod uced through several processes, the two most important of which are fis sion and fusion. In fission, the nu cleus of a heavy atom is split, and energy released in the form of heat and radiation produces two or more lighter elements. Fission is the split ting of the uranium or plutonium Applications of Atomic Energy One of the most significant uses of atomic engery is in the produc tion of commercial electricity, by using nuclear reactors as the heat source. (See chart 28.) Steam pro duced by such reactors is not gener ating electricity for several com munities. These reactors have be come competitive with systems using fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and more than 150 nuclear fa cilities will be built by 1980. Dualpurpose nuclear power-desalting plants, which could provide a new source of fresh water as well as electric power, are being studied. Nuclear reactors provide power 630 Nuclear reactor generating electricity NUCLEAR REACTOR Reactor Control Uranium Rods- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD nucleus under neutron bombard ment. When neutrons emitted from this fission process bombard other nuclei, further fission takes place and, under proper conditions, re sults in a “chain” reaction. This reaction liberates energy which, if controlled, can be converted into useful power. In fusion, energy is released by combining the nuclei of two light atoms into a heavier atom. The detonation of atomic bombs is an application of the explosive re lease of enormous amounts of atomic energy. Non-weapon applica tions require that release of this energy be carefully controlled and regulated so that it proceeds at a manageable rate. Controlled fission is the essential feature of a nuclear reactor. The reactor, being a furnace, requires fuel to operate. The principal source material for reactor fuel is uranium 235. Uranium in its natural state contains less than 1 percent of readily fissionable material, uranium U-235. Although natural uranium is sometimes used as reactor fuel, a more concentrated and enriched fuel can be produced and used by increasing the proportion of U-235 isotopes through a process called gaseous diffusion. U-235 undergoes fission readily, but manmade fission able materials, such as plutonium, also can be used as reactor fuel. The level of the chain reaction in a nuclear reactor is carefully con trolled, usually by inserting special neutron-absorbing rods into the fuel chamber or “core,” of the reactor. In this way, the rate of the fission reaction and of the energy produced can be regulated or stopped com pletely. Thus, harnessed atomic energy is produced in a nuclear reactor in the form of heat and radiation. How ever, if reactors are to be used for power, the heat must be removed from the reactors and converted to electricity by conventional equip ment. The major difference between nuclear and conventional thermal electric power stations is that the heat needed to generate steam to drive turbines comes from a nu clear reactor rather from a conven tional steam-generating boiler fueled with coal, gas, or oil. During the fission process, nu clear radiation is released. This ra diation, identifiable only by sensi tive instruments, can be ruinous to equipment and can be highly dan gerous to unprotected personnel. Therefore, special materials, resis tant to damage by radiation, are used in reactors and great care is taken to protect personnel. Nature of the Atomic Energy Field Many different kinds of research and industrial activities are required for the production and application of nuclear energy. Included in the various industrial processes are the mining, milling, and refining of ura nium-bearing ores; the production of nuclear fuels; the manufacture of nuclear reactors, reactor compo nents, and nuclear instruments; the production of special materials for use in reactors; the design, engi neering, and construction of nuclear facilities; the operation and mainte nance of nuclear reactors; the dis posal of radioactive wastes; the proc essing and packaging of radiois otopes; the production of nuclear weapons; and research and develop ment work. These activities are performed in plants, in several different indus tries, as well as in laboratories and other types of facilities. Much of this work, such as ore mining and milling, manufacture of heat trans fer equipment, and construction of 631 facilities, differs little from similar nonatomic energy work. Other ac tivities, such as manufacture of the fuels needed to run reactors, are unique to the atomic energy field. The Federal Government sup ports most of the basic atomic en ergy activities. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program and regulates the use of nuclear materials by private organizations. The operation of AEC-owned facilities, including lab oratories, uranium processing plants, nuclear reactors, and weap ons manufacturing plants, is con tracted out to private organizations. More than half of all workers in atomic energy are employed in these government-owned facilities. In their own installations, private firms are engaged in many types of atomic energy activity, except de velopment and production of mili tary weapons and certain nuclear fuel-processing operations. A large amount of research and development work is done in the atomic energy field. Much of this work is carried on by the AECowned laboratories and by univer sity and college laboratories, other nonprofit institutions, and industrial organizations under Commission contracts. Occupations in the Atomic Energy Field Engineers, scientists, technicians, and craftsmen account for a higher proportion of total employment in this field than in most other fields, largely because much of the work is still in the research and develop ment phase. Office personnel in ad ministrative and clerical jobs repre sent another large group. Most of the remaining employment consists 632 of semiskilled and unskilled workers in production work, and plant pro tection and other service workers. Although many engineers in atomic energy are highly trained in nuclear technology, engineers in all other major engineering fields are employed. Mechanical engineering is the largest single engineering oc cupation, but large numbers of electrical and electronics, nuclear and reactor, chemical, civil, and metallurgical engineers also are em OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployed. Many of these engineers do research and development work; others design nuclear reactors, nu clear instruments, and other equip ment used in atomic energy, and in the operation of production plants. Research laboratories and other organizations engaged in atomic en ergy employed a large number of scientists to perform basic and ap plied nuclear research. Physicists and chemists predominate, but in cluded are many types of scientists, such as mathematicians, biological scientists, and metallurgists. A large number of technicians as sist engineers and scientists in re search and development and in de signing and testing equipment and materials. These workers include draftsmen; electronics, instrument, chemical, and other engineering and physical science technicians; and ra diation monitors. The atomic energy field employs many highly skilled workers to fab ricate equipment to use in experi mental and pilot work and to main tain the considerable amount of complex equipment and machinery. Maintenance mechanics (e.g., ma chinery repairmen and millwrights) and all-round machinists are em ployed extensively in most atomic energy activities, as are electricians, plumbers, pipefitters, and other craftsmen and chemical process op erators. Activities in the Atomic Energy Field A brief description of some im portant atomic energy activities and the types of workers employed in them follows. Laboratory ecologist uses a radiation detecting instrument to measure radio activity in a live fish. Uranium Exploration and Mining. The 6,500 persons employed in ura nium exploration and mining in 1970 had jobs similar to those in the mining of other metallic ores. Their jobs are largely concentrated in the Colorado Plateau area of the Far West, in the States of New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. A relatively few mines account for the bulk of production and employment. Most workers in uranium mines are in production jobs, such as miner and driller in underground mines; and as truckdriver, bulldozer operator, and 633 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD machine loader in open pit mines. About 1 out of 8 employees in ura nium exploration and mining is in a professional job, such as mining en gineer and geologist. Uranium Ore Milling. In uranium mills, metallurgical and chemical processes are used to extract ura nium from mined ore. Uranium mills, located primarily in the Colo rado Plateau, employed about 1,700 workers in 1970. These mills employ skilled machinery repairmen, millwrights, pipefitters carpenters, electricians, and chemical process operators. A small proportion of the employees in milling operations are scientists and engineers. Uranium Refining and Enriching. Milled uranium is chemically proc essed to remove impurities and then converted to metal or interme diate chemical products for reactor fuel preparation. Conventional chemical and metallurgical proc esses are used, but they must meet more exacting standards than in most other industries. The output of refining plants may be further processed to obtain enriched ura nium. Activity in this segment of the atomic energy field is centered in Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Il linois. In 1970, uranium refining and enriching plants employed about 7,000 workers. Maintenance craftsmen, particu larly in the high automated uranium enriching plants, account for a large proportion of skilled workers. Large numbers of chemical process opera tors also are employed. Chemical engineers and chemists accounted for more than a third of the engi neers and scientists. Many of the technicians worked in chemical ana Plant ecologists investigate radioactivity in the soil. lytical laboratories associated with production processes. engineers, and technicians. Engi neers alone represent more than one-quarter of the employment; me Reactor Manufacturing. About chanical engineers and reactor engi 22,500 workers were employed in neers, who are specialists in reactor 1970 to design and manufacture nu technology, predominate. Among clear reactors and unique reactor scientists, the largest group of parts. Reactor manufacturers do ex workers are physicists, but many tensive development work on reac chemists, mathematicians, and me tors and auxiliary equipment, design tallurgists also are employed. As the reactor, and generally fabricate sisting these engineers and scientists some of the intricate components, are many draftsmen, engineering such as fuel elements, control rods, aids, and physical science techni cians. and reactor cores. Skilled workers are employed by More than two-fifths of the em ployees in firms that design and reactor manufacturers in experi manufacture reactors are scientists, mental, production, and mainte 634 nance work. All-round machinists account for a large proportion of these craftsmen. Other craftsmen such as sheet metal workers, instru ment makers, machinery repairmen, instrument repairmen, and electri cians also are employed. Reactor manufacturers employ nuclear reac tor operators to operate experimen tal and test reactors. Reactor Operation and Mainte nance. Almost 2,300 workers op erated and maintained nuclear reactors producing commercial elec tricity in 1970. Some of the occupations found in the operation of a nuclear power station are me chanical engineer, electrical and electronics engineer, instrument technician, electronics technician, radiation monitor, reactor operator, and other power plant operators and attendants. Among the employees needed to maintain and repair reac tors are machinery repairmen, in strument repairmen, electricians, and pipefitters. Research and Development Facili ties. A number of research and de velopment laboratories and other research facilities are owned by the Atomic Energy Commission and are operated for the AEC by universi ties and industrial concerns. These facilities are major centers for basic and applied nuclear research in the physical, engineering, and life sci ences and in the development of nu clear reactors and other nuclear equipment. In 1970, these facilities employed nearly 50,000 workers. More than half of the employees in AEC research and development fa cilities are engineers, scientists, and supporting technicians. Among the engineers and scientists are me chanical, electrical and electronics, chemical, reactor, and metallurgical engineers; physicists; chemists; OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK mathematicians; metallurgists; bio logical scientists; and health physi cists. Assisting scientists and engi neers are many physical science and engineering aids; draftsmen; elec tronics, instrument, and biological technicians; and radiation monitors. Administrative and clerical workers together account for a large proportion of employment. The skilled worker group includes large numbers of all-round machinists, electricians, machinery repairmen, and millwrights, as well as substan tial numbers of tool and die makers, instrument makers, and pipefitters. Nuclear reactor operators are em ployed to operate research and test reactors and many service workers are employed in plant protection and security operations. Although most nuclear energy re search is performed in AEC re search and development facilities, additional research is performed in the privately owned research labo ratories of educational institutions, other nonprofit institutions, and in dustrial concerns. Like the AEC fa cilities, these laboratories employ a large proportion of workers in sci entific, engineering, and other tech nical jobs. Production of Nuclear Weapons and Other Defense Materials. More than 31,000 workers were em ployed in 1970 in establishments producing nuclear weapons and weapon components, plutonium, and other defense materials. The skilled workers in this industry in clude large numbers of machinery repairmen and millwrights, chemical process operators, all-round ma chinists, electricians, instrument re pairmen, pipefitters, tool and die makers, and instrument makers. Among the large number of sci entists and engineers employed at these facilities are many chemists, physicists, and mechanical, chemi cal, and electrical and electronics engineers. Many engineering and physical science aids, draftsmen, ra diation monitors, and electronics technicians, are employed to assist scientists and engineers. Other Atomic Energy Activities. Nearly 1,700 workers were em ployed in 1970 to produce special materials such as beryllium, zirco nium, and hafnium for use in reac tors. More than 6,500 workers were employed by companies that manu facture reactor control instruments, radiation detection and monitoring devices, and other instruments for the atomic energy field. Production of these instruments involves work similar to that in instrument manu facturing in general. Engineers and technicians represent a substantial proportion of employment in this field. More than 700 persons were em ployed in companies which special ize in the manufacture of particle accelerators or their specialized components. These machines enable scientists to study the structure and properties of the elementary parti cles that make up the nucleus of an atom. Workers employed in the design and manufacture of these machines include electrical and electronics engineers, mechanical engineers, physicists, draftsmen, electronics technicians, and machin ists. Other workers in the atomic en ergy field are engaged in activities such as processing and packaging radioisotopes, manufacturing ra diography units and radiation gages, packaging and disposing of radioac tive wastes, and industrial radiogra phy. Government Employment. The OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD Atomic Energy Commission, which directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program, employed more than 7,300 workers in its headquarters and field offices in 1970. Over 1,800 engineers and sci entists were employed by the Com mission, including personnel in nearly every major engineering and scientific occupation. Since the AEC is primarily an administrative and regulatory agency, nearly 9 out of 10 Commission employees are in administrative and other profes sional positions or in clerical jobs. This proportion of administrative and clerical personnel is much larger than among other employers in the atomic energy field. In addition to those employed by the Atomic Energy Commission, several thousand government em ployees are engaged in atomic en ergy work in other Federal agencies and in regulatory and promotional activities of State and local govern ments. Their responsibilities involve atomic energy research and applica tion, and establishment of radiation health and safety measures. Unique Atomic Energy Occupa tions. Most of the occupations dis cussed in the preceding sections are similar to those found in other in dustrial activities, although they may have job titles unique to the atomic energy field (such as nuclear engineer, radiation chemist, and nu clear reactor operator) and require some specialized knowledge of atomic energy. A detailed discus sion of the duties, training, and em ployment outlook for most of these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. The health physics occupations, which are unique to the atomic en ergy field, and some other occupa tions that are unique in that they re quire training in the handling and use of radioactive materials or radi ation-producing equipment, are dis cussed briefly in the following sec tions. Health physicists (sometimes called radiation or radiological phy sicists or chemists) are responsible for detecting radiation and applying safety standards to control exposure to it. In 1970, nearly 1,100 health 635 physicists were employed in radia tion protection work, research, or teaching. Health physicists are responsible for planning and organizing radiol ogical health programs at atomic energy facilities. They establish standards of inspection and deter mine procedures for protecting em ployees and eliminating radiological hazards. They supervise the inspec tion of work areas with potential ra diation hazards and prepare instruc tions covering safe work procedures in these areas. Health physicists also plan and supervise training programs dealing with radiation hazards and advise others on methods of dealing with such hazards. In some cases, they are employed on research projects dealing with the effects of human exposure to radiation and may de velop procedures to be followed in using radioactive materials. Radiation monitors (also called health-physics technicians) gener ally work under the supervision of health physicists. An estimated 1,600 radiation monitors were em ployed in the atomic energy field in 1970. They use special instruments to monitor work areas and equip ment to detect radioactive contami nation. Soil, water, and air samples are taken frequently to determine radiation levels. Monitors may also collect and analyze radiation detec tors worn by workers, such as film badges and pocket detection cham bers. Radiation monitors inform their supervisors when a worker’s expo sure to radiation or the level of ra diation in a work area approaches specified maximum permissible lim its and they recommend work stop page in potentially unsafe areas. They calculate the amount of time that personnel may work in contam inated areas, considering maximum 636 radiation exposure limits and the ra diation level in the area. Monitors also may give instructions in radia tion safety procedures and prescribe special clothing requirements and other safety precautions for work ers entering radiation zones. Nuclear reactor operators per form work in nuclear power stations similar to that of boiler operators in conventional power stations; how ever, the controls operated are dif ferent. In addition, reactor opera tors may assist in the loading and unloading of reactor cores. Nuclear reactor operators who work with re search and test reactors check reac tor control panels and adjust con trols to maintain specified operating conditions within the reactor, such as power and radiation levels. Nearly 1,200 persons were em ployed as nuclear reactor operators in 1970. Accelerator operators set up and coordinate the operation of particle accelerators. They adjust machine controls to accelerate electrically charged particles, in accordance with instructions from the scientist in charge of the experiment, and set up target materials which are to be bombarded by the accelerated parti cles. They also may assist in the maintenance of equipment. Radiographers take radiographs of metal castings, welds, and other objects by adjusting the controls of an X-ray machine or by exposing a source of radioactivity to the object to be radiographed. They select the proper type of radiation source and film to use and apply standard mathematical formulas to determine exposure distance and time. While taking radiographs, they use radia tion detection instruments to moni tor the work area for potential radi ation hazards. Radiographers also may remove and develop the film or plate and assist in its analysis. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Hot-cell technicians operate re mote-controlled equipment to test radioactive materials that are placed in hot cells—rooms that are en closed with radiation shielding ma terials, such as lead and concrete. By controlling “slave manipulators” (mechanical devices that act as a pair of arms and hands) from out side the cell and observing their ac tions through the cell window, these technicians perform standard chem ical and metallurgical operations with radioactive materials. Hot-cell technicians also may enter the cell wearing protective clothing to set up experiments or to decontaminate the cell and equipment. Decontami nation men have the primary duty of decontaminating equipment, plant areas, and materials exposed to radioactive contaminants. They use radiation-detection instruments to locate the contamination; elimi nate it by the use of special equip ment, detergents, and chemicals; and then verify the effectiveness of the decontamination measures. Waste-treatment operators operate heat exchange units, pumps, com pressors, and other equipment to decontaminate and dispose of ra dioactive waste liquids. Waste-dis posal men seal contaminated wastes in concrete containers and transport the containers to a burial ground. Radioisotope-production opera tors use remote control manipula tors and other equipment to prepare radioisotopes for shipping and to perform chemical analyses to ensure that radioisotopes conform to speci fications. Training and Other Qualifications Training and educational require ments and advancement opportuni ties for most workers in atomic en ergy activities are generally similar to those for comparable jobs in other fields and are discussed else where in the Handbook under the specific occupation. However, spe cialized training is required for many workers because the atomic energy field is relatively new, re quires rigorous work standards in both its research and production ac tivities, and has unique health and safety problems. Engineers and scientists at all lev els of professional training are em ployed in the atomic energy field. Many of them have had advanced training, particularly those engaged in research, development, and de sign work. Of the scientists and en gineers employed in research and development by major AEC con tractors, about one-fourth have a Ph. D. degree. The proportion of engineers with Ph. D. degrees is smaller than the proportion of sci entists with such degrees. However, graduate training is also preferred for an increasing number of engi neering jobs. Training in nuclear engineering, although increasing at the under graduate level, is predom inately at the graduate level. Specialized knowledge of nuclear energy, which is essential for most scientific and engineering positions in atomic energy, may be obtained at a university or sometimes onthe-job. Colleges and universities have ex panded their facilities and curriculums to provide training in nuclear energy. Engineers and scientists who plan to specialize in the atomic energy field generally take graduate work in nuclear energy, although in troductory or background courses may be taken at the undergraduate level. Some colleges and universities award graduate degrees in nuclear engineering or nuclear science. Oth ers offer graduate training in these fields, but award degrees only in the OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD traditional engineering or scientific fields. Craftsmen in some atomic energy jobs need more training than most craftsmen in comparable nonatomic jobs. High skill requirements are often needed because of the ex treme precision required to insure efficient operation and maintenance of complex equipment and machin ery. For example, pipefitters may have to fit pipe to tolerances of less than one ten-thousandth of an inch and work with pipe made from rare costly metals. Welding also may have to meet higher reliability stan dards than in most nonatomic fields. Craftsmen in atomic energy gener ally obtain the required special skills on the job. Many AEC instal lations also have apprentice training programs to develop craft skills. Health physicists should have at least a bachelor’s degree in physics, Scientists test electron accelerator. 637 chemistry, or engineering, and a year or more of graduate work in health physics. A Ph. D. degree often is required for teaching and research. A radiation monitor can qualify for on-the-job training with a high school education with courses in mathematics, physics, and chemis try. Radiation monitors must be come familiar with characteristics of radiation, maximum permissible ra diation exposure levels, and meth ods of calculating exposure periods. They also must learn how to cali brate the instruments they use. Nuclear power reactor operators need a basic understanding of reac tor theory and a working knowledge of reactor controls. Most operator trainees have a high school educa tion. Trainees usually are selected from conventional power plant per sonnel having experience as opera tors of boiler, turbine, or electrical machinery. Preference sometimes is given to those who have completed courses in science and engineering at the college level. Workers who operate the controls of private nu clear reactors must be licensed by the AEC. To qualify for a license, the trainee must pass an operating test, a written test given by the AEC, and a medical examination. An accelerator operator usually requires a high school education that includes courses in mathemat ics and physics to qualify for onthe-job training. Accelerator opera tors receive several months of onthe-job training covering operating, repair, and safety procedures. To qualify for on-the-job training as a radiographer, a high school educa tion, including courses in mathemat ics, chemistry, and physics, usually is sufficient. Hot-cell technicians and decon-'’ tamination men may be high school graduates with some mechanical ex 638 perience who can qualify for onthe-job training. They may be given in-plant training lasting several months. Radioisotope-production operators usually require a high school education with courses in chemistry. High school graduates can qualify as waste-treatment oper ators, but experience in reading electronic instruments or in a chem ical laboratory is desirable. High school graduates also can qualify for employment as waste-disposal men. They receive on-the-job train ing in the operation of equipment and the avoidance of radiation haz ards. Other workers in the atomic en ergy field also need special training because of the presence of potential radiation hazards. Employees who work in the vicinity of such hazards are always given on-the-job training in the nature of radiation and the procedures to follow in case of its accidental release. Individuals who handle classified data (restricted for reasons of na tional security) or who work on classified projects in the atomic en ergy field must have a security clearance, based on an investigation of a person’s character, loyalty, and associations. The Atomic Energy Commission, at its contractor-operated facilities, supports on-the-job and specialized training programs to help prepare scientists, engineers, technicians, and other workers for the atomic energy field. The AEC also offers graduate fellowships in specialized nuclear fields. More than 600 fellowships were awarded for the 1969-70 academic year. In addition, other Federal agencies also gave a number of fel lowships for graduate work in nu clear science and technology. The prerequisite for consideration for a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Technicians check reactor using remote-control manipulators. fellowship is a bachelor’s degree in engineering or physical science. Additional educational and train ing opportunities are offered in cooperative programs arranged by AEC laboratories with colleges and universities. Temporary employ ment at AEC-owned laboratories is available to faculty members and students. Undergraduates and grad uate engineering students may work at laboratories and other Commis sion facilities on a rotation basis with classroom studies, and many graduate students do their thesis work at AEC laboratories. Many Commission contractors provide employees with training at their own plants or at nearby col leges and universities. Total employment in the atomic energy field is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s as commercial activities in atomic en ergy expand, and as new applica tions of this energy form are devel oped. Many factors point to a long-term expansion in this field. Expenditures for atomic energy research and de velopment should lead to further employment growth in production activities; the use of nuclear reac tors in electric power generating stations is becoming increasingly widespread; and the use of reactors in conjunction with power genera tion to desalt sea water also is ex pected to increase. Growth in the use of nuclear reactors for propul sion of surface ships is anticipated, although progress in this area may not be as rapid as in electric power generation. Expansion also is ex pected in the “Plowshare” program to develop peaceful uses for nuclear explosives, in programs to further develop radioisotope technology, and in the use of nuclear power in space. Employment opportunities are expected to rise significantly for workers who design and manufac ture nuclear power reactors and in struments, and who process and package radioisotopes. As more nu clear reactors are built and put into operation, employment will further increase both in the operation and maintenance of reactors, and in re lated activities such as the fabrica tion and reprocessing of reactor fuel elements and the disposal of ra dioactive wastes. Employment in mining, milling, refining, and en richment of uranium will increase as the demand for nuclear fuel in creases. As the use of nuclear power becomes more widespread, there OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD also will be an increase in employ ment of regulatory workers in both the Atomic Energy Commission and in State agencies to insure safe use of atomic energy. Expansion in these areas of atomic energy will create very good employment op portunities for trained professional and technical workers and for skilled craftsmen. In addition to the employment opportunities created by expansion in atomic energy activities, other job openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, blue-collar workers em ployed by contractors at AEC labo ratories and other installations had average straight-time hourly earn ings of $4.11; blue-collar workers in all manufacturing industries had av erage earnings of $3.36 an hour. Professional workers employed at AEC installations averaged $15,000 a year in base pay in 1970, and other white-collar workers (largely clerical and other office personnel) averaged nearly $7,300 a year. (Earnings data for many of the oc cupations found in the atomic en ergy field are included in the state ments on these occupations else where in the Handbook.) Working conditions in uranium mining and milling, instrument and auxiliary equipment manufacturing, and facilities construction are gener ally similar to those in comparable nonatomic energy activities, except for radiation safety precautions. All uranium mines are equipped with mechanical ventilation systems that reduce the concentration of radioac tive radon gas—a substance that can cause lung injury if inhaled over a number of years. Efforts to elimi nate this hazard are continuing. In the other atomic energy activities in which the major proportion of workers in the field are employed, working conditions generally are very good. Buildings and plants are well lighted and ventilated. Equip ment, tools, and machines are mod ern and sometimes the most ad vanced of their type. Only a small proportion of employees in the atomic energy field actually work in areas where direct radiation hazard 639 dangers exist. Even in these areas, shielding, automatic alarm systems, and other devices and clothing given ample protection to the workers. In some cases, plants are located in re mote areas. Extensive safeguards and operat ing practices ensure the health and safety of workers, and the AEC and its contractors have maintained an excellent safety record. The AEC regulates the possession and use of radioactive materials, and AEC per sonnel inspect nuclear facilities to insure compliance with the AEC’s health and safety requirements. Constant efforts are being made to provide better safety standards and regulations. Most plant hourly paid workers belong to unions that represent their particular craft or industry. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the atomic energy field may be obtained from: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 20545. O C C U P A T I O N IN T H E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y The baking industry is one of the largest food-processing employers in the United States. Occupations in bakeries provide steady, year-round employment for thousands of workers throughout the country. The industry provides jobs to suit a variety of interests, skills, and tal ents. Workers make, wrap, and pack bakery products and deliver them to stores, homes, and restau rants. Mechanics maintain and re pair the machinery used in modern bakeries and service delivery trucks. Managers and sales specialists di rect operations and clerical workers do the regular office duties. Nature and Location of the Industry In 1970, the baking industry em ployed 282,000 workers in about 4,500 bakeries. About 85 percent of these workers were employed in bakeries that produced perishable goods such as bread, rolls, pies, cakes, and doughnuts. The remain ing workers were employed in bak eries that produced “dry” goods such as cookies, crackers, pretzels, and ice cream cones. Included in this industry are large wholesale bakeries that sell to retail stores, restaurants, hotels, and other large customers; home service bakeries that deliver their products directly to the customers’ homes; bakeries owned and operated by grocery chains; and the central baking plants of companies operating sev eral retail bake shops. In addition to the bakeries de scribed above, over 19,000 single shop retail bakeries employed about 100,000 men and women including 640 shop owners. Although some retail bakeshops employed 20 individuals or more, the average shop em ployed about 5 or 6. Many baking operations are done by hand rather than machine, and therefore, retail bakeries offer many opportunities not available in large bakeries to the skilled baking craftsman. Most bakeries producing perish able goods are relatively small be cause they serve only their local area. However, an increasing num ber serve markets up to 200 miles away, and a few serve even wider areas. In contrast, bakeries that produce dry baked goods generally are large plants and distribute their products regionally or nationally. These bakeries employed an aver age of 120 workers compared with about 50 in bakeries producing per ishable products. Almost every community in the United States has at least one bak ery. However, more than half of all industrial bakery employees are in New York, Pennsylvania, Califor nia, Ohio, Illinois, New Jersey, Texas, and Massachusetts. Nearly 60 percent of the indus try’s employees are production workers. They do the actual baking, handle raw materials, maintain equipment, wrap and pack the products, and keep the bakeries sanitary. Another 20 percent of the employees deliver the industry’s products. Most of these employees work as driver-salesmen, selling to retail stores or directly to customers in their homes. Other drivers with no sales duties deliver bakery prod ucts to distribution centers, hotels, restaurants, and stores. The remain ing 20 percent of the work force are employed in administrative, profes sional, technical, and clerical jobs. Approximately 1 out of 5 in dustrial bakery workers are women, most of whom are office workers such as secretaries or bookkeepers. Some are employed in production jobs, such as slicing machine opera tor, wrapping machine operator, or pie and cake packer, but very few women are bakers. Production Occupations. The prin cipal baking processes consist of blending, sifting, mixing, proofing, baking, and wrapping and packing. Since bread is the primary product of the industry, the following de scriptions of occupations relate principally to the production of bread. With some variations, de pending on the product and the amount of mechanization, these are the occupations in any industrial bakery. In general, production workers load and unload machines, watch the operation of the machines, and inspect the output. Mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) weigh ingredients and combine them in blending mach ines. By means of instruments, they carefully control timing and temper ature in order to produce a uniform, well-blended dough. The dough is sent to a “proofing” room where the warm temperature produces a fer menting process which causes the dough to rise. When the dough has risen, it is poured into another blending machine, and additional flour, liquids, sugar, salt, and short ening are added and mixed. The dough then goes through another fermenting process before it is shaped into loaves or rolls. Dividermen (D.O.T. 526.782) operate machines which divide the dough according to the weight of the loaf to be produced. The pieces of dough are rolled into balls which are dusted with flour in a rounding machine Dough molders or molding machine operators (D.O.T. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY 520.885) operate machines which press all the air bubbles from the dough and form it into loaves or rolls. “Continuous mixing,” an au tomatic process that is being used increasingly, eliminates many of the steps described above. When fancy shaped bread or rolls are made, bench hands (D.O.T. 520.884) knead and form the dough by hand into various shapes and place the pieces of dough in the pans. The pans containing the machine and hand-shaped dough go to the final proofing room where the dough rises for about an hour before it is removed and placed in the oven. Ovenmen (D.O.T. 526.885) adjust temperature and timing devices on the ovens. In small bakeries, all-round bak ers (D.O.T. 526.781), assisted by helpers, usually do all the steps needed to turn out finished baked products. In large bakeries, all round bakers are employed as working foremen. They supervise the men and machines in their de partment and coordinate their activ ity with that in other departments in order to meet production schedules. A considerable number of help ers (D.O.T. 526.886) are em ployed in baking operations. They 641 may assist all-round bakers and spe cialized bakery workers. They have job titles such as dough mixer helper, bench hand helper, and ovenman helper. Helpers also per form such jobs as greasing pans, re moving bread from pans, pushing troughs and racks, and washing pans. After baked foods leave the oven and are cooled, several types of workers prepare them for delivery to customers. Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators (D.O.T. 521.885) feed loaves of bread onto conveyors leading into the mach ines, watch the slicing and wrapping operations, adjust the machines, and keep them supplied with plastic bags, paper, and labels. A conveyor then takes the wrapped loaves to the shipping platform. Many bakery employees work in icing departments where they give the finishing touches to cakes, pas- 642 tries, and other sweet goods. Icing mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) prepare cake icings and fillings, following special formulas of the bakery. They weigh and measure ingre dients and mix them by machine. They also prepare cooked fillings for pies, tarts, and other pastries. In small plants, icing mixers may also spread icing on cakes and cookies. Hand icers (D.O.T. 524.884) are skilled craftsmen who decorate special products such as wedding cakes, birthday cakes, and fancy pastries. When the product is uniform or requires no special deco ration, the frosting may be applied by machine icers (D.O.T. 524.885). Bakeries also employ many workers in their storage, warehous ing, and shipping departments. Re ceiving and stock clerks check and keep records of incoming supplies and ingredients, and deliver them to various departments. Packers and checkers make up orders of bakery products for delivery by driversalesmen. Maintenance Occupations. Baking firms employ skilled maintenance workers such as machinists, electri cians, and stationary engineers and their helpers to keep machinery and equipment in good condition. Large plants, which are usually highly mechanized, employ many of these workers. In addition, since many baking firms have fleets of trucks, many truck mechanics are em ployed for maintenance. Sales and Driving Occupations. The selling and delivery of finished baked foods to grocers, restaurants, hotels, homes, and other customers provide jobs for many thousands of workers. Some of these workers sell baked goods, some drive trucks, and many do both. Driver-salesmen, also called OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK routemen (D.O.T. 292.358), work for either wholesale bakeries or home-service bakeries. They deliver baked foods to grocery stores or to homes along their routes and collect payment for delivered products. A major part of their job is to increase customers’ orders and gain new cus tomers. Wholesale driver-salesmen arrange their baked products on shelves or display racks in grocery stores and may restock shelves sev eral times a day in busy stores. Home-service driver-salesmen make deliveries directly to customers’ homes. At the end of each day, driver-salesmen return unsold baked goods to the bakery, report the day’s transactions, and turn in money collected. They also make a list of the items that they think gro cers or housewives will buy the next day. These estimates guide produc tion managers in making up produc tion schedules for the next morning. A large bakery may employ sev eral route supervisors, each in charge of 6 to 10 driver-salesmen. In a smaller bakery, one route su pervisor may be in charge of all salesmen. In addition to training new driver-salesmen, route supervi sors may serve as temporary re placements for absent salesmen. Chain grocery store bakeries and multioutlet retail bakeries employ truckdrivers rather than driversalesmen to drive large vans, and deliver baked foods to each of their company’s stores. Stock clerks or sales clerks then arrange the display of baked goods in the stores. Administrative, Clerical, and Pro fessional and Technical Occupa tions. Administrators in large bak ing firms and proprietors of small firms coordinate all baking activities from the purchase of raw materials to the production and delivery of baked products. In large baking firms, activities are divided into sep arate departments or functions and supervised by plant managers, comptrollers, sales managers, and other executives. Some administra tive employees specialize in ac counting, purchasing, advertising, personnel and industrial relations, or other fields. Bakeries employ many types of clerical workers, in cluding bookkeepers, cashiers, clerks, business machine operators, typists, and switchboard operators. A large proportion of these office workers are women. Some large baking companies have laboratories and test kitchens where chemists, home economists, and their assist ants test ingredients and prepare formulas and recipes for bread and other baked items. (Detailed dis cussions of the duties, training, and employment outlook for mainte nance, sales, driving, administrative, clerical, and technical personnel ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for occu pations in the baking industry range from a few days on the job to sev eral years. For example, some bak ery workers, such as slicing machine operators, can be trained in a few days. Skilled workers, such as all round bakers and baking specialists, require at least 3 or 4 years of train ing. Professional personnel and some administrative workers must have a college degree or equivalent experience in their particular spe cialty. Most inexperienced production workers in the baking industry are hired as helpers (utility workers). They may be assigned such tasks as carrying ingredients to mixing machines, or pushing troughs of 643 OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY dough to the proofing room. By working alongside bakers, helpers are able to acquire baking skills. Some bakers learn their trade through formal apprenticeship pro grams. Generally, apprentices are selected from among the helpers. Employers usually require that ap prentice applicants be between 18 and 26 years of age and have a high school or vocational school educa tion. Apprenticeship programs last 3 or 4 years and include on-the-job training in all baking operations and classroom instruction in related sub jects. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as bakers or cake decorators are in operation in sev eral cities under provisions of the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. Some workers take courses in vo cational school or learn the trade in the Armed Forces. Such training may not qualify a young man as a skilled baker, but it may help him to become an apprentice and perhaps shorten his apprenticeship. Bakers may be promoted to jobs such as working or department fore man. Some bakers who have devel oped special skill in fancy cakemak ing or piemaking may find jobs in hotel or restaurant bakeries. All round bakers with some business ability sometimes open their own bakeshops. Employees of the baking industry must be in good health because most States require a health certifi cate indicating that the worker is free from communicable diseases. Good health is also important be cause of the irregular working hours and extremes in temperature found in bakeries. Some bakeries have apprentice ship programs for maintenance jobs such as machinists, electricians, and mechanics. Other plants hire inex perienced workers as mechanics’ helpers, who gain experience and know-how while working with skilled mechanics. Some bakeries hire only skilled maintenance men. For jobs as driver-salesmen or truckdrivers, baking firms generally hire inexperienced young men with a high school education. These workers often begin as stock clerks, packers, or checkers, and may be promoted to driving jobs as va cancies occur. Applicants must be able to get a chauffeur’s license and are sometimes tested by the baking companies to determine whether or not they are safe drivers. A new worker who wishes to sell as well as drive should have a pleasant ap pearance and the ability to get along well with people. Classroom in struction in sales, display, and deliv ery procedures is sometimes given to new driver-salesmen, but most training is given on the job by route supervisors. Driver-salesmen may be promoted to route supervisor and sales manager. Administrative jobs are usually filled by upgrading personnel al ready employed in the firm. Some owners and production managers of bakeries have come from the ranks of baking craftsmen and some begin their careers in sales occupa tions. In recent years, large baking firms have required their new ad ministrative workers to have a col lege degree in one of the adminis trative fields, such as marketing, ac counting, labor relations, personnel, or advertising. Kansas State Univer sity at Manhattan offers a bachelor of science degree in baking science and management. The American Institute of Baking conducts a school of baking for persons with a bachelor’s degree who wish to qual ify for managerial positions in the industry. Young persons who have com pleted a commercial course in high school, junior college, or a business school usually are preferred for the secretarial, stenographic, and other office jobs. Employment Outlook Employment in the baking indus try is expected to decline slowly through the 1970’s. Nevertheless, several thousand job openings are anticipated each year because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The demand for bakery products is expected to rise moderately dur ing this period in response to in creases in population. However, be cause of increasing efficiency in production, total employment is ex pected to decline. Even so, employ ment in some occupations is ex pected to increase. For example, more truckdrivers will be needed as suburban developments increase and sales territories expand. Addi tional maintenance workers will be needed to keep machinery and other equipment in operating order as bakeries become more mecha nized. Some increase may occur in the number of clerical workers as a result of additional recordkeeping requirements. However, the antici pated increases in these occupations will be more than offset by the con tinuing decline in the number of production workers resulting from the installation of mechanized proc essing and materials handling equipment, and improvements in the methods of processing baked goods. Pneumatic conveyors, for ex ample, greatly increase efficiency in materials handling operations, and the “continuous mix” process elimi nates dough mixing and proofing 644 operations. In addition, the freezing of baked goods for storage until ready for sale permits bakeries to prepare a week’s requirements at one time rather than small batches daily. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the perishable bakery products industry averaged $128.18 a week, or $3.27 an hour, in 1970. The rates were slightly lower in biscuit and cracker bakeries. Wage rates tend to be higher in the West and North than in the South or South west. According to union-management contracts covering employees in 24 wholesale bakeries producing bread and related products, minimum hourly rates in major occupations in 1970 ranged as follows: Baking foremen and all-round bakers ....................................$3.55-5.03 Molders and dividers and molding and dividing ma chine operators .................... 3.16-4.72 Mixers (dough or icing).......... 3.01-4.72 Ovenmen ................................... 3.01-4.72 Benchmen ................................. 3.01-4.63 Wrapping machine operators.. 2.83-3.86 Utilitymen (general helpers).. 2.66-4.12 Porters and cleaners ................ 2.66-4.12 Some plant employees work night shifts and weekends because baking is done around the clock in many plants. Workers receive extra pay for night-work. However, the night shift is being eliminated in some bakeries because the increasing use of freezing processes makes it possi ble to prepare baked goods in ad vance and store them until needed. Most plant workers are on a 40hour workweek, although some work 35 or 37 Vi hours and others 44 or 48 hours regularly. For those who work a 35- or 3 7 Vi-hour week, time and a half is paid for work be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK yond their regular schedule. For all others, time and a half is paid for all work over 40 hours. Driver-salesmen usually receive a guaranteed minimum salary plus a percentage of their sales. According to limited information from unionmanagement contracts in effect in 1970, driver-salesmen for both wholesale and home-service baker ies had minimum weekly salaries of from $87 to $175. By selling more baked products to more customers, driver-salesmen can increase their earnings. Companies generally pay for uniforms and their maintenance. Truckdrivers for baking plants are paid by the hour. Hourly rates and hours worked vary from city to city. In 1970, the minimum wage rates and maximum hours a week before overtime rates prevail, pro vided by union-management con tracts for truckdrivers of bakeries producing bread, cakes, pies, etc. in 10 selected cities were as follows: M in im u m w age r a te Atlanta, Ga..................... ..$3.25 Cleveland, Ohio ............ .. 3.89 Dallas, Tex....................... .. 3.25 Detroit, Mich, (bread).. .. 3.74 Houston, Tex................... .. 3.25 Little Rock, Ark............ .. 3.15 New York, N.Y. (cake and pastry) ................ .. 4.18 Oklahoma City, Okla. . . 3.35 Pittsburgh, Pa. (bread).. .. 3.29 Oakland, Calif. (transport) ................ .. 4.63 H o u rs per w eek 40 40 40 40 40 45 40 40 44 40 Working conditions in bakeries are generally good. However, many jobs involve some strenuous physi cal work, despite the considerable mechanization of baking processes. Work near ovens can be hot, espe cially in the summer. Paid vacations for employees are almost universal in industrial baking firms. Vacation periods range from 1 to 4 weeks, according to length of service. Paid holidays range from 5 to 11 days, depending on the local ity. Most baking firms have adopted some type of insurance or pension arrangement for their employees, such as life insurance, health insur ance programs, or retirement pen sion plans. A large number of em ployees are covered by joint unionindustry health and welfare plans, and pension systems which are paid for entirely by employer contribu tions. Most plant workers and drivers belong to a labor union. Bakers, baking specialists, and other plant workers have been organized by the Bakery and Confectionery Workers’ International Union of America. Driver-salesmen and transport driv ers are generally members of the In ternational Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some maintenance men are mem bers of craft unions such as the In ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on local job openings may be obtained directly from bak eries in the community, local offices of the State employment service, or locals of the labor unions noted pre viously. General information on job op portunities in the baking industry and on requirements for entering accredited schools which offer courses or degrees in baking science and technology may be obtained by writing to: American Bakers Association, 1700 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E D R U G IN D U S T R Y Potions and spells for the cure and prevention of pain and disease are legion in medical folklore. But twentieth-century science has created a supply of drugs un dreamed of by even the most imagi native apothecaries of the past. More than 10,000 prescription drugs alone are available to today’s physician. These drugs have re sulted in the control of cardiovascu lar disease, malaria, pneumonia, and even some forms of cancer. Hormones have relieved the pain and crippling effects of arthritis and other diseases. Tranquilizers and other drugs have done much to re duce the afflictions of mental illness. Vaccines have reduced dramatically the toll of polio, whooping cough, and measles. The American drug industry has risen to a position of world-wide prominence in the research and de velopment of new drugs. The drug industry spends a higher proportion of its funds for research than any other American industry. A large pharmaceutical firm in the United States may test 2,000 or more sub stances a year and spend millions of dollars to develop one new drug. Although the drug industry looks to its many scientific and technical personnel to carry out its vast re search programs, three out of every five jobs in the industry do not re quire that the worker have more than a high school education. Nature and Location of the Industry In 1970, an estimated 150,000 workers were employed in the drug industry. About 115,000 of these worked in plants that made pharma ceutical preparations (finished drugs), such as antibiotics and aspi rin. Another 20,000 were employed in plants that produced bulk medici nal chemicals and botanicals used in making finished drugs; and nearly 15,000 worked in plants that made biological products, such as serums and vaccines. Drug plants typically employ large numbers of workers. About two-thirds of the industry’s em ployees were in plants having more than 500 workers. Some of the larg est plants employed more than 5,000. About three-fourths of the indus try’s workers were employed in six States: New Jersey, New York, In diana, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Michigan. Large plants are located in Indianapolis, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; Nutley and Rahway, N.J.; Philadel phia, Pa.; Detroit and Kalamazoo, Mich.; and Pearl River, N.Y. One of the most striking charac teristics of the drug industry is the large volume of new products devel oped in its research laboratories. Examples of important new drugs reaching the market during the last decade are: vaccine for the preven tion of German measles; oral vac cine for the prevention of polio; and oral agents for the control of diabe tes. Because of the strong emphasis on the discovery of new products, the drug industry has a larger pro portion of its employees in research and development activities than most other industries. A primary research method for testing new drugs is a procedure called screening. For example, an antibiotic sample may be placed in a virus culture. If the antibiotic affects the culture, it is next tested on labo ratory animals that have been in fected with the same virus. Promis ing compounds are studies further for evidence of useful—and harmful —effects. A new drug will be se lected for testing in man only if it promises to have therapeutic advan tages over comparable drugs al ready in use, or if it offers the possi bility of being safer than those al ready in use. After screening, a clinical investi gation, or trial of the drug in human patients, is made. Supplies of the drug are given to a small circle of doctors, called clinical investigators, who administer it to carefully se lected patients. The patients are ob served closely and special studies are made to determine the drug’s effect. If a drug proves useful, ar rangements are made for additional tests with a larger group of physi cians, including some in private practice. Once a drug has successfully passed animal and clinical tests and has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration, problems of production methods and costs must be worked out before the actual manufacturing process begins. If the process originally used in the re search laboratory to prepare and compound the ingredients is compli cated and expensive, pharmacists, chemists, packaging engineers, and production specialists are then as signed to develop improved proc esses that can be economically adapted to mass production tech niques. Drug manufacturing plants have developed a high degree of automa tion in many production operations. Milling and micronizing machines (which pulverize substances into extremely fine particles) are used to reduce bulk chemicals to the re quired size. These finished chemi645 646 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cals are combined and processed further in mixing machines. The mixed ingredients may then be me chanically capsulized, pressed into tablets, or bottled. One type of machine, for example, automatically fills, seals, and stamps capsules. Other machines fill bottles with cap sules, tablets, or liquids, and seal, label, and package the bottles. Drug products are inspected at various stages during the manufacturing process to assure that they conform to specifications. Although some inspection operations are mecha nized, many are performed manu ally. Occupations in the Industry Workers with many different lev els of skill and education are em ployed in the drug industry. More than half of the industry’s workers are in white-collar jobs (scientific, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales); most of the remainder are in plant jobs (processing or production, maintenance, transpor tation, and custodial). Nearly two-fifths of the drug in dustry’s workers are women, a higher proportion than in most other manufacturing industries. Most of them are semiskilled plant workers and office workers. Some are scientists and technicians. The duties of some of the impor tant occupations are described briefly below. (Detailed discussion of professional, technical, clerical and other occupations found in drug manufacturing, as well as in other industries, are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections cov ering individual occupations.) Scientific and Technical Occupa tions. About 1 out of every 5 em ployees in the industry is a scientist, engineer, or technician—a far Research scientist operates nuclear magnetic resonance instrument. greater proportion than in most other industries. The majority re search and develop new drug prod ucts. Others work to streamline production methods and improve quality control. Chemists (D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181) comprise over one-fourth of the scientific and technical person nel in the industry. Organic chem ists combine new compounds for biological testing. Physical chemists separate and identify substances, determine molecular structure, help to create new compounds and im prove manufacturing processes. Biochemists study the action of drugs on body processes and cells. Radiochemists trace the course of drugs through body organs and tis sues. Pharmaceutical chemists set standards and specifications for form of product and storage condi tions and see that labeling and liter ature meet the requirements of State and Federal laws. Analytical chemists test raw and intermediate materials and finished products for quality. Over one-fifth of the industry’s scientific and technical workers are biological scientists (D.O.T. 041.081, .181, and 049.384). Biol ogists and bacteriologists study the effect of chemical agents on infected animals. Microbiologists grow strains of microorganisms which produce antibiotics. Physiologists investigate the effect of drugs on, for example, reproduction and cir culatory functions. Pharmacologists and zoologists study the therapeutic and toxic effect of drugs on animals. Virologists grow viruses, develop vaccines, and test them in animals. Botanists with their special knowl edge of plant life, contribute to the discovery of botanical ingredients for drugs. Some other biological sci entists include pathologists, who study normal and abnormal cells or tissues, and toxicologists, who are concerned with the safety, dosage levels, and the compatibility of dif ferent drugs. Pharmacists perform research in product development, compounding and studying many forms of medicines at various stages 647 OCCUPATIONS IN THE DRUG INDUSTRY of production. Some set specifica tions for the purchase and manufac ture of materials, and handle corre spondence relating to products. Drug manufacturers also employ physicians and veterinarians. Engineers make up about onetwelfth of scientific and technical employment. Chemical engineers (D.O.T. 008.081) design equip ment and devise manufacturing proc esses. Industrial engineers (D.O.T. 012.081, .168, .187, .188, and .281) plan equipment layout and workflow to maintain efficient utili zation of plant facilities. Mechanical engineers (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, .181, and .187) coordinate the installation and maintenance of sterilizing, heating, cooling, humidi fying, and ventilating equipment. Technicians (D.O.T. 073.381, 078.128, .168, .281, .368, .381, and .687) represent over one-fifth of the drug industry’s scientific and technical workers. Laboratory tests play an important part in the detec tion and diagnosis of a disease and in the discovery of medicines. Labo ratory technicians perform these tests under the direction of scientists in such areas as bacteriology, para sitology, biochemistry, microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), cy tology (analysis of blood cells), and nuclear medical technology (the use of radioactive isotopes to help de tect diseases). Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. About 1 out of every 3 workers in drug manufac turing is in an administrative, cleri cal, or other office job. At the top of the administrative group are the ex ecutives who make policy decisions concerning matters of finance, mar keting, and types of products to re search and develop. Other adminis trative and executive workers are accountants, lawyers, purchasing agents, personnel and industrial re lations workers, and advertising and market research workers. Clerical employees keep records on person nel, payroll, raw materials, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. Salesmen, often called pharma ceutical detail men, represent a small (three percent) but important group of drug industry employees. Detail men are employed and trained by drug manufacturers to in form physicians of the availability and appropriate utilization of the company’s products. They visit practicing and teaching physicians, pharmacists, dentists, and hospital administrators to distribute samples of and information on the latest products. Other functions include reporting information from custom ers back to their companies and transmitting knowledge and experi ence from one user to another. Plant Occupations. Nearly half of the industry’s employees work in plant jobs. The majority of these workers can be divided into three major occupational groups: produc tion or processing workers who op erate the drug producing equip ment; maintenance workers who install, maintain, and repair machin ery and other equipment; and truck drivers, shipping clerks, and mate rial handlers who help transport the drugs. Pharmaceutical operators (D.O.T. 559.782) control machines that produce tablets, capsules, ointments, and medicinal solutions. Granulator machine operators (D.O.T. 559.782) tend milling and grinding ma chines that reduce mixtures to desig nated sized particles. Compounders (D.O.T. 550.885) operate tanks and kettles in which solutions are mixed to make up creams, oint ments, liquid medications, and powders. Compressors (D.O.T. Pharmaceutical salesman informs physician of latest product information. 648 556.782) operate machines that compress ingredients into tablets. Pill and tablet coalers (D.O.T. 554.782) control a battery of ma chines that apply coatings to tablets to flavor, color, preserve, add medi cation, or control disintegration time. Tablet testers (D.O.T. 559.687) inspect tablets for hard ness, chippage, and weight to assure conformity with specifications. Am poule fillers (D.O.T. 559.885) op erate machines that fill ampoules (special glass containers) with meas ured doses of liquid drug prod ucts. Ampoule sealers (D.O.T. 559.887) melt the glass at the neck of the ampoule in order to seal it. Ampoule examiners (D.O.T. 559.687) examine the ampoules for discoloration, foreign particles, and flaws in the glass. After the drug product is pre pared, it is inspected, and bottled or packaged. Most of the inspection and bottle filling jobs are done by women operating machines that measure exact amounts of the prod uct and seal containers. The drug industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to as sure that production equipment is operating properly and to prevent costly breakdowns. Included among maintenance workers are power plant operators who are responsible for high pressure boilers, turbo gen erators, compressors, refrigeration equipment, and plant water systems; electricians who install, maintain and repair wiring, motors, switches, and other electrical equipment; pipe fitters who install and maintain heating, plumbing, pumping, and hot water systems; machinists who make and repair metal parts for machines and equipment; and in strument repairmen who periodi cally inspect instruments and con trols and repair or replace malfunc tioning parts. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pharmaceutical operator tends capsule filling machine. Plant workers who do not oper ate or maintain equipment perform a variety of other tasks. Some drive trucks to make deliveries to other parts of the plant; some load and unload trucks and railroad cars; and others keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry also employs custodial workers, such as guards and janitors, whose duties are similar to those of such workers in other industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the drug industry range from a few hours of on-the-job training to years of preparation. For production and maintenance occupations, drug manufacturers generally hire inexperienced work ers and train them on the job; young high school graduates are preferred by most firms. Unskilled men who start in production assist more skilled workers in the per formance of their duties, while learning the operation of the proc essing equipment. With experi ence, an employee may advance to more skilled jobs in his department. Most maintenance jobs are filled by young men who start as helpers to electricians, pipefitters, machinists, and other craftsmen. Many companies encourage pro duction and maintenance workers to take courses related to their jobs in local schools and technical insti tutes, or to enroll in correspondence courses. Some companies reimburse the workers for part, or all, of the tuition. Skilled production and main tenance workers with leadership ability may advance to supervisory positions. For technicians in the drug indus try, methods of qualifying for jobs vary in many ways. Most techni cians enter the field with a high school degree and advance to jobs of greater responsibility after they have acquired experience and addi tional formal education. However, companies prefer to hire men and women who are graduates of techni cal institutes or junior colleges, or those who have completed college courses in chemistry, biology, math ematics, or engineering. In many firms, inexperienced workers begin as laboratory helpers or aids, per forming routine jobs such as clean ing and arranging bottles, test tubes, and other equipment. The experience required for higher levels of technician jobs var ies from company to company. Generally, one year of experience is usually required for assistant techni cian jobs, 3 years for technicians, 6 649 OCCUPATIONS IN THE DRUG INDUSTRY years for senior technicians, and 10 years for technical associates. Some companies require senior techni cians and technical associates to complete job-related college courses. For most scientific and engineer ing jobs, a bachelor of science de gree from a recognized college is the minimum requirement. Some companies have formal training pro grams for young college graduates with engineering and scientific back grounds. These trainees work for brief periods in the various divisions of the plant to gain a broad knowl edge of drug manufacturing opera tions before being assigned to a par ticular department. In other firms, newly employed scientists and engi neers are immediately assigned to a specific activity such as research, process development, production, or sales. Job prospects and advancement are usually best for professionals with advanced degrees. Some com panies offer training programs to help scientists and engineers keep abreast of new developments in their fields and to develop administrative skills. These programs may include meetings and seminars with consult ants from academic and nonaca demic fields. Most companies en courage scientists and engineers to further their education; some pro vide financial assistance for this pur pose. Publication of scientific papers is also encouraged. Employment Outlook Drug manufacturing employment is expected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s, creating several thou sand job openings annually. Addi tional openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The demand for drug products is Technician uses complex equipment in the laboratory. expected to grow very rapidly. De mand will be stimulated primarily by increases in population—particu larly the growing number of older people and children. Other factors which are expected to increase the demand for drugs include greater personal income levels, the rising health consciousness of the general public, growth of coverage under prepayment programs for hospital ization and medical care (including Medicare), and the discovery of new drugs that will be effective in treating illness not yet responding to drug therapy. The industry’s employment will not increase as rapidly as the de mand for drug products, because technological improvements in production methods will increase output per worker. The more wide spread use of automatic processing and control equipment in operations formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor requirements, particu larly in plants where products such as tablets, ointments, and liquid medicines are mass-produced. Rates of employment growth will vary greatly among occupations. The numbers of scientists, engi neers, detail men, technicians, and maintenance workers are expected to increase faster than other occu pational groups in the industry. De mand for scientists, engineers, and technicians will be stimulated by continued growth in research and development activities. The increas ingly technical nature of the detail man’s job and the rising demand for drug products are expected to make this occupation one of the most rapidly growing in the industry. More skilled maintenance men, such as electricians, machinists, pipe fitters, and instrument repairmen will be needed to service the grow ing amount of automatic processing and control equipment. Employ ment of administrative and clerical workers is expected to increase moderately; however, most semi skilled plant occupations are ex pected to increase slowly, as more processes are adapted to automatic equipment. 650 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK most plants, workers receive extra pay when assigned to second or Earnings of plant workers in the third shifts. They also receive pre drug industry are higher than the mium pay for working more than 40 average for manufacturing indus hours a week. Most of the industry’s tries. For example, in 1970, produc workers have year round employ tion workers in the drug industry ment because drug production is not averaged $143.37 for a 40.5 hour subject to seasonal variations. week, or $3.54 an hour. In compar Paid vacations and holidays are ison, production workers in manu common in this industry. Workers facturing as a whole averaged generally receive 2 weeks of vaca $133.73 for a 39.8 hour week, or tion after 1 year of employment, 3 weeks after 5 years, 4 weeks after $3.36 an hour. National wage data are not avail 15 years, and 5 weeks after 25 able for individual occupations in years. Most workers also receive in the drug industry. However, the fol surance and pension benefits, lowing tabulation, based on data ob financed at least partially by their tained from one of the Nation’s employers. These benefits include largest drug manufacturers, pro life, sickness, accident, hospitaliza vides an example of ranges in week tion, and surgical insurance. Em ly earnings for selected occupations ployee stock-purchase plans are in effect in many firms. in 1969. Working conditions in drug Many employees work in plants that operate around the clock— plants generally are better than in three shifts a day, 7 days a week. In other manufacturing plants. Because Earnings and Working Conditions E x a m p le s o f e a r n in g s o f w o r k e r s in a la r g e d r u g m a n u f a c tu r in g fir m in 1 9 6 9 P la n t o c c u p a tio n s M in im u m M a x im u m Processing: Unskilled .................................................... Semiskilled.................................................. Skilled ........................................................ Supervisor .................................................. Maintenance: Helper ........................................................ General mechanic..................................... Carpenter, Pipefitter ................................. Electrician, Machinist............................... Instrument repairman............................... Supervisor .................................................. ...$ 98.31 ... 117.92 ... 128.31 ... 138.69 $162.46 184.62 205.38 265.62 ... ... ... ... ... ... 113.31 128.31 130.62 134.08 135.23 138.69 162.46 205.38 215.31 226.38 233.77 265.62 ... ... ... ... ... 111.00 116.77 123.69 130.62 130.62 158.77 168.69 193.15 215.31 241.15 ... ... ... ... 186.54 200.00 269.23 384.62 C) C) C) C) T e c h n ic a l o c c u p a tio n s Beginning technician......................................... Laboratory technician I ................................... Laboratory technician II ................................. Laboratory technician III ............................... Technical associate ........................................... P r o f e s s io n a l o c c u p a tio n s Biologist, chemist, pharmacist ........................ Engineer ............................................................ Veterinarian ...................................................... Physician ............................................................ 1 = not available. of the danger of contaminating drugs, much emphasis is placed on keeping equipment and work areas clean. Plants usually are air-condi tioned, well-lighted, and quiet. Ven tilation systems protect workers from dust, fumes, and disagreeable odors. Special precautions are taken to protect the relatively small num ber of employees who work with diseased cultures and poisonous chemicals. With the expection of work performed by materials han dlers and maintenance workers, most jobs require little physical ef fort. The frequency of injuries in drug manufacturing has been about half the average for all manufactur ing industries in recent years. Many of the industry’s employees are members of labor unions. The principal unions in the industry are the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; the International Chemical Workers Union; and District 50, United Mine Workers of America (Ind.) Where To Go For More Information Further information concerning careers in drug manufacturing may be obtained from the personnel de partments of individual drug manu facturing companies and from: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers As sociation, 1155 Fifteenth St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005 National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc., 1030 15th St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20005 The Proprietary Association, 1700 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006 O C C U P A T I O N S IN E L E C T R O N IC S M A N U F A C T U R IN G The science of electronics has contributed greatly to the achieve ments of the age in which we live. Electronic instruments guide un manned missiles for our Nation’s defense and control the flights of our astronauts. Other electronic in struments make it possible for man to communicate over vast distances. Electronic devices direct, control, and test production processes in in dustries such as steel and chemicals. Electronic data-processing equip ment enables business and govern ment to handle tons of paper work with great accuracy and speed. Hos pitals use electronic instruments to perform laboratory tests and to check body functions. In homes, television and radio receivers pro vide information and entertainment. Indications are that electronics will play an even greater role in the future. In 1970, an estimated 1.1 million workers were employed in electron ics manufacturing in a wide range of occupations. Job requirements var ied from graduate college degrees for some scientists and engineers to a few days of on-the-job training for some plant workers. A very rapid increase in employment is antici pated through the 1970’s. Job op portunities are expected to be par ticularly favorable for engineers, scientists, technicians, and skilled maintenance workers. Many job op portunities also will be available for semiskilled plant workers. Nature and Location of Electronics Manufacturing Electronic products may be grouped into four major categories: (1) government products, (2) in dustrial products, (3) consumer products, and (4) components. In 1970, government products ac counted for nearly half of total elec tronic sales. Industrial products ac counted for about one-third, and consumer products accounted for about one-seventh. Components produced as replacement parts were only a small percentage of total sales. (Components produced as original equipment for end products are included in the shipments value of the end products.) Government products include electronic guidance and tele-meter ing systems for missiles and space craft; radar and other detection de vices; automatic communications and computing systems; gyroscopes and other navigational equipment; and fire controls (such as air-to-air target seeking and detonating equip ment). Government products are also used in the fields of medicine, education, crime detection, and traffic control. Important industrial electronic products include computers; com mercial radio and television broad casting equipment; commercial and private aircraft communications and navigational apparatus; and in dustrial testing, measuring, and production control equipment. Prin cipal consumer products include television sets, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and hearing aids. Electronic components fall into three broad classifications: tubes, semiconductors, and “other compo nents.” Tubes include receiving tubes, power tubes, television pic ture tubes, and special purpose tubes. Principal semiconductor de vices are transistors, diodes, recti fiers, and microelectronic devices, which include combinations of min iaturized semiconductors. “Other components” include items such as capacitors, antennas, resistors, transformers, relays, connectors, and electronic switches. Of the estimated 1.1 million workers employed in electronics manufacturing establishments in 1970, about three-fifths—670,000 worked in plants producing end products. About 355,000 of these workers produced military and space equipment; 200,000 produced industrial and commercial products; and 115,000 produced consumer items. The remaining 405,000 workers were in plants making elec tronics components. Electronics manufacturing plants are located in nearly every State, but the majority of electronics manu facturing workers in 1970'were em ployed in eight States: California, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. Metropolitan areas with large numbers of electronics manufacturing workers included Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Boston, Balti more, and Indianapolis. In addition to the employees in electronics manufacturing plants, about 80,000 electronics workers were employed by the Federal Gov ernment in activities such as re search, development, and the nego tiation and administration of con tracts. A relatively small number of electronics workers were employed by universities and nonprofit re search centers. Electronics Manufacturing Occupations A wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills, is found in plants manu facturing electronic products. About half the workers in electronics man651 652 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ufacturing are in plant jobs (pro duction, maintenance, transporta tion, and service); the rest are in white-collar jobs (engineering, sci entific, finance, administrative, cleri cal, and sales). The proportions of plant and white-collar workers differ from one establishment to another, depending mainly on the products being manu factured. For example, the propor tion of plant workers is generally higher in establishments producing consumer products than in estab lishments manufacturing govern ment products. More than two-fifths of the workers employed in electronics manufacturing plants are women. In some plants, particularly those producing electron tubes and semi conductors, women account for half or more of total employment. Most women are employed as semiskilled plant workers, chiefly as assemblers, inspectors, and testers, and as office workers. However, opportunities for women exist in nearly all types of jobs in electronics manufacturing. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. A large proportion of elec tronics manufacturing workers are in engineering, scientific, and other technical jobs. Engineers and scien tists alone represent about 1 out of every 9 electronics workers. Gener ally, they account for a much larger proportion of employment in plants making military and space equip ment than in those producing other types of electronic products. The largest group of engineers is electrical or electronics engineers. They generally are employed in re search and development, although many work in production operations as design engineers or as test meth Electronics engineer adjusts instrument panel of spacecraft. ods and quality control engineers. Electronics engineers also work as field engineers, sales engineers, or engineering liaison men. Substantial numbers of mechani cal engineers and industrial engi neers also are employed in electron ics manufacturing plants. Mechani cal engineers work as design engineers in product development and in tool and equipment design. They work also as plant engineers— chiefly concerned with the mainte nance layout and operation of plant equipment. Most industrial engi neers work as production engineers or as efficiency, methods, or timestudy engineers. Other engineers em ployed in electronics manufacturing include chemical, metallurgical, and ceramic engineers. Physicists make up a large group of scientists in electronics manufac turing. Now that smaller package circuitry has been achieved through the development of microminia turization, physicists are working to produce the complete circuit. This process is accomplished by integrat ing elements that duplicate the func tions formerly performed by dis crete components such as capaci tors, resistors, and inductors, together with transistors. Many scientists in electronics manufactur ing are chemists and metallurgists, employed mainly in research work and in materials preparation and testing. Mathematicians and statis ticians work with engineers and scientists on complex mathematical and statistical problems, especially in the design of military and space equipment and computers. Statisti cians also are employed in the fields of quality control, production sched uling, and sales analysis and plan ning. Industrial designers work on the design of electronic products and the equipment used to manu facture them. OCCUPATIONS IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING Technicians—such as electronics technicians, draftsmen, engineering aids, laboratory technicians, and mathematical assistants—represent about 1 out of every 20 electronics manufacturing workers. Many electronics technicians are engaged in research and develop ment work, helping engineers in the design and construction of experi mental models. They also are em ployed by manufacturers to work on electronic equipment in customers’ establishments. Other electronics technicians work in highly technical inspecting, testing, and assembly jobs in the engineering laboratories of firms manufacturing electronic products. Draftsmen usually are employed in engineering departments to pre pare drawings from sketches or specifications furnished by engi neers. Manufacturers of military and space equipment generally em ploy a higher proportion of drafts men than do manufacturers of other types of electronic products. Engineering aids are another im portant group of technicians. They assist engineers by making calcula tions, sketches, and drawings, and by conducting performance tests on components and systems. Labora tory technicians help physicists, chemists, and engineers by perform ing duties such as setting up appa ratus and assisting in laboratory analyses and experiments. Some laboratory technicians themselves may conduct analyses and experi ments, usually of a standardized, routine nature. Mathematical assist ants help to solve mathematical problems, following procedures out lined by mathematicians. They also Technician tests aircraft flight director indicator in clean room atmosphere. 653 operate test equipment used in the development of electronic comput ers. Technical writers work closely with engineers, particularly in plants making government and industrial products, and in establishments doing research and development work. They prepare training and technical manuals describing the op eration and maintenance of elec tronic equipment. They also pre pare catalogs, product literature, and project reports and proposals. Specifications writers compile lists of required measurements and ma terials. Technical illustrators draw pictures of electronic equipment for technical publications and sales lit erature. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. About 1 out of 5 workers in electronics manufactur ing plants is in an administrative or other office job. Administrative workers include purchasing agents, sales executives, personnel workers, advertising personnel, and market ing research specialists. Clerks, sec retaries, stenographers, typists, and business machines operators, many of whom are women, are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics manufac turing firms. A small but growing proportion of these office workers operate electronic computers and auxiliary equipment. Most of these computers are used to process office records, including payroll, produc tion, costs, sales, and inventory data. Plant Occupations. About half of electronics manufacturing em ployees work in assembly, inspect ing and testing, machining, fabricat ing, processing, maintenance, and other plant operations. The propor tion of workers in each of these op- 654 erations differs among electronics plants, depending largely on whether end products or compo nents are produced and the types manufactured. For example, the proportion of assemblers is higher in plants making components and consumer end products than in plants producing military space equipment and industrial-commer cial products. The proportion of machining and fabricating workers is higher among manufacturers of military space equipment and in dustrial-commercial products than among manufacturers of other types of products. Assembly Occupations (D.O.T. 729.884; 720.884; 726.781 and .884). Assemblers make up the largest group of electronics plant workers. Both end-product and component manufacturing firms em ploy assemblers with many different skills. However, most assemblers are semiskilled workers. Most end products are assembled mainly by hand, using small handtools, soldering irons, and light welding devices. Assemblers use di agrams, models, and color-coded parts and wires to help them in their work. Some assembly work is done by following instructions presented on color slides and tape recordings. Color slides flash a picture of an as sembly sequence on a viewing screen, while the assembler listens to recorded directions. Precision assemblers install com ponents and subassemblies into end products in which moving parts and mechanisms must operate within clearances measured in thousandths, or even millionths, of an inch. Some of these assembly workers do repair work, experimental and develop mental work, and model assembly work. Most precision assemblers are employed in the manufacture of military space and industrial-com OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK mercial electronic equipment. Machines are used in some as sembly work on end products. For example, in putting together subas semblies such as circuit boards, au tomatic machines often are used to position components on the boards and to solder connections. Here the assemblers work as machine opera tors or loaders. Most components are assembled by machines, since their assembly involves many separate but simple and repetitive operations. Even some types of miniaturized semi conductors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through the eye of a needle, now are assembled on highly com plex machines. Some of these ma chines are automatically controlled. Hand assembly is needed for some components, such as receiving tubes and special purpose tubes, and some types of transistors, di odes, capacitors, and resistors. Hand assemblers may perform only a single operation on these compo nents as they move down the assem bly line, but some may assemble completely a particular type of com ponent. Tiny components often are hand-assembled under magnifying lenses or powerful microscopes. Hand assemblers may use ma chines to assist them in performing assembly operations on components. For example, precision welding equipment may be used to weld connections in microminiature com ponents and circuit assemblies. Some circuit assemblies are so small that hundreds of components may be precision welded in a cubic inch of space. Machines also may be used to position and hold compo nent parts during assembly opera tions. Hand assemblers also are em ployed in electronics research labo ratories and in the research and de velopment departments of electron ics manufacturers. These workers —frequently called electronics tech nicians—generally do difficult as sembly work on small quantities of OCCUPATIONS IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING complex, often experimental, equip glass lathe operators (D.O.T. ment. They also may work on the 674.782) are employed chiefly in development of new ways to assem electronic tube experimentation and ble large quantities of components development work; in the manufac or subassemblies by machine. Some ture of special purpose tubes, which electronics technicians install subas are made in small numbers; and in semblies into complex systems such rebuilding television picture tubes. as those in guided missiles. These Other fabricating workers include hand assemblers usually must know punch press operators, blanking enough electronics theory to under machine operators and shear opera stand the operation of the items tors. being assembled. Some fabricating jobs involve the Most assemblers are women. molding, firing, and glazing of ce They are employed mainly as ma ramics used as insulating materials chine operators or tenders, and as in many components. Workers may hand assemblers of items made in also operate machines that mold large quantities. Men are employed plastic components. In electron tube chiefly in experimental assembly manufacturing, special fabricating work, in model assembly, and in as workers are employed. For example, sembly jobs requiring relatively grid lathe operators (D.O.T. heavy work. Men also are employed 725.884) make grids (devices in in assembly departments as “trouble electronic tubes which control the shooters.” These workers analyze flow of electrons) by winding fine end products and subassemblies, wire around two heavy parallel which have failed routine perform wires. Other fabricating workers in ance tests, to pinpoint the cause of clude spot welders, coil winders faulty operation. (D.O.T. 724.781 and .884) and Machining occupations. Metal crystal grinders and finishers machining workers are employed in (D.O.T. 726.884). Processing occupations. A rela most electronics manufacturing plants, particularly those making tively small but important group of military-space and industrial-com electronics manufacturing workers mercial products. Machine-tool op is engaged in processing activities, erators and machinists operate pow chiefly in plants producing elec er-driven machine tools to produce tronic components. Electroplaters metal parts of electronic products. and tinners (D.O.T. 501.885) coat Toolmakers construct and repair many parts with metal. Anodizers jigs and fixtures used in the fabrica (D.O.T. 501.782) treat parts in tion and assembly of parts. Diemak- electrolytic and chemical baths to ers specialize in making metal forms prevent corrosion. Silk screen print (dies) used in punch and power ers (D.O.T. 726.887) print pat terns on circuit boards and on parts presses to shape metal parts. Fabricating occupations. Fabri of electronic components. Etching cating workers are employed in equipment operators (D.O.T. 590.many electronics manufacturing 885) do chemical etching of copper plants, but the largest proportion is on circuit boards. Processing workers also impreg in establishments producing in dustrial products. Among the fabri nate or coat coils and other elec cating workers are sheet-metal tronic components with waxes, oils, workers who make frames, chassis, plastics or other materials. Some and cabinets. Glass blowers and operate machines which encase mi 655 crominiature components in plastic resin to join and insulate them in circuits, seal out moisture, and re duce chances of connection failure caused by heat and vibration. Another group of processing workers operate furnaces, ovens, and kilns, used chiefly to harden ce ramics, bake on coatings, and elimi nate contamination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of in frared ovens and hydrogen furnace fires (D.O.T. 590.885) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufac turing, exhaust operators (D.O.T. 725.884) and sealers (D.O.T. 692.885) operate gas flame ma chines which seal the mount (the part of an electronic tube consisting of a Bakelite base and stem) in the tube, clear the tube of impurities, ex haust the gas, and seal the tube. Testing and inspection. Testing and inspection in electronics manu facturing begin when raw materials enter the plants and continue throughout fabricating operations. Finished components and end prod ucts undergo thorough testing and inspection, frequently including op eration for a period of time, before shipment. In end-product manufacturing plants, testers use voltmeters, oscil loscopes, and other test meters to make certain that components, subassemblies, and end products con form to specifications. Many of these workers have job titles that in dicate the type of work they do, such as analyzer, final tester, tuner tester, and operational tester. Some testing jobs require techni cally trained workers who have had several years of experience in elec tronic testing. These jobs are com monly found in research and devel opment work, where electronics technicians test, adjust, and aline circuits and systems as part of their overall responsibility. These jobs 656 also are found in complex produc tion work, such as the manufacture of missiles and spacecraft. In component manufacturing plants, components are checked manually by testers using various types of test meters or routed me chanically through automatic test equipment. Some automatic equip ment can check a large number of component characteristics, produce a punched tape of test results, and sort the components into batches for shipping. Although many of these workers simply are called compo nent testers, others have job titles which reflect the type of compo nents they test, such as transformer tester or coil tester. Workers who feed or monitor automatic test equipment often are called test-set operators or testing-machine opera tors. The work of inspectors in endproduct plants varies from checking incoming materials to inspecting subassemblies and final products for flaws in circuit assembly, etching, plating, painting, and labeling. Elec tronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) examine assembled elec tronic units to make certain that they conform to blueprints and specifications, and check wire rout ing, electrical connections, and quality of units. Mechanical and precision inspectors check mechani cal assemblies and precision parts. Inspectors in end-product plants may use tools such as measuring scales, micrometers, calipers, and magnifying glasses in their work. Inspectors in component manu facturing plants check incoming raw materials and subassemblies before, during, and after fabricating and processing operations. They may in spect wire leads on diodes for straightness or length, wire winding on coils for evenness or breakage, and completed tubes for loose OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK wires, scratched paint, corrosion, defective etches, and identifying la bels. Some inspectors make repairs on defective components. Tools used by inspectors in com ponents plants may include mag nifying lenses, micrometers, calipers, tweezers, and, in some circum stances, microscopes. These inspec tors may have job titles that indicate the work they do, such as incoming materials inspector, plating inspec tor, power tube inspector, coil inspector, machine parts inspector, and precision inspector. Maintenance occupations. Many workers are employed in electronics manufacturing plants to maintain machinery and equipment. Skilled electricians are responsible for the proper operation of electrical equip ment. Machine and equipment repairmen perform mechanical re pairs. Hydraulic mechanics special ize in maintaining hydraulic equip ment. Maintenance machinists and welders build and repair equipment, jigs, and fixtures. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are em ployed in electronics plants which are air-conditioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, car penters, sheet-metal workers, and other building maintenance crafts men also are employed in electron ics plants. Other plant occupations. Parts changer (D.O.T. 729.381) is an other important occupation in elec tronic manufacturing plants. These workers repair assembled electronic products which have been tagged for replacement of defective parts. Women frequently are employed as parts changers. Many workers are employed in materials movement and handling. These workers include operators of plant trucks and tractors; forklift operators who stack crates and load and unload trucks and boxcars; and truckdrivers who handle transporta tion outside the plant. Other occu pations include boiler operator and stationary engineer. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations, found not only in electronics manufacturing plants but also in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sec tions covering the individual occu pations.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Electronic manufacturing plants employ many engineers, scientists, and technicians because of the tech nical nature of plant production op erations and the great emphasis on research and development work. Beginning engineering jobs usually are filled by recent graduates of en gineering colleges (some with ad vanced degrees). A small number of workers without college degrees are upgraded to professional engi neering classifications from occupa tions such as engineering assistant and electronics technician. Workers who become engineers in this way usually have taken advanced elec tronics courses in night school or in other training programs. To keep up with new developments in their fields and to help them qualify for promotion, professional and techni cal personnel obtain additional training, read technical publications, and attend lectures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, phys icists, and other scientists em ployed in electronics manufacturing plants have college degrees, and many have advanced degrees. Job prospects are usually better for sci entists who have at least a master’s OCCUPATIONS IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING degree than for those with only a bachelor’s degree. Technicians generally need some specialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most electronics techni cians have attended either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some have obtained their training through apprenticeships, usually of 3 or 4 years’ duration. Applicants with a high school edu cation including courses in mathe matics and science, are preferred for these apprenticeships. Some workers become electronics techni cians by being upgraded from jobs such as tester and experimental as sembler, after they have developed skills on the job and acquired the necessary knowledge in basic elec tronics theory, mathematics, draft ing, and reading of schematic dia grams. This knowledge usually is obtained by taking courses in com pany-operated classes, night school, junior college, technical school, or by correspondence. Electronics technicians need color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. As in the case of other technical workers, they must be able to understand technical publications. Some techni cians who do final testing that requires the operation of radio transmitting equipment must hold licenses from the Federal Communi cations Commission as first- or sec ond-class commercial radiotele phone operators. Laboratory technicians engineer ing and scientific aids, and mathe matical assistants frequently have had 1 year of college training or more in a scientific or engineering field, but have not completed course requirements for a degree. In other cases, these workers have been up graded from jobs as lower grade as sistants in engineering laboratories or as high-grade testers in produc tion departments. In hiring lower grade assistants, electronics firms give preference to applicants who have completed high school courses in mathematics, physics, and chem istry. Draftsmen usually enter their trade by taking a course in drafting at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4-year ap prenticeship. Some qualify for their jobs under an informal arrangement with their employers which provides for both on-the-job training and part-time schooling. Because many draftsmen must understand the basic principles of electronic circuits to do their work, they should study basic electronic theory and circuits and the reading of electronic sche matic diagrams. Technical writers must have a flair for writing and are usually re quired to have some technical train ing. Electronics firms prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in sci ence or engineering. Some have col lege engineering degrees. Many have college degrees in English and journalism and have received their technical training on the job and by attending company-operated eve ning classes. Technical illustrators usually have attended special schools of art or design. Many tool and die makers, ma chinists, electricians, pipefitters, car penters, and other craftsmen learn their trades by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship. Some enter these trades through upgrading from helpers’ jobs. Some take courses at vocational schools. Formal training in electronics usually is not necessary for workers entering plant jobs, but completion of high school frequently is re quired. Job applicants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for particular types of work. 657 On-the-job training, usually for a short period, generally is provided for workers who have had no pre vious experience. Assemblers, test ers, and inspectors need good vi sion, good color perception, manual dexterity, and patience. Requirements for filling adminis trative and other office jobs are sim ilar to those in other industries. Certain beginning administrative jobs in electronics manufacturing generally are open only to college graduates having degrees in busi ness administration, accounting, or engineering. More and more em ployers are requiring college train ing for administrative jobs in adver tising, personnel, accounting, and sales. For clerical jobs, employers usually prefer applicants who are high school graduates with special training in stenography, typing, bookkeeping, and office machine operation. Employment Outlook Employment in electronics manu facturing is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition, large numbers of job 658 openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The employment outlook pre sented here assumes relatively full employment in the Nation’s econ omy and the high levels of eco nomic activity needed to achieve this goal. It also assumes that de fense expenditures, an important determinant of electronics manufac turing employment, will be some what higher than the level before the Vietnam buildup; approximately the level of the early 1960’s. If the Nation’s economic activity and de fense expenditures should differ substantially from the assumed lev els, employment will be affected ac cordingly. Several factors will stimulate growth in the output of electronic products. Businessmen are expected to spend increasing amounts for computers and other electronic equipment to automate and mecha nize data processing and production processes. Business expenditures for communications and industrial test ing equipment also will grow. The demand for consumer items, such as television receivers and stereo sys tems, will rise in response to in creases in population, family forma tions, and personal incomes. Gov ernment purchases for defense needs will continue to account for a large proportion of electronics man ufacturing output. An increasing share of government purchases, however, is likely to be for elec tronic equipment used in medicine, education, pollution abatement, and most other nondefense related fields. The increase in electronics manu facturing employment will not be as great as the expansion in output, however, because technological im provements in production methods are expected to increase output per OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK worker. For example, increasing mechanization of operations for merly done by hand will tend to re duce labor requirements, particu larly in plants where products are mass-produced, such as television and radio sets, and components. However, mechanized manufactur ing processes are difficult to adapt to the fabrication of many types of highly complex electronic products. Although total employment in electronics manufacturing is ex pected to grow at a very rapid pace through the 1970’s, the rates of growth will vary among occupa tional groups and individual occupa tions. For example, employment of skilled maintenance personnel, par ticularly instrument repairmen, is expected to rise at a more rapid rate than total employment because of the need to maintain and repair the increasing amounts of complex ma chinery. On the other hand, em ployment of semiskilled workers probably will rise at a slower rate because of the growing mechaniza tion and automation of assembly line operations. Employment of engineers, scien tists, and technicians is expected to increase faster than total employ ment because of continued high ex penditures for research and devel opment, and the continuing trend toward the production of complex equipment. Among professional and technical workers, the greatest de mand will be for engineers having advanced degrees, particularly those who have a background in certain T yp e o f pro d u ct specialized fields, including quan tum mechanics, solid-state circuitry, product design, and industrial engi neering. Many opportunities also will be available for engineers pos sessing selling ability because the in creasing complexity of industrial and commercial equipment will re quire salesmen with highly technical backgrounds. The demand for mathematicians and physicists will be particularly good because of ex panding research in computer and laser technology. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly and weekly earn ings of production workers in elec tronics manufacturing industries vary considerably by type of prod uct produced. As shown in the ac companying tabulation, production workers in industries making gov ernment and industrial end products had higher average earnings in 1970 than those in industries producing other types of electronic products. Earnings of individual production workers may differ from the aver ages shown above, since such earn ings depend not only on the type of plant in which they work but also on factors such as skill level and ex perience, length of service, geo graphic location, and amount of overtime. Electronics workers generally re ceive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Virtually all plants provide A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s All manufacturing industries.....................................$3.36 Major electronics manufacturing industries: Government and industrial electronics end products.. 3.68 Radio and television receiving sets, and phono graphs ............................................................................ 3.19 Electron tubes ................................................................. 2.96 Semiconductors and other components, except tubes .............................................................................. 2.80 A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a r n in g s $133.73 149.78 126.64 113.96 108.36 OCCUPATIONS IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING extra pay for evening and night shift work. Many workers in electronics manufacturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, depend ing on their length of service, and from 6 to 8 paid holidays a year. Almost all electronics workers are covered by health and life insurance plans; many are covered by pension plans and other fringe benefits. Working conditions in electronics manufacturing compare favorably with those in other industries. Plants are usually well lighted, clean, and quiet. Many plants are relatively new and are located in suburban and semirural areas. Most plant departments are air condi tioned where dust-free conditions or air temperature control is necessary for the manufacture of certain types of electronic equipment. The work in most electronics occupations is not strenuous. Many assembly line operations are repetitious. Music during working hours, cafeterias, recreational facilities, and social programs are provided for em ployees by some electronics manu facturing firms. The frequency of injuries in elec tronics manufacturing is far below the average in manufacturing as a whole, and injuries are usually less severe. Many workers in electronics manufacturing are covered by la bor-management agreements. The principal unions involved are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; Inter 659 national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning careers in electronics manufacturing can be obtained from the public re lations departments of electronics manufacturing companies and from: Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. O C C U P A T IO N S IN F O U N D R IE S particular alloy since somewhat dif ferent methods and equipment are used to melt and cast various met als. Some foundries cast ferrous metals, such as steel or gray iron. Others cast nonferrous metals, such as aluminum, brass, or zinc. How ever, many nonferrous foundries and some ferrous foundries cast several metals. There are six principal methods of casting, each named for the type of mold used. In the most common method, green-sand molding, sand composed chiefly of silica, clay, and moisture is packed in a boxlike con tainer, called a flask, around a pat tern. After the pattern is withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the mold cavity to form the desired metal shape. Sand molds can be used only once, but the sand is usu ally reconditioned and reused. A second method, called perma nent molding, employs a metal in stead of a sand mold. Metal molds, which can be used many times, are chiefly for casting nonferrous prod ucts. However, some ferrous cast ings are also produced by this Nature and Location of Foundry Work method. Precision investment casting, a More than two-thirds of the third method (often known as the 450,000 foundry workers in 1970 “lost wax” process), uses ceramic were employed in independent molds. In this method, a wax or foundries that sell their castings to plastic pattern is coated with refrac other firms. Most of the remainder tory clay. After the coating hardens, were employed in the foundries of the pattern is melted and drained, plants that use castings in their final so that a mold cavity is left into products, such as automobile and which molten metal is poured. Cast industrial machinery plants. A small ings produced from these molds are proportion of foundry workers were precise and require little machining. employed in foundry pattern shops Shell molding, a fourth process, is of various metalworking plants and becoming increasingly important. In in shops that make patterns on this method, a heated metal pattern order. is covered with sand coated with Foundries usually specialize in a resin. The sand forms a thin shell Metal castings produced by foundry workers are essential for thousands of products ranging from automobile engines to cooking uten sils. In early 1970, 450,000 workers were employed in foundries and foundry departments of other metalworking establishments. Casting is a method of forming metal into intricate shapes. To cast metal, a mold is prepared with a cavity in it that has been shaped by a pattern or model of the object to be cast. Metal is then melted and poured into the mold cavity, where it cools and solidifies. Castings may range from a frac tion of an inch to many feet and weigh from less than an ounce to many tons. The strength and rigidity of cast objects makes casting suit able for thousands of household and industrial items, including automo bile parts, plumbing fixtures, ma chine tools, dies, railroad car wheels, and aircraft and missile components. 660 mold that, after curing, is stripped from the pattern. Castings produced from these molds are precise and have a smooth surface. The process is even used more widely to make cores, which form designed cavities in the castings. Die casting, a fifth process, is done entirely by machines operated by die-casting machine operators. In this method, molten metal under high pressure is forced into dies from which the castings are later automatically ejected, or removed by hand, when the metal solidifies. A sixth method, centrifugal cast ing, permits production of pipe cyl inders and rolls having cylindrical cavities. Molten metal is poured into a spinning mold where centrifu gal force distributes the metal against the cavity. Most foundries are small. More than 90 percent employ fewer than 250 workers each. However, about one-third of all foundry workers are in establishments which employ 500 workers or more. Small foundries generally pro duce small amounts of different kinds of castings for nearby metal fabricating plants. They employ hand and machine molders and coremakers (the key foundry occu pations), and a substantial number of unskilled laborers. Many of these foundries produce large castings, and require the skills of floor mold ers. Large foundries are often highly mechanized and produce great quantities of identical castings. These shops employ relatively few unskilled laborers because cranes, conveyors, and other types of equipment are used in place of hand labor to move materials, molds, and castings. However, proportionately greater numbers of skilled mainte nance workers, such as millwrights and electricians, are employed in these foundries to service and repair the large amount of machinery and 661 OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES equipment. Also, these shops em ploy proportionately fewer skilled molders and coremakers. There are foundry jobs in every State and in most large- and med ium-size cities in the country. Be cause foundries usually are located near plants where their castings are used, foundry jobs tend to be con centrated in States where there is considerable metalworking activity; for example, in Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin. Foundry Occupations More than four-fifths of the ap proximately 450,000 workers in foundries and foundry departments in early 1970 were employed in plant occupations. More than half of the plant workers were employed in occupations not found in other industries. To illustrate more clearly the duties of these workers, a brief description of the jobs involved in the most common casting process —sand casting—follows: After the casting is designed, the patternmaker makes a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the casting desired. Next, a hand molder (D.O.T. 518.381) makes sand molds by packing and ram ming sand, specially prepared by a sand mixer (D.O.T. 579.782), around the pattern. A molder’s helper (D.O.T. 519.887) may as sist in these operations. If large numbers of identical castings are to be made, molding machines may be used to make the molds at a faster speed than is possible by hand. The operator of this equipment is called a machine molder. A coremaker shapes sand, spe cially prepared by a sand mixer, into cores (bodies of sand designed usually to create hollow spaces in castings). Most cores are baked in an oven by a core-oven tender (D.O.T. 518.885). Core parts or sections are put together by a core assembler (D.O.T. 518.887). After the cores are assembled, they are placed in the molds by coreset ters (D.O.T. 518.884) or molders. Now, the molds are ready for the molten metal to be poured. A furnace operator, or melter (D.O.T. 512.782) operates the fur nace that melts the metal. The metal is usually poured into molds by a pourer (D.O.T. 514.884), al though in some small foundries molders may perform this task. When the castings have solidified, they are dumped from the molds by a shakeout man (D.O.T. 519.887) and sent to the cleaning and finish ing department. Dirty and rough surfaces of cast ings are cleaned and smoothed by blasting or tumbling, and chipping and grinding. A shotblaster (D.O.T. 503.887) operates a machine that cleans the castings by blasting them with air mixed with metal shot or grit. The castings may be smoothed by tumbling. In this process, the castings together with an abrasive material, and sometimes water, are placed in a barrel which is rotated. As the barrel turns, the castings tumble against each other, thereby removing sand, burrs, and scale. The man who controls the barrel is called a tumbler operator (D.O.T. 599.885). Sandblasters and tumbler operators may also operate a ma chine which both tumbles and blasts the castings. A chipper (D.O.T. 809.884) and a grinder (D.O.T. 809.884) use pneumatic chisels, powered abrasive wheels, power saws, and handtools, such as ham mers, chisels, and files, to remove excess metal and to finish the cast ings. Castings are frequently heat treated in furnaces to improve the mechanical properties of the metal; a heat treater, or annealer (D.O.T. 504.782), operates these furnaces. Before the castings are packed for shipment, a casting inspector (D.O.T. 514.687) checks them to make sure they are structurally sound and meet blue-print specifi cations. Many foundry workers are em ployed in occupations that are com mon to other industries. For ex ample, foundry maintenance me chanics, machinists, carpenters, and millwrights maintain and repair plant equipment. Crane and derrick operators and truckdrivers move castings and casting materials from place to place. Machine tool op erators finish castings in the many foundries that do machine finishing work. Foundries also employ thou sands of workers in unskilled jobs, such as guard, janitor, and laborer. Nearly a fifth of all foundry workers are employed in profes sional, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales occupations. Of these personnel, the largest number are clerical workers, such as secre taries, stenographers, typists, and accounting clerks. Foundries also employ substan tial numbers of professional and technical workers, such as engi neers, and metallurgists. Some of these employees do research; others make designs and layouts of ma chinery and equipment; control the quality of castings; or supervise plant operations and maintenance. In recent years, increasing numbers of these workers have been hired to sell castings and to assist customers in designing cast parts. Foundry technicians are employed in a vari ety of functions concerning the con trol of quality in casting production. For example, they may test molding and coremaking sand, make chemi- 662 cal analyses of metal, and operate machines that test the strength and hardness of castings. In this work they may use X-ray, magnetic, or sound apparatus to inspect the in ternal structure of castings. Administrative workers employed in foundries include office manag ers, personnel workers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and other supervisory workers. The foundry work force is pre dominately male, since much of the work connected with the production of castings is strenuous. Women are employed primarily in office jobs, although some are employed in production occupations such as coremaker. Women also assemble wax and plastic patterns in invest ment casting foundries. Detailed discussions of three principal foundry occupations—pat ternmakers, coremakers, and molders—follow this chapter. (Detailed discussions of professional, techni cal, mechanical, office, and other occupations found in foundries as well as in many other industries are given in the sections of the Hand book covering individual occupa tions. ) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most foundry plant workers start in unskilled jobs, such as laborer or helper. A worker may begin as a la borer and, after receiving informal on-the-job training from a foreman or experienced worker, he may gradually learn how to perform the more skilled jobs. This is the usual practice in training workers for such casting process jobs as melter, chip per, and grinder. Some skilled foundry workers— particularly hand molders, hand coremakers, and patternmakers— OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK learn their jobs through formal ap prenticeship. In this type of train ing, the young worker is given su pervised on-the-job training for a period of 4 or 5 years, usually sup plemented by classroom instruction. A worker who has completed an ap prenticeship program is usually pre ferred by foundry management be cause he has a greater working knowledge of all foundry operations and is, therefore, better qualified to fill supervisory jobs. An increasing number of skilled foundry workers learn their jobs through a combination of trade school and on-the-job training. Be ginning workers may attend trade schools that offer training in foun dry work before entering a formal apprenticeship program; in some cases, trade school courses may be credited toward completion of for mal apprenticeships. Training pro grams for updating and upgrading the knowledge and skills of experi enced workers are conducted by some foundries and by the Ameri can Foundry Society Training and Research Institute. Employment Outlook Employment in foundries is ex pected to show little or no change through the 1970’s, despite an an ticipated substantial increase in the production of metal castings. Nev ertheless, thousands of job openings will become available each year be cause of the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The growing population and ris ing levels of personal income will result in a greater demand for cast ings and products that have cast parts. Examples of these products are automobiles, household appli ances, plumbing fixtures, and gas and water lines. In addition, new in dustrial machinery and transporta tion equipment, much of which will 663 OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES be made of cast components, will be needed to produce and distribute goods for the growing population. However, laborsaving technological developments are expected to ena ble foundries to make more castings without increasing employment sig nificantly. For example, continued improvements in production meth ods, particularly in machine mold ing and coremaking, and increasing use of machinery for materials han dling will result in greater output per worker. Although foundry employment as a whole is not expected to change significantly through the 1970’s, employment will rise in some occu pations. For example, scientists, en gineers, and other technical person nel are expected to increase as a result of expanding research and de velopment activities. Technicians also will be needed in greater num bers as foundries introduce im proved quality control procedures and new production techniques. More maintenance workers and op erators of materials moving ma chines will be required because of the increasing use of materialshandling equipment and more com plex processing equipment. In con trast, the number of hand molders, hand coremakers, and other hand processing workers is expected to show little change, because of the increasing substitution of machine molding and coremaking for hand processes. The number of laborers and other unskilled workers will continue to decline. Earnings and Working Conditions Foundry production workers have higher average hourly earnings than production workers in manufactur ing as a whole. In 1970, earnings of production workers in iron and steel foundries averaged $ 151.44 a week, or $3.73 an hour. In nonferrous foundries, the average was $138.55 a week, or $3.49 an hour. By com parison, production workers in all manufacturing industries had aver age earnings of $133.73 a week, or $3.36 an hour. Collective bargaining contracts negotiated between foundry em ployers and unions generally in cluded provisions for fringe benefits, such as holiday pay, vacation pay, and retirement pensions. Other im portant benefits often included in such contracts were life, medical, and accident insurance. Working conditions in foundries have improved in recent years. Many foundries, through the instal lation of modern ventilating sys tems, new equipment, and improved plant layout, have reduced heat, fumes, and smoke. Although the rate of disabling work injuries in foundries is higher than the average for all manufacturing industries, employers and unions attempt to eliminate injuries by promoting safety training and by using protec tive equipment, such as face shields, metal toe shoes, helmets, and safety glasses. Various labor unions have found ry workers in their membership. Among these unions are the Inter national Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union; the United Steel workers of America; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Many patternmakers are members of the Pattern Makers’ League of North America. Sources of Additional Information For further information about work and/or training opportu nities in foundry occupations, in quiries should be directed to local foundries; the local office of the State employment service; the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor; and the following organi zations : American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Foundry Educational Foundation, 1138 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. Gray and Ductile Iron Founders’ Society, Inc., 930 National CityEast 6th Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio 44114. International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 East Mc Millan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Malleable Founders’ Society, 781 Union Commerce Bldg., Cleve land, Ohio 44115. National Foundry Association, 9838 Roosevelt Road, P.O. Box 76, Westchester, 111. 60156. Non-Ferrous Founders’ Society, Inc., 21010 Center Ridge Rd., Cleve land, Ohio 44116. Steel Founders’ Society of America, Westview Towers, 21010 Center Ridge Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44116. PATTERNMAKERS Nature of the Work Foundry patternmakers are highly skilled craftsmen who build patterns used in making molds in which metal castings are formed. Most of the workers in the occupa tion are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280); a somewhat smaller number are wood pattern makers (D.O.T. 661.281). A grow- 664 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK reproduced in the castings made from it. Throughout his work, the patternmaker carefully checks each dimension of the pattern, using a variety of measuring instruments such as shrink rules, calipers, mi crometers, and gauges. He also makes core boxes (in much the same manner as patterns are con structed) and repairs patterns and core boxes. More than half of the pattern makers work in foundry pattern shops of plants making products such as machinery, transportation equipment, and fabricated metal products. Other patternmakers work in plants that make patterns on order, or in pattern shops in in dependent foundries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ing number of patternmakers work with both metal and wood. In the last decade or so, increasing use has been made of plaster and plastics in patternmaking. A small number of patternmakers work exclusively with plaster and plastics. However, these materials also are used by some metal and wood patternmak ers. Patternmakers work from blue prints prepared by the engineering department or the customer’s design engineer. They make a precise pat tern for the product, allowing for shrinkage of molten metal used in the casting process and for other factors. The metal patternmaker prepares patterns from metal stock or from rough castings made from an origi nal wood pattern. To shape and finish the patterns, he uses a variety of metal-working machines, includ ing the engine lathe, drill press, shaper, milling machine, power hacksaw, and grinder, as well as small handtools. The wood patternmaker selects the appropriate woodstock, lays out the pattern, marks the design for each section on the proper piece of wood, and saws each piece roughly to size. He then shapes the rough pieces into final form, using various woodworking machines, such as cir cular saws, lathes, planers, band saws, and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, he assem bles the pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Stand ardized colors are used to finish the pattern. A high degree of accuracy is re quired to make patterns, since any imperfection in the pattern will be Apprenticeship is the principal means of qualifying as a journey man patternmaker. Because of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for pat ternmaking, it is difficult to learn the trade informally on the job. In some instances, skilled machinists have been able to transfer to metal patternmaking with additional onthe-job training or experience. Trade school courses in pattern making provide useful preparation for the prospective apprentice. Such courses may be credited toward completion of the apprenticeship period. However, these courses do not substitute for apprenticeship or other on-the-job training. The usual apprenticeship period for patternmaking is 5 years. At least 144 hours of classroom in struction in related technical sub jects are normally provided an nually. There are separate appren ticeship programs for wood and metal patternmaking. 665 OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES The apprentice patternmaker be gins by helping journeymen in rou tine duties. He makes simple pat terns under close supervision. As he progresses, the work becomes in creasingly complex and the supervi sion more general. Patternmaking, although not strenuous, requires considerable standing and moving about. Manual dexterity is especially important be cause of the precise nature of the work. The ability to visualize ob jects in three dimensions is also im portant. Employers generally re quire patternmaker apprentices to have at least a high school educa tion. as cabinetmaker, and metal pattern makers can transfer their skills to machining occupations such as machinist or layout man. Earnings and Working Conditions Patternmakers generally have higher earnings than other skilled foundry workers. However, earn ings depend on skill requirements of the job, type of metal poured, geo graphic location, and other factors. In January 1970, average (median) straight-time hourly earnings of wood patternmakers ranged from $3.95 in steel foundries to $4.50 in gray iron and malleable iron found ries, according to a survey of wages and fringe benefits in 52 labor Employment Outlook areas, made by the National Found Employment of foundry pattern ry Association. Generally, metal makers—who numbered about patternmakers have higher earnings 20,000 in early 1970—is expected than wood patternmakers. See “Sources of Additional Infor to show little or no change through mation” in the introductory section the 1970’s, despite the anticipated of this chapter. substantial increase in foundry production. Nevertheless, several hundred job openings will arise each year because of the need to re place experienced patternmakers MOLDERS who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Most of these openings will be for metal patternmakers. The need for patternmakers will Nature of the Work not keep pace with increases in the The molder prepares a mold production of castings, because of the greater use of metal patterns. which contains a hollow space in the These patterns can be used many shape of the item to be made. The times to make identical molds, mold is made by packing and ram thereby reducing the number of in ming specially prepared sand dividual patterns needed to produce around a pattern—a model of the object to be duplicated—in a box castings. Because patternmakers learn called a flask. A flask is usually either basic metalworking or wood made in two parts which can be sep working, they are prepared for em arated to allow removal of the pat ployment in related fields when pat tern without damaging the mold ternmaking employment is not cavity. Molten metal is poured into available. Wood patternmakers can the cavity which, when solidified, qualify for woodworking jobs, such forms the casting. A molder uses pneumatic-powered rammers and handtools, such as trowels, shovels, and mallets, to handle, compact, and smooth the sand in molds made by hand. Most of the more than 55,000 workers in this occupation in early 1970 were machine molders; the rest were hand—bench and floor— molders. Machine molders (D.O.T. 518.782) operate machines which simplify and speed the making of large quantities of identical sand molds. Machine molders assemble the flask and pattern on the ma chine table, fill the flask with pre pared sand, and operate the ma chine by use of control levers and pedals. Many machine molders set up and adjust their own machines. Some semiskilled workers operate machines already set up by more experienced molders or mainte nance men. Bench and floor molders use mainly hand methods to make the sand molds. Power tools, such as pneumatic hammers, and handtools, such as trowels and mallets, are used to smooth the sand. Molds for small castings are usually made on 666 the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.381); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 518.381). Skills required vary. An all-round hand molder makes many different kinds of molds. A less skilled molder does more repetitive work and specializes in a few simple types of molds. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year appren tice training program, or equivalent experience, is needed to become a journeyman molder and thus qualify both for all-round hand molding and for the specialized skilled or su pervisory jobs. Men with this train ing are also preferred for some kinds of machine molding. The apprentice works under the close supervision of journeymen. About half of the apprentice train ing is devoted directly to molding. The apprentice begins with a simple job, such as shoveling sand; and gradually takes on more difficult and responsible work, such as ram ming molds, withdrawing patterns, and setting cores. He also learns to operate the various types of mold ing machines. As his training pro gresses, he makes complete molds, beginning with simple shapes and progressing to those of increasing complexity. This training includes both floorwork and benchwork. In addition, the apprentice may work in other foundry departments to de velop all-round knowledge of found ry methods and practices. The ap prentice usually receives at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in such subjects as shop arithmetic, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Molders’ helpers and less-skilled OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hand molders frequently learn molding skills informally on the job. However, this way of learning the trade takes longer and is less reli able than apprenticeship. Hand molders who do highly re petitive work usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. “Learners” (either men without previous foundry experience or up graded foundry helpers) work with a molder to make a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months, the learner is usually competent to make the same or a similar mold, without close supervision. The more difficult and responsi ble types of machine molding jobs also require formal or equivalent training. However, most machine molding jobs can be learned in 60 to 90 days of on-the-job training. An eighth grade education usu ally is the minimum requirement for apprenticeship. Many employers, however, require additional educa tion up to and including high school graduation for apprenticeship in skilled hand molding or machine molding jobs. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. Hand and floor molders stand at their work, move about a great deal, and do frequent lifting. Hand molders need a high degree of manual dexterity and good vision. Since molding work is strenuous, few women are em ployed. Employment Outlook Employment of molders is ex pected to show little or no change through the 1970’s, despite the an ticipated substantial increase in foundry production. The demand for molders will not keep pace with the increase in production, since the trend is toward more machine molding and less hand molding, and the increasing use of permanent molds and shell molds. Neverthe less, the need to replace experi enced molders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations will provide more than 1,000 job open ings each year. Several hundred of these openings will be for molding apprentices. Openings also will occur for workers in entry jobs in machine molding and in less skilled types of hand molding. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of molders depend on several factors, including type of molding work—hand or machine; skill requirements of the job; type of metal poured; and geographic lo cation. In January 1970, the aver age (median) straight-time hourly earnings of floor molders was $3.55; bench molders, $3.45; squeezer machine molders, $3.35; and heavy machine molders, $3.35, according to a survey of wages and fringe benefits in 52 labor areas, made by the National Foundry As sociation. As shown in the following tabulation, floor molders in steel foundries received the highest aver age (median) straight-time hourly earnings. Type of molder Type of foundry Gray iron and Nonmalleable Steel ferrous Floor ....................... ....$3.55 $3.65 $3.55 Bench ...................... .... 3.45 3.45 3.25 Heavy machine ..... .... 3.35 3.35 3.45 Squeezer machine ....... 3.35 3.25 3.35 See “Sources of Additional In formation” in the introductory sec tion of this chapter. 667 OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES COREMAKERS Nature of the Work Coremakers prepare the “cores” which are placed in molds to form the hollow sections or holes usually required in metal castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core so that when the core is re moved, the desired cavity or con tour remains. A core may be made either by hand or machine. In both instances, prepared sand is packed into a core box, a block of wood or metal into which a hollow space of the size and shape of the desired core has been cut. After the core has been removed from the box, it is hardened either by baking or by other drying methods. When hand methods are used to make a core, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack and ram sand into the core box. In hand coremaking, small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381) and bulky cores are made on the foundry floor by floor core makers (D.O.T. 518.381). There is a wide range of skill requirements in hand coremaking. All-round hand coremakers (journeymen) prepare large and intricate cores. The less skilled coremakers make smaller and simpler cores. Their work is highly repetitive because they frequently produce large quantities of identical cores. Many skilled coremakers are employed as supervisors. Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.885) operate machines which make sand cores by forcing sand into specially shaped hollow forms. Most machine made cores are blown by compressed air. Some machine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their machines and do finishing operations on the cores. Other coremakers are pri marily machine tenders. They are closely supervised and their ma chines are adjusted for them. The apprentice works with jour neymen coremakers in routine du ties and then in more advanced work such as making simple cores and operating ovens. As his skill in creases, the apprentice makes more complex cores. He acquires experi ence in benchwork and floorwork and in the operation of coremaking machines. Classroom instruction covering subjects such as arithmetic and the properties of metals, gener ally supplement on-the-job training. Hand coremakers who have all round training may be promoted to supervisor. An eighth grade education is usu ally the minimum required for core making apprentice training; some employers require graduation from high school. For the less skilled coremaking jobs, persons without previous experience may be hired, or foundry laborers or helpers may be upgraded. Some types of hand coremaking require a high degree of manual dexterity. Light coremaking is not very strenuous, and women are frequently employed. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year appren tice training program or the equiva lent in experience is needed to be come a skilled hand coremaker. Coremaking apprenticeships are also sometimes required for the more difficult machine coremaking jobs. Only a brief period of on-thejob training is needed for less skilled hand coremaking and for most machine coremaking jobs. Training in coremaking and mold ing are often combined in a single apprenticeship. Employment of coremakers— who numbered about 25,000 in early 1970—is expected to show lit tle or no change through the 1970’s, despite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry production. The demand for coremakers will not keep pace with the increase in pro duction, because of the growing use of machine-made rather than hand made cores. Nevertheless, several hundred job openings will arise each year because of the need to re place experienced coremakers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. 668 Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of coremakers depend on skill requirements of the job, type of metal poured, geographic lo cation, and other factors. In Janu ary 1970, the average (median) straight-time hourly earnings of floor coremakers was $3.55; bench coremakers, $3.35; and machine OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK coremakers, $3.25, according to a survey of wages and fringe benefits in 52 labor areas, made by the Na tional Foundry Association. As shown in the following tabulation, the highest average (median) straight-time hourly earnings were received by floor coremakers in steel foundries: Occupation Type of foundry Gray iron and Nonmalleable Steel ferrous Floor coremaker........$3.42 $3.65 $3.35 Bench coremaker ...... 3.35 3.25 3.25 Machine coremaker.... 3.25 3.55 3.05 See “Sources of Additional In formation” in the introductory sec tion of this chapter. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E IN D U S T R IA L C H E M IC A L S IN D U S T R Y The industrial chemical industry has grown in just a few decades into one of the great manufacturing industries of our Nation. An impor tant reason for this growth has been the industry’s huge expenditures for research and development which have provided many new and im proved products for its customers —mainly manufacturing industries. A wide variety of industrial chemi cal products contribute to our everyday needs; for example, syn thetic fibers for clothing and rugs, and plastics for automobiles and furniture. Chemical products also are essential for the manufacturing of missile and space equipment, rocket propulsion fuels, and other defense and space materials. In 1970, nearly 545,000 wage and salary workers were employed in the industrial chemical industry in a wide range of occupations. Job requirements varied from graduate college degrees for some scientists and engineers to a few days of onthe-job training for some plant workers. drugs and detergents, which are sold directly to the consumer with out further processing, are not dis cussed in this statement. Industrial chemical plants make organic chemicals from fossil mate rials such as coal and petroleum, or from living materials such as agri cultural and forest products. Some products of organic chemicals, such as synthetic fibers and plastics, are well known. Among those less known are coal tar crudes, benzene, and acetone. The principal users of organic chemicals are textile, plas tics products, rubber, and food processing industries. Inorganic chemicals come from nonliving mat ter; for example, sulfur and mineral ores. They are basic materials for making other chemicals as well as finished products such as paper and gasoline. In at least one respect, the manufacture of chemicals differs from the manufacture of most other products—the ingredients used to make chemicals undergo reactions which produce compounds vastly different in nature and appearance from the raw materials. For exam ple, nylon is produced from coal, air, and water. A modern chemical plant is made up of huge towers, tanks, and build ings linked together by a network of pipes. These structures contain the various types of processing equip ment. Raw materials go through several operations including dis solving, heating, cooling, mixing, evaporating, filtering, and drying. Between each operation the mate rials, which may be liquid, solid, or gas, are transported by pipes or conveyors. Throughout these opera tions, automatic control devices reg ulate the flow of materials, the com bination of chemicals, and the tem perature, pressure, and time for each operation. These controls make possible the processing of tons of material in one continuous opera tion with little manual handling. Nature of the Industry The industrial chemical industry (SIC 281 and 282) is made up of plants which manufacture industrial inorganic and organic chemicals, plastic materials and synthetic resins, synthetic rubber and syn thetic and other man-made fibers, except glass. These chemicals are used mainly by other companies in the chemical industry, and by other manufacturing industries as raw ma terials or as processing agents. Other chemical products such as 669 670 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Approximately 3,000 plants in the United States make industrial chemicals. About two-thirds of them have fewer than 50 em ployees. However, more than onehalf of the industry’s workers are employed in plants that have 500 or more workers. Chemical plants are usually located on the outskirts of industrial centers. Sometimes plants are built near the sources of raw material; for example, plants which produce chemicals made from pe troleum and natural gas are located near the oilfields and refineries of Texas, California, and Louisiana. Although industrial chemical workers are employed in most States, more than 65 percent of them and nearly 40 percent of the plants are in the following 10 States: New Jersey, Texas, Tennes see, New York, Pennsylvania, Vir ginia, Delaware, Ohio, Michigan, and West Virginia. Occupations in the industry Industrial chemical firms employ workers with many different levels of skill and education. About 3 out of every 5 employees are engaged in processing, maintenance, or other plant-related activities. A large number of scientists, engineers, and other technical personnel also are employed because of the highly technical nature of chemical prod ucts and the methods of production. Administrative and professional em ployees, including salesmen, ac countants, lawyers, and personnel officers, make up another sizeable segment of the industry’s work force. In addition, large numbers of bookkeepers, typists, office machine operators, and other clerical workers are employed. About 1 out of every 8 workers in the industrial chemical industry is a woman. Most women in this in dustry work in clerical jobs, al though some work in chemical labo ratories as research chemists or as laboratory technicians and assist ants. In a few industrial chemical plants, women are employed as chemical operators or as packers. Plant Occupations. Plant workers, who represent 3 out of every 5 em ployees in the industrial chemical industry, generally can be divided into three major occupational groups: processing workers, mainte nance workers, and other plant workers. Process equipment operators and their helpers are the largest occupa tional group. Many of these opera tors are highly skilled. Chemical op erators (D.O.T. 558.885 and 559.782) control the various pieces of equipment which convert raw materials into chemical products. Operators set dials on devices that measure the exact amount of mate rials to be processed and control temperature, pressure, and flow of materials. They keep a record of operations and report any sign of equipment breakdown. They use in struments to measure and test chemicals, or they may send sam ples of chemicals to laboratory tech nicians in the testing laboratory. They may be assisted by chemical operators of less skill and by help ers. Sometimes chemical operators are classified according to the type of equipment they operate, such as filterer or mixer. The industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to prevent interruptions of highly auto mated production processes. Main tenance is very important because of the extremes of temperature, pressure, and corrosion to which pipes, vats, and other plant equip ment are subjected. Included among maintenance workers are pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pip ing; maintenance machinists, who make and repair metal parts for machines and other equipment; electricians, who maintain and re pair wiring, motors, and other electrical equipment; and instru ment repairmen, who install and re pair instruments and control de vices. In some chemical plants one worker may do several maintenance jobs. Plant workers who do not oper ate or maintain equipment may do many other jobs. Some drive trucks; some load and unload materials on trucks, railroad cars, or ships; and other workers keep inventory of stock and tools. The industry also employs custodial workers. Scientific and Technical Occupa tions. The industrial chemical indus try is one of the Nation’s largest employers of scientific and technical personnel. About 1 out of every 6 employees is a scientist, engineer, or technician. About 40 percent work in laboratories to develop new prod ucts and new methods of produc tion, and to do basic research. Most of the remainder are in plant opera tions. Some scientists and techni cians are in administrative or sales positions requiring technical back grounds. Chemists and chemical engineers make up the largest proportion of scientific and technical personnel. Many chemists, work in research and development. A large number in production departments analyze and test chemicals for quality con trol during processing. Some che mists supervise plant workers; oth ers are salesmen, writers, or admin istrators who must have technical knowledge. Chemical engineers apply their knowledge of both chemistry and OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 671 industries are given elsewhere in this Handbook in the sections cov ering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Operator monitors control of autoclave. engineering to the design, construc record the results of their work in tion, operation, and improvement of reports and charts for chemists and chemical equipment and plants. chemical engineers. They convert processes developed in laboratories into large-scale pro Administrative, Clerical and Re duction methods. Some chemical lated Occupations. About 1 out of engineers are employed in produc every 4 employees in the industry is tion departments and others are in an administrator, clerk, or other selling, customer service, market re white-collar worker. Many highsearch, and writing jobs. level administrative and manage Mechanical engineers design and ment positions are filled by chemists lay out power and heating equip and chemical engineers. At the top ment such as steam turbines. They of the administrative group are ex often supervise the installation, op ecutives who make policy decisions eration, and maintenance of chemi about finance, products to be manu cal processing equipment. Electrical factured, and plant locations. Mak engineers design and develop elec ing such decisions requires the help trical and electronic equipment, of a large body of specialists, in such as control devices and instru cluding accountants, sales represent ments, and facilities for generating atives, lawyers, and personnel in in and distributing electric power. dustrial relations, advertising, and The industry employs many tech market research. Other workers as nical assistants such as laboratory sist these specialists. For example, technicians and draftsmen. Labora clerical employees keep records on tory technicians assist chemists and personnel, payroll, raw materials, engineers in research and develop sales, shipments, and maintenance. (Detailed discussions of profes ment and quality control. Depend ing on their training and experience, sional, technical, mechanical, and they may run simple tests or do other occupations found in the in highly technical analyses. They may dustrial chemical industry and other The industrial chemical industry generally hires and trains inexperi enced workers for processing and maintenance jobs. Companies pre fer to hire high school graduates. In many plants, a new worker is sent to a labor pool for assignment to jobs such as filling barrels and moving materials. When a vacancy occurs, he may be transferred to one of the processing departments. As he gains experience, he moves to more skilled jobs. Thus, he may ad vance from laborer to chemical op erator helper, to assistant chemical operator, and then to skilled chemi cal operator. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. Many companies have mainte nance training programs which last from a few months to several years and include classroom instruction. Many companies encourage skilled maintenance workers and trainees to enroll in correspondence courses or take job-related courses at voca tional schools and technical insti tutes. After successfully completing these courses, workers are reim bursed for part or all of their tui tion. A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing, chemistry, or another science is the minimum educational require ment for scientists and engineers. For research jobs, applicants with advanced degrees are generally pre ferred. Some firms have formal training programs for young college graduates with engineering or scien tific backgrounds. Before being as 672 signed to a particular department, these employees work in various parts of the plant for brief periods to gain a broad knowledge of chem ical manufacturing operations. Other firms immediately assign jun ior chemists or engineers to a spe cific activity such as research or sales. Some firms sponsor advanced academic training through tuitionrefund programs. Technicians qualify for their jobs in many ways. Graduates of techni cal institutes and junior colleges are preferred. Many workers qualify through on-the-job training and ex perience. Sometimes trainees are sent to a technical institute at com pany expense. Students who have not completed all requirements for a college degree, especially those who have received some education in mathematics, science, or engi neering, often are employed as tech nicians. Laboratory technicians begin as assistants and advance to jobs of greater responsibility. Inexperi enced draftsmen usually begin as copyists or tracers. As they gain ad ditional experience and training and show ability to work without close supervision, they advance to more skilled and responsible drafting jobs. Administrative positions fre quently are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, economics, statistics, in dustrial relations, or other special ized fields. Some companies have advanced training programs in which they give their new em ployees additional training in their chosen specialties. Clerks, bookkeepers, and secre taries generally have had commer cial courses in high school or busi ness school. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment in the industry is expected to grow slowly through the 1970’s, although production of in dustrial chemicals is likely to con tinue to increase rapidly. Most job opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Openings from deaths and retire ments alone are expected to average several thousand a year. Continued emphasis on research and development is expected to stimulate growth in the industrial chemical industry, which has far outstripped most other major indus tries in the development of new products. Some of these products, such as plastics and synthetics, not only have created new markets but also have competed successfully in markets previously dominated by wood, metals, and natural textiles. Chemical products are expected to continue to make inroads in these markets. Although industrial chemical production more than doubled be tween 1960 and 1970, employment increased only 24 percent as a re sult of the industry’s emphasis on technological improvements and the use of automatic processing and control equipment. Increases in out put per worker are expected to con tinue as new plants with the latest equipment are constructed and older plants are modernized. Some occupational groups in the industry are expected to grow faster than others. The number of profes sional, technical, and administrative workers is expected to grow more rapidly than the number of plant workers. Emphasis on research and development and greater complexity of products and processes will in crease the need for chemists, engi neers, technicians, and related per sonnel. Because of the increasing use of automatic processing and control equipment, most of the demand for additional plant workers will be for instrument repairmen, pipefitters, electricians, maintenance machin ists, and other skilled maintenance workers. Process equipment opera tors, however, will continue to be the largest occupational group in the industry, although employment of these workers is not expected to increase as much as employment of maintenance workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Because a large proportion are skilled, production workers in in OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY dustrial chemicals have relatively high average earnings. In 1970, production workers in inorganic and organic chemicals averaged $172.58 for a 42.3 hour week or $4.08 an hour; production workers in plastic materials and synthetic rubber, resins, and fibers averaged $151.73 for a 41.8 hour week or $3.63 an hour. In comparison, production workers in manufacturing as a whole averaged $133.73 for a 39.8 hour week or $3.36 an hour. Entry salaries for inexperienced chemists and chemical engineers in industrial chemicals are among the highest in American industry, ac cording to a 1970 survey conducted by the American Chemical Society. The median starting salary was $810 a month for chemists with a bachelor’s degree and $906 a month for chemical engineers. Chemists and chemical engineers with gradu ate degrees received higher starting salaries. Paid vacations are universal in this industry and generally are based on length of service. For ex ample, workers in many plants re ceive 2 weeks of vacation after 1 year of employment, 3 weeks after 5 years, 4 weeks after 10 years and 5 weeks after 20 years. Most workers are covered by life, sickness, accident, hospitalization, and surgical insurance. Practically all plants have pension plans. Many employees work in plants that operate around the clock— three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry practice of rotation, processing workers can expect to work the sec ond or third shift at one time or another, usually for extra pay. Very few maintenance workers are em ployed on shifts. The industry has little seasonal variation and regular workers have year-round jobs. Except for laborers and material handlers, most industrial chemical jobs require little physical effort. Much of the plant work involves tending, inspecting, repairing, or maintaining machinery and equip ment, since most of the processing is controlled automatically or semiautomatically. Some workers are required to climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights. Some jobs are performed out of doors in all kinds of weather. Workers may be exposed to dust, disagreeable odors, or high temper atures. Chemical companies, how ever, have reduced these discom forts by installing ventilating or airconditioning systems. Protective clothing, eye glasses, showers and 673 eye baths near dangerous work sta tions, and other safety measures have reduced injuries. These de vices have helped to make the inju ry-frequency rate in industrial chemicals less than half that for manufacturing as a whole. Many production workers in the industrial chemical industry are members of labor unions. The lead ing unions are the International Chemical Workers Union; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers In ternational Union; and International Union of District 50, Allied and Technical Workers of the U.S. and Canada. Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning careers in the industry may be ob tained from the public relations de partments of industrial chemical companies, locals of the unions mentioned above, and from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa tion, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E IR O N A N D S T E E L IN D U S T R Y Steel is the backbone of any in dustrialized economy. There is hardly a product in daily use that has not been made from steel or processed by machinery made of steel. In 1970, United States steel makers produced approximately 131 million tons of raw steel— about one-fifth of the world’s out put. The iron and steel industry is one of the Nation’s largest employers. About 629,000 wage and salary workers were on the payrolls of the industry’s more than 850 plants in 1970. Employees work in a broad range of jobs requiring a wide vari ety of skills—from unskilled to technical and professional jobs. Many of these jobs are found only in iron and steelmaking or finishing. The iron and steel industry, as discussed in this chapter, consists of blast furnaces, steelmaking fur naces, and rolling mills. These in clude mills engaged in finishing and rolling steel products from pur chased sheets, strips, bars and rods, and other materials. The production of iron and steel consists of a closely related series of produc tion processes. First, iron ore is converted to molten iron in blast furnaces. The molten iron is poured into “hot metal cars” and either transported directly to the steelmak ing furnace or cast into “pigs” (iron in rough bar form) for use by foundries or by steel mills that do not produce their own iron. (See chart 29 below.) Molten iron or pig iron is then converted into steel in various types of steelmaking fur naces, including basic oxygen, open hearth, and electric furnaces. Molten steel is either poured into ladles and then into ingot molds, or is poured 674 from the ladle directly into continu ous casting machines. The ingots are converted into blooms, billets, or slabs on roughing mills, while the steel poured into the casting ma chine is converted to these semi finished forms, thus bypassing the roughing mill operation. The steel then is rolled into basic products, such as plates, sheets, strips, rods, bars, rails, and structural shapes. Many plants carry the manufactur ing processes beyond the primary rolling stage to produce finished products such as pipe, wire, and coated products. (The chapter does not describe the mining or the processing of raw materials used to make steel, or the casting, stamping, forging, machining, or fabrication of steel. These activities are not con sidered to be in the iron and steel industry, though many domestic steel companies are involved in one or more of these activities. (Employ ment opportunities in foundry, forg ing, and machining occupations are @ discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Steel companies differ in the number of operations they perform. Many of them, known as integrated companies, mine and quarry their own coal, ore, and limestone; pro duce their own coke from coal; re duce ore to pig iron; make steel; and form the steel into products by rolling and other finishing methods. These companies account for the bulk of total steel production and employ most of the industry’s workers. Another group of compa nies makes various types of steel from steel scrap and pig iron pur chased from other companies. A third group rolls and finishes pur chased raw steel. A fourth type makes only pig iron to be sold to small steel plants and foundries. Most of the basic products made by steel mills are shipped to the plants of other industries, where they are made into thousands of dif ferent products. Some products, however, such as rails, pipe, and nails, are produced in their final form at the mills. The leading steel consuming industries are automo bile, construction and building ma terials, machinery and machine blast furnace The steelmaking processes RAW MATERIAL limestone, iron ore, coal, coke open hearth furnace IRON & SCRAP — basic oxygen ,j S f l » furnace electric furnace soaking pit slabs plate, sheet & strip blooms Tjgiyjj billets structural steel & rails rods, bars, seamless pipes & ^ 1 tubes OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY tools, containers, and household ap pliances. Steel sheets are made into auto mobile bodies, household appli ances, and metal furniture. Steel bars are used to make parts for au tomobiles and machinery and to reinforce concrete in building and highway construction. Steel plates become parts of ships, bridges, heavy machinery, railroad cars, and storage tanks. Strip steel is used in the manufacture of items such as pots and pans, automobile body parts, razor blades, and toys. Tin coated steel, known as tinplate, is used primarily to make “tin” cans. Individual plants in this industry typically employ a large number of workers. About 70 percent of all the industry’s employees work in plants which have more than 2,500 wage and salary workers. A few plants have more than 20,000 em ployees. However, many plants em ploy fewer than 100 workers, par ticularly those plants which make highly specialized steel products. Iron and steel producing plants are located mainly in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. Most of the secondary man ufacturers who process steel, most of the warehouses that distribute steel sheets and other forms of the metal, and most of the contractors who use I-beams and other con struction materials are located in the Northeastern quadrant of the Nation. The heart of U.S. steel manufacturing is a triangular area, about 250 miles on a side, marked off by Johnstown, Pa., Buffalo, N.Y., and Detroit, Mich. Included in this area are major steel produc ing centers, such as Pittsburgh, Pa., and Cleveland and Youngstown, Ohio. Large plants also are located on the south shore of Lake Michi gan near Chicago. The Nation’s two largest steel plants, however, are lo cated at Sparrows Point, Md. (near Baltimore), and Gary, Ind. Much of the steelmaking in the South is in the vicinity of Birmingham, Ala., and Houston, Tex. Other steelmak ing facilities are located in the Far West at Pueblo, Colo.; Provo, Utah; and Fontana and San Francisco, Calif. About 7 out of 10 of the indus try’s workers are employed in five States—Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi ana, Illinois, and New York. Penn sylvania alone accounts for nearly 3 out of 10. Occupations in the Industry Workers in the iron and steel in dustry hold more than 1,000 differ ent types of jobs. Some workers are directly engaged in making iron and steel and converting it into semifin ished and finished products. Others maintain the vast amount of ma chinery and equipment used in the industry, operate cranes and other equipment which move raw mate rials and steel products about the plants, or perform other kinds of work. In addition, many workers are needed to do clerical, sales, pro fessional, technical, administrative, and supervisory work. Four-fifths of all employees in the iron and steel industry in 1970 were production and maintenance workers. These workers were di rectly concerned with the produc tion and finishing of iron and steel, the maintenance of plant equip ment, and movement of materials within and among plant depart ments. The remaining employees were in clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, research, managerial, and supervisory occu pations. Men constitute 96 percent of all employees in the industry, and an 675 even higher proportion of the pro duction workers. About two-thirds of the women employed in the in dustry work in supervisory, ad ministrative, technical, research, and clerical jobs. Women in pro duction departments work in jobs such as assorter and inspector. Processing Occupations. The major ity of the workers in the industry are employed in the many process ing operations involved in convert ing iron ore into steel and then into semifinished and finished steel prod ucts. To provide a better under standing of the types of jobs, brief descriptions of the major steelmak ing and finishing operations and of the more important occupations connected with them are given below. Blast furnaces. The blast furnace is used to reduce iron ore to molten iron. Iron ore, coke, and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace. Hot air, blown in from the bottom of the furnace, rises through the mass of material and causes com bustion. The gases formed by the burning of the coke combine with and remove the oxygen from the ore. Molten iron trickles down through the charge and collects in a pool at the bottom of the furnace. At the same time, the intense heat causes the limestone to combine with silica and other impurities in the iron ore and coke and to form molten “slag,” a useful byproduct. This, too, trickles down through the charge and floats on top of the heavier molten iron. The slag and molten iron ore are separately tapped or “cast” from the blast fur nace. A blast furnace operates contin uously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless it is shut down for re pairs or for other reasons. Molten 676 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Molten pig iron is tested for quality. iron may be removed every 3 to 4 rials from storage bins. They weigh hours; slag is removed more fre all raw materials according to a quently. The charging of iron ore, prearranged schedule, determined coke, and limestone into the furnace by the kind of hot metal desired. is a continuous operation. A single The loaded stock cars are emptied blast furnace may produce up to into waiting “skip cars,” which 5,000 tons of molten iron in a 24- carry the materials up tracks to the hour period. Output can be in top of the blast furnace where they creased to over 7,000 tons per day are automatically dumped. Other if pre-reduced iron pellets are used. stockhouse men or skipmen The raw materials used in blast (D.O.T. 921.883), stationed on the furnaces are stored in a stock house ground below, control the skip cars below furnace level. Here stock- through electric and pneumatic con (D.O.T. house men or stockhouse larrymen trols. Stove tenders (D.O.T. 919.883) load traveling 512.782) and their assistants oper stock or larry cars with raw mate ate huge, bricklined stoves which heat air for the blast furnace. They regulate valves to control the heat ing cycle of the stoves and regulate the flow of heated air to the fur nace. The men responsible for the quantity and quality of iron pro duced are called blowers (D.O.T. 519.132). They direct the operation of one or more blast furnaces, in cluding loading and tapping the fur nace, and regulating the air blast and furnace heat. Blowers carefully check the metal produced, periodi cally sending samples of the molten iron and slag to the laboratory where quality tests are made and the results reported to the blower. Keepers (D.O.T. 502.884), under the direction of the blower, are re sponsible for tapping the furnace. They direct their helpers and cindermen or slaggers (D.O.T. 519.887) in lining (with special re fractory sand) the troughs and run ners through which the molten iron and slag are run off into waiting cars. Steel furnaces. The second major step in steelmaking is to convert the iron into steel. This is done in sev eral types of furnaces: basic oxy gen, open hearth, and electric. About half of all domestic steel is made in basic oxygen furnaces (BOF), and this proportion is ex pected to increase. Basic oxygen furnaces can make steel faster than any other type of furnace currently in use, and continual displacement of the open-hearth steelmaking process by the basic oxygen method is expected. Many basic oxygen fur naces can produce more than 6,000 tons of steel in a 24-hour period. In this steelmaking process, oxygen is “blown” into the furnace through vertical pipes, or “lances,” after it has been loaded with steel scrap and molten pig iron. Limestone and other slag forming materials are OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Melter helpers take temperature of steel in basic oxygen furnace. added to remove impurities from the steel. The use of oxygen speeds the steelmaking process because it is blown directly onto the molten metal forcing a faster chemical reaction and a higher bath tempera ture. BOF’s are often computer controlled to improve the quality of the steel produced and to speed up the steelmaking process. A melter (D.O.T. 512.132) is in charge of one or more furnaces and is responsible for the quality and quantity of the steel produced. The melter makes the steel to the de sired specifications by varying the proportions of limestone, iron ore, scrap steel, and molten pig iron in the furnace, and by adding small amounts of other materials such as manganese, silicon, copper or other alloy additives. He supervises three grades of helpers— first (D.O.T. 512.782), second (D.O.T. 502.884), and third (D.O.T. 519.887). These helpers prepare the furnaces for the heat, regulate furnace tem peratures, take samples of molten 677 steel for laboratory tests, direct the adding of various alloying materials, and tap the molten steel from the furnace into a ladle. One first helper is responsible for each furnace. When the heat of steel is ready to be tapped, the furnace crew knocks out a plug in the furnace with a “jet tapper” (small explosive charge which is fired into the plug) which allows the molten metal to flow into a ladle. The slag, which floats to the top of the ladle, overflows into a smaller ladle called a slag pot. The molten steel then is poured or “teemed” from the ladle into ingot molds (hollow cast iron forms). A ladle craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane which picks up the ladle and moves it over a long row of ingot molds resting on flat-bottom cars. The steel pourer (D.O.T. 514.884) operates a stopper on the bottom of the ladle to let the steel flow into the molds. As soon as the steel in the molds has solidified sufficiently, an ingot stripper (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane, which removes the molds from the ingots. The still-hot steel ingots are placed on “ingot buggies” (four-wheel carts running on rails) for movement to the soaking pits or storage areas. Open-hearth steel, which ac counts for slightly more than onethird of all steel manufactured in the United States, is produced by adding molten pig iron to previously charged and heated steel scrap and limestone and melting the mixture in furnaces. It is possible to make from about 125 to more than 600 tons of steel per load or “heat”, de pending upon the size of the fur nace. Most of the open-hearth steel making facilities now use oxygen in the refining operation to speed up the process. Electric furnaces account for the 678 remainder—about 15 percent—of domestic steel production. In elec tric furnaces, steelmaking can be controlled very closely. Conse quently, such furnaces are used to produce high quality and high alloy specialty steels, such as tool and stainless, as well as the more com mon steels. Rolling and finishing. The three principal methods of shaping metal in steel plants are rolling, casting, and forging. About three-fourths of all steel products are shaped by the rolling process. In this method, heated steel ingots are squeezed longer and flatter between two cyl inders or “rolls.” Before ingots of steel are rolled, they are heated to the temperature specified by the plant’s metallurgist. The heating is done in large furnaces called “soak ing pits,” located in the plant floor. A heater (D.O.T. 613.782) con trols the soaking pit operation. He directs helpers in heating the ingots to the specified temperature and, with the help of control equipment, determines when they are ready for rolling. A soaking pit craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an ov erhead crane, by means of electrical controls, to lift the stripped ingots from an ingot car and place them into the soaking pit. When the in gots are sufficiently “soaked” with heat, the heater opens the furnace covers and the craneman removes the ingots and places them on an ingot buggy, which carries them to the first rolling mill, sometimes called a “break down” mill. Here, the ingots are rolled into semifin ished shapes—blooms, slabs, or bil lets. Blooms are generally more than 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Slabs are much wider than blooms. Billets are the smallest of these three shapes. The rolling of blooms illustrates the semifinishing process. In the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Hot steel ingots are reduced to slabs and blooms. blooming mill, as in other rolling mills, the ingot moves along on a roller conveyor to a machine which resembles a giant clothes wringer. A “two-high” blooming mill has two heavy grooved rolls which revolve in opposite directions. The rolls grip the approaching ingot and pull it between them, squeezing it thinner and longer. When the ingot has made one pass through the rolls, the rolls are reversed, and the ingot is fed back through them. Throughout the rolling operation, the ingot is periodically turned 90 degrees by mechanical devices called “manipu lators,” and passed between the rolls again so that all sides are rolled. Guides, located on each side of the roll table, properly position 679 OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY the ingot for entry into the rolls. This operation is repeated until the ingot is reduced to a bloom of the desired size. The bloom then is ready to be cut to specified lengths. A blooming mill roller (D.O.T. 613.782), the man in charge of the mill, works in a glass-enclosed con trol booth, or “pulpit,” located above or beside the roller line. His duties, which appear to consist prin cipally of moving levers and push ing buttons, look relatively simple. However, the quality of the product and the speed with which the ingot is rolled depends upon his skill. The roller regulates the opening between the rolls after each pass. Long expe rience and a knowledge of steel characteristics are required for a worker to become a roller. A ma nipulator operator (D.O.T. 613.782) sits in the pulpit beside the roller and coordinates his con trols over the ingot’s position with those of the roller. Upon leaving the rolling mill, the red-hot bloom moves along a roller conveyor to a place where a shear man (D.O.T. 615.782) controls a heavy hydraulically operated shear which cuts the steel into desired lengths. In a blooming mill with auto matic (electronic) process controls, a rolling mill attendant is given a card which has been punched with a series of holes. The holes represent coded information and directions as to how the ingot is to be rolled. The attendant inserts the card into a card “reader,” then presses a button that starts the rolling sequence. The information in punched-card form governs the setting of the roll open ing, the speed of the rolls, the num ber of passes to be made, and the number of times the ingot must be turned. When the automatic process is used, the roller’s function is shifted from operating the rolling controls to directing and coordinat ing the entire rolling process. This consists of heating, rolling, and shearing. Of increasing use in steel shaping is the continuous casting process. In this process, which eliminates the necessity of conventional pouring pits to produce large ingots that in turn must be put through huge blooming and slabbing mills, molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mold of the desired product shape located at the top of a tower. As the mold is filled, the steel solidifies along the bottom and lower sides. The mold bottom is then withdrawn and the slab or billet starts its de scent through the tower. As the rib bon emerges from the mold, addi tional molten steel is continuously Operators oversee cold reduction of steel in tandem mill. 680 added at the top. Continuing down ward, it passes through a spray chamber where it is further cooled by a water spray to solidify the still liquid core. Pinch rolls control its descent and support its weight. Fi nally, the slab or billet is cut into lengths as it emerges from the rolls. In some continuous casting installa tions, a curved mold is used so that the product comes out horizontally rather than vertically. After the steel is rolled into semi finished shape—blooms, slabs, or billets—most of it is put through fin ishing operations. For example, steel slabs may be reduced and shaped into plates and sheets. Even after additional rolling, some steels must be worked further. Some rods, for instance, are reduced to wire by drawing. Wire can be further proc essed into wire rope, nails, fencing, or other end products. Much sheet steel is reduced further by cold-roll ing, and then it may be run through galvanizing or tinplating lines. Equipment operator, inspector, and assorter are among the major occupations in finishing operations; women frequently are employed in these jobs. An important occupation in wire making is the wire drawer (D.O.T. 614.782). This worker pulls the pointed end of a steel rod through a die (a block of hard steel or sin tered carbide with a tapered hole in it). The rod end then is attached to a reel which, while revolving, pulls the rest of the rod through the die. As the rod passes through the die, it is made thinner and longer and be comes wire, which is coiled auto matically around the revolving reel. If extensive reduction of the rod is required, it is passed through a se ries of dies, each die reducing the diameter of the wire slightly. Pipe, both welded and seamless, is also an important steel mill prod OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Worker checks production of pipe in electric-resistance weld mill. uct. In making welded pipe, the flat steel is fed into a machine which through a series of forming rolls converts it into tube shape; then the edges of the pipe are fused by con tinuous welding. Seamless pipe and tubing are formed from a solid billet of steel, called a tube round. In the seamless operation, the piercer-machine op erator (D.O.T. 613.885) passes a preheated “tube round” between two barrel-shaped rolls. The revolv ing rolls spin the “tube round” and force one end against a piercing plug or “mandrel.” The combined rolling action and the pressure of the rolls tend to make the steel draw apart providing space for the mandrel to enter. The mandrel smooths the inside walls and makes the diameter of the hole uniform. Tinplate is another important steel product. To make tinplate, thin gauge steel in coil form is fed continuously through an electrolytic bath where a coat of tin is deposited on the steel. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. Large numbers of workers are required in steel plants to support processing activities. Some maintain and repair machinery and equipment, and oth ers operate the equipment which provides power, steam, and water. Other groups of workers move ma terial and supplies and perform a variety of service operations. In the machine shops, machinists and machine tool operators make and repair metal parts for machin ery or equipment. Diemakers use machine tools to form dies, such as those used in wire drawing units. Roll turners (D.O.T. 613.780) use lathes, grinders, and other machine tools to finish steel rolls to desired shapes and sizes for use in the roll ing mills. Millwrights in this industry main tain mechanical equipment. They overhaul machinery and repair and replace defective parts. Electricians install electric wiring and fixtures and hook up electrically operated equipment. Electrical repairmen (motor inspectors) keep wiring, motors, switches, and electrical equipment in good operating condi tion and make repairs when electri cal equipment breaks down. Electronic repairmen install, re pair, and adjust the increasing num ber of electronic devices and sys tems used in steel manufacturing plants. Typically, this equipment in cludes communication systems such as public address systems; closedcircuit television installations; elec tronic computing and data recording systems; and measuring, processing, and control devices such as X-ray measuring or inspection equipment. Bricklayers repair and rebuild the brickwork in furnaces, soaking pits, ladles, and coke ovens, as well as mill buildings and offices. Pipefit ters lay out, install, and repair pip ing that is used to carry the large amount of water, gas, steam, oil, air, oxygen, and acetylene used in the steelmaking process. Boilermak ers test, repair, and rebuild heating units, storage tanks, stationary boil ers, and condensers. Locomotive engineers and other train crew members operate diesel or electric trains used to transport materials and products in the vast yards of iron and steel plants. Welders use welding equipment to join metal parts in repairing and rebuilding plant machinery and in fabricating steel products. Skilled workers op erate the various boilers, turbines, and switchboards in the powerplants which provide the large amounts of electric power needed in steelmak ing. Other types of maintenance and service workers found in steel plants include carpenters, oilers, painters, instrument repairmen, scale me chanics, loaders, riggers, greasers, janitors, and guards. Many laborers are employed to load and unload materials and do a variety of cleanup operations. Administrative, Clerical, and Tech nical Occupations. Professional, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales workers account for about one-fifth of the industry’s total em ployment. Of these, the majority are clerical workers, such as secretaries, stenographers, typists, accounting clerks, and general office clerks. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians make up a substantial propor tion of the industry’s white-collar employment. Several thousand of these workers perform research and development work to improve exist ing iron and steel products and processes, and to develop new products and processes. The technical specialists in iron and steel plants also include me 681 chanical engineers, whose principal work is the design, construction, and operation of mill machinery and material handling equipment. Many mechanical engineers work in oper ating units where their jobs include, for example, determination of roll size and contour, rolling pressures, and operating speeds. Others are re sponsible for plant and equipment maintenance. Metallurgists and me tallurgical engineers work in labora tories and production departments where they have the important task of specifying, controlling, and test ing the quality of the steel during its manufacture. They also develop and improve the industry’s products and processes through research. Civil engineers are engaged in the layout, construction, and maintenance of steel plants, and the equipment used for heat, light, and transportation. Electrical engineers design, lay out, and supervise the operation of electrical generating distribution facilities that provide the power essential in modern steel mill opera tion. These engineers also are con cerned with the operation of electri cal machinery and electrical and electronic control equipment. Chemists work in the laborator ies, making chemical analyses of steel and raw materials used in steel manufacture. Laboratory techni cians do routine testing and assist chemists and engineers. Draftsmen prepare working plans and detailed drawings required in plant construc tion and maintenance. Among the employees in admin istrative, managerial, and supervi sory occupations are office manag ers, labor relations and personnel managers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and industrial engineers. Working with these personnel are several thousand professional workers other than scientists and engineers. By far, the largest group 682 of these professional employees are accountants, but there are also many nurses, lawyers, economists, statisticians, and mathematicians. In addition, the industry employs sev eral thousand professional workers in sales positions. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in processing oper ations usually are hired at the un skilled level as laborers. Openings in higher rated jobs usually are filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Factors consid ered when selecting workers for promotion are ability to do the job, physical fitness, and length of serv ice with the company. Training for processing occupa tions is done almost entirely on the job. Workers move to operations re quiring progressively greater skill as they acquire experience. A crane man, for example, first is taught how to operate relatively simple cranes, and then he advances through several steps to cranes much more difficult to run, such as the hot-metal crane. To help them advance in their work, many employees take parttime courses in subjects such as chemistry, physics, and metallurgy. In some cases, this training is pro vided by the steel companies and may be given within the plant. Other workers take evening courses in high schools, trade schools, or universities in their communities or enroll in correspondence courses. Workers in the various operating OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK units usually advance along fairly well-defined lines of promotion within their department. Examples of possible lines of advancement in the various operating units are de scribed in the next paragraph. To become a blast furnace blower, a worker generally starts as a laborer, advancing to cinderman or slagger, keeper’s helper, keeper, blower’s helper, and finally to blower. In the open-hearth depart ment, a man may begin by doing general cleanup work around the furnace and then advance to third helper, second helper, first helper, and eventually to melter. A possi ble line of job advancement for a roller in a finishing mill might be pitman, roll hand, manipulator, rougher, and finish roller. Workers may be trained for skilled jobs, such as blower, melter, and roller, which are among the highest rated steel making jobs, in a minimum of 4 or 5 years, but usually they have to wait a much longer time before openings occur. Most companies conduct some type of apprenticeship program to meet the needs of their maintenance shops. There are apprentice training programs for more than 20 different crafts in the steel industry. The ap prenticeship programs for mainte nance workers usually are of 3 or 4 years’ duration and consist mainly of shop training in various aspects of the particular jobs. In addition, classroom instruction in related technical subjects usually is given, either in the plant or in local voca tional schools. Steelmaking companies have dif ferent qualifications for apprentice applicants. Generally, employers re quire applicants to have the equiva lent of a high school or vocational school education. In most cases, the minimum age for applicants is 18 years. Some companies give apti tude and other types of tests to ap plicants to determine their suitabil ity for the trades. Apprentices generally are chosen from among qualified young workers already em ployed in the plant. The following occupations are among those most often included in apprentice training programs in iron and steel plants: blacksmith, boilermaker, bricklayer, carpenter, coremaker, electrician, instrument repairman, lead burner, machinist, millwright, molder, pat ternmaker, pipefitter, rigger, roll turner, sheet-metal worker, tool and die maker, and welder. Applicants for jobs as mainte nance workers’ helpers usually are given aptitude tests. Helpers receive on-the-job training and may be promoted to jobs requiring greater skill as openings occur. However, vacancies in these higher grades may not occur for several years, de pending on the rate of turnover. The minimum requirement for engineering and scientific jobs is usually a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Practically all the larger companies have formal training programs for collegetrained technical workers. In these programs, the trainees work for brief periods in various operating and maintenance divisions to get a broad picture of steelmaking opera tions before they are assigned to a particular department. In other companies, the newly hired scientist or engineer is assigned directly to a specific research, operating, mainte nance, administrative, or sales unit. Engineering graduates frequently are hired for sales work and many of the executives in the industry have engineering backgrounds. En gineering graduates, as well as grad uates of business administration and liberal arts colleges, are employed in jobs in sales, accounting, and 683 OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY labor-management relations, as well as in managerial positions. Completion of a business course in high school, junior college, or business school usually is preferred for entry into most of the office oc cupations. Office jobs requiring spe cial knowledge of the steel industry generally are filled by promoting personnel already employed in the industry. Employment Outlook Employment in the iron and steel industry is expected to decline slowly through the 1970’s, princi pally because of increased output per worker resulting from continued mechanization. Nevertheless, many thousands of new workers will be needed annually to replace those who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. Demand for iron and steel is ex pected to increase moderately dur ing the 1970’s. Rising population and income levels will result in a greater need for products that re quire large amounts of steel—for example, automobiles and house hold appliances, industrial plants and machinery, and residential and commercial buildings. Domestic production, however, probably will not increase as fast as demand be cause imported steel has absorbed some of the market growth in recent years and this trend may continue. Despite the expected decline in overall employment, employment in some occupations or occupational groups still is expected to rise. Among white-collar workers, for example, employment of engineers, metallurgists, laboratory techni cians, and other technical personnel will increase because of the indus try’s expanding research and devel opment programs. Job opportunities for accountants, statisticians, elec tronics technicians, computer pro gramed, and other personnel trained in the preparation of data for use in these machines also are expected to increase. Among skilled plant personnel, maintenance workers (particularly instrument and electronics repairmen) are ex pected to be needed in greater num bers because of the increasingly complex machinery, instruments, and other equipment used. In con trast, the number of unskilled labor ers is expected to decline. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in iron and steelmaking establish ments are among the highest in manufacturing. In 1970, their earn ings averaged $166.40 a week or $4.16 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $133.73 weekly, or $3.36 an hour, for all production workers in manufactur ing establishments. Agreements between most steel companies and the United Steel workers of America include some of the most liberal benefits in industry. Most workers receive vacation pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depend ing on length of service. A worker in the top 50 percent of a seniority list receives an additional 13-week vacation every 5 years; the remain ing workers receive 3 extra weeks vacation once in a 5-year period. Professional and executive person nel in a few companies receive simi lar benefits. Workers may retire on full pen sion after 30 years of service, re gardless of age. Retiring workers are eligible for a company-paid pen sion, in addition to social security benefits for which they may be eligi ble. Employees having 2 years or more of service are eligible to re ceive supplemental unemployment benefits for up to 52 weeks. Other important provisions include acci dent and sickness, hospitalization, surgical, and life insurance benefits, Basic Straight-time Hourly Earnings1 of Workers In Selected Occupations in Basic Iron and Steel Establishments. Early 1971 Hourly earnings Blast furnaces: Larrymen ............................................................................................ Stock unloaders .................................................................................. Basic oxygen furnaces: Steel pourers ...................................................................................... Furnace operators ............................................................................. Open hearth furnaces: Charging machine operators............................................................. First helpers ........................................................................................ Bloom, slab, and billet mills: Soaking pit cranemen ....................................................................... Manipulators ...................................................................................... Continuous hot-strip mills: Assorters ............................................................................................ Coilers ................................................................................................ Maintenance: Bricklayers .......................................................................................... Millwrights .......................................................................................... $3,565 3.055 4.075 4.500-4.7552 4.075 4.755 3.990 3.820 3.480 3.650 4.160 4.075 1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts. Incen tive payments, such as those resulting from piecework or production bonus systems and cost-ofliving allowances, are included. 2 Depending on size of furnace. 684 and education and scholarship as sistance. Working conditions vary by de partment. Maintenance shops gen erally are clean and cool. Rolling mills, however, generally are hot and noisy. Some plants are develop ing methods to reduce job discom fort. For example, the use of remote control enables employees to work outside the immediate vicinity of processing operations. In other in stances, the cabs in which the men work while operating mechanical equipment, such as those on cranes, are air-conditioned. Some of the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers near blast and steel fur naces are exposed to considerable dirt, noise, and heat. Because cer tain processes are operated contin uously, many workers are on night shifts or work on weekends. The iron and steel industry is a leader in the development of safety programs for workers, emphasizing the use of protective clothing and devices on machines to prevent ac cidents. In recent years, steel plants had an average injury frequency rate (injuries per million hours of work) that was less than half the rate of all manufacturing. Most plant workers in the iron and steel industry are members of the United Steelworkers of Amer ica. Sources of Additional Information American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. United Steelworkers of America, 1500 Commonwealth Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222. M O T O R V E H IC L E A N D E Q U IP M E N T M A N U F A C T U R IN G O C C U P A T IO N S Few products have as great an im pact on everyday life as the auto mobiles, trucks, buses, and other vehicles manufactured by the motor vehicle and equipment industry (automobile industry). In 1970, 4 out of 5 families owned at least one automobile, and 1 family out of 4 owned two or more. Altogether, about 105 million passenger cars, trucks, and buses traveled the Na tion’s streets and highways. The widespread use of motor ve hicles has contributed significantly to the Nation’s economy by creating new industries including automotive repair shops, gasoline service sta tions, and truck and bus transporta tion facilities. Moreover, the auto mobile industry is a major consumer of many basic commodities such as steel, rubber, and plate glass. To manufacture the nearly 8.3 million motor vehicles (mainly au tomobiles) produced in 1970, the motor vehicle industry (SIC 371) employed approximately 810,000 workers. In addition to workers dis cussed in this chapter, thousands of people are employed in other indus tries which produce automotive stampings, automobile glass, light ing systems, storage batteries, tires, and many other components. The automobile industry employs men and women having widely dif ferent education and training. Job requirements vary from a college degree for engineers and other pro fessional and technical personnel, to a few hours of on-the-job training for assemblers, materials handlers, and custodial employees. The larg est number of employees work in factory (plant) occupations. Plant occupations range from the skilled tool and die maker, millwright, and electrician, to those requiring little skill such as machine tender, assem bler, materials handler, and cus todial worker. A great number of employees also work as clerks, busi ness machine operators, stenogra phers, purchasing agents, and per sonnel assistants. Nature and Location of the Industry This industry’s ability to produce millions of complex motor vehicles is due mainly to mass production of standardized parts and assembly line manufacturing methods. These mass-produced parts are put to gether to form the completed ve hicle. As a result, new cars can be driven off assembly lines at the rate of more than one a minute. The motor vehicle industry in 1970 consisted of about 2,700 es tablishments ranging in size from huge assembly plants employing several thousand workers, to small parts plants having only a few workers. About 85 percent of the industry’s employees, however, worked in plants having 500 or more employees. About 43 percent of the indus try’s employees worked in plants that produced complete vehicles. Another 43 percent worked in plants that produced parts and ac cessories such as brakes and trans missions. The remainder worked in 685 686 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK plants that produced automobile velop the original design which de bodies, truck and bus bodies, and termines the overall appearance of the automobile. They work closely truck trailers. Eighty-six percent of the workers with engineers and other technical in the industry are employed in 10 personnel to improve mechanical States. Michigan alone accounts for operation, design, and safety. From 40 percent of the total; Ohio, Indi blueprints, drawings, and sketches ana, and New York account for an of stylists and engineers, skilled other 27 percent. The six other modelmakers make scale and full leading States are Missouri, Califor size clay models of the automobile nia, Wisconsin, Illinois, Pennsylva interior and exterior, which are used to develop refinements in styling nia, and New Jersey. The center of the industry is the and design. To mass-produce the Detroit metropolitan area where 1 automobile, master dies based on out of 4 motor vehicle workers is the final model are made. employed. Other important areas in the Great Lakes region include Flint, Lansing, and Saginaw, Michi gan; Cleveland, Lorain, Toledo, and Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis and Fort Wayne, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Milwaukee and Kenosha, Wis. Much of the motor vehicle manu facturing on the East Coast is cen tered in the New York-New JerseyPhiladelphia industrial area in localities such as Newark, Paterson, Linden, and New Brunswick, N.J.; and New York, N.Y. Leading automobile manufactur ing centers in the Pacific Coast re gion are Los Angeles and San Fran cisco, California. In recent years, computers and numerically controlled drafting machines have played an increas ingly important role in engineering. These drafting machines automati cally produce engineering drawings from a tape containing instructions prepared on a computer. Another technique is the use of photographic equipment to record points on a clay model, which the computer then converts into full scale draw ings. Computerized data also are fed into numerically controlled die making machines which produce How Motor Vehicles Are Made Automobiles and other motor ve hicles are produced in three stages: preliminary designing and engineer ing, production of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies, and final assembly of parts into complete ve hicles. Preliminary Designing and Engi neering. Approximately 2 to 3 years of designing, planning, and testing often precede the actual production of each year’s model. Stylists de Woodworker builds skeleton for full-size model of car interior. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS master dies. These methods have enabled manufacturers to shorten the lead time required to prepare new models for production. Production of Motor Vehicle Parts. After the design and engineering phases have been completed, thou sands of parts that will later be as sembled into a complete vehicle must be produced. A large variety of materials are used, including steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, plastic, rubber, fabric, glass, iron, and lead. Metal parts are shaped by several different methods, depending on the purpose and size of the part and the metal being used. The casting proc ess is used to produce bulky parts such as engine blocks. Parts which must withstand great stress, such as axles, are forged. Huge presses form the sheet metal and aluminum that compose the exterior body. Metal parts requiring precise di mensions, such as pistons and en gine blocks, undergo further ma chine processing. These various processes are explained more fully under plant occupations. The production of parts does not consist entirely of metalworking op erations. For example, many parts are painted, seat cushions are pre pared, and engines are test run. Throughout production numerous inspections are made to insure that assembled vehicles will meet quality and safety standards. Assembling the Final Product. Banks of parts and subassemblies located in storage areas along the assembly line are continually fed to assemblers according to a carefully scheduled system. As the conveyor carries the chassis along the line, as semblers attach the parts and subas semblies in proper sequence. Near the end of the line, accessories such as hubcaps and floor mats are added; gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank, and the new vehicle is driven off the line. Finally, the headlights and wheels are aligned and the finished vehicle is inspected. The sequence of models to be built may be transmitted to the vari ous stations along the line by tele type or telautograph. Information on color and special equipment for each car is obtained from orders placed by automobile dealers. By this scheduling program, cars of dif ferent colors and types follow each other on the assembly line—for ex ample, a blue sedan may follow a beige station wagon. Occupations in the Industry The motor vehicle industry em ploys workers in hundreds of occu pations. Semiskilled plant workers, such as assemblers, inspectors, and materials handlers, made up about one-half of all employees. An addi tional one-quarter were employed as foremen, mechanics and repair men, machinists, tool and die mak ers, and in other skilled occupa tions. Clerical employees made up about one-tenth of the total. The re maining workers were employed in professional, technical, sales, and managerial occupations, and as un skilled workers and guards. More than nine-tenths of the industry’s employees are men. Of the women employed, about half are in produc tion jobs such as assembling and in specting. The rest are in clerical and other office jobs, including research and technical work. The duties and training require ments of some of the important oc cupations are described briefly below. (Detailed discussions of pro fessional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the auto 687 mobile industry, as well as in many other industries, are given in the sections of the Handbook covering individual occupations.) Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The modern automobile is a product of the research, design, and development work of thousands of engineers, chemists, metallurgists, mathematicians, draftsmen, and other professional, scientific, and technical personnel. About 30,000 scientists and engineers were em ployed in the industry in 1970. En gineers make up the largest group of professional and technical workers in the industry. Motor vehi cle companies hire engineers spe cializing in mechanical, electrical, industrial, and other fields. The me chanical engineer seeks ways of im proving the engine, transmission, or other parts of the automobile through research and development. The electrical engineer designs electrical parts, such as ignition sys tems and voltage regulators. The in dustrial engineer concentrates on the layout of plant equipment, es tablishing work standards, and im proving production processes and scheduling. The industry also em ploys metallurgists, and civil, chemi cal, and ceramic engineers. About two-fifths of the scientists and engineers are engaged princi pally in research and development. Others may supervise technical production workers. For example, metallurgists may supervise the melting operations in the precision casting and forging departments, and chemists may head the testing and analytical laboratory. Draftsmen, the largest group of technical employees, work closely with engineers to design and de velop components. The industry also employs thousands of other technicians, such as engineering aids 6 88 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Machining Occupations. Machining is the method generally used to shape parts to precise dimensions. Lathes, drill presses, boring, grind ing, and milling machines, and other machine tools cut or chip away ex cess metal. One of the largest metalworking occupations in the industry is the machine tool operator who runs machines which cut, shape, drill, or grind metal. The job title, such as engine lathe operator or drill press operator, depends on the type of machine tool operated. Among the most highly skilled machining workers are tool and die makers. Toolmakers build and re pair tools and the jigs, fixtures, and other accessories that hold the metal being machined. Diemakers construct the dies used in stamping, pressing, forging, and other metal forming operations. Tool and die makers read blueprints, set up and operate machine tools, use precision measuring instruments, and make shop computations. Draftsman checks automobile design drawings prepared by numerically controlled drafting machine. and laboratory assistants, to assist engineers and scientists. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Executives de termine the number and styles of vehicles to produce, what prices to charge, which parts to buy, and plant locations. Other administra tive personnel such as purchasing agents and personnel managers di rect individual departments or spe cial phases of operations. Assisting administrators are accountants, law yers, market analysts, economists, statisticians, and industrial relations experts. Many supervise specific groups of office or plant employees. The large staff of clerical workers, many of whom are women, includes secretaries, stenog raphers, bookkeepers, clerk-typists, key punch operators, and business machine operators. Plant Occupations. About threefourths of the employees in the motor vehicle industry work in production operations. Most plant employees make and assemble parts into complete vehicles. Others serv ice and maintain machinery and equipment. Press operator runs automatic index machine to form automobile parts. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS As a step in the automation of machining processes, manufacturers have linked automatic machine tools to perform a continuous series of operations. Less labor is required because the parts or pieces being machined are not handled manually. For example in an automated en gine plant, a rough engine block goes through hundreds of different cutting, drilling, and grinding opera tions using little direct manual labor. The engine block is moved through work stations mechanically and is machined automatically by a battery of machine tools. Much of the inspection is automatic. Workers watch control panels for interruptions in the machines’ nor mal functioning. Other Metalworking Occupations. Large numbers of workers are em ployed in other metalworking oc cupations. These include punch press operators who run presses varying in size from small presses used to form brackets, clips, or other small parts, to massive presses which form, trim, and punch holes in automobile doors, body panels, and frames. Automobile plants employ thou sands of welders to join metal parts. Some manual electric-arc welders and gas welders work in production jobs in parts and body manufactur ing plants, and others work in main tenance jobs repairing and rebuild ing machinery and equipment. Machine (resistance) welders are employed on assembly lines to weld separate parts of bodies and subas semblies. Foundry Occupations. Castings for automobile parts such as engine blocks are produced by pouring metal into molds where it cools and hardens in the shape of the molds. Patternmakers make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “cores,” which are placed inside molds to form hollow spaces needed in castings. Machine molders make the sand mold into which the metal is poured. Melters operate electric furnaces and cupolas used to melt metal for castings. The actual pouring is done by metal pourers. After the casting cools, shakeout men remove it from the mold. Other workers clean the castings and remove excess metal. Forging Occupations. Parts which must withstand great stress, such as axles, are shaped by forging ham mers and presses in the forge shop. Hammermen operate drop hammers which pound metal into various shapes between closed dies. The hammermen are assisted by heaters who heat the metal stock in a fur nace to prepare it for forging and then pass the stock to the hammer men. Other forge shop workers are engaged in cleaning, finishing, heat treating, or inspecting forgings. Inspection Occupations (D.O.T. 806.281; 283; 381; 382; 387; 684 and 687). Automobiles can be mass-produced because parts and subassemblies for the same make of automobile are interchangeable. These parts are made to exact meas urements and are subject to close quality control and inspection. The industry employs statisticians and engineers in quality control depart ments who use statistical techniques designed to control product qual ity. Inspectors check incoming raw materials, examine parts during the manufacturing stages, and make quality and conformity checks dur ing the subassembly and assembly operations. Micrometers, specially 689 designed gauges, and other measur ing and testing instruments are used by inspectors and testers. Assembling Occupations (D.O.T. 806.887) . Assemblers, who make up the largest occupational group in the automobile industry, put to gether small parts to form subas semblies, and subassemblies to form the complete motor vehicle (line as semblies). Most assembly jobs are repetitive and require little skill; however, they do require coordina tion and may be strenuous. Each employee is assigned a job to be done when the vehicle passes his work station. For example, one em ployee may start nuts on bolts and the next worker may tighten the nuts. Finishing Occupations. Many finish ing operations must be performed as the vehicle is assembled. For ex ample, metal surfaces must be read ied for finishing, exteriors painted, interiors covered, and seats up holstered. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 705.884) file and polish rough surface areas of metal parts in preparation for painting. Platers (D.O.T. 500.885) put a thin coat of chrome on bumpers and on other parts such as grills, mirrors, and hubcaps. Sprayers (D.O.T. 741.887) operate spray guns to apply paint or other finishes to the metal parts. Polishers (D.O.T. 705.884) rub the finished surfaces by hand or polish them with a port able motor-driven buffing wheel. Cutters, sewing machine opera tors, and trimmers combine their skills to provide comfortable and at tractive interiors. With hand shears or an electric knife, the cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts fabric or leather to the specific shape accord ing to a pattern. The sewing ma chine operator (D.O.T. 787.782) 690 sews together the upholstery sec tions. Trimmers (D.O.T. 780.884) arrange and fasten springs and pad ding or foam rubber for the seats and other upholstered areas, and in stall the covering material. Materials Handling, Custodial, and Plant Protection Occupations. The assembly-line production process requires an elaborate system of ma terials movement to supply the lines and to move finished products. Power truck operators deliver parts and subassemblies to the line or move materials between plants. Ma terials handlers load and unload parts from trucks or containers. Overhead crane operators use ma chines to move raw steel stock, heavy dies, and other materials that cannot be lifted by hand. Many employees are needed to keep the production workers sup plied with tools, parts, and mate rials, and to keep records of mate rials. Factory clerks, such as check ers, stock chasers, and stock clerks, coordinate the delivery of parts to the proper location on the assembly line. They check, receive, and dis tribute materials and keep records of incoming and outgoing ship ments. The industry also employs many workers in plant protection and cus todial work. These include plant pa trolmen, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Maintenance Occupations. A large staff is required to keep machines and equipment in good operating condition and to make changes in the plant layout. The maintenance and repair of complex electrical, electronic, and hydraulic equipment require well-trained electricians, electronic technicians, and mainte nance mechanics. Millwrights move and install heavy machinery and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Other maintenance employees in clude carpenters, stationary engi neers, and sheet metal workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the motor vehicle industry range from a few hours of on-thejob training to years of preparation. Many plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. On the other hand, engineering and scientific jobs, as well as craft and technical jobs, require many years of training. The minimum requirement for professional engineering jobs is a bachelor of science or a bachelor of engineering degree. Advanced de grees often are necessary for scien tists, particularly those engaged in research and development. Newly hired engineers and scientists often are offered specialized training courses. Many of the industry’s top executives have been selected from this professional group. The requirements for other tech nical employees vary according to their specialities. For example, many engineering aids, laboratory assistants, and draftsmen are techni cal institute or junior college gradu ates. Some firms train their techni cal employees at company-run schools, or subsidize students at local junior colleges or technical in stitutes. These employees also may take advanced training and acquire engineering degrees. Although a college education is not always required, administrative positions are often filled by men and women who have degrees in busi ness administration, marketing, ac counting, industrial relations, or similar fields. Some companies have advanced training programs for em ployees in these specialties. Most motor vehicle firms hire people who have had commercial courses in high schools or business schools for office jobs such as key punch operator and typist. These people usually have not been trained specifically for jobs in this industry. Applicants for most plant jobs must be in good physical condition and have an aptitude for mechanical work. For semiskilled jobs, the in dustry seeks employees who can do routine work at a fast pace. Most assembly jobs can be learned in a few hours or days. Some of the less skilled machine operating jobs can be learned in a few weeks. Extensive training periods are re quired for craft jobs in the motor vehicle industry. Tool and die mak ers, patternmakers, electricians, millwrights, and machinery repair men are some of the highly skilled workers who generally need at least 4 years of training before they can perform their specialized jobs. Al though many craft workers acquire their skills by working with experi enced workers, apprenticeship gen erally is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Automobile firms, in cooperation with labor unions, con duct apprenticeship programs for many skilled trades. Applicants for apprenticeship training are often required to be high school, trade, or vocational school graduates. Young people in terested in apprenticeship training should prepare themselves by taking courses in mathematics and science. Apprentice applicants must take physical examinations, mechanical aptitude tests, and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship training includes both on-the-job and classroom in- MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Worker spot welds paneling on automobile body. struction. Mathematics, blue print reading, shop theory, and special ized subjects are studied in the classroom, and the operation and use of tools and machinery are learned in the shop. Most foremen are selected from workers already employed. Fre quently, people who have com pleted apprenticeship training and acquired further experience become supervisors. Successful applicants go through a training period after promotion. In a large number of cities, train ing programs are in operation under the Manpower Development and Training Act for many of the pro duction, clerical, and technical occu pations discussed earlier. These programs, which are for unem ployed and underemployed workers, may last up to a year. Some occupations may require ad ditional on-the-job or apprentice ship training. Employment Outlook The motor vehicle industry will provide thousands of openings an nually during the 1970’s, mainly to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Produc tion of motor vehicles and parts, and therefore employment, have fluctuated sharply since the end of World War II because of the indus try’s sensitivity to changes in gen eral business conditions, consumer preferences, availability of credit, and defense production needs. For example, in 1970 employment aver aged 810,000 or 13 percent below the 1969 level of 914,000. In the future, assuming a high rate of economic growth, the de mand for motor vehicles and equip ment is expected to increase sub stantially. Factors that will stimulate demand include increases in popula tion and personal income, growth of multicar ownership, a continuing shift of families from cities to the 691 suburbs, and the need to replace ve hicles that wear out. However, be cause of laborsaving technological developments, employment is not expected to keep pace with in creases in production. The industry’s continued empha sis on mechanization and automa tion of production methods is ex pected to increase output per man hour. Motor vehicle manufacturers increasingly are using computerized machines for assembly and machin ing operations. A recent laborsaving innovation is the “industrial robot” which is more versatile than con ventional automated equipment and can be adjusted to weld body pan els, assemble parts, and do a variety of other tasks. New materials also are expected to increase output per man-hour. A recent example is the substitution of plastics for metal parts, which reduces the amount of labor needed for parts production and assembly, since plastic parts generally are molded in one piece and require fewer finishing opera tions. More efficient machining techniques such as electrical dis charge machining are expected to be more widely used in the future. In addition, new and modernized plants incorporating the latest pro duction-line materials handling and parts conveyor equipment should further efficiencies in production. Some of the increased efficiency, however, will be offset by the greater number of man-hours needed to produce a variety of models and to provide additional safety equipment and exhaust con trol devices. The occupational distribution of employment in the industry has been changing as a result of empha sis upon research and development, and the increasing use of automatic manufacturing operations. Follow ing recent trends, the number of en- 692 gineers, scientists, and other profes sional and technical personnel is expected to increase because of ex pansion in research and develop ment. Systems analysts and program ed will be employed in greater numbers as the use of computers in creases. Employment of clerical and administrative workers is expected to remain at about the present level. Although computers may reduce employment in some clerical occu pations, a slight increase in the number of stenographers and typists is anticipated. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 1970, they averaged $170.47 for 40.3 hours a week, or $4.23 an hour, compared with $133.73 for a 39.8 hour week, or $3.36 an hour for production workers in all manu facturing industries. Average straight-time hourly earnings for several production oc cupations shown in the following table are based on a survey of motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts manufacturers in early 1969. Earnings vary according to size of firm and geographic location, partic ularly in parts manufacturing. Occupation Average Hourly Earnings Motor vehicles Motor vehicles parts and accessories Assemblers .................... ..$3.60 Tool and die makers...... 4.91 Punch press operators.... 3.62 Resistance welding operators .................... .. 3.67 Machine tool operators, production ................ .. 3.64 Machine tool operators, toolroom ................ .. 4.76 Heat treaters ................ .. 3.58 Inspectors ...................... .. 3.67 Maintenance mechanics .. 4.79 Power truck operators.. .. 3.57 Custodians .................... .. 3.37 The employment of skilled workers, as a group, may decline very slightly. Although some skilled occupations, including millwright, pipefitter, and machinery repair man, are expected to increase, oth ers, such as machinist, are expected to decline. The number of semi skilled workers is expected to re main relatively stable. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of production workers in this industry are among the highest in manufacturing. In $3.03 4.32 3.33 3.31 3.55 4.34 3.51 3.38 4.04 3.26 3.03 In addition to wages and salaries, employees receive a wide range of benefits, most of which are paid for entirely by employers. These in clude life insurance; accidental death and dismemberment benefits; and hospitalization, surgical, and medical benefits. Most employees also receive paid vacations (or payments in lieu of vacations) and an average of 12 paid holidays a year. Most compa nies provide regular annual wage in creases as well as automatic in creases when the cost of living rises. Employees are paid at one and one-half their normal rate for work ing more than 40 hours a week or for working on Saturdays. They re ceive premiums for working late shifts and double the hourly rate for Sundays or holidays. Most workers are covered by supplemental unemployment benefit plans paid for solely by the em ployers. These plans also provide supplementary pay (short work week benefits) to help stabilize the income of hourly rated employees and some salaried employees when they are required to work less than a normal week. In addition, during layoff, provisions are included for hospitalization, surgical, drug and medical benefits; life and accident insurance; survivor income benefit coverage; separation payments for those laid off 12 continuous months or more; and relocation allowances. A great majority of the motor ve hicle workers are covered by com pany-paid retirement plans. Retire ment pay varies with length of serv ice. Many of these plans include provisions for retirement as early as age 55, or after 30 years of service regardless of age. Usually within 40 days of their hiring date, most hourly rated workers and some salaried workers in the industry are required to join a union. Most production and mainte nance workers in assembly plants, and a majority employed in parts plants, belong to the International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. In some parts of plants, the International Union, Allied Industrial Workers of Amer ica is the bargaining agent for the employees. Other unions with mem bership in the industry include the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the Pattern Makers’ League of North America; the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America; the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Helpers International Union; the International Union, United Plant Guard Workers of America (Ind.); the Mechanics Educational Society of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.). Most motor vehicle workers are employed in plants which are rela tively clean and free from dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work sur roundings, however, particularly in the foundry and forge departments, may be hot and the worker may be exposed to noise, dust, and fumes. Working conditions in foundries and forge departments have been greatly improved by the introduc tion of larger, more efficient ventila tion systems. Motor vehicle plants are, on the whole, comparatively safe places to work, although safety conditions vary somewhat among the individ ual departments or facilities. The rate of disabling injuries in motor vehicle plants has been less than half that of all manufacturing indus tries in recent years. Some plants have fully equipped hospital facili ties with doctors and nurses in at tendance. 693 Sources of Additional Information Further information on employ ment and training opportunities in motor vehicle manufacturing can be obtained from local offices of the State employment service; person nel departments of individual motor vehicle manufacturing firms; locals of the labor unions noted above; and from: International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Automobile Manufacturers Asso ciation, Inc., 320 New Center Building, Detroit, Mich. 48202. O F F IC E M A C H IN E A N D C O M P U T E R M A N U F A C T U R IN G O C C U P A T IO N S During the last decade, employ ment in the office machine and com puter industry grew four times faster than employment in manufac turing as a whole. Growth was spearheaded by a rapid expansion in the production of electronic com puters. For many years, the indus try’s chief products were typewrit ers, adding machines, calculators, and other conventional office ma chines. The production of computers did not begin until after World War II, and as late as 1953 only a small number of them had been pro duced. Today, plants that make computers account for more than half of the industry’s production. Nature and Location of the Industry In 1970, the office machine and computer manufacturing industry employed about 285,000 men and women in approximately 700 plants. Two-thirds of them worked in plants that produce computer equipment, and the remainder, in conventional office machines, in cluding scales and other weighing devices. Computer equipment manufac turing plants employed 190,000 workers in 1970. These plants man ufacture general purpose computers as well as those used for special ap plications, such as space exploration and missiles. They also manufacture peripheral equipment. Examples in clude machines that read magnetic numbers, such as those on bank checks, and storage devices, for fu ture reference. In addition to computer and pe 694 ripheral equipment, plants in this industry may furnish “software” (computer programs and operating systems). Thousands of people whose employment is not included in this chapter are employed outside manufacturing plants by firms that specialize in software or that rent or lease computers and provide re lated services. In early 1970, more than 90,000 people were employed in factories that produced conventional office machines and scales; about 40,000 produced desk calculators, cash registers, coin and ticket counters, and adding, accounting, and voting machines; about 25,000 produced miscellaneous office machines, in cluding items as diverse as postage meters and dictating machines; nearly 20,000 produced typewriters; and fewer than 7,000 made in dustrial and household scales and other weighing devices. Large plants account for most of the employment in office machine and computer manufacturing. About three-fourths of the indus try’s employees are in plants that have 1,000 or more employees, but several computer plants have more than 5,000 employees. New York, California, and Minne sota have more than two-thirds of the computer manufacturing employ ment, and the following States ac count for most of the remainder: Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ari zona, Florida, and Colorado. In New York, the lower Hudson River Val ley area has many important com puter manufacturing centers: Poughkeepsie, East Fish Kill, and Kingston. Large manufacturing plants also are located in Rochester and Utica, N.Y., and in the Boston, Mass., and Philadelphia, Pa. areas. The leading center in the Midwest is Minneapolis-St. Paul. The Los An geles industrial area is the most im portant computer manufacturing center in the West, followed by Pheonix, Ariz., and San Jose, Calif. The following States account for more than four-fifths of the employ ment in plants manufacturing con ventional business machines and scales: Ohio, New York, Connecti cut, Illinois, Michigan, California, and Kentucky. The following areas are some of the important manufac turing centers: Dayton, Toledo, and Euclid. O.; the New York-North eastern New Jersey industrial area; Hartford and Stamford, Conn.; Chi cago, 111.; Detroit, Mich.; and Lex ington, Ky. Occupations in the Industry A wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills, are found in plants man ufacturing office machines and com puters. About half of the industry’s workers are in white-collar jobs (engineering, scientific, technical, administrative, sales, and clerical); the other half are in plant jobs (as sembly, inspection, maintenance, transportation, and service). Because of its complex nature, white-collar workers represent a sig nificantly larger proportion of total employment in the computer in dustry than in most other manufac turing industries. In manufacturing as a whole, white-collar workers rep resent less than one-third of total employment. Nearly three-fourths of the indus try’s employees are men. Women employees are concentrated in cleri cal, assembly, and inspection occu pations, although some women work in nearly all types of jobs. 695 OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Some of the key occupations in this industry are described briefly. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, skilled, and other occupations found in the office machine and computer industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in sections covering individual occu pations.) Engineering and Scientific Occupa tions. Nearly 1 out of every 10 workers in the office machine and computer industry is an engineer or scientist—a much greater propor tion than in most industries. Most of them work in computer plants. The largest group of engineers work with electricity or electronics. Most of them are engaged in re search and development, although many work in production, in fields such as quality control. The indus try also employs large numbers of mechanical and industrial engineers. Some mechanical engineers are en gaged in product development and tool and equipment design. Others are concerned with the mainte nance, layout, and operation of plant equipment. Industrial engi neers determine the most effective means of using the basic factors of production—manpower, machines, and materials. Mathematicians make up the largest group of scientists in office machine and computer manufactur ing. They work with engineers on complex mathematical problems, for example, in the design of com puters. Physicists are employed in research and development work in connection with items such as min iaturized components and circuits. Statisticians work in fields such as quality control and production scheduling. The industry also employs sys tems analysts and computer pro grammers, many of whom have sci entific or engineering backgrounds. Systems analysts primarily divise new techniques and improve exist ing techniques. Programmers design and test new computer programs. Some systems analysts and pro grammers specialize in scientific and engineering problems, while others process accounting, inventory, sales, and other business data. Systems analysts and programmers may as sist salesmen in determining data processing needs of customers. Technical Occupations. More than 1 out of every 10 workers in the industry is a technician. Most of them are electronics specialists who assist engineers and scientists in re search and development, test and inspect electronic components, and do highly complex assembly work. Some electronics technicians spe cialize in repairing computers. Chemical control technicians pre pare solutions used in the etching of circuit boards. Photographic techni cians set up light beams and other equipment used in the tracing proc ess to create copper etchings on circuit boards. Draftsmen prepare drawings from sketches or specifica tions furnished by engineers. Engi neering aids assist engineers by making calculations, sketches, and drawings, and by conducting per formance tests on components. Administrative and Sales Occupa tions. About 1 out of every 10 workers is an administrator. In cluded are top executives who man age companies and determine policy Electronic technicians debug computer and peripheral equipment. 696 decisions, and middle managers who direct departments such as ad vertising and industrial relations. Other administrative employees in staff positions include accountants, lawyers, and market researchers. Sales personnel hold about 1 out of every 25 jobs in the industry. Salesmen of conventional office machines usually work on their own. Computer salesmen, on the other hand, are assisted by a host of technical experts, such as engineers and systems analysts. Because the computer is complex and expensive, the computer salesman may have to spend several months to complete a sale. Clerical Occupations. Nearly 1 out of every 6 workers in the industry is in a clerical job. Included in this group are secretaries, clerk-typists, file clerks, bookkeepers, and busi ness machine operators, as well as computer personnel such as key punch operators and console opera tors. Plant Occupations. Half of the office machine and computer manu facturing industry employees are plant (blue-collar) workers. Most plant workers are engaged directly in making computers and office machines. Included in this group are assemblers, inspectors or testers, machinists, machine tool operators, and the foremen who supervise these workers. Truckdrivers, mate rial handlers, power truck opera tors, guards, and janitors move ma terials and perform custodial duties. In addition, plumbers and pipefit ters, electricians, carpenters, and other workers maintain production machinery and building facilities. Assembly Occupations. (D.O.T. 590.885; 692.782; 706.884; 726.781 and .884.) Workers who OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK assemble computers and office machines have many different skills and.make up the largest group of plant workers. Most of them are semiskilled. Assemblers may put together small parts to form components or components to form the finished product. Hand assembly is needed for many operations. Some hand as semblers do a single operation as components move down the assem bly line. The assembly of typewrit ers, for example, is divided into many simple operations. Each as sembler is assigned a job to do as the typewriter passes the work sta tion. Some assembly jobs are diffi cult and require great skill. Elec tronics assemblers, for example, use schematic diagrams as guides to wire complex memory and logic panels for computers. Electronic technicians usually do the most difficult hand assembly work. In research laboratories, they put together complex experimental equipment. In the plant, they as semble those items the operation of which requires a knowledge of elec tronics theory. Tools which assemblers use de pend on their job and the products on which they work. Screw drivers, pliers, snippers, and soldering irons are common. They use special de vices to position and hold parts dur ing assembly. Precision equipment may be used to weld connections in circuit assemblies. Machines do many assembly op erations. For example, automatic machines form cores from chemical mixtures. These are used in com puter memory panels. In making circuit boards, automatic machines position components on the boards and solder connections. Automatic wire-wrapping machines wire panels and plugboards. To make sure the machines are functioning properly, semiskilled operators feed the machine and remove and inspect fin ished items. Machining Occupations. Most office machine and computer manufactur ing plants employ metal machining workers. Machine-tool operators and machinists operate powerdriven machine tools to produce metal parts for computers, typewrit ers, accounting machines, calcula tors, and other products. Numerical control machine operators tend machines that have been pro grammed to perform machining op erations automatically. Toolmakers construct and repair jigs and fix tures used in the fabrication and as sembly of parts. Diemakers special ize in metal forms (dies) for punch and power presses to shape metal parts. Inspection and Testing Operations. When raw materials enter the plants, testing and inspection of office machines and computers begins and continues throughout op erations. Finished components and products are tested and inspected thoroughly. Some inspectors examine individ ual parts; others inspect components during fabrication and subassembly; still others inspect completed office machines and computers. Many jobs require highly skilled workers. On the other hand, relatively un skilled people can run some auto matic equipment, which not only checks the component or assembly under test, but may run simulta neous checks on itself. Workers who feed or monitor automatic test equipment are called test-set opera tors or testing machine operators. Job titles indicate the work many inspectors do. Machined parts inspectors (D.O.T. 609.381) use precision testing instruments to de OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS termine whether parts have been machined properly to conform to blueprint specifications. Type inspectors (D.O.T. 706.687) exam ine typewriter type under magnify ing glass for defects such as burrs and incomplete or off-center char acters. Electronic subassembly inspectors (D.O.T. 726.384) use continuity meters and measuring de vices such as calipers and microme ters to examine computer circuits and other electronic subassemblies. Electronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) use frequency meters and other instruments to test electronic systems such as computer memory units. In plants that manufacture con ventional office machines, such as typewriters and adding machines, final inspection is relatively simple. Inspectors operate the machines, look for defects, and refer malfunc tioning machines to repairmen. The final inspection or “debugging” of computers, on the other hand, is very complex. Electronic techni cians inspect new computers under the supervision of electronic engi neers. They use oscilloscopes and other devices to run tests and sche matic drawings to locate causes of malfunctions. Performances of new computers are checked against per formances of computers already in operation. Maintenance Occupations. Many maintenance workers with different types of training take care of ma chinery and equipment. Skilled elec tricians are responsible for the proper maintenance of electrical equipment. Machine and equipment repairmen make mechanical repairs. Maintenance machinists and welders build and repair equipment and fix tures. Air-conditioning and refrig eration mechanics are employed in plants which are air-conditioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building mainte nance craftsmen also are employed in office machine and computer plants. Other Plant Occupations. Employed in materials movement and handling are operators of plant trucks and tractors; forklift operators who stack crates and load and unload trucks and boxcars; and truckdrivers who handle transportation out side the plant. Other occupations in clude boiler operator and stationary engineer, plant guard, and janitor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing or one of the sciences is usually the minimum requirement for engi neering and scientific jobs. For re search and development work, ap plicants with advanced degrees generally are preferred. Some com panies have formal training pro grams designed to give young college graduates a broad picture of manu facturing operations before they are assigned to a particular department. Because of the highly technical na ture of computers, many of the in dustry’s executives have back grounds in engineering or science. Engineers and scientists, as well as graduates of business administra tion and liberal arts colleges, are employed as salesmen, program mers, and systems analysts. How ever, most business and liberal arts graduates are employed in account ing, labor-management relations, and other administrative activities. Technicians qualify for their jobs in a number of ways. Some have at 697 tended either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Others have had 1 or more years of scientific or engineering training, but have not completed all of the requirements for a degree. Techni cians may be promoted from lower grade jobs in the plant. A few wellqualified technicians have advanced to engineering jobs, after complet ing courses in mathematics, engi neering, and related subjects. People who have completed com mercial courses in high school or business school are trained in cleri cal jobs such as stenographer or office machine operator. For com puter console operators, most firms prefer to hire people who have some college or technical training in data processing. With additional training, clerical workers can ad vance to programmer jobs. In selecting workers for plant jobs, firms generally prefer high school or vocational school gradu ates. Training varies from a few days to years of on-the-job instruc tion and experience. Skilled inspec tors and craftsmen, such as machin ists and tool and die makers, may spend 3 to 4 years in learning their jobs. Frequently, openings for skilled jobs are filled by qualified young workers already in the plant. Some firms have formal apprentice ship programs, which include both on-the-job training and classroom instruction related to the particular craft. For example, a machinist ap prentice would study blueprint read ing, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, physics, and other subjects. Workers who have little or no previous experience or training are hired for less skilled inspection, as sembly, and machining jobs. Appli cants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate ability for particular types of work. Most as 698 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sembly and inspection jobs require good vision and color perception, manual dexterity, and patience. In experienced workers receive onthe-job training, usually ranging from a few days to several weeks. In addition, some plants conduct classroom training of short duration. Experienced plant workers can advance to higher grades. Assem blers can become semiskilled inspectors, and eventually skilled inspectors. Machine tool operators can move to skilled machinists. Craftsmen and skilled inspectors can become technicians, after com pleting courses in company-oper ated schools, junior colleges, or technical schools. Foremen jobs are open to well qualified plant workers who have supervisory ability. Employment Outlook During the 1970’s employment in this industry is expected to rise rapidly and create several thousand new jobs each year. Additional openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment growth is expected to be concentrated in plants pro ducing electronic computer equip ment. A rapid increase in the de mand for computers is anticipated during the 1970’s. As the economy expands and becomes more com plex, computers will become in creasingly useful to business, gov ernment agencies, and other organi zations. Demand also will be stimulated as new uses for comput ers are developed. Growth in the number of com puters will be accompanied by a need for additional peripheral equipment—input and output, stor age, and communication devices. Much of the peripheral equipment is used for computer time sharing —the multiple use of a large central computer via remote control termi nals located at a desk or in a labora tory—to make computer technology available to small organizations. Time sharing is expected to expand rapidly into areas such as hospital administration and education. A growing number of small busi nesses, laboratories, schools, and other organizations also are ex pected to buy or lease “mini-com puters.” Introduced in the late 1960’s, these relatively inexpensive small units also are being used by large organizations to control manu facturing processes and screen and prepare data before it is fed into large computers. Employment in plants producing conventional office machines is ex pected to grow slowly. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The demand for most types of office machines is expected to rise rapidly during the 1970’s, as business and governm ent organiza tions grow and the volume of paper work increases. However, Japanese and European imports have been gaining a greater share of the do mestic office machinery market and this trend may continue. Moreover, technological improvements in production methods are expected to increase output per worker. For ex ample, increasing mechanization of operations formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor require ments, particularly in plants where products are mass-produced, such as typewriters and calculators. Some occupational groups in the office machine and computer manu facturing industry are expected to grow faster than others. For exam ple, the number of professional and administrative workers particularly engineers, scientists, technicians, systems analysts, and programers, is expected to increase more rapidly than the number of clerical and plant workers. Demand for these workers will be spurred by contin ued high levels of research and de velopment expenditures to improve production processes, advance machine capabilities, and broaden the use of computers. Secretaries, stenographers, typ ists, and computer operating per sonnel will account for most of the growth in clerical occupations. More extensive use of computers in routine paperwork may result in a decline in the employment of book keepers and file clerks. Semiskilled production ^workers, such as assemblers and inspectors, are expected to account for most of the increase in plant occupations despite the growing use of auto mated and mechanized assembly line equipment. However, employ ment of maintenance and repair workers to keep this equipment in good working order will increase m ore rapidly than em ploym ent of semiskilled production workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of plant workers in the office machine and computer indus try are higher than the average for other manufacturing industries. In 1970, their earnings averaged $152.11 a week, or $3.71 an hour compared with $133.73 a week, or $3.36 an hour, for plant workers in manufacturing industries as a whole. National wage data are not avail able for individual occupations in the office machine and computer in dustry. However, the following tab ulation, based on data obtained 699 OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS from a small number of union-man agement contracts, provides an ex ample of the range in hourly wage rates for selected occupations in 1969-70. Assemblers ............................... $2.11-3.37 Inspectors ................................. 2.11-3.83 Maintenance workers .............. 2.71-3.83 Machinists and machine tool operators ............................... 2.58-4.01 Electronics technicians ............ 3.12-4.63 Some employees work night shifts and weekends because many plants operate around the clock. Employees working second or third shifts or more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week generally receive extra pay. Paid vacations and holidays are almost universal in this industry. Most employees receive 1 to 4 weeks of vacation, depending on length of service. Most employees also receive insurance and pension benefits at least partially financed by the employer, including life, sick ness, accident, hospitalization, and surgical benefits. Employee stock purchase plans are in effect in many firms. In general, the work surroundings in office machine and computer plants are more favorable than those in most other types of manu facturing plants. Work stations usu ally are well-lighted and clean, and free from dust, fumes, and loud noises. Many computer factories are relatively new and are located in suburban areas. Some plant jobs are repetitious, but very few require great physical effort. Office machine and computer manufacturing has fewer and less severe injuries than the average for all manufacturing. Many plant workers are covered by labor-management contracts. The principal unions in this industry are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Where To Go For Additional Information Business Equipment and Manufac turers Association, 1728 L Street, N W , Washington, D.C. 20006. American Federation of Information Processing Societies, Inc., 210 Summit Avenue, Montvale, N.J. 07645. operate and control specialized pa permaking, finishing, and converting machines. Some workers install and repair papermaking machinery, converting equipment, pumps, and measuring instruments. Truck driv duced paperboard boxes and con ers make deliveries to and from tainers; the remainder worked in plants, and other workers load and plants that produced a variety of unload trucks, railroad cars, and ships. Guards, watchmen, and jani other paper products. More than 80 percent of the in tors do custodial work. Other dustry’s employees worked in facto workers keep inventory records of ries employing 100 workers or stock and tools. more. The industry employs many Workers in this industry are lo workers in clerical, sales, and ad cated throughout the country, al ministrative occupations. For exam though about half are employed in ple, it employs purchasing agents, eight States: New York, Pennsylva personnel managers, salesmen, nia, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Mas office clerks, stenographers, book sachusetts, New Jersey, and Califor keepers, and business machine op nia. Other States having large num erators. Also, because of the com bers of paperworkers are Michigan, plex processes and equipment used, Georgia, Washington, Maine, Flor the industry employs many profes ida, Texas, North Carolina, and Al sional and technical workers, in abama. cluding chemical and mechanical engineers, chemists, laboratory technicians, and pulp and paper testers. (Detailed discussions of Occupations in the Industry professional, technical, and me Workers in the paper industry are chanical occupations, found not employed in a wide variety of occu only in the paper industry but in pations, requiring a broad range of other industries, are given elsewhere training and skills. Many workers in the Handbook in sections cover- O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E P A P E R , A N D A L L IE D P R O D U C T S IN D U S T R IE S In 1970, the paper and allied products industry employed approx imately 710,000 people to produce many different kinds of paper and paperboard products. The industry employs workers in occupations ranging from unskilled to highly specialized technical and profes sional jobs, many found only in the paper industry. About 150,000 women were em ployed in this industry in 1970. Many worked in plant jobs, mainly as machine operators and inspectors in paper finishing and converting plants; others worked in office jobs. Few women were employed in the actual production of pulp and paper. Nature and Location of the Industry The paper industry is highly mechanized. Pulp, paper, and many finished paper products are manu factured by machines—some as long as a football field—in a series of nearly automatic operations that require very little handling of mate rials by workers. Manufacturing plants in the paper industry are en gaged in one or more of three dif ferent operations. The production of pulp (the basic ingredient of paper) from wood, reused fibers, or other raw materials; the manufac ture of paper or paperboard (thick paper) from pulp; or the conversion of rolls of paper or paperboard into finished products. The largest group of employees in the industry in 1970 worked in mills that produced pulp, paper, or paperboard. The next largest group was employed in plants that pro 700 OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES sure; he also directs the loading of the digester with wood chips and chemicals. By checking an instru Production Jobs. More than three- ment panel, he makes certain that fourths of all employees in the in proper conditions are being main dustry in 1970 worked in produc tained. When the pulp fibers are re tion jobs. The simplified description moved from the digester, they are of papermaking occupations and washed to remove chemicals, par processes that follows applies to a tially cooked chips, and other im plant which combines the produc purities. These fibers, called pulp, tion of pulp, paper, and finished resemble wet, brown cotton. paper products into one continuous To turn pulp into paper, the pulp operation. (See chart 30.) is mixed thoroughly with water and After pulpwood logs are received further refined in a machine oper at the pulp mill, the bark is re ated by a skilled worker called a moved. One machine used for this beater engineer (D.O.T. 530.782). operation is a large revolving cylin The kind and amount of chemicals der known as a “drum barker.” and dyes he uses and the length of Logs are fed mechanically into this time he “beats” the solution deter machine by a semiskilled worker mines the color and strength of the called a barker operator (D.O.T. paper. The pulp solution, now more 533.782) . The machine cleans bark from the logs by tumbling them than 99 percent water, is turned against each other and also against into paper or paperboard by ma the rough inner surface of the drum. chines which are among the largest Next, pulp fibers in the logs are sep in American industry. The machines arated from other substances not are of two general types. One is the used in papermaking. This is done Fourdrinier machine, by far the by a chemical or mechanical proc most commonly used; the other is ess, or both, depending on the type the cylinder machine used to make of wood used and the grade of paper desired. In the mechanical process, pulpwood is held against a fast-revolving grindstone that separates the fibers. In the more commonly used chemi cal process, pulpwood is carried on conveyor belts to a chipper machine operated by a chipperman (D.O.T. 668.885). The machine cuts the pulpwood into chips about the size of a quarter. These wood chips are “cooked” with chemicals under high temperature and pressure in a “digester,” a kettlelike vat several stories high. The digester is oper ated by a skilled worker called a digester operator (D.O.T. 532.782) . He determines the amount of chemicals to be used and the cooking temperature and pres ing individual occupations. index for page numbers.) See 701 particular types of paper such as building and container board. In the Fourdrinier, the pulp solution pours into a continuously moving and vi brating belt of fine wire screen. As the water drains, millions of pulp fibers adhere to one another, form ing a thin wet sheet of paper. After passing through presses that squeeze out more water, the newly formed paper passes through the dryer section of the papermaking machine to evaporate remaining water. The quality of the paper pro duced largely depends on the skill of the paper machine operator (D.O.T. 539.782). His principal responsibility is to control the “wet-end” of the papermaking machine, where paper of a specified thickness, width, and physical strength is formed. He checks con trol-panel instruments to make cer tain that the flow of pulp and the speed of the machine are coordi nated. The paper machine operator also determines whether the paper meets required specifications by in terpreting laboratory tests or, in 702 some instances, by visually checking or feeling the paper. He supervises the less skilled workers of the machine crew and, with their help, keeps the paper moving smoothly through the machine. The paper machine operator and his crew also may replace Worn felts and wire screens. The backtender (D.O.T. 532.885), who is supervised by the paper machine operator, controls the “dry-end” of the papermaking machine, where paper is dried and prepared either for shipment or conversion into finished products. He controls the pressure and tem perature of the rolls that dry and finish the paper and give it the cor rect thickness, inspects the paper for imperfections, and makes sure that it is being wound tightly and uniformly into rolls. The backtender also adjusts the machinery that cuts the rolls into smaller rolls and, with the help of assistants, may weigh and wrap the rolls for shipment. Paper mills that produce a fine grade of paper for books, maga zines, or stationery usually maintain finishing departments. Most workers in these departments are either semi skilled or unskilled. One semi skilled worker, the supercalendar op erator (D.O.T. 534.782), aided by several helpers and by mechanical handling equipment, places huge rolls of paper onto a machine that gives the paper a smooth and glossy finish. He also inspects the finished paper to make sure that specifica tions have been met. Another semi skilled worker in the finishing de partment, the paper sorter and counter (D.O.T. 649.687), inspects sheets of paper for tears, dirt spots, and wrinkles, counts them, and may fill customer orders. In converting plants, machines operated by semiskilled or skilled workers convert paper and paperboard into envelopes, napkins, cor OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK rugated shipping containers, and other paper products. Occupations in converting plants differ widely, depending largely on the product being manufactured. An example of a semiskilled worker in an enve lope-making plant is the envelope machine operator (D.O.T. 641.885) who feeds and tends an automatic machine that makes en velopes from either rolls of paper or prepared envelope blanks. An ex ample of a skilled worker in a con verting plant is the corrugator oper ator (D.O.T. 643.782) who regu lates the speed of the machine that glues together pieces of paperboard into corrugated paperboard used for shipping containers. Another of the few skilled workers in a converting plant is the printer-slotter operator (D.O.T. 651.782) who sets, ad justs, and operates a machine that cuts and creases corrugated or pa perboard sheets and prints designs or lettering on them. He also posi tions the printing plates and cutting devices and turns keys to control the distribution of printing ink, pressure of rollers, and speed of the machine. Another skilled worker is the die maker (D.O.T. 739.381) who makes cutting dies used on machines that produce folding car tons (the familiar collapsible car tons used by clothing stores to pack purchases). Converting plants employ thou sands of workers to print text, de signs, and lettering on paper prod ucts, such as cartons, bags, labels, wallpaper, and envelopes. Among these are skilled compositors who set type, and pressmen who prepare and operate printing presses. Maintenance Jobs. The paper in dustry employs many skilled main tenance workers to care for its com plex machinery and electrical equip ment. Millwrights install and repair ma chinery and equipment and examine paper machine rolls, bearings, and pumps to insure that they are in good working condition. They also take apart and reassemble machines and equipment when they are moved about the plant. Instrument repairmen install and service electrical, electronic, and mechanical instruments that meas ure and control the flow of pulp, paper, water, steam, and chemical additives. The job of instrument re pairman is becoming increasingly important with the greater use of automatic control equipment. Other important maintenance employees include electricians, who repair wiring, motors, control pan els, and switches; maintenance ma chinists, who make replacement parts for mechanical equipment; and pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes. Stationary engineers are em ployed to operate and maintain powerplants, steam engines, boilers, air compressors, motors, and tur bines. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The complexity of pulp and paper manufacturing requires thou sands of workers who have engi neering, chemical, or other techni cal training. Approximately 15,000 scientists and engineers and 7,000 technicians were employed by the paper industry in 1970. Many chemists are employed to control the quality of the product by supervising the testing of pulp and paper. In research laboratories, chemists study the influence of vari ous chemicals on pulp and paper properties. In addition, some chem ists and engineers are employed as salesmen, supervisors of plant workers, or as administrators in po- OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES 703 tively, executives require informa tion from a wide variety of person nel, including accountants, sales representatives, lawyers, and per sonnel employed in industrial rela tions, transportation, market re search, and other activities. Book keepers, secretaries, shipping clerks, and other clerical workers keep rec ords of personnel, payroll, invento ries, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. The quality of paper is tested by workers in the laboratory. sitions requiring technical knowl edge. Chemical and mechanical engi neers transform new pulp and pa permaking techniques developed in the laboratory into practical production methods. Some chemical engineers are employed in plant jobs to supervise the production process. Electrical engineers are employed to supervise the operation of electri cal and electronic instruments and power-generating and distributing equipment. Packaging engineers (D.O.T. 019.187) design and supervise the production of paper and paperboard containers and packages. A few box manufacturers also employ artists who develop letterings, de signs, and colors for containers. Professionally trained foresters manage large areas of timberland and assist in the wood-buying oper ations of pulp and paper companies. They map forest areas, plan and su pervise the harvesting and cutting of trees, and seed or plant new trees to assure continuous production of timber. Systems analysts and computer programers are becoming increas ingly important to this industry. They analyze business and produc tion problems and convert them to a form suitable for solution by auto matic data-processing equipment. Frequent tests are performed during the manufacture of pulp or paper to determine whether size, weight, strength, color, and other properties of the material meet specified standards. Some testing is done by machine operators, but in many mills testing technicians are employed. These employees, who have job titles such as laboratory technician, paper tester, pulp tester, paper inspector, and chemical ana lyst, work in plant laboratories. They use chemicals and laboratory testing equipment when performing tests. They also assist professional engineers and chemists in research and development activities. De pending on their training and expe rience, technicians may perform simple, routine tests or do highly skilled technical or analytical work. Administrative, Clerical and Related Occupations. The paper industry employs many administrative, cleri cal, and other office personnel. Ex ecutives, many of whom are techni cally trained, plan and administer company policy. To work effec Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for new workers ranges from a few days to years. Many op erating jobs can be learned in a few days of on-the-job training. On the other hand, maintenance jobs, some machine operating jobs, and, partic ularly, engineering and scientific jobs require years of specialized training. Paper and pulp companies gener ally hire inexperienced workers for processing and maintenance jobs and train them on the job. Many companies prefer to hire high school graduates between the ages of 18 and 25. Production workers usually start as laborers or helpers and advance along fairly welldefined paths to more skilled jobs. Maintenance jobs generally are filled by men trained in the plant. When no qualified workers are available, however, jobs are filled by hiring experienced men from outside the plant. Some large plants have formal apprenticeship programs for main tenance workers. Under these pro grams, which usually last 3 to 4 years, young men are trained for jobs such as machinist, electrician, millwright, and pipefitter. Gener ally, an applicant is given a physical examination, mechanical aptitude 704 tests, and similar qualifying tests. Apprenticeship includes both onthe-job training and classroom in struction related to the occupation. For example, the machinist appren tice receives classroom instructions in mathematics, blueprint reading, shop theory, and specialized sub jects. During shop training he learns the use and care of the tools of his trade. A bachelor’s degree from a rec ognized college is usually the mini mum educational requirement for scientists, engineers, foresters, and other specialists. For research work, persons with advanced degrees are preferred. Many engineers and chem ists (called process engineers and paper chemists) have specialized training in paper technology. A list of schools offering such training is available from the American Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Many compa nies hire students specializing in papermaking for summer work, and upon graduation frequently hire them on a permanent basis. Some associations, colleges, universities, and individual companies offer scholarships in pulp and papermak ing technology. Some companies have formal training programs for college gradu ates having engineering or scientific backgrounds. These employees may work for brief periods in various plant operating divisions to gain a broad knowledge of pulp and paper manufacturing before being as signed to a particular department. Other firms immediately assign jun ior chemists or engineers to a spe cific research operation or mainte nance unit. Generally, no specialized educa tion is required for laboratory as sistants, testing technicians, or other kinds of technicians. Some em ployers, however, prefer to hire OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK those who have had training in a technical institute or junior college. Training usually is given on the job. Laboratory assistants, for example, begin in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility after they have acquired experience and demonstrated ability to work with minimum supervision. Administrative positions are filled frequently by men and women who have college degrees in business ad ministration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other special ized business fields. A knowledge of paper technology is helpful for ad ministrative and sales occupations. This is true especially for sales jobs, where customers often require tech nical assistance. Most pulp and paper companies employ clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Factors affecting advancement of plant workers include the length of time a worker has held a plant job, how well he performs his job, and his physical condition. Promotion generally is limited to jobs within a “work area,” which may be a de partment, section, or an operation on one type of machine. To become a paper machine tender, for exam ple, the worker may start as a la borer, wrapping and sealing finished rolls of paper as they come off the papermaking machine. As he gains experience and skill, he moves to more difficult assignments, finally becoming a machine tender in charge of operating a machine. These promotions may take years, depending on the availability of jobs. Experience gained within a work area usually is not transfera ble; unskilled or semiskilled workers who transfer to jobs outside their seniority area or to other plants usually must start in entry jobs. Many plant foremen and supervi sors are former production workers. 705 OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES In some plants, qualified workers may be promoted directly to fore man or other supervisory positions. In others, workers are given addi tional training before they are eligi ble for promotion to higher level jobs. This training often is contin ued after the worker is promoted— through conferences, special plant training sessions, and sometimes by taking courses at universities or trade schools. Most firms provide some financial assistance for em ployees who take training courses outside their plant. Employment Outlook Employment in the paper and al lied products industry is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most job openings will stem from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Production of paper is expected to increase substantially during the 1970’s to meet increased demand resulting from population growth, business expansion, and new uses of paper. For example, rising popula tion will create a greater demand for textbooks, writing papers, peri odicals, and newspapers. Business expansion will increase the need for paper products such as business forms and packaging. The greater use of paper products such as dis posable garments and refuse bags also is expected to stimulate pro duction. Employment will increase at a slower rate than production, how ever, because of the increasing use of more efficient, laborsaving ma chinery and automatic control equipment. Occupational groups in the indus try are expected to increase at dif ferent rates. The numbers of engi neers, scientists, technicians, and skilled workers, such as electricians and machinery repairmen, are ex pected to increase faster than other occupational groups in the industry. More scientific and technical per sonnel will be needed as research and development activities increase, and more skilled repairmen will be required to service the growing in ventory of complex machinery. The employment of administrative and clerical workers also is expected to increase at a faster pace than total employment. On the other hand, employment of semiskilled workers will grow more slowly, while the number of helpers, laborers, and other unskilled plant workers is ex pected to remain about the same or decline slightly as more automatic machinery is introduced. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the paper and allied products industry had av erage earnings of $3.44 an hour, or $144.14 for a 41.9 hour workweek in 1970. In the same year, earnings of production workers in all manu facturing industries averaged $3.36 an hour, or $133.73 for a 39.8 hour workweek. The following tabulation, based on information obtained from a score of union-management con tracts in the paper industry, illus- Supercalendar operator checks paper finish. 706 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK trates the approximate range of hourly wage rates for selected pro duction and maintenance occupa tions in 1970. Local wage rates within these ranges depend on geo graphic location, type and size of mill, kinds of machines used, and other factors. P u lp p la n ts H o u r ly r a te ra n g es Woodyard and wood prepara tion occupations: Crane operator .................$3.41-4.46 Barker, drum .................. 3.27-4.15 Chipperman ..................... 2.87-4.03 Pulpmaking occupations: Digester operator (cook).. 3.35-4.84 Grinderman .................... 2.94-3.75 Screenman ......................... 3.01-4.49 Bleacherman .................... 3.12-4.84 Pulp tester......................... 3.18-3.68 P ap er an d p a p erb o a rd p la n ts Stock preparation occupations: Head stock preparer (beater engineer) ........ $3.21-4.84 Beaterman ......................... 2.92-3.92 Machine room occupations: Paper machine tender .... 3.66-5.86 Backtender ...................... 3.28-5.30 Third hand ...................... 3.01-4.48 Fourth hand .................... 2.80-4.48 Paper tester ...................... 3.10-4.11 Finishing occupations: Supercalendar operator.... 3.16-4.24 Rewinder operator .......... 3.12-3.85 Rewinder helper .............. 2.89-3.48 Cutters ............................... 3.01-3.86 Miscellaneous occupations: Pipefitter ........................... 3.22-4.74 Machinists ......................... 3.25-4.97 Electrician ......................... 3.53-4.87 Oiler ................................. 3.15-3.92 Janitor ............................... 2.75-3.43 Most workers in pulp and paper producing operations work in plants that operate around the clock— three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry practice of rotating shifts, produc tion workers can expect to work on evening or night shifts from time to time. Maintenance workers, for the most part, are employed on the reg ular day shift. Many plants pay be tween 7 and 11 cents more an hour for work on the evening shift and between 12 and 15 cents extra an hour for the night shift. Most workers have year-round employ ment because paper production is not subject to seasonal variations. A work schedule of 40 hours a week is in effect in most mills. A few plants have a standard work week of 36 hours or less. Paid vacations are almost always provided and are generally based on length of service. In most mills, workers receive 1 week of vacation after 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 to 5 years, and 3 weeks after 8 to 10 years. Many companies give 4 weeks vacation to employees who have been with them 20 years and 6 weeks after 30 years. Nearly all workers receive 6 to 11 paid holidays annually. Insurance or pension plans, financed completely or partially by employers, are in effect in most plants. These plans generally in clude life, sickness, accident, hospi talization, and surgical insurance benefits for the employee and, in some cases, his dependents. Em ployee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the company makes contributions, are also in effect in some firms. Most pulp and papermaking jobs do not require strenuous physical effort. Some employees, however, work in hot, humid, and noisy areas. They also may be exposed to disagreeable odors from chemicals used in the papermaking process. Pulp and paper companies have made intensive efforts in recent years to improve working condi tions. The rate of disabling injuries in this industry has been about the same as the rate for all manufactur ing in recent years. Protective cloth ing, warning signs in danger areas, locking devices on potentially dan gerous equipment, guards and rails around moving machinery, and in struction in safe practices have been important in reducing the accident rate. Some of the more hazardous jobs are located in converting plants where many cutting tools and mov ing equipment are used. A majority of production workers in this industry are members of trade unions. A large number be long to the International Brother hood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; the United Papermakers and Paperworkers; or the Association of Western Pulp and Paper Workers. Many printing workers belong to the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America. Some maintenance workers and other craftsmen belong to various craft unions. Sources of Additional Information Further information about job opportunities and working condi tions in this industry is available from local offices of the State em ployment service and from: American Forest Institute, 1835 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. American Paper Institute, 260 Mad ison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Fibre Box Association, 224 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60604. National Paper Box Manufacturers Association, Inc., 121 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. Paper Industry Management Asso ciation, 2570 Devon Ave., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. PETROLEUM The petroleum and natural gas industries provide about 75 percent of all the energy fuels consumed in this country. Products refined from crude oil supply the fuels and lubri cants used for nearly all motor vehi cles, locomotives, aircraft, and ships. Oil and gas provide much of the heat for homes, factories, and commercial establishments, as well as the fuel for over one-quarter of the electric power generated in this country. In addition, basic petro leum compounds are essential in the manufacture of hundreds of prod ucts in everyday use, such as syn thetic rubber, and plastics. In 1970 about 153.4 thousand workers, who have a wide range of educational backgrounds and skills, were employed in the various activi ties that make up the petroleum re fining industry. This chapter deals with the jobs and activities involved in refining oil. The Handbook dis cusses in a separate chapter occupa tions concerned with petroleum and natural gas production and process ing. R E F IN IN G flow, volume, temperature, and pressure of liquids and gases going through the equipment. Manual handling of materials is virtually eliminated in the modern refinery. Briefly, the first step in petroleum refining consists of heating crude oil as it flows through a series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil pass into a tower where the various “fractions,” or parts, of crude oil are condensed. The heavi est parts (for example, asphalt) are drawn off along the bottom of the tower where temperatures are high est; lighter parts, jet fuel and auto motive diesel fuel are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest and most volatile (gaso line and gases) are taken off at the top where temperatures are lowest. Further processing by more com plicated methods combines or modi fies compounds obtained through fractionating. About 280 refineries were in op eration in this country in 1970. They ranged in size from small plants which employed fewer than 50 employees to those which em ployed several thousand. Although most States have refineries, approxi mately 9 out of every 10 barrels of crude oil were refined in only 10 Nature and Location of the Industry Petroleum refining converts crude oil into gasoline, jet fuel, ker osene, fuel oil, lubricants, asphalt, and other products for use in homes and industry. The modern refinery is a complicated facility made up of tanks and towers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the refinery to the ship ment of finished products, the flow of production is almost continuous. The refining process is highly instru mented. Operators use the instru ments to measure and regulate the Operator regulates processing of crude oils from central controls. 707 708 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK States: Texas, California, Louisi ana, Illinois, Indiana, Oklahoma, Ohio, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Refineries usually are located near oil fields, consuming centers, or deepwater ports where tankers can dock. Occupations in the Industry About 1 out of every 4 workers in refineries are operators. A key worker in converting crude oil into usable products is the Stillman (D.O.T. 542.280), or chief opera tor. The Stillman is also known by such job titles as coker operator and cracking operator. He is responsible for the efficient operation of one processing unit or more. The opera tor monitors instrument readings for any changes in temperature, pres sure, and oil flow. In the modern re fineries, the operator can watch in struments on graphic panels which show the entire operation of all proc essing units in the refinery. He reg ulates the instruments so that oil products will meet specifications. From time to time, the operator pa trols all units for which he is re sponsible to check their operating condition and to take samples for testing. The number and size of the units determine whether he has more than one assistant (D.O.T. 542.782). Other plant workers whose jobs are related to the processing of crude oil include pumpmen or pump ers (D.O.T. 549.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 549.884), who maintain and operate power-driven pumps which circulate petroleum products, chemicals, and water through units during processing; and treaters (D.O.T. 549.782), who op erate equipment to remove impuri ties from gasoline, oil, and other pe troleum products. In many refineries, a large per centage of the plant workers repair, rebuild, and clean the highly com plicated refinery equipment. In other plants, maintenance work is contracted to companies outside the petroleum industry. A large number of maintenance workers are needed because of the complex equipment and the fact that high heat and pres sure and corrosion quickly wear out equipment. Included among these are skilled boilermakers, carpenters, electricians, instrument repairmen, lead burners, machinists, masons, painters, pipefitters, insulators, rig gers, sheetmetal workers, and weld ers. Many helpers and trainees are also in these trades. Some skilled workers have a primary skill in one craft as well as the ability to handle the duties of closely related crafts. For example, a pipefitter also may be able to do boilermaking and welding repair work on a piece of equipment. Maintenance workers who have such combined jobs are sometimes called refinery mechan ics. Plant workers who do not oper ate or maintain equipment do a vari ety of other tasks in refineries. Some workers are employed in the packaging and shipping department; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; some drive trucks and tractors to deliver mate rials to various parts of the plant; and others keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry also employs custodial workers such as guards and watchmen. About 13 percent (slightly fewer than 20,000), of the workers in pe troleum refining are scientists, engi neers, and technicians, compared with almost 12 percent (slightly fewer than 32,000) in petroleum production. Among these profes sional and technical refinery workers are chemists, chemical en gineers, mechanical engineers, pe troleum engineers, systems engi neers, waste treatment engineers, electrical engineers, metallurgical engineers, laboratory technicians, and draftsmen. Chemists and labo ratory technicians control the qual ity of petroleum products by making tests and analyses to determine chemical and physical properties. Some chemists and chemical engi neers are engaged in research and development activities to develop new products and processes and to improve those already produced. Laboratory technicians also assist chemists in research projects or do routine testing and sample taking. Some engineers design chemical processing equipment and plant lay out and others supervise refining 709 PETROLEUM REFINING processes. Waste treatment engi neers and technicians are engaged in improving treatment and disposal of refinery waste waters and gases. Draftsmen prepare detailed plans and drawings needed in refinery construction and maintenance. Many administrative, clerical, and other white-collar personnel are employed by refining companies. A large number of top administrative and management positions are filled by technically trained people, many of whom are chemists or engineers. Other specialized workers in the field of administration include ac countants, purchasing agents, law yers, and personnel and training specialists. Many typists, stenogra phers, secretaries, bookkeepers, and business machine operators are em ployed to assist these specialized workers. The increasing use of com puters in petroleum refining re quires workers trained as systems analysts, coders, programmers, and key punch operators. (Detailed dis cussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum re fining industry but also in other in dustries are given in the section of this Handbook covering the individ ual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Petroleum refineries typically re quire new plant workers to have a high school or vocational school ed ucation. In large refineries, aptitude and psychological testing and inter viewing may be used in selecting employees. Usually, a new worker begins as an aid in a labor pool where he does such jobs as moving materials, packing cartons, or filling barrels. Depending on his particular aptitudes and seniority he may be transferred to the processing depart ment or maintenance shop when a vacancy occurs. A worker newly assigned to a processing department learns to op erate processing equipment under the supervision of experienced workers. As he gains experience and know-how, he moves to the more skilled jobs in his department. For example, one line of advance ment for a processing worker may be from helper to assistant operator to chief operator. Formal training courses frequently are provided to assure thorough and current knowl edge in a variety of operations. An inexperienced worker who is assigned to a maintenance shop re ceives training on the job under the supervision of the foreman. In some refineries, he also may receive class room instruction related to his par ticular work. Over a period of 3 or 4 years, he may advance from helper to skilled craftsman in one of the maintenance jobs. Some large refin eries have programs under which workers are given training in several related maintenance crafts. For ex ample, a qualified instrument re pairman may be given additional training as electrician or machinist. For scientists and engineers a bachelor’s degree in science or engi neering usually is the minimum edu cational requirement. For research jobs, scientists and engineers with advanced degrees are preferred. For most laboratory assistant jobs, 2year technical school certificates are required. Laboratory assistants begin their work in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility as they acquire additional experience and demonstrate ability to work without close supervision. Inexperi enced draftsmen begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experi ence and training, they may ad vance to more skilled and responsi ble drafting positions. Administra tive positions generally are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial re lations, or other specialized fields. For positions as clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists, most re fineries employ persons who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. For occu pations associated with computers, educational requirements range from a high school level for key punch operators to a college degree in the physical science field for ana lysts. Employment Outlook Through the 1970’s several thou sand job openings are expected each year in petroleum refineries to replace workers who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Total employment will change lit tle despite continued expansion of refinery output for the expected in crease in the consumption of petro leum products. Improved methods of refining crude oil and larger refin eries with greater productive ca pacity will limit requirements for new workers. Most jobs created by turnover in petroleum refining will be for pro fessional, administrative, and tech nical workers, particularly chemical engineers, and technicians for re search and development. Among plant workers most jobs will be in maintenance occupation and will in clude instruments repairmen, pipe fitters, machinists, maintenance elec tricians, instrumentmen, and weld ers because of the increasing use of automated equipment and com plex control instruments. 710 Earnings and Working Conditions Refinery workers are among the highest paid employees in American industry. In 1970 production work ers in petroleum refining averaged $189.93 a week, or $4.49 an hour for a 42.3 hour workweek. This salary compares with an average for all manufacturing industries of $133.73 a week, or $3.36 an hour. The higher average earnings of production workers in refineries re flect the relatively large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. Entry salaries for chemical engi neers in the petroleum refining in dustry were among the highest in American industry, according to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society in 1970. The sur vey showed that in this industry the average starting salary for chemists who have a bachelor’s degree and no experience was $800 a month and for chemical engineers, $925 a month. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most petroleum refinery workers receive a 2-week vacation with pay after 1 year of service; 3 weeks, after 5 years; 4 weeks, after 10 years; and 5 weeks after 20 years. Most refineries have adopted life in surance, pension, and medical and surgical plans for their employees. Employee stock-purchase and sav ings plans, to which the employer makes contributions, are in effect in many firms. Because petroleum refining is a continuous round-the-clock opera tion, operators may be assigned to one of the three shifts, or they may be rotated on various shifts and be subject to Sunday and holiday work. Employees usually receive 15 to 30 cents an hour additional pay when they work on the second or third shift. Most maintenance workers are on duty during the day shift; only a few work at night to handle emergencies. Work in the industry has little seasonal variation and re gular workers have year-round jobs. Most refinery jobs require only moderate physical effort. A few workers, however, have to open and close heavy valves and climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights in the course of their duties. Others may work in hot places or may be exposed to unpleasant odors. Refin eries are relatively safe places in which to work. The injuryfrequency rate is about half that of manufacturing as a whole. A majority of refinery plant workers are union members. A large number of refineries have been organized by the Oil, Chemi cal and Atomic Workers Interna tional Union. Some refinery workers are members of AFL-CIO craft unions or of various independent unions. See the petroleum and natural gas production and processing chap ter for Sources of Additional Infor mation. T R A N S P O R T A T IO N , C O M M U N IC A T IO N S , AND PU B LIC U T IL IT IE S The transportation, communica tions, and public utilities industries make possible the smooth function ing of our society and produce most of the energy that powers, heats, and lights our factories and homes. The transportation industry moves goods and people by air, rail, water and highway; the communications industry provides communications systems such as telephones and radio and TV broadcasting. Other public utilities supply the Nation with electricity and gas, and with sanitation services. Transportation, communications, and public utility firms are all semipublic in character. Some State and local governments operate their own transit lines or electric companies as well as other types of utilities. Privately owned transportation and public utility firms are regulated closely by com missions or by other public authori ties to make sure they operate in the public interest. In 1970, 4.5 million persons were employed in the transportation, communications, and public utilities industry group. In addition, more than one-half million persons were employed by State and local govern ments in publicly owned transit and utility systems. Almost half of the workers in this major industry group were employed in two indus tries: the communications industry with 1.1 million workers (including telephone, telegraph, and radio and TV broadcasting); and the motor freight industry with 1.0 million workers (including local and long distance trucking). Electric, gas, and sanitary services companies em ployed about 685,000 workers and railroads about 625,000. Other in dustries with significant employment included air transportation and local and interurban passenger transit. The remaining workers were em ployed by firms that provided water and pipeline transportation and transportation services. About one-fifth of the persons employed in transportation, com munications, and public utilities were women, a ratio substantially lower than for the economy as a whole. Employment of women varies greatly among the individual industries. For example, they repre sented only 7 percent of employ ment in water transportation; how ever, in communications, where many work as telephone operators, women accounted for one-half of employment. Blue-collar workers made up more than half of employment in the transportation, communications, and public utilities industry group in 1970. Operatives alone accounted for 27 percent of employment. Most of these semiskilled workers were truck, bus, and taxi drivers, and railroad brakemen and switchmen. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers made up another 21 per cent of employment. Among the major occupations in this group are airplane mechanic, motor vehicle mechanic, telephone lineman, loco motive engineer, and stationary engi neer. Another eight percent of the employees were laborers, such as material handlers and truckdrivers’ helpers. About two-fifths of the industry group’s employees were white-collar workers, mostly in clerical occupa tions such as telephone operator, ticket agent, secretary, and book keeper. Nine percent of all em ployees were managerial workers, and 7 percent were professional and technical workers. Many of the lat ter groups were in the communica tions industry, where, in addition to large numbers of engineers and technicians, many actors, entertain ers, and writers were employed. Estimated employment, 1970 Major occupational group (percent distribution) All occupational groups.......... Professional, technical, and kindred workers.... Managers, officials, and proprietors ................... Clerical and kindred workers ......................... Sales workers .................. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers.... Operatives and kindred workers ......................... Service workers................ Laborers ........................... 100 7 9 25 1 21 27 3 8 N o t e —Due to rounding, sum of in dividual items may not add to total. Employment in the transporta tion, communications, and public utilities industry group is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. In addition, many thousands of job openings are expected each year because of the need to replace workers who die or retire. Transfer of employees to other industries will provide still additional job oppor tunities. Replacement needs will be particularly high in clerical positions because many women leave work each year to take on family respon sibilities. Employment growth in individual industries will vary significantly. In creasing popularity of air transpor 711 712 tation for both passengers and cargo will spur continued rapid employ ment growth in this area. Rising population, business expansion, and growth of suburbs will stimulate employment in trucking. On the other hand, little employment change is expected in local and interurban passenger transportation (buses, taxis, and subways) because consumers probably will continue to rely heavily on private automobiles. The longrun decline in railroad em ployment is expected to continue, but at a decreasing rate. Employment in communications is expected to grow slowly through OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the 1970’s. Although demand for the industry’s services will increase rapidly, advances in technology are expected to limit employment growth, particularly in telephone communications. The computer and other electronic equipment are ex pected to be applied increasingly to functions that have been performed by workers. Employment in electric and gas utilities also will be affected strongly by advancing technology and em ployment will grow slowly despite rapid increases in output. Substan tial improvements in electric gener ating equipment through the in creasing use of nuclear power, electronic controls, and improved coal-handling techniques, as well as more efficient methods of construct ing and maintaining transmission lines will limit employment growth in this industry. The statements that follow cover major occupations in the transporta tion, communications, and public utility fields. More detailed informa tion about occupations that cut across many industries—for exam ple, secretaries and drivers—appear elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) C IV IL A V IA T IO N The rapid development of air transportation in the past two dec ades has increased the mobility of the population and has created many thousands of job opportuni ties in the civil aviation industry. By 1970 about 500,000 persons were employed in a variety of inter esting and responsible occupations in this field. Nature and Location of Civil Aviation Activities Many different types of organiza tions provide civil aviation services for a variety of purposes. Scheduled airlines transport passengers, cargo, and mail. Other airlines, called sup plemental, provide charter and nonscheduled flight service for passen gers and cargo. A wide range of other civil aviation activities are conducted in general aviation, in cluding company-owned aircraft to transport business employees or cargo (business flying); application of insecticides, fertilizers, and seed on land, crops, or forest (aerial ap plication); small aircraft charter service on scheduled routes to small airports to deliver mail and light cargo (air-taxi operation); and inspection of pipelines and power lines for breaks (industrial flying). In addition, general aviation in cludes maintenance and repair by government-licensed repair stations for general aviation aircraft (certi fied repair stations). Civil aviation activities also in clude the regulatory and accident investigation functions of the Fed eral Aviation Administration (FAA), the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), and the National Transportation Safety Board O C C U P A T IO N S (NTSB)—all part of the Federal Government. The FAA develops air safety regulations, inspects and tests aircraft and airline facilities, pro vides ground electronic guidance equipment, and gives tests for licenses to personnel such as pilots, flight engineers, dispatchers, and air craft mechanics. The CAB estab lishes policy concerning matters such as airline rates and routes. The NTSB investigates all airlines acci dents and general aviation aircraft accidents involving fatalities. In 1970, the scheduled airlines employed 300,000 workers. Of these about 80 percent (240,000) were employed to fly and service aircraft and passengers on domestic routes—between cities in the United States. Nearly 50,000 other workers handled the operations of the scheduled airlines that fly inter national routes. The remaining workers handled only cargo. In addition to scheduled airline employees, several thousand work ers—all in ground occupations— were employed in the United States by foreign airlines that operate be tween overseas points and the United States. An additional 5,285 workers were employed by 13 supplemental airlines in many of the same occu pations as scheduled airline workers. An estimated 18,000 pilots and 52.000 mechanics were employed full time in general aviation opera tions in 1970. In addition to full time workers, thousands of pilots and a small number of mechanics were employed part time. The FAA employed about 52.000 people and the CAB about 670 in 1970. The largest group of FAA employees worked mainly in occupations relating to the direction of air traffic and the installation and maintenance of mechanical and electronic equipment used to con trol traffic. CAB workers were em ployed mainly as administrators and clerks concerned with the economic regulation of the airlines, supervi sion of international air transpor tation, promotion of air safety, and investigation of accidents. Civil aviation workers are em ployed in every State, but an esti mated half work in five States; New York, California, Florida, Illinois, and Texas. Civil Aviation Occupations In addition to employing the larg est number of air transportation workers, scheduled airlines employ workers in a variety of occupations. By 1970, about 4 out of 5 were in ground occupations. Mechanical and other aircraft maintenance per sonnel was the largest category, fol lowed by traffic agents and clerks. Other workers included cargo and freight handlers, custodial and other aircraft servicing personnel, and office, administrative, and profes sional personnel. Flight occupations constituted the other one-fifth of airline employ ment. These occupations include stewardesses and stewards, the larg est flight occupation, as well as pilots, copilots, and flight engineers. Most of the general aviation workers were mechanics and pilots. Clerks and administrators made up nearly all of the remainder. In the Federal Government, the largest group of 23,800 civil avia tion workers were in air traffic serv icing work. Of these, about 19,600 were air traffic controllers and 4,200 were flight service station specialists. A detailed description of the du ties, training, qualifications, employ 713 714 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment outlook, earnings, and work of chemicals or seeds in agriculture, move greatly increased amounts of ing conditions for each of the fire fighting, and the restocking of baggage and cargo without compara following air transportation jobs ap fish and other wild life, will require ble growth in employment of bag pear in the later sections of this a few thousand additional em gage and cargo handlers. Economy chapter: (1) Pilots and copilots, ployees, mainly pilots. flights, which offer fewer inflight A slow increase is expected in the services than first-class flights, will (2) flight engineers, (3) steward esses, (4) aircraft mechanics, (5) employment of civil aviation permit airlines to fly greatly in airline dispatchers, (6) air traffic workers by the Federal Govern creased numbers of passengers controllers, (7) ground radio oper ment. Openings that occur will be without a corresponding rise in em ators and teletypists, and (8) traffic primarily those resulting from re ployment of flight attendants. tirements, deaths, and transfers to agents and clerks. The rapid growth in some airline The total number of workers in other fields of work. Although em occupations, particularly those con civil aviation occupations is ex ployment declines may occur in cerned with the operation and main pected to increase very rapidly dur some occupations, increasing em tenance of aircraft, will result from ing the 1970’s, but the rates of ployment opportunities are ex a substantial increase in the number growth among the major civil avia pected for those who maintain and of aircraft in service. Continuing re repair the increasing array of visual placement of present equipment by tion divisions will differ. General aviation employment is and electronic aids to air traffic. faster, larger capacity jet planes will expected to show a rapid rise, Airline employment growth will accomodate part of the increased mainly because the anticipated result from anticipated increases in traffic, but a significant increase in greater demand for general aviation passenger and cargo traffic. By the total number of aircraft in serv services will lead to an increase in 1980, the scheduled airlines will fly ice also will be necessary. In addi the number of aircraft. About about two times the number of rev tion to the growth of the industry in 225,000 general aviation aircraft enue passenger miles flown in 1970. creating jobs, replacement needs may be flying by 1980—an increase An even larger increase is expected will remain high throughout the of about 90,000 over the number in in air cargo traffic which, however, 1970’s because of retirements and 1970. A significant employment in represents a relatively small percent deaths. crease will occur in business flying; of total traffic. Among the factors most new job openings will be for which will contribute to increased pilots. Employment growth also will air travel are a larger population, Earnings and Working Conditions be rapid in air-taxi operations, increased consumer purchasing Earnings among various civil avi largely because of the demand for power, the trend toward longer va air transportation in cities not serv cations, the greater use of air travel ation occupations vary greatly be iced by the scheduled airlines. These by businessmen, faster flights on jet cause of factors such as skill re jobs will be about equally divided aircraft which will save considerable quirements, length of experience, between qualified pilots and copilots time in long-distance travel, and and amount of responsibility for and aircraft mechanics. An esti more economy-class passenger serv safe and efficient operations. Within particular occupations, earnings mated 23,000 job openings—prac ices. As in the past, airline occupa vary according to the type of civil tically all for aircraft mechanics— will occur in certificated repair tions will grow at different rates. aviation activity. The statements on stations because of the need for ad Occupations, such as stewardess individual occupations which follow ditional maintenance and repair and cargo and baggage handler, contain detailed discussions of earn services by a larger general aviation which provide services for passen ings. As a rule, airline employees and gers and cargo directly, will grow fleet. The number of operators who very rapidly. However, employment their immediate families are entitled give flight instruction and engage in in these occupations is not expected to a limited amount of free or re patrol and survey flying will grow to increase as fast as the increases in duced-fare transportation on their very rapidly by 1980, and require air traffic for several reasons, for companies’ flights, depending on the example, more widespread installa employees’ length of service. In ad thousands of additional pilots. Use of aircraft for aerial applica tion of mechanical equipment, such dition, they may fly at greatly re tion, which includes the distribution as conveyors, will permit airlines to duced rates with other airlines. 715 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Flight personnel may be away from their home bases about one-third of the time or more. When they are away from home, the airlines pro vide either living accommodations or pay expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night. Personnel in some occupations, therefore, often have irregular work schedules. Max imum hours of work per month for workers in flight occupations have been established by the FAA as a safety precaution against fatigue. In addition, union-management agree ments often stipulate payment for a minimum number of hours each month. Ground personnel who work as dispatchers, mechanics, traffic agents, communications operators, and administrators usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Their working hours, however, often include nights, weekends, or holidays. Air traffic controllers work a 5-day, 40-hour week; they are periodically assigned to night, weekend, and hol iday work. Ground personnel gener ally receive extra pay for overtime work or compensatory time off. In domestic operations, airline employees usually receive 2 to 4 weeks’ vacation with pay, depend ing upon length of service. Most flight personnel in international op erations get a month’s vacation. Employees also receive paid sick leave, retirement benefits, life insur ance, and long-term disability hospi talization benefits. FAA and CAB employees are entitled to the same benefits as other Federal personnel, including from 13 to 26 days of an nual leave and 13 days of sick leave a year, as well as retirement, life insurance, and health benefits. Many of the workers in air trans portation are members of labor un ions. The unions are identified in the statements covering the individ ual occupations. PILOTS AND COPILOTS (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) Sources of Additional Information Information about job openings in a particular airline, and the quali fications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of indi vidual companies are available from the Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries regarding jobs with the Federal Aviation Administration should be addressed to the Person nel Officer, Federal Aviation Ad ministration, at any of the following addresses: Nature of the Work The men who have the responsi bility for flying a multimillion dollar plane and safely transporting pas sengers are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “captain” by the airlines) operates the controls and performs other tasks necessary for flying a plane, keeping it on course, and landing it safely. He supervises the copilot, flight engineer, and flight attendants. The copilot is sec ond in command. He assists the captain in air-to-ground communi cations, monitoring flight and engine instruments, and in operating the Eastern Federal Building, John Region. F. Kennedy Interna controls of the plane. tional Airport, Ja Both captain and copilot must do maica, Long Island, a great deal of planning before their N.Y. 11430. plane may take off. They confer Southwest P.O. Box 1689, Fort with the company meteorologist Region. Worth, Tex. 76101. Southern P.O. Box 20636, Atlanabout weather conditions and, in Region. ta, Ga. 30320. cooperation with the airline dis Central 601 E. 12th St., Kansas patcher, they prepare a flight plan Region. City, Mo. 64106. along a route and at altitudes which Western 5641 West Manchester offer the best weather and wind Region. Ave., Box 90007, Air port Station, Los An conditions so that a safe, fast, and geles, Calif. 90009. smooth flight may be possible. This Alaskan 632 Sixth Ave., Anchorflight plan must be approved by Fed Region. age, Alaska 99501. eral Aviation Administration Pacific P.O. Box 4009, Honolu(FAA) air traffic control personnel. Region. lu, Hawaii 96812. The copilot plots the course to be Information concerning FAA- flown and computes the flying time approved schools offering training between various points. Before for work as an aircraft mechanic, takeoff, both men check the opera pilot, or in other technical fields re tion of each engine and the func lated to aviation may be obtained tioning of the plane’s many instru from the Information Retrieval ments, controls, and electronic and Branch, Federal Aviation Admin mechanical systems. istration Library, HQ-630, Federal During the flight, the captain or Aviation Administration, Washing copilot reports by radio to ground ton, D.C. 20553. control stations regarding their alti tude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight details. The captain also supervises the navigation of the 716 flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the condi tion of the engines, controls, elec tronic equipment, and landing gear. The copilot assists in these duties. Before landing, the captain or the copilot recheck the operation of the landing gear and request landing clearance from air traffic control personnel. If visibility is limited when a landing approach is being made, the captain may have to rely primarily on instruments such as the altimeter, air speed indicator, artifi cial horizon, and gyro compass and instrument landing system. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots, employed by airlines as “check pilots,” make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adher ence to FAA flight regulations and company policies. Airlines employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private corporations. Airlines also employ pilots as instructors to train both new and experienced pilots in the use of new equipment. Although pilots employed in gen eral aviation usually fly planes OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK smaller than those used by the scheduled airlines, their preflight and flight duties are similar to those of airline pilots. These pilots seldom have the assistance of flight crews. In addition to flying, they may per form minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. In some cases, such as in business flying, they may mingle with and act as host to their passengers. Pilots who are self-em ployed, such as airtaxi operators, in addition to flying and doing some maintenance work, have duties sim ilar to those of other small business men. Places of Employment The scheduled airlines employed over 27,000 pilots and copilots in 1970. In addition, approximately 1,600 pilots were employed by the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that provide charter and nonscheduled service). An estimated 18,000 pilots and copilots were employed full-time in general aviation in 1970. Several thousand worked in business flying and air-taxi operations. About 1,600 pilots were employed in aerial ap plication flying. The Federal Gov ernment employed approximately 2,500 pilots (about one-fifth in the FAA) to perform a variety of serv ices such as examining applicants for pilots’ licenses, inspecting navi gation facilities along Federal air ways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifica tions, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling national boundaries. In addition, State and local governments employed about 800 pilots. Several thousand pilots were employed by companies to in spect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to provide other aerial services such as private flight instruction, and flights for sightsee ing and aerial photography. A small number worked for aircraft manu facturers as test pilots. In addition, thousands of pilots were employed on a part-time basis. These workers were distributed among all the vari ous general aviation activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To do any type of commercial flying, pilots or copilots must be li censed by the FAA. Airline cap tains must have an “airline trans port pilot’s” license. Copilots, and most pilots employed in general avi ation, must have a “commercial air plane pilot’s” license. In addition, pilots who are subject to FAA in strument flight regulations or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad, must have an “instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots also must have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (sin gle-engine, multi-engine, or sea plane), and for the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-9 or Boeing 747. To qualify for a license as a com- 717 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS mercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. To obtain an instrument rating, appli cants must have at least 40 hours of instrument time, 20 hours of which must be in actual flight. Applicants for an airline transport pilot’s li cense must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,500 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night flying and in strument flying time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a physical examination and a written test given by the FAA covering sub jects such as principles of safe flight operations, Federal Aviation Regu lations, navigation principles, radio operation, and meterology. He also must submit proof that he has com pleted the minimum flighttime re quirements and, in a practical test, demonstrate flying skill and techni cal competence. His certification as a professional pilot remains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination and the peri odic tests of his flying skills required by Government regulation. An air line transport pilot’s license expires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight experi ence necessary to become a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the FAA satisfies the flight experi ence requirements for licensing. Applicants who have appropriate military flight training and experi ence are required to pass only the Federal Aviation Regulations exam ination if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the serv ice. Those trained in the armed services have the added opportunity to gain experience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a copilot job with the airlines must be be tween 20 and 35 years old, although preference is given to applicants who are between ages 21 and 28. They must be 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall and weigh be tween 140 and 210 pounds. All ap plicants must be high school gradu ates; some airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airline employment, are very high. They must have at least 20/100 vision corrected to 20/20, good hearing, outstanding physical stam ina, and no physical handicaps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large aircraft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the airlines use psychological tests to determine an applicant’s alert ness, emotional stability and matu rity, and his ability to assume re sponsibility, command respect, and make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled air lines (and by some of the larger supplemental airlines) usually start as flight engineers, although they may begin as copilots. An applicant for a flight crew member job with a scheduled airline often must have more than the FAA minimum quali fications for commercial pilot licens ing. For example, although the FAA requires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a license, the air lines generally require from 500 to 1,000 flying hours. Airlines also re quire a “restricted” radio-telephone operator permit, issued by the Fed eral Communications Commission, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. Pilots employed in business flying are required to have a commercial pilot’s license. In addition, some employers require their pilots to have instrument ratings, and some require pilot applicants to have air transport pilot ratings. Because of the close relationship between pilots and their passengers, employers look for job applicants who have pleasant personalities. All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give beginning copilots or flight en gineers from 3 to 10 weeks of train ing on company planes before as signing them to a scheduled flight. Trainees also receive classroom in struction in subjects such as flight theory, radio operation, meteorol ogy, Federal Aviation Regulations, and airline operations. The beginning copilot generally is permitted only limited responsibil ity, such as operating the flight con trols in good weather'over a route that is easy to navigate. As he gains experience and skill, his responsibil ities are increased gradually, and he is promoted to copilot on larger, more modern aircraft. When he has proved his skill, accumulated suffi cient experience and seniority; and passed the test for an airline trans port pilot’s license, a copilot may advance to captain as openings arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual practice, advancement often takes at least 5 to 10 years or longer. The new captain works first on his airline’s smaller equipment and, as openings arise, he is ad vanced to larger, more modern air craft. A few opportunities exist for cap tains who have administrative abil ity to advance to chief pilot, flight operations manager, and other su pervisory and executive jobs. Most airline captains, however, spend their entire careers flying. As they 718 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK increase their seniority, they obtain a better selection of flight routes, types of aircraft, and schedules which offer higher earnings. Some pilots may go into business for themselves if they have adequate fi nancial resources and business abil ity. They may operate their own flying schools or air-taxi and other aerial services. Pilots also may shift to administrative and inspection jobs in aircraft manufacturing and Government aviation agencies, or become dispatchers for an airline when they are no longer able to fly. Employment Outlook A rapid rise in the employment of airline pilots is expected through the 1970’s. In addition to those needed to staff new positions, sev eral thousand job openings will re sult from the need to replace pilots who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Although larger, faster, and more efficient jet planes are likely to be used in the years ahead, increased passenger and cargo miles may exceed substan tially the increase in capacity real ized from the new equipment. Therefore, employment of pilots is likely to increase to the extent that increased growth of traffic exceeds increased capacity. Employment of pilots in general aviation activities is expected to continue to grow very rapidly, par ticularly in business flying, aerial application, air-taxi operations, and patrol and survey flying. Growth in these areas will result from the greater use of aircraft to perform these general aviation activities. Earnings and Working Conditions Captains and copilots are among the highest paid wage earners in the Nation. Those employed by the scheduled airlines averaged about $30,000 a year in domestic air transportation and nearly $37,000 in international operations in 1970. Most of the senior captains on large aircraft earned well over 35,000 a year; those assigned to large jet air craft may earn as much as $48,000. Pilots employed by the scheduled airlines generally earn more than those employed elsewhere, although pilots who work for supplemental airlines may earn almost as much. Some experienced copilots were earning as much as $27,000 a year in domestic flying and more than $30,000 in international flying in 1970. The earnings of captains and co pilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of serv ice. They receive additional pay for night and international flights. Captains and airline copilots who have at least 3 years of service are guaranteed minimum monthly earn ings which represent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month; some unionmanagement contracts, however, provide for 75-hour a month maximums. Though pilots and copilots, in practice, fly approximately 60 hours a month, their total duty hours, including before- and after flight activities and layovers before return flights, usually exceed 100 hours each month. Some pilots prefer shorter dis tance flying usually associated with local airlines and commercial flying activities, such as air-taxi opera tions, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly during the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and landings daily. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the pilot often is subject to stress because of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions also can make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are members of the Airline Pilots Association, In ternational. The pilots employed by one major carrier are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Sources of Additional Information Air Line Pilots Association, Inter national, 1329 E St., N W , Wash ington, D.C. 20004. (See the introductory section for additional sources of information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) FLIGHT ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment The flight engineer monitors the operation of the different mechani cal and electrical devices aboard the airplane. Before takeoffs, he may in spect the tires and other outside parts of the plane and make sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been filled properly. Inside the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in mak ing preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is airborne, the flight engineer watches 719 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS and operates many instruments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-conditioning, pressurizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of en gine performance and fuel con sumption. He reports any mechani cal difficulties to the pilot and, if possible, makes emergency repairs. Upon landing, he makes certain that mechanical troubles that may have developed are repaired by a me chanic. Flight engineers employed by smaller airlines may have to make minor repairs at those few air ports where mechanics are not sta tioned. Flight engineers or second officers are required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), to be on almost all three- and fourengine aircraft and some two-engine jet aircraft. An evaluation of the aircraft and the functions to be per formed by the crew determines the need for a flight engineer. In 1970 about 8,500 workers were em ployed to perform flight engineers’ duties, mostly by major airlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All flight engineers must be li censed by the FAA. A man can qualify for a flight engineer’s certifi cate if he has had 2 years of training or 3 years of work experience in the maintenance, repair, and overhaul of aircraft and engines, including a minimum of 6 months’ training or a year of experience on four-engine piston and jet planes. He also may qualify with at least 200 hours of flight time as a captain of a four-en gine piston or jet plane, or 100 hours of experience as a flight engi neer in the Armed Forces. The most common method of qualifying is to complete a course of ground and flight instruction approved by the FAA. In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and aircraft perform ance, fuel requirements, weather as it affects engine operation, and maintenance procedures. In a prac tical flight test on a four-engine plane, he must demonstrate his skill in performing preflight duties and normal and emergency in-flight du ties and procedures. He also must pass a rigid physical examination every year. Most scheduled airlines now require applicants for flight en gineer positions to have a commer cial pilot’s license. Young men can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight engineers through military training as aircraft pilots, mechanics, or flight engi neers. They also may attend a civil ian ground school and then gain ex perience as an airplane mechanic. For flight engineers, airlines gen erally prefer men who are 21 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condition. Good eyesight (including color-vision) and eyehand co-ordination are essential. All the major carriers require a high school education but prefer at least 2 years of college. They prefer to hire young men who already have a flight engineer certificate and a commercial pilot’s license, although they may train applicants who have only a commercial pilot’s license. A young person considering a career as a flight engineer must be able to cope with the pressures and respon sibilities that are part of the occupa tion, and he must be concerned with details. He also must be able to function as part of a team and quickly learn to operate new equip ment. Advancement opportunities usu ally depend on qualifications and seniority provisions established by airline union-management agree ments. The flight engineer with pilot qualifications, generally called the second officer, advances on the basis of his seniority to copilot, and then follows the regular line of advance ment open to other copilots. Flight engineers without pilot qualifica tions can advance from less desir able to more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. Employment Outlook Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase very rapidly during the 1970’s as the number of heavier jet-powered aircraft, requir ing flight engineers, increases. This development will contribute to em ployment growth in this field, since, in most cases, the third required crew member will be a qualified pilot serving as a flight engineer until his promotion to copilot. (See also the Handbook statement for Pilots and Copilots.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 720 Earnings and Working Conditions STEWARDESSES Flight engineers earned from $1,277 a month for new employees to approximately $2,465 for experi enced flight engineers on jet aircraft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned between $1,590 and $2,020 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engi neers in domestic operations was nearly $1,702. Those employed on international flights averaged nearly $1,920. The earnings of flight engi neers depend upon size, speed, and type of plane; hours and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or inter national). Engineers are guaranteed minimum monthly earnings, which represent a substantial proportion of their total earnings. Their flight time is restricted, under the Federal Aviation Act, to 85 hours a month. Flight engineers in international op erations are limited to 100 hours a month, 300 hours every 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Most flight engineers who are not qualified pilots belong to the Flight Engineers’ International Association or the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Those who are qualified pilots (Sec ond Officers) are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, In ternational. (D.O.T. 352.878) Sources of Additional Information Flight Engineers’ International As sociation, 100 Indiana Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. (See the introductory section for additional sources of information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment Stewardesses or stewards (some times called flight attendants) are aboard almost all commercial pas senger planes to make the passen gers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoyable. Like other flight person nel, they are responsible to the cap tain. Before each flight, the stewardess attends the briefing of the flight crew. She sees that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies and emergency passenger gear are aboard, and that necessary food and beverages are in the galley. As the passengers come aboard, she greets them, checks their tickets, and as sists them with their coats and small luggage. On some flights, she may sell tickets. During the flight, the stewardess checks seat belts and gives safety in structions. She answers questions about the flight and weather, dis tributes reading matter and pillows, helps care for small children and babies, and keeps the cabin neat. On some flights, she heats and serves meals that have been pre viously cooked. On other flights, she may prepare, sell, and serve cock tails, wine and other alcoholic bev erages. After the flight, she com pletes flight reports. On interna tional flights, she also gives customs information, instructs passengers on the use of emergency equipment, and repeats instructions in an ap propriate foreign language to ac commodate foreign passengers. About 35,000 stewardesses and stewards worked for the scheduled airlines in 1970. About 80 percent were employed by the domestic air lines, and the rest worked for inter national lines. Nearly all stewards were employed on overseas flights. Airliners generally carry 1 to 6 flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and what propor tion of the flight is economy or firstclass. Large aircraft like the Boeing 747 require as many as 16 stewardesses. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve on international flights are based in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines place great stress on hiring young women who are attrac tive, poised, tactful, and resource ful. As a rule, applicants must be 19 to 27 years old, from 5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 9 inches tall, weight in pro portion to height but not exceeding 140 pounds, and be in excellent health. They also must have a pleas ant speaking voice and good vision. The major airlines require that stew ardesses be unmarried when hired 721 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS but permit girls to work as steward esses after they marry. Applicants for stewardesses’ jobs must be high school graduates. Those having 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or experience in dealing with the public are pre ferred. Stewardesses who work for international airlines generally must be able to speak an appropriate for eign language fluently. Most large airlines give newly hired stewardesses about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Girls may receive free transportation to the training centers and also may receive an allowance while in at tendance. Training includes classes in flight regulations and duties, company operations and schedules, emergency procedures and first aid, and personal grooming. Additional courses in passport and customs regulations are given trainees for the international routes. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights and perform their duties under actual flight conditions. A few airlines that do not operate their own schools may employ grad uates who have paid for their own training at private stewardesses’ schools. Girls interested in becom ing stewardesses should check with the airline of their choice before en tering a private school to be sure that they have the necessary qualifi cations for the airline, and that the school’s training is acceptable. Immediately upon completing their training, stewardesses report for work at one of their airline’s main bases. They serve on proba tion for about 6 months, and usually work with an experienced stew ardess on their first flights. Before they are assigned to a regular flight, they may work as reserve flight at tendants, on extra flights or replace stewardesses who are sick or on va cation. Stewardesses may advance to first stewardess or purser, supervising stewardess, stewardess instructor, or recruiting representative. Advance ment opportunities often come quickly because stewardesses work only about 2 or 3 years, on the av erage, and then resign to get mar ried. Employment Outlook Several thousand stewardesses will be needed each year to replace about 30 percent of those who will resign each year. Some resign after they marry, others leave for other jobs. Despite thousands of applica tions each year for this glamorous occupation, airlines have difficulty obtaining enough" young women to meet their high standards of attrac tiveness, personality, and intelli gence. Earnings and Working Conditions An examination of union-man agement contracts covering several large domestic and international air lines indicates that in 1970, begin ning stewardesses earned approxi mately $523 to $645 a month for 80 hours of flying time. Stewardesses having 2 years’ experience earned approximately $587 to $836 a month. Stewardesses employed on do mestic flights averaged $600 a month in late 1970; those working on international flights averaged about $800. Since commercial airlines operate around the clock, 365 days a year, stewardesses usually work irregular hours. They may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They usually are limited to 80 hours of flight time a month. In addition, they devote up to 35 hours a month to ground duties. As a result of ir regular hours and limitations on the amount of flying time, some steward esses may have 15 days or more off each month. Of course, some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Airlines generally use the senior ity bidding system for assigning home bases, flight schedules, and routes. Stewardesses who have the longest service, therefore, get the more desirable flights. The stewardess’ occupation is ex citing and glamorous, with oppor tunities to meet interesting passen gers and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. A stewardess may be on her feet during a large part of the flight. She must remain pleasant and efficient during the entire flight, re gardless of how tired she may be. Most flight attendants are mem bers of either the Air Line Stewards and Stewardesses Association of the Transport Workers Union of Amer ica or the Stewards and Steward esses Division of the Air Line Pilots Association, International. (See introductory section for general information on supplemen tary benefits and working condi tions.) AIRCRAFT MECHANICS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of the Work Aircraft mechanics keep planes operating efficiently. They make emergency repairs (line mainte nance work) at the larger terminals or major repairs and periodic inspections at a particular part of 722 the aircraft, such as propellers or landing gear, or work on sheet metal sections. Mechanics fre quently dismantle a complex com ponent to replace damaged or worn parts. After putting the plane to gether, they test it for perfect opera tion. Line-maintenance mechanics must be all-round mechanics. The flight engineer or lead mechanic may instruct a line-maintenance me chanic or the mechanic may exam ine the aircraft to discover the cause of malfunction. He then makes the necessary adjustments or installs a new part. He may replace an entire engine which cannot be repaired. Aircraft mechanics employed in general aviation usually do mainte nance and repair work comparable with the work performed by linemaintenance mechanics. However, the planes which these mechanics service are generally smaller and less complex than those flown by the airlines. One mechanic fre quently does the entire servicing job with little supervision, and he works on many different types of planes and engines. Mechanics who work for employers such as certificated supplemental airlines, air-taxi oper ators, and independent repair shops also may do overhaul work. Inde pendent repair shops usually spe cialize in engine, instrument, or air frame overhaul. (The airframe con sists of the plane’s fuselage, wings, landing gear, flight controls, and other parts which are not part of the engine, propeller, or instruments.) Aircraft mechanics use many dif ferent kinds of tools ranging from simple handtools, such as screw drivers and wrenches, to expensive machines, such as magnetic and black light inspection equipment which detects flaws and cracks in metal parts. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment Over 54,000 mechanics were em ployed by the scheduled airlines in 1970. An estimated 52,000 me chanics and supervisors were em ployed by independent repair shops. A few thousand also were employed by certificated supplemental airlines, aerial application and air-taxi firms, and businesses that use their own planes to transport key em ployees or cargo. Many other me chanics work in aircraft manufac turing plants. (These workers, whose duties are somewhat different from those of airline mechanics, are discussed in the chapter on Occupa tions in the Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Field.) About 20,500 civilian aircraft mechanics were employed by the Air Force in 1970. Another 10,300 worked for the Navy. The FAA em ploys several hundred skilled men with maintenance experience to in spect aircraft manufacturing plants; examine airline and other commer cial flying organizations’ aircraft maintenance methods, training pro grams, and spare parts stock; and test applicants for FAA mechanic licenses. This agency also employs approximately 500 aircraft mechan ics to maintain its own planes. Most of these men are employed at the FAA Aeronautical Center in Okla homa City. Some mechanics are employed by other Government agencies, principally the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion and the Army. Most airline mechanics are em ployed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base where more than half of its mechan ics are employed. Mechanics are concentrated in important domestic and international air traffic centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mechanics responsible for any re pair or maintenance operation must be licensed by the FAA as either an “airframe mechanic” (to work on the planes fuselage, covering sur face, landing gear, and control sur faces such as rudder or ailerons); “powerplant mechanic” (to work on the plane’s engines); “airframe 723 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS and powerplant mechanic” (to work on all parts of the plane); or as a “repairman” who is authorized to make only specified repairs. Me chanics who maintain and repair electronic communications equip ment are required to have at least a Federal Communications Commis sion Second Class Radio Telephone Operator License. At least 18 months’ experience working with airframes or engines is required to obtain an airframe or powerplant license, and at least 30 months’ experience working with both engines and airframes is re quired for the combined airframe and powerplant license. However, this experience is not required of graduates of mechanic’s schools ap proved by the FAA. In addition to these requirements, applicants must pass a written test and give a practi cal demonstration of their ability to do the work. Mechanics who main tain and repair their employers’ planes have FAA authorization. Mechanics may work as trainees or apprentices, or as helpers to ex perienced mechanics to prepare for their licenses. The larger airlines train apprentices or trainees in a carefully planned 3- or 4-year pro gram of instruction and work expe rience. Men who have learned air craft maintenance in the Armed Forces usually are given credit for this training towards the require ments of apprenticeship or other on-the-job training programs. For trainee or apprentice jobs, airlines prefer high school or trade school graduates between 20 and 30 who are in good physical condition and who have had courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, and machine shop. Experience in auto motive repairs or other mechanical work also is helpful. Aircraft mechanics must be able to do detailed work as part of a team. They should have manual dexterity, good eye-hand coordina tion, depth perception, and strength to lift heavy parts and tools. Agility is important for reaching and climb ing that are part of the job. Aircraft mechanics must be willing to work in high places. Other mechanics prepare for their trade by graduating from an FAA approved mechanics school. Most of these schools have an 18to 24-month program. Several col leges and universities also offer 2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA mechanic ex aminations, and for jobs as engineer ing aids and research and de velopment technicians in aircraft manufacturing. Mechanics generally are required to have their own handtools which they acquire gradually. Several advancement possibilities are available to skilled mechanics employed by the scheduled airlines. The line of advancement is usually mechanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, shop foreman, and, in a few cases, supervisory and executive positions. In most shops, mechanics in the higher grade positions are required to have both airframe and powerplant ratings. In many cases, the mechanic must pass a company ex amination before he is promoted. To qualify for jobs as FAA inspectors, mechanics must have broad experience in maintenance and overhaul work, including super vision over the maintenance of air craft. Applicants also must have both airframe and powerplant rat ings or a combined rating. Employment Outlook The number of aircraft mechan ics employed by scheduled airlines is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s because of the substantial increase in the number of aircraft in operation. Rapid growth anticipated in general avia tion flying will lead to an increase in the number of aircraft. An increase is expected in the number of me chanics employed both in firms providing general aviation services and in independent repair shops. Employment opportunities for air craft mechanics in the Federal Gov ernment will depend largely on the size of the Government military air craft program. In addition to growth, a few thousand job openings will result annually from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions Mechanics employed by the scheduled domestic and interna tional airlines averaged between $800 and $1,100 a month in 1970. Other aircraft mechanics generally had lower average earnings. Airline mechanics work in hangars or in other indoor areas, whenever possi ble. However, when repairs must be made quickly, as in line-mainte nance work, mechanics may work outdoors. Aircraft mechanics sometimes must work in cramped places. Fre quently they work under noisy con ditions. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by union agreements. Most of these em ployees are members of the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Many others belong to the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America and the Transport 724 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Workers Union of America. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for gen eral information on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement AIRLINE DISPATCHERS (D.O.T. 912.168) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment Dispatchers (sometimes called flight superintendents) are em ployed by the airlines to coordinate flight schedules and operations within an assigned area; they also make sure that all Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and com pany flight and safety regulations are observed. After examining weather conditions, the dispatcher makes a preliminary decision as to whether a flight may be undertaken safely. He frequently must arrange to notify the passengers and crew if there is any change from the sched uled departure time. The dispatcher confers with the captain about the quantity of fuel needed, the best route and altitude at which the plane will fly, the total flying time, and the alternate fields that may be used if landing at the scheduled air port is hazardous. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane leaves the airport. In some in stances, the dispatcher is also re sponsible for keeping records and checking matters such as the availa bility of aircraft and equipment, the weight and balance of loaded cargo, the amount of time flown by each aircraft, and the number of hours Airline dispatcher assists pilot in pre-flight planning. flown by each crew member based at his station. After the flight has begun, the dispatcher plots the plane’s progress as reported at regular intervals by the captain on the radio, and keeps the captain informed of changing weather and other conditions that might affect his flight. The assistant dispatcher helps the dispatcher plot the progress of flights, secure weather information, and handle communications with aircraft. In 1970 only about 1,200 dis patchers and assistants were em ployed in scheduled domestic and international operations, primarily at large airports in the United States. An even smaller number worked for large certificated supple mental airlines, and for private firms which offer dispatching serv ices to small airlines. Dispatchers are required to have an FAA dispatcher certificate. To qualify, an applicant has to work at least a year under the supervision of a certified dispatcher or complete an FAA-approved dispatcher’s course at a school or an airline training center. If an applicant has neither schooling nor experience, he also may qualify if he has spent 2 of the previous 3 years in air traffic control work, or in airline jobs such as dispatch clerk, assistant dis patcher, or radio operator, or in similar work in military service. An applicant for an FAA dis patcher certificate must pass a writ ten examination on subjects such as Federal aviation regulations, weather analysis, air-navigation fa cilities, radio procedures, and air port and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, he also has to dem onstrate his ability to interpret weather information, his knowledge of landing and cruising speeds and other aircraft operational character istics, and his familiarity with airline routes and navigational facilities. A licensed dispatcher is checked peri odically by his employer to make sure that he is maintaining the skills required by Federal regula tions. All qualified dispatchers are given additional instruction by their airlines at special training centers so that they may become familiar with new flight procedures and with characteristics of new aircraft. Each year, he also is required to “fly the line” as an observer over the por tion of the system which he services, to maintain his first hand familiarity with airline routes and flight opera tions. An airline dispatcher must be able to make independent decisions. Oral skills are essential because dis CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS patchers’ instructions must be con cise and easily understood. For assistant dispatcher jobs, which may not require certification, airlines prefer men who have at least 2 years of college or who have worked an equivalent amount of time in some phase of air transpor tation, such as communications. Preference is given to college grad uates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some experience in flying, meteorology, or business adminis tration is also helpful. Men who have worked in ground operations as dispatch clerks, me teorologists, or radio operators are preferred when assistant dispatcher positions are filled. A few jobs are filled by former pilots. Employment Outlook The number of workers in this very small occupation is not ex pected to change much during the 1970’s. Most new workers will be hired as assistant dispatchers or dis patch clerks. The need for some additional dis patchers will result from the in crease in air traffic, the addition and extension of routes, and the extra difficulties in dispatching jet air craft. However, these factors will be largely offset by improved radio and telephone communication facilities which allow dispatchers at major terminals to dispatch aircraft at other airports and over large geo graphic areas. Foreign-flag airlines, which fly between overseas points and cities in the United States, also will provide a few job opportunities for dispatchers. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned be 725 tween $860 to $1,140 a month in characteristics of aircraft. The men 1970. Dispatchers having 10 years’ who control traffic in the areas service earned between $1,185 and around airports are known as air $1,670 a month. Assistant dispatch port traffic controllers; those who ers earned $572 and over a month guide aircraft between airports are to begin and up to $950 a month called air-route traffic controllers. after 3 years. Assistant dispatchers Airport traffic controllers are sta who have FAA certificates may tioned at airport control towers to earn $25 a month extra. Most dis give all pilots within the vicinity of patchers are members of the Air- the airport weather information and Line Dispatchers Association. Oth take-off and landing instructions ers are represented by the Trans such as which approach and airfield port Workers Union of America runway to use and when to change and the International Association of altitude. They must control simulta Machinists and Aerospace Workers. neously several aircraft which ap pear as tiny bars on a radar scope. Using numbers and remembering Sources of Additional Information positions of planes in the air, they instruct each pilot by radio. These Air Line Dispatchers Association, workers also keep records of all 929 West Broad St., Falls Church, Va. 22130. messages from aircraft and operate runway lights and other airfield (See introductory section for ad electronic equipment. They also ditional sources of information and send and receive information from for general information on supple air-route traffic control centers mentary benefits and working con about flights over the airport. ditions.) Air-route traffic controllers are stationed at air traffic control cen ters to coordinate the movements of aircraft which are being flown “on instruments.” They use the written flight plans which are filed by pilots AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS and dispatchers before aircraft leave the airport. To make sure that air (D.O.T. 193.168) craft remain on course, they check the progress of flights, using radar and other electronic equipment and Nature of the Work information received from the air Air traffic controllers are the craft, other control centers and tow guardians of the airways. These em ers, and information from FAA or ployees of the Federal Aviation Ad airline communications stations. ministration (FAA) give instruc tions, advice, and information to pilots by radio to avoid collisions Where Employed and minimize delays as aircraft fly About 19,600 air traffic control between airports or in the vicinity of airports. When directing aircraft, lers were employed by the FAA in traffic controllers must consider 1970. Of these, about half were air many factors, including weather, ge port traffic controllers, employed at ography, the amount of traffic, and airport control towers located at key the size, speed, and other operating airfields. A few of these jobs are lo- 726 cated at towers and centers outside the United States. About 10,900 air-route traffic controllers worked in 24 control centers scattered throughout the United States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for positions as airroute or airport traffic controller must be able to speak clearly and precisely. They enter the field through the competitive Federal Civil Service system after passing a rigid physical examination, which they must pass every year. Appli cants must pass a written test de signed to measure their ability to learn, perform the duties of air traf fic controller, and meet certain ex perience, training, and related re quirements. Successful applicants for traffic controller jobs are given approxi mately 9 weeks of formal training to learn the fundamentals of the air way system, Federal Aviation Regu lations, and radar and aircraft per formance characteristics. After completing this training, controllers qualify for a basic air traffic control certificate. At an FAA control OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tower or center, they receive addi tional classroom instruction and on-the-job training to become famil iar with specific traffic problems. Only after he has demonstrated his ability to apply procedures, and to use available equipment under pres sure and stress, may he work as a controller. This usually takes about 2 to 3 years. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller. After this promotion, they may advance to more responsible management jobs in air traffic control and to a few top administrative jobs in the FAA. Employment Outlook Total employment of air traffic controllers is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. The number of air traffic controllers is expected to increase despite the greater use of automated equip ment. Additional air traffic controllers will be needed because of the antici pated growth in the number of air port towers that will be built to re duce the burden on existing facili ties and to handle increasing airline traffic. More airport controllers also will be needed to provide services to the growing number of pilots out side of the airlines, such as those employed by companies to fly exec utives. A number of additional air-route traffic controllers will be needed during the next few years to handle increases in air traffic. However, with the expected introduction of an automatic air traffic control system and a further decline in the number of control centers, employment of air-route traffic controllers may moderate in the long run. A few hundred openings will occur each year for controller jobs because of the need to replace those workers who leave for other work, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions The monthly salary for air traffic controllers during their first 6 to 12 months of training averaged about $578 in 1970. Depending on the type of work, the amount of traffic at the facility, and length of time on the job, air traffic controllers can earn between $872 to $1,480 a month. In addition, traffic control lers are eligible for periodic wage increases. In areas that handle ex tremely large volumes of air traffic, a chief controller may earn more than $2,020 a month. These em ployees receive the same annual leave, sick leave, and other benefits provided other Federal workers. FAA controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work overtime, for which they re ceive equivalent time off or addi tional pay. Because control towers and centers must be operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, control lers are periodically assigned to night shifts on a rotating basis. However, an additional 10 percent 727 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS is paid for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Because of the congestion in air traffic, a controller works under great stress. He must check simulta neously flights already under his control, know the flight schedules of air-craft approaching his area, and coordinate these patterns with other controllers as each flight passes from his control area to another. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) GROUND RADIO OPERATORS AND TELETYPISTS (D.O.T. 193.282 and 203.588) Nature of the Work Ground radio operators and tele typists transmit highly important weather and flight information be tween ground station personnel and flight personnel. Radio operators use a radio-telephone to send and receive spoken messages. Radio op erators occasionally may make minor repairs on their equipment. Teletypists transmit only written messages between ground person nel. They operate a teletype mach ine which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. Flight service station specialists employed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) do some work similar to that of airline ground radio operators and teletyp ists. They use radio-telephones, radio-telegraph, and teletype ma chines in their work. In addition to providing pilots with weather and navigational information before and during flights, these workers relay messages from air traffic control fa cilities to other ground station per sonnel and to pilots. Places of Employment About 7,000 ground radio opera tors and teletypists were employed in air transportation in 1970. Flight service station specialists employed by the FAA made up about half of these employees. The scheduled air lines employed about 3,000 radio operators and teletypists. An addi tional 420 were employed by a cooperative organization which of fers the airlines, private pilots, and corporation aircraft its services over a centralized communications sys tem. A few hundred were employed by the Army and Navy in civilian communications occupations. FAA flight service station spe cialists work at stations scattered along the major airline routes; some stations are located in remote places. Ground radio operators and teletypists employed by the airlines work mostly at airports in or near large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for airline radio oper ator jobs usually must have at least a third-class Federal Communica tions Commission radio-telephone or radio-telegraph operator’s per mit. However, a second-class opera tor’s permit is preferred. They also must be high school graduates, have a good speaking voice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, and a basic knowledge of the language used in weather reports. Teletypists must be able to type at least 40 words a minute and have had train ing or experience in operating tele type equipment. Applicants for jobs as radio operators and teletypists also must have a knowledge of standard codes and symbols used in communications. To qualify for entry positions as FAA flight service station special ists, applicants must pass a written test and meet certain experience re quirements. Permanent appoint ments are made on the basis of Fed eral civil service examinations. The airlines usually employ women as teletypists, and an in creasing number are being hired as radio operators. Both airline radio operators and teletypists, and FAA flight service station specialists serve probationary periods during which time they receive on-the-job train ing. Skill gained in communications is helpful experience for transfer ring into such other higher paying jobs such as airline dispatcher. Employment Outlook Openings for entry positions as radio operators or teletypists will number fewer than a hundred each year during the 1970’s. These open ings will occur as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Overall employment of these workers may decline somewhat be cause of the use of more automatic communications equipment which permits communications for longer distances. The number of flight service sta tion specialists employed by the FAA is expected to increase slowly in the years ahead. Need for addi tional workers to perform more serv ices for pilots will be offset by im provements in equipment, and an increase in two-way radios that per mit communications between pilots 728 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and air traffic controllers. The num ber of radio operators and teletyp ists employed by airlines will in crease slowly as communications systems becoming more automatic and centralized. Earnings and Working Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio operators who held the mini mum third-class permit was be tween $628 and $788 a month in 1970. The beginning salary for tele typists was $505 a month and ranged up to $634 after 5 years. Beginning FAA flight service station specialists receive between $578 and $715 a month, depending on education and experience; experi enced flight service specialists earn from $872 to $1,480 a month. Radio operators and teletypists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union in these occupa tional fields is the Communications Workers of America. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) TRAFFIC AGENTS AND CLERKS (D.O.T. 912.368, 919.368) Nature of the Work Selling flight tickets, reserving seats and cargo space, and taking charge of the ground handling of planes are some of the duties of traffic agents and clerks. This group of workers includes ticket or reser vation agents and clerks, operations or station agents, and traffic repre sentatives. Reservation sales agents and clerks give customers flight schedule and fare information over the tele phone. Reservation control agents record reservations as they are made and report the reservations by teletype machine to a central com puter or to clerks in other cities so that the same space will not be sold twice. On some of the larger airlines, data processing systems receive, record, and transmit flight space information to personnel at airports and reservations officers throughout the entire airline system at great speeds. Ticket agents sell tickets and fill out ticket forms, including in formation such as the flight number and the passenger’s name and desti nation. They also check and weigh baggage, answer inquiries about flight schedules and fares, and keep records of tickets sold. Traffic rep resentatives contact potential cus tomers to promote greater use of the airline services. Operations or station agents are responsible for the ground handling of airplanes at their stations. They supervise the loading and unloading of the aircraft and sometimes do this work themselves. They see that the weight carried by the planes is distributed properly, compute gas loads and the weight carried by the plane, prepare a list of the cargo, and keep records of the number of passengers carried. They also may make arrival and departure an nouncements and prepare the weather forms that pilots use when they plan their routes. 729 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Places of Employment About 45,000 men and women were employed as traffic agents and cleiks by the scheduled airlines in 1970. A few thousand others also were employed by the supplemental airlines, and by foreign-flag airlines that operate between the United States and overseas points. Traffic staffs are employed princi pally in downtown offices and at airports in or near large cities where most airline passenger and cargo business originates. Some are em ployed in smaller communities where airlines have scheduled stops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Traffic agents and clerks must deal directly with the public, either in person or by telephone. For this reason, airlines have strict hiring standards with respect to appear ance, personality, and education. A good speaking voice is essential be cause these employees frequently use the telephone or public address systems. High school graduation generally is required, and college training is considered desirable. College courses in transportation such as “traffic management” and “air transportation,” as well as ex perience in other areas of air trans portation, are helpful for a higher grade job, such as traffic representa tive. Both men and women are em ployed as reservation and ticket agents; however, most operations agents are men. Traffic agents may advance to traffic representative and supervi sor. A few eventually may move up to city and district traffic and station manager. Employment Outlook Employment of traffic personnel will increase rapidly over the 1970’s, mainly because of antici pated growth in passenger and cargo traffic. In addition to growth, additional opportunities will arise as young women leave their jobs to marry or rear children. Most of the major airlines are in stalling new machines to record and process reservations, keep records, and perform a variety of other rou tine tasks. Mechanization will affect the reservation clerks in particular. The employment of ticket agents, however, whose main job involves personal contacts, will not be af fected very much, although their paper work will be reduced consid erably. The small group of traffic representatives probably will in crease substantially as the airlines compete for new business. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited wage data collected from union-management contracts cover ing reservations and ticket agents employed by several airlines indi cate that their beginning salaries ranged from $495 to $674 a month in 1970. Those workers having 5 years or more of experience earned between $605 to $771 a month. Station and operations agents started between $510 and $695 a month and progressed to about $854 a month after several years. Many reservation and transporta tion agents belong to labor unions. Four unions cover most of the organ ized agents: the Air Line Employees Association International, the Trans port Workers Union of America, the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse men and Helpers of America (Ind.) Sources of Additional Information Air Line Employees Association, 5600 S. Central Ave., Chicago, 111. 60638. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) O C C U P A T IO N S E L E C T R IC P O W E R Many types of workers are needed to produce electricity, de velop additional markets for it, and distribute it to the consumer. These workers include power plant opera tors, linemen, electricians, engi neers, research scientists, salesmen, technicians, meter readers, and office workers. Electric utilities offer interesting jobs and steady employ ment for men and women in several thousand communities throughout the country. Nature and Location of the Industry The electric power industry in cludes about 3,700 electric utility systems that vary greatly in size and type of ownership. Utilities range from large, interconnected systems serving broad regional areas to small power companies serving indi vidual communities. Most utilities are investor owned (private) or owned by cooperatives; others are owned by cities, counties, and public utility districts, as well as by the Federal Government. Utility systems include power plants, which generate electric power; substations, which increase or decrease the volt age of this power; and vast net works of transmission and distribu tion lines. The delivery of electricity to the user at the instant he needs it is the distinctive feature of the operation of electric power systems. Electric ity cannot be stored efficiently but must be used as it is produced. Be cause a customer can begin or in crease his use of electric power at any time by merely flicking a switch, an electric utility system 730 IN T H E IN D U S T R Y must have sufficient capacity to meet peak consumer needs at any time. Some utilities generate, transmit, and distribute only electricity; oth ers distribute both electricity and gas. This chapter is concerned with employment opportunities in those jobs relating only to the production and distribution of electric power. In 1970, an estimated 495,000 privately owned utilities and coop eratives employed about 425,000 of these workers; Federal, and munici pal government utilities employed an additional 70,000. A few large manufacturing establishments, which produce electric power for their own use, also employ electric power workers. Three principal groups of con sumers purchased more than 95 percent of all electricity sold in 1970. Industrial customers, such as chemical and aluminum plants, purchased almost 45 percent of all the electric power sold. Residential customers purchased about 30 per cent, and commercial customers, such as stores and hotels, purchased about 20 percent. Electric utility service now reaches almost every locality and, therefore, electric utility jobs are found throughout the country. Hy droelectric power projects have created jobs even in relatively iso lated areas. Most utility jobs, how ever, are in heavily populated urban areas, especially where there are many industrial users, or where a large utility has its headquarters. Producing and distributing large quantities of electrical energy in volves many processes and activi ties. The accompanying chart shows how electric energy is generated, and how it travels from the generat ing station to the users. The first step in providing electrical energy occurs in a generating station or plant, where huge generators con vert mechanical energy into electric ity. Electricity is produced primarily in steam-powered generating plants which use coal, gas, or oil for fuel. Some new steam generating stations use nuclear energy as a fuel. A con siderable amount of electricity also is produced in hydroelectric gener- How electricity is made and brought to the users Generating Plant High Voltage Transm ission High Voltage Distribution in Cities »T «[ V n ML rr L j *Ljl SUBSTATION Low Voltage Residential and Com m ercial Distribution [ L I U TJf r “ ^4 an L [I 1111MIf STORES SCHOOLS — 731 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY ating stations which use water power to operate the turbines. Some generators, primarily for use in standby service or to provide elec tricity for special purposes, are powered by diesel or gas turbine en gines. After electricity is generated, it passes through a “switchyard” where the voltage is increased so that the electricity may travel long distances without excessive loss of power. After leaving the generating plant, electricity passes onto trans mission lines. These lines carry electricity from the generating plant to substations, where the voltage is decreased and passed on to the dis tribution networks serving individ ual customers. Transmission lines tie together the generating stations of a single system and also the power facilities of several systems. In this way, power can be inter changed among several utility sys tems to meet varying demands. Electric Utility Occupations Workers are needed in many dif ferent occupations to produce elec tric power. About 10 percent of the employees in this industry work in occupations directly related to the generation of electricity. About 20 percent are in jobs related to the transmission and distribution of power to the customers. Another 20 percent are in maintenance and re pair work and in jobs such as guard and janitor. Approximately 30 per cent are employed in administrative and clerical jobs, 10 percent in cus tomer service jobs, and 10 percent in scientific, engineering, and other technical occupations. In addition to the powerplant, transmission, and customer service occupations (discussed in detail later in this chapter), the industry employs large numbers of workers in maintenance, engineering, scien tific, administrative, sales, and cleri cal occupations. The latter occupa tions are discussed briefly below. Detailed discussions of these and other occupations in the electric power industry and in many other industries are given in the Hand book sections covering the individ ual occupations. Maintenance Occupations. A con siderable number of workers main tain and repair equipment. The du ties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of maintenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, instrument repair men, maintenance mechanics, ma chinists, pipefitters, and boilermak ers. Engineering and Scientific Occupa tions. Many job opportunities are available for engineers and techni cal workers in electric utilities. En gineers plan generating plant addi tions, interconnections of complex power systems, and installations of new transmission and distribution equipment. They supervise con struction, develop improved operat ing methods, and test the efficiency of the many types of electrical equipment. In planning modern power systems, engineers select plant sites, types of fuel, and types of plants. Engineers also help in dustrial and commercial customers make the best use of electric power. They stimulate greater use of elec tricity by demonstrating the advan tages of electrical equipment and suggesting places where electricity can be used more effectively. Administrative and Clerical Occu pations. Because of the enormous amount of recordkeeping necessary to run the business operations, elec tric utilities employ a higher propor tion of administrative and clerical personnel than many other indus tries. Nearly one-third of the indus try’s work force is employed in cler ical and administrative jobs. Many of these workers are women. Large numbers of stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine opera tors, file clerks, accounting and au diting clerks, and cashiers are em ployed. These workers keep records of the services rendered by the com pany, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and statistical reports. An increasing amount of this work in the larger offices now is being performed by electronic data-processing equip ment. This generally results in more clerical work being done with the same or fewer employees. The use of this equipment also creates re quirements for programers and computer operators. Administrative employees include accountants, per sonnel officers, purchasing agents, and lawyers. Employment Outlook Although the production of elec tric power will increase substantially through the 1970’s, employment is expected to grow slowly. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, several thousand job oppor tunities will occur each year be cause of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. Industrial customers are expected to use more electricity because of the widening application of electric power to industrial processes. Use of electricity by residential custom ers is expected to rise because of the growth in population and the number of households. In addition, residential customers are expected to increase their use of electricity for heating and air conditioning, 732 and for an increasing number and variety of appliances. The construc tion of new stores and office build ings and the modernization of exist ing structures will expand the use of electricity by commercial custom ers. However, the growing use of au tomatic controls in this highly mech anized industry makes possible large increases in the production of electric power with little increase in employment. For example, since operators in generating stations are needed chiefly to check gages and control instruments, improvements in generating equipment have made possible great increases in the in dustry’s capacity and production with only small increases in the number of operators. Continuing development of larger and more highly mechanized equipment with many automatic controls will result in a decline in the number of these operators. The employment of sub station operators will continue to decline because of the installation of completely automatic equipment in all but the largest substations. Em ployment decreases in these occupa tions may be offset by the expected growth in the number of mainte nance and repair craftsmen needed to keep the industry’s increasing amount of complex machinery in operating condition. The employment of workers in maintenance and repair of transmis sion and distribution lines is ex pected to remain relatively stable. Fewer men per crew will be needed to work on electric power lines be cause of the increasing use of mech anized equipment for setting poles and for stringing and maintaining lines. However, this reduction in jobs per crew may be offset by the larger number of crews needed to service the expanding distribution systems required by the growing OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK number of electric power custom ers. Because of the increasing use of electronic data-processing equip ment for billing and record-keeping, only a small increase in office em ployment is expected. However, the relatively high turnover in office jobs will provide many additional openings for new workers each year. Some increase in employment also is expected in administrative jobs; scientific, engineering, and other technical jobs; and in areas such as sales and market develop ment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in the electric utility in dustry generally are higher than in other public utility industries and in many manufacturing industries. In 1970, nonsupervisory employees in private electric power utilities averaged $175.98 for a 41.8 hour week, or $4.21 an hour. Many nonsupervisory electric utility workers in production, trans mission, and distribution depart ments are union members. The bar gaining representative for most of these workers is either the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America. Independent un ions represent some utility workers. Because supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity, some employees work evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union contracts with electric utilities pro vide a higher rate of pay for evening and night work than the basic day rate. In 1970, most workers on the second shift received from 4 to 26.5 cents an hour more than the basic day rate, and those on the third shift, from 6 to 39.5 cents an hour more. Overtime work often is required, especially during emergencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “emergency callout,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, the worker generally is guar anteed a minimum of 3 or 4 hours’ pay at IVi times his basic hourly rate. Travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime. In addition to these provisions which affect pay, electric utilities provide other employee benefits. Annual vacations are granted to workers according to length of serv ice. Usually, contracts or employee benefit programs provide for a 1week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, and 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years. A number of contracts and programs provide for 4 weeks after 18 years and for 5 weeks after 25 years or more. The number of paid holidays ranges from 6 to 12 days a year. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their employees. A typical program provides life, hospi talization, and surgical insurance and paid sick leave. Retirement pension plans supplement Federal social security payments and gener ally are paid for in full or in part by the employer. The number of injuries per mil lion man-hours worked is much lower in this industry than in most manufacturing industries. Some oc cupations are more subject to acci dents than others. Accidents occur most frequently among the line and cable splicing crews. Because of the dangers of electrocution and other hazards, electric utilities and unions have made intensive efforts to en force safe working practices. Sources of Additional Information More information about jobs in