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PERFORMING ARTISTS in the opera and concert stage, movies, theater, nightclubs, radio and television, dance bands, and other areas—but not enough to pro vide steady employment for all quali fied singers. Singers who can meet State certification requirements may find postions as music teacher. Employment of singers is ex pected to increase at a moderate rate through the 1980’s. Recorded music has replaced the “live” singer on radio; television performances by singers are limited. However, the de mand is growing for singers who record popular music and do com mercials for both radio and tele vision advertising. Additional em ployment opportunities are expected from the expanded use of cable TV (pay TV) and wider use of video cassettes. A singing career is sometimes rel atively short, since it depends on a good voice and public acceptance of the artists, both of which may be af fected by age. Due to these circum stances, singers may be subject to un stable employment conditions and the pressure of unreliable financial circumstances. 585 Earnings and Working Conditions Except for a few well-known con cert soloists, opera stars, top record ing artists of popular music, and some singers regularly employed by dance bands, the motion picture in dustry, and commercial advertising, most professional singers experience difficulty in obtaining regular em ployment and have to supplement their singing incomes by doing other types of work. Singers generally work at night and on weekends. Work in the enter tainment field is seasonal and few performers have steady jobs. Singers who appear on 1/2 hour TV programs received a minimum of $192 in 1972. Singers in opera choruses received between $35-45 per performance. Singers who perform profes sionally usually belong to a branch of the AFL —CIO union, the As sociated Actors and Artists of America. Singers who perform on the concert stage or in opera belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or live television or who make phonograph recordings are members of the American Federation of Tele vision and Radio Artists; singers in the variety and nightclub field be long to the American Guild of Varie ty Artists; those who sing in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; and those who sing in the movies belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Sources of Additional Information Information about accredited schools and departments of music is available from: National Association of Schools of Music, One Dupont Circle, NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. For information about music teaching in elementary and second ary schools contact: Music Educators National Confer ence, The National Education As sociation, 1201 16th St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20036. DESIGN OCCUPATIONS also must conform to local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances. The architect then prepares work ing drawings showing the exact di mensions of every part of the struc ture and the location of plumbing, heating units, electrical outlets, and air conditioning. Architects also specify the project’s building mate rials, construction equipment, and in some cases, the interior furnishings. After all drawings are completed, the architect assists the client in selecting a c o n tra cto r and in negotiating the contract. As con struction proceeds, there are peri odic visits to the building site to in sure that the contractor is following the design and using the specified materials. The job is not completed until construction is finished, all re quired tests are made, and guaran tees are received from the con tractor. Architects design a wide variety of structures such as houses, churches, hospitals, office buildings, and air ports. They also design multi-build ing complexes for urban renewal projects, college campuses, indus trial parks, and new towns. Besides designing structures, architects also may help in selecting building sites, preparing cost and land use studies, and long range planning for site development. When working on large projects or for large architectural firms, archi tects often specialize in one phase of the work such as designing, draft ing, specification writing, or ad ministering construction contracts. This often requires working with engineers, urban planners, land scape architects, and other design personnel. Good design can improve the ap ARCHITECTS pearance and usefulness of the prod ucts that we use and the places where (D.O.T. 001.081) we live. It also helps merchants to in crease sales by improving the “eye Nature of the Work appeal” of their product, show Attractive buildings improve the room, or advertising. physical environment of a com Different design careers require varying levels of training and educa munity. But buildings also must be tion. For example, floral designers safe and allow people both inside and may learn their duties on the job and around them to properly perform do not need a high school diploma, their duties. Architects design build but architects must have at least 5 ings that successfully combine these years of college and professional ed elements of attractiveness, safety, ucation. Regardless of the amount of and usefulness. Most architects provide profes formal training they have, it is es sential that people in design occupa sional services to clients planning a tions have creativity and artistic building project. These services begin talent, the ability to communicate in the early stages of the project’s ideas through their designs, and good development and continue until all business sense. Some design workers, work is completed. The architect and client first dis such as displaymen and industrial de signers, need manual dexterity for cuss the purposes, requirements, and cost of a project, as well as any performing their duties. Job opportunities in design occu preference on design that the client pations are expected to increase may have. The architect then through the mid-1980’s, because per prepares a rough design drawing to sonal income and population are show the scale and structural rela growing and the more affluent pub tionships of the building. After making preliminary draw lic is becoming more design con ings and discussing them with the scious. This chapter describes eight de client, the architect develops a final sign occupations: architects, com design showing the floor plans and mercial artists, displaymen, floral the structural details of the project. designers, industrial designers, inte Architectural design requires many rior designers, landscape architects, decisions. For example, in designing and urban planners. (Other jobs that a school, the architect must decide may require design skills—for exam on the amount of corridor and stair ple, engineers—are described else way space that students need to move safely and easily from one class to where in the Handbook.) another; the type and arrangement of storage space, the location and size Places of Employment of classrooms, laboratories, lunch room or cafeteria, gymnasium, and About 37,000 registered (licensed) administrative offices. The design architects were employed in 1972; 586 587 DESIGN OCCUPATIONS fewer than 5 percent were women. Many other unlicensed architectural school graduates work in positions requiring knowledge of architecture, for example, as supervisory or sales personnel with firms in the building industry. About two-fifths of all architects are self-employed, either practicing individually or as partners. Most of the others work for architectural firms. However, architects also work for builders, real estate firms, and for other businesses that have large con struction programs. Some work for government agencies, often in city and community planning or urban redevelopment. About 1,400 archi tects work for the Federal Govern ment, mainly for the Departments of Defense, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, and the General Services Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of architecture, mainly to in sure that architectural work which may affect the safety of life, health or property is done by qualified archi tects. Requirements for admission to the 2-day licensing examination generally include graduation from an accredited architectural school, fol lowed by 3 year’s experience in an architect’s office for those with a bachelor’s degree, and 2 years of ex perience for those with a master’s degree. As a substitute for formal training, most States accept longer periods of experience (usually 12 years) and successful completion of an equivalency test for admission to the licensing examination. In 1972, 73 of the 89 schools offer ing professional degrees in archi tecture were accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. Most of these schools offer a 5- year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Architecture degree or a 6- year curriculum leading to a Master of Architecture degree. Many architectural schools also offer graduate education for those who already have their first profes sional degree. While such training is not essential for practicing archi tects, it is often desirable for those in research and teaching. Besides professional schools, many junior and community colleges offer 2-year programs in architecture that enable students to transfer to professional degree programs. Most professional schools of architecture admit qualified high school graduates who meet the en trance requirements of the college or university with which the school is associated. As a general guideline, high school courses should include 4 years of mathematics and English, 3 years of science, 2 years of social sciences and a foreign language, and 1 year of history. A typical college architectural program includes courses in English, mathematics, chemistry, sociology, economics, a foreign language, as well as courses in architectural theory, design, graphics, engineering and urban planning. Persons planning careers in archi tecture should be able to work inde pendently, have a capacity for solv ing technical problems, and be inclin ed toward artistic creation. They also must be prepared to work in the competitive environment of business where leadership and ability to work with others are important. A person planning a career in architecture should be interested in social studies and have a strong desire to serve the public since architectural work af fects people’s life, health, and safety. 588 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Architect constructs a model of building. Working for architects or building contractors during summer vaca tions also is useful to gain knowl edge of the practical problems of the profession. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen in architectural firms, where they make drawings and models of structures under the direction of a registered architect. After several years of experience, they may advance to chief or senior draftsmen responsible for all major details of a set of working drawings and for supervising other draftsmen. Others may work as designers, con struction contract administrators, or specification writers who prepare directions explaining the architect’s plan to the builder. Employees who are particularly valued by their firm may become associates and receive, in addition to a salary, a share of the profits. Usually, however, the archi tect’s goal is to establish a private practice. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for ar chitects are expected to be favor able through the mid-1980’s. Several thousand openings will occur an nually due to very rapid growth of the profession and to replace those who die, retire or transfer to other fields of work. Job opportunities are expected to increase most rapidly in new areas of work because of expanded need in business and gov ernment for people with professional design training. Openings for posi tions with established architectural firms and opportunities for start ing a private practice are expected to grow more slowly. A major factor contributing to the prospective rapid increase of employment for architects is the ex pected growth of nonresidential con struction—the major area of work for architects. Architects will be re quired not only because of growth in nonresidential construction but also because of the increasing size and complexity of modern buildings. Homeowners’ growing awareness of the value of architects’ services and the increasing involvement of archi tects in planning and designing resi dential communities also should in crease openings for architects. Since enrollments in college architectural programs are projected to rise in the years ahead, there should be ad ditional requirements for architects to teach in colleges and universities. Growing public concern about the quality of physical environments is expected to increase the demand for urban redevelopment and city and community environmental planning projects. This demand should create new job opportunities for architects in a wider range of fields than in the past. Some may be needed in re search to develop new tools, mate rials, and systems for the con struction industry. Still others may find employment in manufacturing and construction companies in areas such as design, sales, and administra tion. Government agencies also will provide opportunities for architects as they become more involved in en vironmental design and planning. (See statement on Urban Planners elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions In private industry, starting salaries for new architectural school graduates are generally between $125 and $175 a week in 1972, ac cording to the limited information available. Draftsmen with 2 or more years of experience earned between $160 and $260 a week, and job cap DESIGN OCCUPATIONS tains (supervisors), specification writers, and other senior employees usually earned between $245 and $330 a week. Senior employees often receive yearly bonuses in addition to their salaries. Architects with well-established private practices generally earn much more than high-paid salaried employees of architectural firms. Al though the range in their incomes is very wide, some architects with many years of experience and good reputations earn well over $25,000 a year. Young architects starting their own practices may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their incomes. Depending on their college rec ords, architects having a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start in the Federal Government at either $150 or $185 a week in early 1973. Architects who have com pleted all requirements for the master’s degree can start at $225 and those with a Ph.D. at $320 a week. Most architects work in wellequipped offices and spend long hours at the drawing board. An architect sometimes has to work overtime to meet a deadline. The routine often is varied by inter viewing clients or contractors, and discussing the design, construction procedures, or building materials of a project with other architects or engineers. Those involved in con tract administration frequently work outdoors during inspections at con struction sites. Sources of Additional Information General information about ca reers in architecture including a catalog of publications can be ob tained from: The American Institute of Archi tecture, 1735 New York A ve., Washington, D.C. 20036. 589 Information about schools of architecture and a list of junior col leges offering courses in architecture are available from: The Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc., 1735 New York A ve., W ashington, D.C. 20036. COM M ERCIAL ARTISTS (D.O.T. 141.031 and .081, 970.281 and .381, and 979.381) Nature of the Work A team of commercial artists often creates the artwork in news papers and magazines and on bill boards, brochures, catalogs, and television commercials. The art di rector supervises this team of artists with varying skills and special izations. He develops the artistic aspects of an advertising plan. He then turns it over to a layout man for further refinement. The layout artist constructs or arranges elements of the advertisement. He also selects and lays out illustrations and photo graphs, plans use of typography, and determines color and other elements of design. He then prepares a “rough visual” or sketch. After consulting with the director, he may change the visual and complete a more com prehensive layout for the customer. A variety of specialists work with the layout man to turn out the finish ed product. These include renderers, who use magic markers to make rough drafts; letterers, who execute appropriate lettering either freehand or with mechanical aids; illus trators, who sketch and draw in more finished form; and paste-up and mechanical men, who cut and paste basic parts of the advertisement or other artwork by using a ruling pen and other drafting tools. Some workers, called general boardmen, spend nearly all their time at the drawing board performing many of these specializations. Apprentices help general boardmen or other specialists by doing routine jobs such as separating colors and cutting mats. In a small office, the art director may perform the layout and board- 590 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK work with the aid of apprentices. In a large office, the art director devel ops concepts with the copywriter; sets standards; deals with clients; and purchases needed photographs, il lustrations, lettering, and other art work from freelancers. Advertising artists create the con cept and artwork for a wide variety of items. These include direct mail advertising, catalogs, counter dis plays, slides, and film strips. They also design or lay out the editorial pages and features and produce or purchase the necessary illustrations or artwork. Some commercial artists specialize in producing fashion il lustrations, greeting cards, or book illustrations, or in making technical drawings for industry. Places of Employment About 60,000 persons, two-fifths of them women, worked as com mercial artists in 1972. Although some commercial artists can be found in nearly every city, the ma jority work in large cities, such as New York and Chicago, where the largest users of commercial art are located. Most commercial artists work as staff artists for advertising agencies, commercial art studios, advertising departments of large companies, printing and publishing firms, textile companies, television and motion picture studios, department stores, and a variety of other business organizations. Many are selfemployed or freelance artists. Some salaried commercial artists also do freelance work in their spare time. About 2,500 commercial artists work for Federal Government agen cies, principally in the Defense Department. A few teach in art schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Artistic ability and good taste are the most important qualifications for ability to visualize ideas on paper are success in commercial art. How basic requirements for a successful ever, these qualities must be devel career in commercial art. oped by specialized training in the The various specialities, however, techniques of commercial and differ in some of the specific abilities applied art. Education in the fine required. For example, letterers and arts—painting, sculpture, or archi retouchers must do precise and de tecture—and in academic studies tailed work that requires excellent generally provides a good founda coordination, whereas illustrators tion for obtaining employment in and designers need imagination, a commercial art, and may be es distinctive art style, and, in most sential for promotion. cases, the ability to draw well. Some The most widely accepted train experience with photography, ing for commercial art is the instruc typography, and printing produc tion given in art schools or institutes tion is useful in art direction or that specialize in commercial and design. Freelance commercial artists applied art. To enter art school, an must sell both ideas and finished applicant must usually have a high work to clients. A knowledge of type school education. Some schools ad specifications and printing produc mit only applicants who submit tion methods is very helpful. A busi acceptable work samples. The course ness sense and responsibility in meet of study, which may include some ing deadlines are assets, also. Art academic work, generally takes 2 or directors need a strong educational 3 years, and a certificate is awarded background in art and business prac on graduation. A growing number of tices and the liberal arts. Advertis art schools, particularly those in or ing art directors require a special connected with universities, require 4 kind of creativity—the ability to con years or more of study and confer a ceive ideas that will stimulate the bachelor’s degree—commonly the sale of the client’s products or ser bachelor of fine arts (B.F.A.). In vices. Beginning commercial artists these schools, commercial art in usually need some on-the-job train struction is supplemented by liberal ing to qualify for other than strictly art courses, such as English and routine work. Advancement is based history. Limited training in com mercial art also may be obtained largely on the individual’s artistic through public vocational high talent, creative ability, and educa schools and practical experience on the tion. After considerable experience, job. However, supplemental training many salaried commercial artists leave to do freelance work. Most il usually is needed for advancement. The first year in art school may be lustrators are freelancers; many of devoted primarily to the study of them have an agent. Commercial artists usually assem fundamentals—perspective, design, ble their best artwork into a “port color harmony, composition—and to folio,” to display their work. A good the use of pencil, crayon, pen and portfolio is essential in obtaining in ink, and other art media. Sub itial employment and freelance sequent study, generally more assignments as well as for job specialized, includes drawing from changes. life, advertising design, graphic Usually, commercial artists are design, lettering, typography, il able to see the results of their work. lustrations, and other courses in the Employment Outlook student’s particular field of interest. Artistic judgment, imagination, and Talented and well-trained com DESIGN OCCUPATIONS mercial artists are expected to have favorable opportunities for employ ment and advancement in most kinds of work through the mid-1980’s. However, young people with only average ability and little specialized training probably will encounter competition for beginning jobs and have limited opportunity for ad vancement. Employment of commercial artists is expected to increase moderately through the 1980’s, however. One reason is an anticipated increase in business expenditures for visual advertising such as television graphics, packaging design, and poster and window displays. The ex panding field of industrial design also is expected to require more qualified artists to do three-dimen sional work with engineering con cepts. (See statement in Industrial Designers.) In addition, several thou sand jobs for commercial artists are expected to be open each year through the mid-1980’s as a result of employment growth and to replace workers who will die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. The demand for commercial ar tists is expected to vary by special ization. For example, demand for pasteup and mechanical artists is ex pected to increase slightly; jobs for designers, art directors, and layout men will be fewer, much sought after, and open only to experienced, highly talented, and creative artists. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, beginning commercial ar tists having no training beyond voca tional high school typically earned from $80 to $85 a week; graduates of 2-year professional schools, about $90 a week; and graduates of 4-year post-high school programs, $90 to $100 a week, according to the limited data available. Talented artists who 591 had strong educational backgrounds and good portfolios, however, started at higher salaries. After a few years of experience, qualified artists may expect to earn $125 to $200 a week or more. Art directors, designers, executives, well-known freelance illustrators, and others in top positions generally have much higher earnings, from $300 to $400 a week or more. Earnings of freelance artists vary widely, since they are affected by fac tors such as skill level, variety, and popularity of work. In general, in 1972, freelancers received from $25 for a single black-and-white fashion sketch to $750 for a figure in full color with a background; from $1,000 to $2,000 for a color cover for a national magazine; or from $75 to $300 for a book jacket or record album. Freelance artists may be paid by the hour or by the assignment. Experienced pasteup and mechani cal artists may earn between $4 and $8 an hour. Salaried commercial artists gener ally work 35 to 40 hours a week, but sometimes they must work addi tional hours and under a con siderable amount of pressure in order to meet deadlines. Freelance artists usually have irregular working hours. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment op portunities in commercial art is available from: National Art Education Association, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. DISPLAYMEN (RETAIL TRADE) (D.O.T. 298.081) Nature of the Work It happens every shopping day: A woman browsing through a clothing store notices a mannequin wearing an attractive pants suit and without having planned to, takes a similar outfit home. A fishing enthusiast sees a display of angling equipment in a sporting goods store window, goes in, and buys a new reel. A young mother is attracted by a colorful pyramid of lunch boxes in a drug store window and decides to buy one for her son. Incidents like these show how dis plays in stores and store windows can attract customers and encourage them to buy. Knowing the effective ness of this form of advertising, some stores allot a large share of their pub licity budget to displays. Displaymen specialize in design ing and installing such exhibits. Their aim is to develop attractive, eye-catching ways of showing store merchandise to best advantage. To create a setting that enhances the merchandise, displaymen need imag ination as well as knowledge of color harmony, composition, and other fundamentals of art. They m ay, for ex am p le, choose a theme—a beach setting to advertise swimming suits and surfing equip ment—and design an eye-catching display around this theme. After the design has been approved by the store’s management, displaymen ob tain the props and other accessories needed for the display. This is where their craft skills come into play. Displaymen construct many of the props themselves. They use saws, pliers, stapling guns, hammers, and other tools to build props and paint them with brushes or spray guns. They may be assisted in these tasks 592 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ty of tasks that require both artistic talents and craft skills. Geographically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Displayman arranges items in aisle display. by a helper or store maintenance men. Displaymen may also use props out of storage, designed for previous displays. They may order additional props from firms which specialize in them. The displaymen install the props, background settings, and lighting equipment; dress man nequins; and add other finishing touches. Periodically, they dis mantle old displays and replace them with new ones. In large stores that employ several displaymen, each may specialize in a particular activity such as car pentry, painting, making signs, installing displays, or dressing mannequins. Overall planning and admistration in large stores is usually the responsibility of a display direc tor who supervises and coordinates the activities of the department. The director confers with other execu tives, such as advertising and sales managers, to select merchandise to be promoted and to design displays. Places of Employment About 33,000 displaymen worked in retail stores in 1972; nearly half were women. Most worked for department, clothing, and home furnishing stores, others in variety, drug, and shoe stores and in book and gift shops. Several thousand additional freelance or self-employed displaymen serviced small stores that needed professional window dress ing but that could not afford full time displaymen. Freelancers are among the most highly-skilled workers in this field. While major department stores may have as many as 30 or 40 dis playmen, most stores have only one or two. Freelance displaymen and those on small staffs perform a varie Most displaymen learn their trade through informal on-the-job train ing. Beginners are hired as helpers to dismantle displays, carry props, and do other routine tasks. Gradually, they are given the opportunity to do more difficult work such as building props and, if they show artistic talent, planning simple designs. A beginner usually can become a skill ed displaymen in 2 to 3 years. Train ing time varies, however, depending on the beginner’s ability and the variety and complexity of displays that the employer requires. When hiring inexperienced work ers, most employers will consider only applicants who have finished high school. Courses that provide helpful training for display work in clude art, woodworking, mechanical drawing, and merchandising. Some employers prefer applicants who have completed college courses in art, interior decorating, fashion de sign, advertising, and related sub jects. College training improves the worker’s opportunities for advance ment to managerial jobs. Creative ability, manual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude are among the most im p o rtan t personal qualifications needed in this field. Good physical condition and agility are needed to carry equipment, climb ladders, and work in close quarters without upsetting props. Advancement may take several forms. A displayman with super visory ability might become display director in a large store. A display director might in turn progress to 593 DESIGN OCCUPATIONS sales promotion director and, per haps, ev en tu ally , to g en eral manager. Freelance work is another avenue of advancement. Some moonlight at this work until they have enough clients for full-time work. Relatively little money is needed to start a free lance business, but since this is a highly competitive field, self-employ ment is likely to involve a struggle. The displayman’s skills could lead to work in other art-related occupa tions like interior decoration or photography. These occupations, however, require additional training. Employment Outlook A moderate rise in the employ ment of displaymen is expected through the mid-1980’s. In addition to employment growth, many open ings will arise each year to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The chief spur to employment gains is expected to be the con struction of additional stores as pop ulation grows. Also, many stores are placing greater emphasis on window and interior displays as a means to stimulate sales. Employment growth, however, may be slowed by the in creasing use of prefabricated props and permanent background settings. Earnings and Working Conditions According to many large em ployers, weekly salaries for be ginners ranged from $75 to $100 in 1972. Beginners who have com pleted college courses in art, interior decorating, or related subjects generally receive higher starting sala ries. Experienced displaymen’s sala ries range from $120 to $175 a week, the variation depending largely on experience and ability. Most display directors earn more than $10,000 a year, and some more than $15,000. The earnings of freelance displaymen depend on their talent and pres tige, on the number and kinds of stores they service, and on the amounts of time they devote to the work. Many freelancers earn more than $15,000 a year, and some earn more than $30,000. Many displaymen enjoy the satisfaction of doing creative work. Developing an original design and transforming it into reality can be a highly rewarding experience. Large stores usually provide benefits that include paid vacations, holidays, and sick leave. Most stores also allow employees to buy mer chandise at a discount. Many pro vide employee retirement plans. Displaymen usually work 35 to 40 hours a week. During busy seasons, such as Christmas and Easter, they may be asked to work nights and weekends to prepare special dis plays. Those who work overtime re ceive either additional pay or else an equal amount of time off during slow periods. Physical requirements must be kept in mind when considering this field. Constructing and installing props frequently requires prolonged standing, bending, stooping, and working in awkward positions. Displaymen risk injury from falls off ladders, from contact with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of power tools, but serious injuries are uncommon. Sources of Additional Information Details on career opportunities can be obtained from local retailers, such as department stores, and from local offices of the State employ ment service. FLORAL DESIGNERS (D.O.T. 142.081) Nature of the Work Floral designers assemble loose flowers into arrangements for gifts and decorations. These may range from cheerful designs for hospital patients to more traditional bridal bouquets. Because flowers are gen erally used to express a customer’s thoughts or sentiments, designers must create arrangements appropri ate for the purpose. Designers usually work from writ ten instructions which indicate the customer’s preference for color and type of flower, as well as the cost, date, time and place the arrange ments are to be delivered. For most orders, designers select a standard or stock design. Even with standard orders, de signers have a chance to use their creative talents. For example, they may select carnations in place of chrysanthemums or white tulips for calla lilies. To make these choices, designers must understand the phys ical qualities of the flowers con cerned. For instance, some flowers wither more quickly than others, and some flowers can be sprayed with dies that will shrivel others. A standard order for a funeral de sign may read “red and white fu neral spray, $15.00.” Floral de signers know the customer expects the flowers to be fixed to a stand, rather than placed in a vase. They choose appropriate flowers, for in stance, white gladioli and red carna tions. These flowers are right for the occasion and within the cost limits of the order. For the foundation, de signers use a block of styrofoam slightly smaller than a telephone book attached near the top of a three-legged wire stand. The wide surface of the styrofoam, facing the 594 viewer, is to be the center of the arrangement. Designers now choose among the gladioli and carnations in the stor age refrigerator and take them to their work tables. They cut the glad ioli stems to size and wire a small wooden stake to each, slightly below the bottom of the petals. They then straighten the carnation stems with wire inserted into the base of the blossom and twisted around the stem. These preparations ensure that the gladioli stems will penetrate the styrofoam and that the carnation stems will remain rigid. To make a frame and background for the flowers, they insert green leafy branches, such as fern, into the styrofoam. Designers then add the gladioli, making sure that they are evenly spaced and that the tips of the flowers approximate a circle. The carnations are placed between the gladioli to form a smaller circle and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lend color contrast. Designers make a bow and place it in the center of the arrangement. They add more foli age as needed to fill in spaces and to give uniform texture. The order is completed in about 15 minutes. Special orders take more of the de signer’s time and creative effort. In these cases, designers normally dis cuss the order with the customer. If the customer, as a house guest, wants an arrangement as a gift for his host ess, designers need to know whether to make, for example, a dining table centerpiece or living room decora tion. They ask, also, if one specific flower or color scheme is preferred. Finally, they need to know how much the customer wishes to spend. With this information in mind, de signers are ready to go to work. Cus tomers usually prefer designers to use their own judgement to assem ble the arrangement. For this reason, special orders give designers a better chance to display their style and orig inality than do standard orders. Be cause they have wide latitude, the de sign may be one they have used pre viously, a new twist to a standard de sign, or completely original. Some designers spend most of their time Filling special orders. Be cause most retail florist shops sell fewer arrangements than can be pre pared in a day, floral designers usual ly have other duties. They assist cus tomers in selecting flowers and plants and other gifts and floral ac cessories available in the store. Oc casionally, they may order flowers and supplies from dealers, trim and water flowers for storage, and help with the cleaning. In larger florist shops, however, designers devote most of their time to making arrangements. Places of Employment About 30,000 floral designers were employed in 1972. About three-fifths were women. Nearly all designers worked in the retail flower shops common to large cities, suburban shopping centers, and small towns. The remaining few worked for large grocery and variety stores. Most shops employed only one or two floral designers. Geographically, em ployment was distributed much the same as population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most floral designers are trained on the job. Beginners usually are hired as helpers. They prepare flowers for storage, deliver orders, and do general cleanup work. Shop managers look for bright, eager helpers, who have pleasant person alities and a neat appearance neces sary to deal effectively with cus tomers. After a few weeks, helpers learn enough about flowers, potted plants, and gift items to assist cus tomers in making selections. Young people who want to be come floral designers usually take a job with the understanding that they will be trained in floral design by the manager or an experienced floral de signer employed in the shop. Ini tially they copy simple arrange ments, that use one type of flower. If they demonstrate manual dexterity and a sense of balance for color and shape instruction in more complex arrangements is given. As experi ence is gained, original designs re quired for special orders can be at tempted. Two years of on-the-job training usually are required in order to become a fully qualified floral designer. Good color vision, manual dex terity, and an artistic sense of bal ance in line and color, are primary qualifications for this occupation. A high school diploma generally is not required, but applicants must be able to write legibly and do simple arith 595 DESIGN OCCUPATIONS fully qualified designers earned be tween $2.50 and $5.00 an hour in 1972. Beginning rates for trainees ranged from $1.60 to $2 an hour. Be sides earning money, floral de signers achieve the satisfaction of do ing creative work and seeing their ideas transformed into reality. In small shops, floral designers usually work 8 hours a day, Monday through Saturday. In many large shops, designers who work Saturday get a day off during the week. Most designers receive holiday and vacation pay. Generally, they re ceive 2 week’s paid vacation after 3 years on the job, and 3 weeks after 10 years. Because most shops are small other fringe benefits are limited. Some employers pay part of the cost of group life and health insurance but few contribute to retirement plans other than social security. Floral de signers in a few cities are members of the Retail Clerks International Association. Floral designers must have the stamina to work in a standing posi tion for long periods. Work areas are kept cool and humid to preserve the flowers. Designers are exposed to sudden temperature changes when entering or leaving storage refriger Employment Outlook ators. Aside from the possibility of Employment of floral designers is small cuts from knives or scratches expected to increase very rapidly from flower thorns there are few haz through the mid-1980’s. Population ards in this occupation. growth and rising levels of personal income should result in a substantial Sources of Additional increase in orders for flowers and Information thus more designers will be needed. Additional information about In addition to job openings created by employment growth, many open careers in floral design and ad ings will arise each year as workers dresses of schools offering courses in retire, die, or change occupations this field can be obtained from: and as women leave their jobs to Society of American Florists and Or namental Horticulturists, 901 N. marry or tend to family respon Washington St., Alexandria, Va. sibilities. metic in order to write up bills for customers. High school courses in business arithmetic, salesmanship, and other business subjects are help ful. While still in school, a student may work as a part-time helper in a flower shop. Such jobs frequently be come available before holiday sea sons such as Christmas and Easter when orders for floral arrangements increase sharply. An increasing number of floral de signers take courses in floral ar rangement in public and private schools. Some courses are offered at the junior college level. However, whether they last from 6 weeks to 2 years, courses are not a substitute for on-the-job training and experience. The longer courses provide training in flower marketing and shop man agement for floral designers who plan to operate their own shops. Only applicants with high school di plomas are accepted. Floral designers have limited ad vancement possibilities. Those with supervisory ability may advance to manager in large flower shops. Man agers who have the necessary capital may open their own shops. 22314. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited information indicates that INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS (D.O.T. 142.081) Nature of the Work When someone buys a product, whether it’s a home appliance, a new car, or a ball point pen, he wants it to be attractive as well as useful. In dustrial designers combine artistic talent with knowledge of marketing, materials, machines, and methods of production to improve the ap pearance and functional design of products. Since the consuming public has wide choices of styles in products such as radios, television sets, and furniture, a primary objective of the industrial designer is to design a product that competes favorably with similar goods on the market. A successfully designed consumer product must have an attractive ap pearance, be easy to use, and co ordinate well with related products while having its cost of manufacture as low as possible. Besides consumer products, industrial designers work with industrial, medical, and sci entific equipment. Frequently, they redesign these products to make them easier to use. As the first step in their work, in dustrial designers study the product and competing products to de termine the different ways in which the product may be used. Then they sketch a variety of possible designs and consult with others, such as en gineers, production supervisors, and sales and market research person nel, for their opinions on the practi cability and sales appeal of each idea. After company officials select the most suitable design, a model is made. In some firms this model is made by the industrial designer, in others by professional modelers. The first model of a new design is often made of clay so the designer can easi- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 596 terials. In schools that have the nec Other Qualifications, ly change it. The final or working Training, essary machinery, students gain ex and Advancement model is usually made of the mate perience in making models of their rial to be used in the finished prod Completing a course of study in designs while learning to use metal uct. If the model is approved in this industrial design in an art school, the working and woodworking machin form, it is put into production. design or art department of a uni ery. Students also take basic and ab Some industrial designers seek to versity, or a technical college is the stract art and sculpture courses. create favorable public images for usual requirement for entering this Some schools require courses in companies and for government-pro field of work. Persons from other basic engineering and composition of vided services such as transporta fields, however, notably engineer materials. Courses in business ad tion, by developing trademarks or ing, architecture, and fine arts, may ministration and merchandising can symbols that appear on the firm’s qualify as industrial designers if they be helpful in getting a job. product, advertising, brochures, and have appropriate experience and ar Industrial designers must have cre stationery. Some design containers tistic talent. Most of the large manu ative talent, drawing skills, and the and packages which must both pro facturing firms will only hire indus ability to see familiar objects in new tect and promote their contents. trial designers who have a bache ways. They must also understand the Others prepare small exhibits for dis lor’s degree in the field. needs and tastes of the public, rather play purposes or design the entire In 1972, over 60 colleges and art than design only to suit their own ar layout for industrial fairs. Some de schools offered programs or courses tistic sensitivity. Designers should sign the interior layout of special in industrial design. The Industrial not be easily discouraged when their purpose commercial buildings such Designers Society of America rec ideas are rejected—often designs as restaurants and supermarkets. ognizes 25 of these programs as ef must be resubmitted many times be Industrial designers employed by a fective in preparing average students fore one is accepted. Since industrial manufacturing company usually for em ploym ent as in dustrial designers are required to cooperate work only on the products made by designers. with engineers and other staff their employer, but this too can vary Formal education in industrial de members, the ability to work and from filling the day-to-day design sign at the college or university level communicate well with others is im needs of the company to long-range usually takes 4 years to complete; a portant. Those who plan to practice planning for new products. De few schools require 5 years of study. industrial designing on a consulting signers who work as consultants to These schools award a bachelor s basis should understand business more than one industrial firm may degree in industrial design or fine practices and have sales ability. plan and design a great variety of arts; some also award a master s Applicants for jobs should assem ble a “ portfolio” that demonstrates products. degree. Entrance to a course of study in in their creative talent and ability to Places of Employment dustrial design is limited, with rare communicate ideas through draw About 10,000 persons—mostly exceptions, to qualified high school ings and sketches. New graduates of industrial de men—worked as industrial de graduates; in addition, some schools require students to present sketches sign courses frequently start as as signers in 1972. Most worked for and other examples of their artistic sistants to experienced designers. large manufacturing companies or They are usually given relatively sim design consulting firms. Others did ability. Industrial design programs ditter ple design assignments. As they gain freelance work, or were on the staffs considerably among schools. Some experience, designers may be as of architectural and interior design stress the engineering and technical signed to supervisory positions with firms. Industrial designers in consulting aspects of the field, while others give major responsibility for the design of firms work mainly in large cities. For students a strong background in art. a product or a group of products. example, New York, Chicago, Los In a typical industrial design pro Those who have an established repu Angeles, and San Francisco have the gram much time is spent in the major tation in the field, as well as the nec largest number of design consulting design lab, where the student can essary funds, may start their own organizations. Those in industrial practice designing objects in three consulting firms. firms work in the manufacturing dimensions. In the studio course, stu Employment Outlook plants of their companies, which dents learn to make working draw ings and models with clay, wood, often are located in small—and New entrants trained specifically plaster, and other easily worked ma medium—size cities. DESIGN OCCUPATIONS in industrial designing may face competition for beginning jobs from persons with engineering, architec tural, and related backgrounds who have artistic and creative talent. Em ployers, however, will actively seek applicants with a design degree and outstanding talent. Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to ex pand slowly but steadly through the mid-1980’s. Growing population and rising incomes will create markets for newly designed products. This creates jobs for industrial designers because as in the past, manu facturers will strive to increase their sales through creating new products, improving existing ones, and im proving the packaging and appear ance of their products. Frequent redesign of household products, automobiles, and indus trial equipment has always created a need for designers. However, recent ly there has been some indication of a trend away from annual style changes which may somewhat lessen demand for industrial designers. Small companies probably will make increasing use of services offered by industrial design consult ing Firms to compete more effec tively with larger Firms. However, some of these services, such as trade mark and package design, could be offered by advertising agencies as well as industrial design consultants. Some employment opportunities also will arise each year from the need to replace designers who die, re tire, or leave the Field. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for inexperi enced industrial designers with a bachelor’s degree generally ranged from $7,000 to $10,000 a year in 1972, according to limited data. After several years experience, it is 597 possible to earn $10,000 to $15,000 a year. Salaries of those with many years of experience averaged about $20,000 a year, but varied greatly de pending on factors such as individ ual talent and the size and type of Firm in which they work. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms, alone or as members of a partner ship, may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In recent years, earn ings of most consultants were between $20,000 and $30,000 and heads of large well-known firms earned considerably more. ' Sources of Additional Information A brochure about careers and a list of schools offering courses and degrees in industrial design are avail able, for 50 cents from: Industrial D esigners Society o f America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. INTERIOR DESIGNERS (D.O.T. 142.051) Nature of the Work The creative work of interior designers, sometimes called interior decorators, helps make our living, working, and playing areas more at tractive and useful. Interior design ers plan and supervise the design and arrangement of building interiors and furnishings. They help clients select furniture, draperies, other fabrics, floor coverings, and acces sories. They also estimate what any work or furnishings will cost. Inte rior designers may do “ boardwork”, particularly on large assign ments. This boardwork includes work on floor plans and elevations and the preparation of sketches or other perspective drawings so clients can visualize their plans. After the client approves both the plans and the cost, the designer may make arrangements for buying the furnish ings; for supervising the work of painters, floor finishers, cabinet makers, carpet layers, and other craftsmen; and for installing and arranging the furnishings. Many large department and furni ture stores have separate design departments to advise their cus tomers on decorating and design plans. The main purpose of the designers in these departments is to help sell the store’s merchandise, al though m aterials from outside sources may be used occasionally when they are essential to the plans developed for the customer. Depart ment store designers frequently ad vise the store’s buyers and execu tives about style and color trends in interior furnishings. Interior designers may work on private homes or commercial build ings. Those who specialize in com mercial structures often work for clients on large design projects such as the interiors of entire office build ings, hospitals, and libraries. Gener ally their plans include the complete layout of the rooms within the space allowed by the exterior walls and other framework. Sometimes they redesign or renovate the interiors of old buildings. When their plans have been completed, an architect checks them against building plans to as sure compliance with building re quirements and to solve structural problems. Some interior designers also design the furniture and acces sories to be used in interiors, and then arrange for their manufacture. A few interior designers have un usual jobs such as designing inte riors of ships and aircraft, while others design stage sets used for mo tion pictures or television. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 598 textile manufacturers, or other manufacturers in the interior fur About 18,000 persons—half of nishing field. them men—worked as interior Interior designers may work for designers in 1972. Additional per magazines that feature articles on sons worked in this field on a part- home furnishings. Some large indus time basis. Most workers in this oc trial corporations employ interior cupation are employed in large cities. designers on a permanent basis. Some interior designers own their own establishment, either alone or as Other Qualifications, members of a firm with other design Training, and Advancement ers. Many sell some or all of the Formal training in interior design merchandise with which they work. Designers may work independently is becoming increasingly important or as assistants and sometimes have for entrance into this field of work. large staffs, including salespersons. Most department stores, well estab Other interior designers work in lished design firms, and other major large department or furniture stores, employers will accept only profes and a few have permanent jobs with sionally trained people for begin hotel and restaurant chains. Some ning jobs. In 1972, 15 schools offered work for architects, furniture sup 2-year programs leading to an pliers, antique dealers, furniture and Associate Degree in Interior Design, Places of Employment seven schools had 3-year programs, 66 colleges and universities offered a bachelor’s degree in the field, and 23 had programs leading to a master’s degree or the Ph.D. The course of study usually includes the principles of design, history of art, freehand and mechanical drawing, painting, study of the essentials of archi tecture as they relate to interiors, de sign of furniture and exhibitions, and study of various materials, such as woods, plastics, metals, and fabrics. A knowledge of furnishings, art pieces, and antiques is important. In addition, courses in salesmanship, business procedures, and other busi ness subjects are valuable. M em bership in e ith e r the American Institute of Interior Designers (AID) or the National Society of In terio r Designers (NSID), both professional societies, is a recognized mark of achievement in this profession. Membership usu ally requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post-high school education; the major emphasis should be on training in design. Another require ment is several years of practical ex perience in the field, including super visory work. Young people starting in interior design usually serve a training period, either with design firms, in department stores, or in furniture stores. They may act as reception ists, as shoppers with the task of matching materials or finding acces sories, or as stockroom assistants, assistant decorators, or junior designers. In most instances, from 1 to 5 years of on-the-job training is re quired before a trainee is considered eligible for advancement to the job of designer. Beginners who do not get trainee jobs often work selling fabric, lamp, or other interior furnishings to gain experience in dealing with cus tomers and to become familiar with the merchandise. This experience often makes getting trainee jobs in 599 DESIGN OCCUPATIONS design easier; it also may lead to a career in merchandising. After considerable experience, designers with ability may advance to design department head, interior furnishings coordinator, or to other supervisory positions in department stores or in large design firms. If they have the necessary funds, they may open their own establishments. Ex ceptionally talented people can ad vance rapidly. Artistic talent—color sense, good taste, imagination—, good business judgement, and the ability to deal with people are important assets for success in this field. Interior design ers should be able to work with de tail. An advantage to interior design as a career is the satisfaction of see ing the results of one’s work. Employment Outlook Persons seeking beginning jobs in interior designing probably will face competition through the mid-1980’s. Interior designing is a competitive field that requires talent, training, and business ability, and many appli cants vie for the better jobs. Tal ented art school or college graduates who major in interior design will find good opportunity for employment. Those with less talent or without for mal training will find it increasingly difficult to enter this field. Employment of interior designers is expected to increase moderately through the mid-80’s. Population growth, more families with high in comes, larger expenditures for home and office furnishings, the increas ing availability of well-designed fur nishings at moderate prices, a grow ing recognition among middle-in come families of the value of design services, and increasing use of these services by commercial establish ments should contribute to a greater demand for these workers. In addi tion to new jobs, some openings will be created by the need to replace designers who die, retire, or leave the field. Department and furniture stores are expected to employ an increas ing number of designers. These stores also are expected to share in the growing volume of design work for commercial establishments and public buildings, formerly handled almost entirely by independent designers. This development will re sult in increased opportunities for salaried jobs. However, some stores prefer giving design courses to their salesworkers instead of hiring train ed persons. Interior design firms also are expected to continue to expand. Employment of interior designers, however, is sensitive to change in general economic conditions, be cause people often forego design services when the economy slows down. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of interior designers vary greatly depending on the parts of the country and the types of firms in which they work. Beginning salaries ranged generally from $75 to $100 a week in 1972 for an art school or col lege graduate having formal train ing in interior design; some gradu ates of 3— or 4—year programs re ceived salaries between $125 and $150 a week, according to the lim ited data available. Some interior designers are paid straight salaries. Some receive sala ries and commissions which usually range from 5 to 10 percent of the value of their sales. Others receive commissions only, which may be as much as one-third of the value of their sales. Many persons who have only aver age skill in this field earn only moderate incomes—from $5,000 to $10,000 a year, even after many years of experience. Talented design ers who are well-known in their localities may earn up to $15,000 or more. Designers who have nation ally recognized ability may earn over $25,000 yearly. The earnings of self-employed designers vary widely depending on the volume of business, their profes sional prestige, the economic levels of their clients, their own business competence, and the percentage of wholesale prices they receive from the sale of furnishings. Hours of work for designers are sometimes long and irregular. Designers usually adjust their work day to suit the needs of their clients, meeting with them during the eve nings or on weekends, when necessary. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in interior design and a list of schools offering programs in this field, con tact: National Society of Interior Design ers, Inc., 312 East 62nd St., New York, N .Y . 10021. American Institute of Interior Design ers, 730 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y . 10019. Foundation for Interior Design Educa tion Research, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. .019.081) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively de signed outdoor areas that have an abundance of trees and shade along with grassy open spaces, ponds, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 600 walkways free from dangerous traf fic. This attractiveness reflects the skills of landscape architects who see that commercial and recreational areas have useful and natural-look ing landscapes. Landscape architects assist many types of organizations in planning and designing a project, from a real estate firm starting a new suburban development to a city building an air port or park. They help plan and de sign the arrangement of trees, shrub bery, walkways, open spaces, and other features of a project’s site, and also may supervise the grading, con struction, and planting required to carry out the plan. In planning a site, landscape archi tects first study the nature and pur pose of the project, the funds avail able for the job, and the various types of proposed buildings. Next they study the site itself, observing and mapping features such as the slope of the land and the position of existing buildings and trees. They also consider the parts of the site that will be sunny or shady at different times of the day, the structure of the soil, existing utilities, and many other factors affecting a landscape’s design. Then, after consultation with the architect or engineer working on the project, they draw up plans for the development of the site. If the plan is approved, landscape archi tects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features such as buildings, roads, walkways, terraces, grading, and drainage structures in planted areas. Landscape architects outline in de tail the methods of constructing fea tures and draw up lists of building materials. They then may invite landscape contractors to bid for the work. Landscape architects help design and supervise a wide variety of proj ects. Some, however, specialize in certain types of projects such as parks and playgrounds, campuses, hotels and resorts, shopping centers, roads, or public housing. Still others may specialize in certain services such as regional planning and re source management, site selection, feasibility and cost studies, or site construction. Places of Employment About 12,000 persons worked as landscape architects in 1972; 10 to 15 percent were women. Most land scape architects are self-employed or work for private architectural, land scape architectural, or engineering firms. Government agencies con cerned with public housing, city plan ning, urban renewal, highways, parks, and recreation, employed about 40 percent of all landscape architects. The Federal Government employed about 600 landscape archi tects, mainly in the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Interior, and Housing and Urban Development. Some landscape architects were em ployed by landscape contractors, and a few taught in colleges and univer sities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture is usually the minimum educational requirement for enter ing the profession. At least 64 col leges and universities offer this train ing; 28 of these have accreditation from the American Society of Land scape Architects. Another 36 schools offer courses in landscape archi tecture, but not complete degree pro grams. The curriculum for a bache lor’s degree requires 4 to 5 years of study depending on the institution. Twelve universities offer a master’s degree in landscape architecture. Entrance requirements for land scape architecture programs are usu ally the same as those for admission to a liberal arts college. Some col leges require completion of a high school course in mechanical or geo metrical drawing, and most schools advise high school students to take courses in art, botany, and more mathematics than the minimum re quired for college entrance. College courses include such tech nical subjects as surveying, land scape and architectural design, land scape construction, plant materials and design, sketching, recreational and city planning, co n tracts, specifications, cost estimates, and business practices. Other courses in clude horticulture and botany as well as English, science, social sciences, and mathematics. Most college pro grams also include Field trips to view and study examples of landscape architecture. Twenty-six States require a license for independent practice of land scape arc h ite c tu re —A labam a, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, L ouisiana, M aryland, M assa chusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, N orth C arolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. Admission to the licensing examination usually requires a de gree from an accredited school of landscape architecture plus 2 to 4 years of experience. For admission to the licensing examination, lengthy apprenticeship training (6-8 years) under an experienced landscape architect may be substituted for col lege training, however, this method is slow and not always acceptable to public agencies. Persons planning careers in land scape architecture should be inter ested in art and nature since the work requires a talent for design and an understanding of plant life. Self-em ployed landscape architects also DESIGN OCCUPATIONS must understand business practices and be able to deal with others since it is often necessary to bid for con tracts. Working for landscape archi tects or landscape contractors dur ing summer vacations helps a per son to understand the practical prob lems of the profession, and the ex perience may be helpful for gaining employment after graduation. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen, tracing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. After gaining experience, they may help prepare specifications and details of construction procedures and handle other aspects of land scape architecture. After 2 or 3 years they usually become qualified to carry a design through all stages of its development. Those who work for private firms and demonstrate excep tional ability in all phases of the work may become associates of the firm; landscape architects who pro gress this far, however, often open their own office. 601 standards along with increased homeownership will also increase the Employment opportunities for demand for landscape architects. graduates with professional training in landscape architecture are ex Earnings and Working pected to be favorable through the Conditions mid-1980’s. Very rapid growth is ex pected for the profession and addi In 1972, starting salaries in pri tional workers will be needed to re vate firms for new graduates having place those who die or retire. a bachelor’s degree in landscape A major factor underlying the in architecture ranged from about $8,creased demand for landscape archi 000 to $12,000 annually; holders of a tects is the growing interest in city master’s degree generally earned and regional environmental plan starting salaries between $9,500 and ning. Metropolitan areas will re $13,500. Earnings of experienced quire landscape architects to help landscape architects in private firms plan the development of land for the were very high—$16,000 to $21,000 efficient and safe use of their grow a year in 1972—compared to aver ing populations. Legislation to pro age earnings of nonsupervisory mote environmental protection could workers in private industry, except spur demand for landscape archi farming. tects to participate in planning and Landscape architects in inde designing a growing number of pendent practice often earn more public and private construction proj salaried employees with con ects, particularly for housing, trans than siderable but their earn portation, and outdoor recreation. ings may experience, fluctuate widely from year Rising average incomes and living to year. The Federal Government, in early 1973, paid new graduates with a bachelor’s degree annual salaries of $7,694 or $9,520 depending on their qualifications. Those with advanced degrees had starting salaries ranging from $11,614 to $16,682 a year. Salaried employees both in government and in landscape archi tectural firms usually work regular hours. Self-employed persons often work long hours. Salaried employ ees in private firms may also work overtime during seasonal rush peri ods or to meet a deadline. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Additional information including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited courses of study in landscape architecture may be ob tained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 602 American Society of Landscape Archi tecture, Inc., 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. For information on a career as a landscape architect in the Forest Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. P H O TO G R AP H ER S (D.O.T. 143.062, .282 and .382) Nature of the Work Photographers use their cameras and other equipment to portray peo ple and events on Film. Skillful por trait photographers, for example, take pictures that are natural look ing, attractive, and expressive of an individual’s personality. Those who photograph sporting and news events try to show the exciting action as it is occurring. Although their work varies, all photographers use the same basic equipment and materials. These in clude a variety of still and motion picture cameras equipped with different types of light Filters and lenses. Photographers select Film and Filters according to the type of pic ture being taken, the camera, and the lighting. Because the procedures for taking motion pictures differ from those used in still photography, most photographers restrict themselves to one Field or the other. When taking pictures indoors or after dark, photographers use flash bulbs or electronic flashes, floodlights, reflec tors, or other special lighting equip ment. They also use various chemi cal and mechanical processes to develop, enlarge, and print pictures. In small shops and photographic departments, the photographer often does all this technical work; in large studios photographic technicians do the needed laboratory work. (See statement on Photographic Labora tory Occupations.) In addition to knowing how to use photographic equipment and mate rials, photographers must know how to arrange their subjects properly against a setting, and how to use makeup and props. Many photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commercial, or industrial photography. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios, although they also take pictures in people’s homes and other places. Commercial photographers generally take pictures to advertise real estate, furniture, food, apparel, and other items. The work of indus trial photographers is used in com pany publications and to advertise company products or services. These photographers also may take motion pictures of workers operating equip ment and machinery for manage ment’s use in simplifying production or work methods. Other photographic specialties in clude press photography (photo journalism that combines a “nose for news” with photographic ability); aerial photography; instrumentation photography; educational photog raphy (preparing slides, Filmstrips, and movies for use in the class room); and science and engineering photography (the development of photographic techniques for use in space research and related Fields). Places of Employment Approximately 77,000 peo ple—over three-fourths of them men—worked as photographers in 1972. About one-half worked in commercial studios, either in busi ness for themselves or as salaried employees. Large numbers also were employed by industry, government agencies, camera stores, and news papers and magazines. In addition, some photographers taught in high schools or colleges, sold photo graphic equipment and supplies, or produced documentary Films. Still others worked freelance, taking pic tures to sell to advertisers, maga zines, and other customers. Jobs for photographers are found in small towns as well as cities, but most are concentrated in heavily populated States such as California, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people may prepare for work as professional photographers through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training in a commercial studio. Trainees generally start in the dark room where they learn to develop film and to do photo-printing and en larging. Later they may set up lights and cameras, or help an experienced photographer take pictures. Photographic training also is available in many colleges, univer sities, junior colleges, and art DESIGN OCCUPATIONS schools. About 134 colleges and uni versities offer 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree in photography and related subjects. These curriculums include liberal arts subjects as well as courses in professional photography. Master’s and doctor’s degrees in specialized areas, such as color photography, also are granted by some colleges and universities. In addition, a few colleges have 2-year curriculums leading to a certificate or an associ ate’s degree in photography. Art schools offer useful training in de sign, although they usually do not provide the technical training needed for camera work. (See statement on Commercial Artists.) The Federal Government spon sors programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for en try positions as photographers under provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act and other legislation. Many young people also learn photographic skills while serving in the Armed Forces. The kind and amount of training people have influence the type of photographic work for which they can qualify. While amateur experi ence is helpful in getting an entry job, considerable post-high school train ing and experience usually are need ed for industrial, news, or scientific photography. Photographic work in scientific and engineering research generally requires a background in science and engineering, as well as skill in photography. Prospective photographers should have manual dexterity, good eye sight and color vision and some ar tistic ability. They also should like to work with detail, and should have a pleasant and courteous manner. Some forms of photography require additional qualities; a photographer in commercial or freelance work must be imaginative and original in his thinking. One in press photog 603 raphy should be able to judge what would make a good news picture and act quickly on his judgment. Newly hired photographers take relatively simple still and motion pic tures. After gaining experience they may advance to higher-paying jobs that require artistic ability. Many press photographers, for example, advance from filming real estate to covering national news events. Others join staffs of news maga zines. Photographers with excep tional ability may be promoted to ex ecutive positions, such as director of scientific and engineering photog raphy or graphic arts. Employment Outlook Hundreds of talented and welltrained people will be needed each year through the mid-1980’s to fill new positions created by an ex pected growth in the photographic field, and to replace those who re tire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Those with limited ability and training, however, are likely to face competition and find few oppor tunities for advancement. Job opportunities in technical work, such as industrial photogra phy, are expected to increase mod erately as more photographers are needed in research and business, and as industry uses more visual aids. Those seeking work as scientific photographers or photojournalists also will find good opportunities as these specialties grow in impor tance. Competition for employment as portrait and commercial photog raphers, however, is expected to be keen. These fields are easily entered since a photographer can go into business for himself with a modest financial investment, or work part time while holding another job. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning photographers gener ally earned from $80 to $125 a week in 1972, according to the limited in formation available. Inexperienced photographers em ployed by most daily newspapers that have contracts with the American Newspaper Guild started at salaries ranging from $125 to $175 a week. For photographers em ployed by a few small daily news papers, the Guild starting salaries were less than $100 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimums for beginning photographers were $200 a week or more. Minimum rates for newspaper photographers with some experience (usually 4 to 6 years) averaged about $240 a week in 1972. Contract min imums for experienced photogra phers on a few small dailies were less than $180 a week; on a few large dailies, they ranged from $290 to $355 a week. Photographers who had a science or engineering background usually received beginning salaries between $9,000 and $10,000 a year. Depending on their level of experi ence, newly hired photographers in the Federal Government earned from $6,880 to $9,520 a year in early 1973. Most experienced photog raphers in the Federal Government earned between $11,600 and $16,680 a year; a few earned over $17,000 an nually. Many experienced photographers with established reputations earn salaries that are above the average for nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Al though self-employed photog raphers generally earn more than salaried workers, their earnings are affected greatly by business condi tions and other factors such as the type and size of community and clientele. Photographers who have salaried jobs usually work the standard 5day, 40-hour week and receive bene fits such as paid holidays, vacations, 604 and sick leave. Those in business for themselves frequently work longer hours. Freelance, press, and com mercial photographers may travel frequently. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photog raphy is available from: Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Oak Leaf Commons, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. URBAN PLANNERS (D.O.T. 199.168) Nature of the Work Urban planners, sometimes called regional or community planners, de velop programs to provide for future growth and revitalization of urban communities. They try to remedy problems such as deteriorating busi ness and residential areas, inade quate park and recreation facilities, and air pollution. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues involved in community development and redevelopment and any changes in housing and building codes. Because suburban growth has increased the need for better ways of traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often includes design ing new transportation and parking facilities. Urban planners project future con ditions that may develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change, and estimate, for example, the community’s long range needs for housing, transporta tion, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose alter native ways to achieve more effi cient and attractive urban areas. Before drawing plans for longrange community development, ur ban planners prepare detailed stud ies that show the current use of land for residential, business, and com munity purposes. These reports pre sent information such as the arrange ment of streets, highways, and water and sewer lines, and the location of schools, libraries, and playgrounds. They also provide information on the type of industry in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this information, urban plan ners propose ways of using unde veloped land and design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as subways. They also prepare materials that show how their programs can be carried out and the approximate costs. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Urban planners often confer with private land developers, civic lead ers, and officials of public agencies that do specialized planning. They may prepare materials for commu nity relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to explain and defend their proposals. In small organizations, urban planners must be able to do several kinds of work. In large organiza tions, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, com munity relations, or the reconstruc tion of run-down business districts. Places of Employment About 12,000 persons—over 90 percent of them men—were urban planners in 1972. Most work for city, county, or regional planning agencies. A growing number are employed by States or by the Fed eral Government. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time working Urban planners discuss community plans. DESIGN OCCUPATIONS for a firm that provides services to private developers or government agencies. Urban planners also work for large land developers or research organizations and teach in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban planning. Two years of graduate study in city planning, or the equiva lent in work experience, are required for most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies. However, some people who have bachelor’s degrees in city planning, architecture, landscape architecture, or engineering may qualify for begin ning positions. In 1972, about 60 colleges and un iversities gave a master’s degree in urban planning. Although students holding a bachelor’s degree in archi tecture or engineering may earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in urban plan ning require 2 or 3 years to complete. Graduate students spend consider able time in workshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban planning problems. Stu dents often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer while they are earning the graduate degree. Candidates for urban planner jobs in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies frequently must pass civil service examinations to become eligible for appointment. These ex aminations usually are advertised na tionally and have no residence restrictions. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and to visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible in their approaches to problems. Plan ners have to cooperate with others and reconcile different viewpoints to achieve the desired goals. After a few years’ experience, ur ban planners may advance to assign ments where they exercise a high de gree of independent judgment such as outlining proposed studies or designing the physical layout of a large development. Some are pro moted to jobs as planning directors, who spend much time meeting with officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and super vising other professionals. Further advancement is more difficult at this level and often occurs through a transfer to a large city, where the problems are more complex and the responsibilities greater. Employment Outlook 605 slum clearance and urban renewal also will stimulate the demand for urban planners. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, the average salary for in experienced urban planners with the bachelor’s degree was $9,000 a year; those with the master’s degree earn ed average salaries of $11,000. Plan ners with the master’s degree and 3 to 4 years’ experience had median earnings of $15,000 a year. Salaries of directors of planning depend largely on the size of the city where they work. In 1972, the aver age salary for a planning director in a city of 10,000 to 25,000 people was $15,600 a year; in cities of over 250,000, the average was $24,000. Con sultants earn fees that vary accord ing to their reputation and previous experience. In early 1973, the usual entrance salary for urban planners in the Fed eral Government was $11,600 a year. In a few cases, individuals having less than 2 years of graduate work or the equivalent were hired as interns at yearly salaries of $7,700 or $9,500. Most planners have sick leave and vacation privileges and are covered by retirement and health plans. Al though most city planners have a scheduled workweek of 40 hours, they sometimes work in the evenings and on weekends to attend meetings with citizens’ groups. Employment opportunities for col lege graduates who major in city and regional planning are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Although the number of graduates has been rising in recent years, the shortage of well-qualified planners is expected to continue. The American Society of Planning Officials esti mated that in 1972 over 10 percent of all positions in city, county, and metropolitan areas (city and sub urbs) were vacant. Although most openings will be for new jobs, some positions will result from the need to replace planners who leave the profession, retire, or die. This occupation will grow through the 1980’s as more communities seek Sources of Additional professional planning help in solving Information problems created by urbanization and population growth. As urban Facts about careers in planning communities continue to spill into and a list of schools offering train neighboring areas, open spaces for ing are available from: recreation will tend to disappear, Institute of Planners, 917 smog and traffic problems will multi American 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. ply, and the need for more and better 20005. planned facilities will become acute. American Society of Planning Offi The construction of new cities and cials, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. towns and Federal assistance for COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS Communication is important among people, either individually as citizens, workers, or employers, or collectively as a group, organiza tion, or government. It enables them to express their thoughts and ideas, and in turn to understand and interpret thoughts and ideas of others. This section of the Hand book describes four occupations that specialize in communications—in terpreters, technical writers, news paper reporters, and radio and tele vision announcers. Interpreters and technical writers work as intermediaries translating messages for people to understand: Interpreters help people understand languages foreign to them, technical writers help people understand tech nical information. Newspaper re porters and radio and television an nouncers inform people about current events and happenings that might interest or affect them. News paper reporters gather information on events which they describe, analyze, and interpret in newspapers for rapid dissemination to large numbers of people. Radio and tele vision announcers use electronic communications equipment to tell people of products and services they might obtain, current happenings, and other items of interest. 606 IN TER PR ETER S (D.O.T. 137.268) Nature of the Work Interpreters help people of differ ent nations and different cultures overcome the language barriers that separate them by orally translating what has been said by one person into a language that can be under stood by others. There are two basic techniques of interpretation: simultaneous and consecutive. In simultaneous inter pretation, the interpreter orally translates what is being said as the speaker continues to talk. This tech nique requires quickness and fluency, and it is made possible by the use of electronic equipment. Conference in terpreters often work in a glass-en closed booth from which they can see the speaker. While listening through earphones to what is being said, they simultaneously give the translation by speaking into a microphone. Peo ple attending the conference who do not understand the language being spoken may tune in to an in terpreter’s translation by simply pushing a button or turning a dial to get the translation in the language they know. Simultaneous interpreta tion is generally preferred for large conferences, and the development of portable equipment has extended its use to situations outside of the for mal conference setting. Consecutive interpretation also in volves oral translation. However, the speaker and the interpreter take turns speaking. A consecutive inter preter must have a good memory and generally needs to take notes of what is said to be certain to give a com plete translation. The chief draw back of consecutive interpretation is that the process is very time-consum COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS ing, since the speaker must wait for the translation before proceeding. Since interpreters are needed whenever and wherever people find language a barrier, their work may involve a variety of topics and situa tions. They may be used, for exam ple, to explain to a group of foreign visitors various aspects of the Ameri can way of life, such as points of political or social interest, or they may be required to interpret highly technical speeches and discussions for medical or scientific gatherings. They may work at the United Na tions, or find themselves in a court room or escorting foreign leaders or businessmen visiting the United States. Places of Employment An estimated 150 persons worked full-time as interpreters in the United States in 1972. The largest single concentration of interpreters was at the United Nations in New York where nearly 80 people held full-time posts. Various other international organizations, located primarily in Washington, D.C., also employed regular staff interpreters. Within the Federal Government, the Depart ments of State and Justice were the major employers of full-time in terpreters. An estimated 450 persons worked as free-lance interpreters. Free-lance interpreters may work for various employers under short-term con tracts. About four-fifths were under contract on a temporary basis to the Department of State and the Agen cy for International Development to serve as escort interpreters for foreign visitors to the United States. Some of these interpreters worked a great portion of the year; others worked for only a few days. The re mainder of the free-lance interpret ers constituted the free-lance con ference field. These interpreters pro vided for both the supplementary needs of the international and Fed eral agencies as well as for periodic, short-term needs of various inter national conferences which are held in this country. Besides persons who work strictly as interpreters, there are many who in the course of their jobs may do some interpretation work. About one-half of the Nation’s conference interpreters are women; most who work as escort free lances, however, are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A complete command of two or more languages is the primary requi site for becoming an interpreter. Interpreters must be able to call to mind instantaneously words or idioms corresponding to the foreign ones. An extensive working vocabulary and absolute ease in making the transition from one language structure to another are necessary. Students who want to become in terpreters should acquire expertise in several languages. Interpreters who work at the United Nations, for ex ample, must know at least three of the five official U.N. languages, which are English, French, Spanish, Russian, and Chinese. Portuguese and, to some extent, Japanese and German are also of value to inter preters in the United States. Two schools in the United States offer programs specifically geared to interpreter training. Both require foreign language proficiency upon entry. The Georgetown University School of Languages and Lin guistics in Washington, D.C. has a 1or 2-year course of study leading to a Certificate of Proficiency. Appli cants to Georgetown University must qualify on the basis of an oral aptitude test and satisfactory per 607 formance in a basic first-year college program. The Monterey Institute of Foreign Studies in Monterey, Cal ifornia, offers a 2-year program lead ing to a master’s degree in Lan guage and International Studies and a certificate from the Department of Translation and Interpretation. Applicants to the Monterey Insti tute must have a bachelor’s degree with a language major, or its equiva lent. Students also must pass a quali fying examination for the Inter preters Certificate Program. Many individuals qualify for posi tions as interpreters principally on the basis of their foreign back grounds. Consecutive interpreters, for example, employed by the Im migration and Naturalization Serv ice of the U.S. Department of Justice serve primarily in interpreting legal proceedings, such as hearings for aliens. Extensive experience and a broad education are not as crucial in the performance of their duties as these same factors are for other types of interpretation. Besides being thoroughly com petent in languages, interpreters are expected to be generally well in formed on a broad range of subjects, often including technical subjects such as medicine or scientific or in dustrial technology. Work as a translator may serve as a useful background in maintaining an up-todate vocabulary in various special ized or technical areas. The experi ence of living abroad also is very im portant for an interpreter. Although there is no standard re quirement for entry into the profes sion, a university education usually is considered essential. People interested in becoming in terpreters should be articulate speakers and have good hearing. The tensions of the job dictate that they have emotional stamina. The exact ing nature of this profession de mands quickness, alertness, and con 608 stant attention to accuracy. Work ing with all types of people requires good sense and tact. It is essential that interpreters maintain con fidentiality in their work and that they give honest interpretations. Advancement in the interpreting field is generally based on satis factory service. There is some ad vancement from escort-level inter preting to conference level work. Employment Outlook Employment of full-time inter preters is expected to remain stable through the mid-1980’s. Past experi ence has shown that any slight or sporadic increase in the demand for interpreters could be met by the ex isting flexible pool of free-lances. Al most all new openings for inter preters, therefore, should result from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Interpreters may expect to face competition for the limited number of positions. Only those who are highly qualified will find favor able employment opportunities. Qualified interpreters also may find work abroad. For example, the demand for interpreters in Europe, where language represents a signifi cant barrier to communications, is greater than in the U.S. People who have linguistic abilities also may find employment oppor tunities as translators. In fact, many interpreters find the ability to do translation work, if not requisite, an occupational asset. Foreign lan guage competence also is important for careers in the fields of foreign service, international business, and language education. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of interpreters depend upon the type of interpreting done as OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK well as the ability and performance of the individual. The tax-free annual starting salary for conference inter preters at the United Nations was $9,274 in early 1973. Outstanding U.N. interpreters could expect to earn more than $20,000. Beginning salaries for interpreters in various other international organizations were about $9,000 a year, according to the limited information available. In addition, international organiza tions often paid supplementary living and family allowances. Junior interpreters who worked for the U.S. Department of State re ceived salaries ranging from $9,520 to $11,614 a year in early 1973. Start ing salaries ranged somewhat lower for Government interpreters with limited education, experience, or in terpreting skills. In the free-lance field, inter preters are paid on a daily basis. Conference interpreter salaries rang ed from about $80 to $100 a day in early 1973, depending on experi ence. The U.S. Department of State paid a daily salary of $90. The pay for interpreters at technical and scientific conferences, which gener ally convene only once a year for a few days, ranged from $100 to $125 a day. Free-lance escort interpreters re ceived salaries ranging from about $30 to over $50 a day, based on the individual’s skill and prior per formance. Interpreters on assign ment usually could expect to be paid for a 7-day week. Interpreters are paid transportation expenses by the employing agency and also receive a subsistence allowance to cover the cost of accommodations, meals, and other expenses incidental to their assignments. The conditions under which inter preters work vary widely. In free lancing, there is little job security because of demand fluctuations, and the duration of various free-lance assignments ranges from a few days for a typical conference to several weeks for some escort assignments. Although the hours interpreters work are not necessarily long, they are at times irregular. In some in stances, especially for escort free lances, a great deal of travel to a wide variety of locations is required. Sources off Additional Information Information on the interpreting profession is available from: The American Association of Language Specialists, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 9, Washington, D.C. 20036. American Society of Interpreters, 1010 Vermont Ave. NW., Room 917, Washington, D.C. 20005. For information on entry require ments and courses of study at the two schools offering specialized pro grams for interpreters contact: Division of Interpretation and Transla tion, School of Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown Universi ty, Washington, D.C. 20007. Department of Translation and Inter pretation, Monterey Institute of Foreign Studies, P.O. Box 1978, Monterey, Calif. 93940. Information about employment opportunities is available from: Language Services Division, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20520. Secretariat Recruitment Service, United Nations, New York, N.Y. 10017. COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS NEW SPAPER REPORTERS (D.O.T. 132.268) Nature of the Work Newspaper reporters gather infor mation on current events and use it to write stories for publication in dai ly or weekly newspapers. In cover ing events, they may interview peo ple, review public records, attend news events, and do research. As a rule, reporters take notes or use elec tronic recording devices while collecting facts, and write their stories upon return to the office. Sometimes, to meet deadlines, they telephone their information or stories to other staff members known as “rewrite men”, who write or tran scribe the stories for them them. Large dailies frequently assign some reporters to “beats,” such as police stations or the courts, to gather news originating in these places. General assignment re porters handle various types of local news, such as a story about a lost child or an obituary of a community leader. Specialized reporters with a background in a particular subject interpret and analyze the news in fields such as medicine, politics, science, education, business, labor and religion. Reporters on small newspapers may not only cover all aspects of local news, but also may take photo graphs, write headlines, lay out pages, and write editorials. On some small weeklies, they also may solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Places of Employment About 39,000 persons, two-fifths of them women, worked as news paper reporters in 1972. The ma jority of reporters work for daily newspapers; others work for weekly papers, press services, or for a group of newspapers called a syndicate. Reporters work in cities and towns of all sizes. Of the 1,750 daily and 7,600 weekly newspapers, the great majority are in medium-sized towns. However, most reporters work in cities, since big city dailies employ many reporters, whereas a small town paper generally employs only a few. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most newspapers will consider only applicants who have a college education. Graduate work is in creasingly important. Many editors prefer graduates who have a degree in journalism, which usually provides a liberal arts education along with professional journalism training. Some editors consider a liberal arts degree sufficient. Other editors prefer applicants who have a liberal arts bachelor’s degree and a Master’s degree in journalism. Although talented writers having little or no academic training beyond high school sometimes become reporters 609 on city newspapers, most reporters without college training begin on rural, small-town, or suburban papers. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available in over 200 colleges; about two-thirds of these schools have separate departments or schools of journalism. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical undergraduate journalism curriculum are in liberal arts. Jour nalism courses include reporting, copyreading, editing, feature writing, and the history of journalism. More than 250 junior colleges offer journalism programs. Credit secured in most is transferable to a 4year college program in journalism. Some junior colleges also offer programs especially designed to pre pare the student directly for employ ment as a general assignment re porter on a weekly or small daily newspaper. The Armed Forces also provide some training in journalism. A graduate degree in journalism was offered by 78 schools in 1972. Many of them offer a doctor’s degree in mass communications. Young people who wish to prepare for newspaper work through a liberal arts curriculum should take English courses that include writing, as well as subjects such as sociology, political science, economics, history, psychology, and speech. Ability to read and speak a foreign language and some familiarity with mathe matics also are desirable. Those who look forward to becoming technical writers or reporters in a specialized field such as science, should concen trate on course work in their subjectmatter areas. (See statement on Technical Writers). Skill in typing generally is desirable since reporters usually must type their own news stories. On small papers, knowledge of news photography also is valuable. The Newspaper Fund and in dividual newspapers offer summer 610 internships that provide college stu dents with an opportunity to practice the rudiments of reporting or editing. In addition, more than 2,150 journal ism scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans were awarded to college journalism students by uni versities, newspapers, and pro fessional organizations in 1972. News reporting involves a great deal of responsibility, since what a reporter writes frequently influences the opinion of the reading public. Re porters should be dedicated to serv ing the public’s need for accurate and impartial news. Although re porters work as part of a team, they have an opportunity for selfexpression. Important personal char acteristics include a “nose for news,” curiosity, persistence, initiative, resourcefulness, an accurate memory, and the physical stamina necessary for an active and often fast-pace life. Some who compete for full-time reporter jobs find it is helpful to have had experience as a “stringer”—a part-time reporter who covers the news in a particular area of the com munity for a newspaper and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. Experience on a high school or college newspaper also may be help ful in getting a job. Many beginners start on weekly or on small daily newspapers where they acquire a broad range of re porting experience. Some college graduates are hired by large city papers as general assignment re porters while others start as copy editors. Beginning reporters usually are assigned duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, sum m arizing speeches, w riting, obituaries, interviewing important visitors to the community, and cover ing police court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may report more important events, cover an as signed “beat,” or specialize in a par ticular field. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Newspaper reporters may advance to reporting for larger papers or press services and newspaper syn dicates. Some experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, editorial writers, editors, or top ex ecutives; these positions represent the top of the field and competition for them is keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields such as public relations, writing for magazines, or preparing copy for radio and television news programs. Employment Outlook Beginners with exceptional writing talent are expected to find favorable employment opportunities through the mid-1980’s. Others, however, will face strong competition for jobs, es pecially on large city dailies. Employment opportunities for re porters able to handle news about highly specialized or technical sub jects are expected to be favorable. Weekly or daily newspapers lo cated in small towns and suburban areas are expected to continue to offer the most opportunities for be ginners entering newspaper report ing. Openings arise on these papers as reporters gain experience and transfer to reporting jobs on larger newspapers or to other types of work. Beginning reporters able to help with photography and other specialized aspects of newspaper work and who are acquainted with the community are likely to be given preference in employment on small papers. Inexperienced persons with good educational backgrounds and a flair for writing may find some openings as reporter trainees on large city dailies. Some opportunities may con tinue to be available for young peo ple to enter clerical jobs and ad vance to reporting. In addition to jobs in newspaper reporting, recent college graduates who have journal ism training may enter related fields such as advertising, public relations, trade and technical publishing, and radio and television. Some job op portunities also will be found in teaching journalism. The broad field of mass com munication, which has grown rapidly in recent years, is expected to con tinue to expand due to rising levels of education and income; increasing ex penditures for newspaper, radio, and television advertising; and a growing number of trade, technical journals, and various types of company pub lications. As newspapers share in this growth, employment of reporters is expected to increase moderately. Most job openings, however, will continue to arise from the need to re place reporters who are promoted to editorial or administrative posi tions, transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Reporters working for daily newspapers having contracts negoti ated by The Newspaper Guild averaged starting salaries of $7,600 in late 1972. Starting annual salaries ranged from less than $5,200 at the large metropolitan dailies. In general, earnings of newspaper re porters in 1972 were above average earnings received by nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Minimum salaries of reporters having 4 or 5 years experience who worked for daily newspapers with Guild contracts averaged $12,300 in 1972. The minimums ranged from $8,800, paid by the smallest dailies, to more than $15,600 paid by the largest. Many reporters were paid salaries higher than these minimums, however. Reporters working for national wire services received an nual salaries of at least $14,000. 611 COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most newspaper reporters generally work a 5-day, 35 or 40 hour week. Reporters working for morning papers usually start work in the late afternoon and finish at about midnight. Most reporters also re ceive benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pension plans. Sources of Additional information Names and locations of daily newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Yearbook, available in public libraries and in most large newspaper offices. Information about opportunities for reporters with daily newspapers is available from: RADIO AND TE LE V IS IO N A N N O U N CER S American Newspaper Publishers’ Association, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Most radio announcers act as disc jockeys, introducing recorded music, presenting news and commercials, and commenting on other matters of interest to the audience. They “ad lib” much of the commentary, work ing without a detailed script. They also may operate the control board, sell time for commercials, and write commercial and news copy. In large stations, however, other workers handle these jobs. (See statement on the radio and television broadcast ing industry elsewhere in the Hand book.) Announcers employed by tele vision stations and large radio sta tions usually specialize in particular kinds of programs such as sports, news, or weather. They must be thor oughly familiar with their areas of specialization. If a written script is needed for parts of the program, the announcer may do the research and writing. Announcers frequently par ticipate in community activities. A sportscaster, for example, might be the master of ceremonies at a touch down club banquet or greet cus tomers at the opening of a new sport ing goods store. Some announcers become well-known and highly-paid personalities. Information on opportunities in the newspaper field and starting sala ries of journalism graduates, as well as a list of journalism scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans available at colleges and universities is available from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. Information on union wage rates is available from: The Newspaper Guild, Research Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. For general information about jobs in journalism contact: American Council on Education for Journalism, School of Journalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65201. Association of Education in Jour nalism, 5172 Vilas Community Hall, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wise. 53706. Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Information on the opportunities for women in newspaper reporting and other communications fields is available from: Women In Communications, Inc., 8305 A Shoal Creek Blvd., Austin, Tex. 78758. (D.O.T. 159.148) were employed full-time by commer cial radio and television broadcast ing stations in 1972. More than 80 percent of them worked in radio broadcasting. The average commer cial radio or television station em ployed 2 announcers, although larger stations sometimes employed 4 or more. In addition to staff announc ers, several thousand freelance an nouncers sell their services for in dividual assignment to networks and stations, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers. Nature of the Work Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, a good sense of timing, and excellent pronunciation. Correct English usage and a knowledge of dra matics, sports, music, and current events improve chances for success. The most successful announcers have a combination of personality and showmanship that makes them at tractive to audiences. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, and foreign languages, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable back ground for prospective announcers. A number of vocational schools offer training in announcing, and many universities offer courses of study in the broadcasting field. A college liberal arts education also provides an excellent background for an an nouncer. Most announcers get their first broadcasting jobs in small stations. Because announcers in small sta tions sometimes operate trans mitters, prospective announcers often obtain an FCC Radiotele phone First Class Operator License which enables them to operate a transmitter and, therefore, makes Places of Employment them much more useful to these sta About 17,000 staff announcers tions. Announcers more frequently 612 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operate control boards, for which only a Third Class License is re quired. (For information on how to obtain such licenses, see the state ment on broadcast technicians else where in the Handbook.) Announcers usually work in sev eral different stations in the course of their careers. After acquiring experi ence at a station in a small com munity, an ambitious and talented announcer may move to a better paying job in a large city. An an nouncer also may advance by get ting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other special ist. In the national networks, compe tition for jobs is intense, and an nouncers usually must be college graduates and have several years of successful announcing experience be fore they are given an audition. from about $140 to $200 a week in 1972, and those of experienced an nouncers ranged from about $175 to $260, according to information from a small number of union contracts. Some well-known announcers earn much more. As a rule, salaries in crease with the size of the com munity and the station, and salaries in television are higher than those in radio. Announcers employed by educational broadcasting stations generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. Most announcers in large stations work a 40-hour week and receive overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours. In small stations, many an nouncers work 2 to 8 hours of over time each week. Working hours con sist of both time on the air and time spent in preparing for broadcasts. Evening, night, weekend, and holi day duty occurs frequently since many stations broadcast 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Most announcers receive paid vacations. Typically, vacations range from 1 to 4 weeks, based on length of service. Working conditions are usually pleasant because of the variety of work and the many personal con tacts that are part of the job. An nouncers also receive some satis faction from becoming well known in the area their station serves. expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s as new radio and television stations are licensed. Employment growth, however, will be limited by the increased use of automatic programing. Most job openings in this relatively small oc cupation will result from the need to replace experienced announcers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. It will be easier to get an entry job in radio than in television because of Sources of Additional Information the greater number of radio sta tions, especially small stations, that General career information may hire beginners. However, the great be obtained from: attraction of this field for young per National Association of Broadcasters, sons, and its relatively small size will 1771 N St. NW„ Washington, D.C. result in keen competition for entry 20036. jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of beginning announcers The employment of announcers is in commercial television ranged Employment Outlook Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 888 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS TE C H N IC A L W RITERS (D.O.T. 139.288) Nature of the Work The many technical and scientific developments and new consumer products of recent years have created a need for skilled writers to interpret these developments and write in structions for their use. Technical writers organize, write, and edit materials about science and tech nology in order to establish clearer communication between scientists, engineers, and other technical specialists, and the users of their in formation—technicians, repairmen, scientists, engineers, executives, or housewives. Their writing must always be clear and easy to follow, and when it is to be used by special ists it often must include technical detail and a highly specialized vocabulary. Technical writers usu ally arrange for the preparation of tables, charts, illustrations, and other artwork, and may work with tech nical illustrators, draftsmen, or photographers. Before starting a writing assign ment, technical writers usually learn as much as they can about their sub ject. This process involves studying reports, reading technical journals, and consulting with the engineers, scientists, and other technical per sonnel who have worked on the proj ect. Then they prepare a rough draft that may be revised several times be fore it is accepted in final form. The technical writer’s product takes many forms, such as publicity releases on a company’s scientific or technical achievements, or on manufacturers’ contract proposals to the Federal Government. It may be manuals that explain how to oper ate, assemble, disassemble, main tain, or overhaul components of a missile system or a home appliance. 613 Technical writers may also write for sities offered 4-year programs lead scientific and engineering peri ing to a bachelor’s degree in tech odicals and for popular magazines. nical writing, technical communi cation, or technical journalism; three schools offered graduate work and Places of Employment degrees in the field. In addition, many schools provide professional An estimated 20,000 technical education leading to a bachelor’s de writers and editors were employed in gree in journalism; most of these of 1972. Most technical writers are em fer at least one course in technical ployed in the electronic and aero writing as part of the regular cur space industries. Many work for re riculum. Almost all colleges, and search and development firms or for engineering schools, offer the Federal Government—mainly in some English courses to sharpen writing the Departments of Defense and skills. Some conduct summer work Agriculture, the Atomic Energy shops and short-term seminars for Commission, and the National Aero technical writers. Young people who nautics and Space Administration. plan to enter this field can gain valu Some work in firms that specialize in able experience while still in school technical writing. Others are in busi by working as editors or writers for ness for themselves as freelance tech their high school or college nical writers. newspapers. Technical writers are employed all Besides having writing skills, tech over the country, but primarily in the nical writers should think logically Northeastern States, Texas, and and like to do detailed and accurate California. They are concentrated in work. They should be able to work the Washington, D.C., Los Angeles- and talk with others, since they often Long Beach, Houston, Fort Worth- work as part of a team. At other Dallas, Chicago, New York, Boston, times, however, technical writers St. Louis, Kansas City, Denver, and must work alone with little or no Philadelphia metropolitan areas. supervision, so they should be able to accept responsibility. Technical writers also should like working with Training, Other Qualifications, ideas and seeing the results of their and Advancement work. A bachelor’s degree is generally Beginners often assist experienced required in order to begin work in technical writers by doing library re this field, although talented and ex search, and by editing and preparing perienced writers who have less aca drafts of reports. Experienced writers in organizations that have demic training may qualify. Some employers prefer applicants large technical writing staffs may ad with degrees in engineering or vance to positions of technical edi science who have had courses in tors or other supervisory and ad writing. Others seek graduates who ministrative positions. After gaining majored in English or journalism, experience and contacts, a few may and who have taken some courses in go into business for themselves. It science and technical subjects. also is possible to advance by becom Regardless of which major they pre ing a specialist in a particular scien fer, all employers require a knowl tific or technical subject. These edge of science and technology and writers sometimes prepare syndi place great empasis on writing skills. cated newspaper columns or articles In 1972, 10 colleges and univer for popular magazines. 614 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Technical writers often work as part of a team. Employment Outlook Employment of technical writers is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. Additional opportunities will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Ex perienced technical writers and beginners who have good writing ability and the appropriate educa tion should find opportunities for employment. Those with only mini mum qualifications, however, may face stiff competition for beginning jobs. Requirements for technical writers are expected to increase because of the need to put the growing amount of scientific and technical informa tion into language that can be under stood by managers for decision making and by technicians for oper ating and maintaining complex in dustrial equipment. Since many products will continue to be assem bled from components manufac tured by different companies, tech nical writers also will be needed to describe, in simple terms, how the components fit together. Others will be needed to improve and simplify operating and maintenance instruc tions for consumer products. However, since many technical writers work in defense- and spacerelated activities, including research and development, future job oppor tunities are related to government expenditures in these areas. Through the mid-1980’s, R&D expenditures of Government and industry are ex pected to increase, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s, reflecting the reduced importance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. Technical writers, as discussed in this statement, include only those persons whose primary job is to write about, interpret, and edit technical subject matter. Those primarily employed as scientists, engineers or other technical specialists who may do a considerable amount of writing are not covered here. As technology becomes increasingly complex, more writing assignments may require technical and scientific knowledge equivalent to that of an engineer or scientist. Technical writers who have train ing in journalism may find oppor tunities in other fields that employ writers such as advertising, public relations, trade publishing, and tele vision and radio broadcasting. Earnings and Working Conditions Technical writers had high earn ings in 1972, compared with average earnings for nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farm ing. Inexperienced technical writers having bachelor’s degrees received starting salaries ranging from $6,000 to $8,500 a year; those with moder ate experience earned from $8,500 to $12,000 a year; highly experienced writers earned from $12,000 to $16,000; and those in supervision and COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS management, $20,000 or more. Sala ries of technical writers depend not only on ability and previous experi ence, but also on the type, size, and location of their employing firm. Earnings of freelance writers vary greatly and depend on the writer’s ability and reputation. In the Federal Government in ear ly 1973, inexperienced technical writ ers with a bachelor’s degree and 615 about five science courses could start Sources of Additional at either $7,694 or $9,520 a year, de Information pending on their college grades. For information about careers in Those with two years of experience technical writing, contact: could start at $11,614 and with three years of experience, $13,996. Society for Technical Communica tions, Inc., Suite 421, 1010 Ver Technical writers may work under mont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. considerable pressure, frequently 20005. working overtime when a deadline has to be met on a publication or report. THE OUTLOOK FOR INDUSTRIES AGRICULTURE The United States is in the midst of an agricultural revolution with a tremendous impact on the employ ment outlook in agriculture. In brief, fewer and fewer farmers and farmworkers are producing more and more of America’s farm products. Employment on U.S. farms has declined from 7.2 million in 1950 to 3.4 million in 1972 of whom about one in five was a woman. By the mid-1980’s only 1.9 million persons are expected to be working on U.S. farms. Less than a million of those positions will be fill ed by hired workers. The reason is simply that the typi cal farmer today can produce far more than his predecessors. A modern corn farmer, for instance, will use six-row or eight-row field equipment, including tractors, cost ing a total of about $22,000, along with trucks with field implements costing about $18,000, a self-pro pelled combine harvester worth $18,000, and grain drying equipment valued at about $18,000. To make this high-capacity equipment profit able, he may need to grow 600 to 1,000 acres of corn. His father, using 2-row equipment, probably earned a good living from 320 acres. His grandfather, using horsedrawn equipment, could work only about 120 acres. Accompanying this expansion of farms and equipment, there has been a vast reduction in the number of man-hours required to produce most major farm commodities. In 1910, it took 135 man-hours to produce 100 bushels of corn; today it takes 7 hours. Man-hours needed to pro duce 100 bushels of wheat dropped similarly from 106 to 9, in the same period. Though it took 31 hours to produce 100 pounds of turkey in 1910, it takes only 1.1 today. Although employment on farms will continue to decline, oppor tunities for employment in agribusi ness related occupations is expected to increase. As farms increase in size and complexity, more and more custom services will be used by the remaining farmers. Operating the equipment and providing other serv ices to the farmer often requires spe cial training and skills. Thus, there will continue to be a wide range of occupations requiring technical knowledge below that acquired at the college level. At the college level, persons with degrees in agriculture will be needed to fill jobs as buyers for packers and processors, in advertising and public relations work, market re porting, and in managerial positions in farm cooperatives, food chains, dairy product distributors, agri chemical manufacturers, and farm credit agencies. College graduates also will have opportunities to work as teachers of vocational agricul ture, agricultural extension agents, and rural development planners. Opportunities on Farms Since productivity in farm produc tion is growing so rapidly, the num ber of jobs in farming is declining steadily. The increasing productivity of our farmers has been a boon to consumers and the nonfarm econ omy—but today farmers find them selves in an industry that requires ever-larger farms, more investment, and better management to stay in business. Management is the key to success in modern farming. Today’s farmer needs a much higher level of knowl edge and skills than did his prede cessor. For example, the dairy farmer used to feed each cow an amount of grain based on the amount of milk she had produced the previous day or week. The modern dairyman feeds his cows on the basis of their potential—“pushing” poten tial high-performance cows to their limits, cutting back on expensive feed for cows that already have peaked out. Figuring the potential is a much more difficult technique than weigh ing milk. Similar management problems face the modern farmer in most areas—which is why college training is becoming the rule rather than the exception for the young “commer cial” farmer. It gives him the tech nical basis that he needs to keep up with new developments in research and technology and to apply them intelligently on his own farm. Biology, engineering, chemistry, and agronomy—not to mention eco nomics marketing and accounting— are part of the necessary kit of tools for a successful farmer today. Capital requirements form an other barrier the beginning farmer must overcome. The average com mercial farm in 1969 had 530 acres, with a value of more than $103,000 in land and buildings alone. Region ally, the value of commercial farms varies from an average of $46,000 in 619 620 Appalachia to nearly $300,000 in the Pacific region. For the person who has the train ing, the capital, and the manage ment ability, the modern farm can offer much higher incomes than the old-style farm ever did. About 222,000 large farms in the United States sold farm products valued at $40,000 or more during 1969, averaging $37,503 in net in come. Another 331,000 medium sized farms sold farm products at an average income of $20,000 to $39,999 in 1969, averaging $10,466 in net income. Together, these two groups—the large- and the medium-sized—made up nearly 20 percent of U.S. farms and accounted for nearly 72 percent of U.S. farm sales in 1969. These two groups represent the expanding sec tor of U.S. agriculture. Although an additional 395,000 small-sized farms had gross sales of $10,000 to $19,999 in 1969, these averaged only $6,481 in net income. Most of these farm owners would need to expand their operations or else supplement their incomes with off-farm work to equal the income they could get in some other type of employment. Agriculture production still offers challenging and rewarding careers, with larger incomes and better living conditions than it used to—but it of fers them to fewer and fewer people. Many people, of course, prefer liv ing in the country, and modern trans portation and communications, public services, and household and farming appliances have eliminated most of the disadvantages that at tended rural living a generation or two ago. Although the number of oppor tunities in farming is shrinking, the number of jobs is increasing in farmrelated industries that supply prod ucts and services to the farmer and that handle the processing and mar keting activities for farm products. These industries have a continuing need for young people who have a farming background—plus training for their specialized functions. Training Opportunities Available for Farming A good initial background in farming can be obtained by growing up on a successful farm. Necessary experience also may be gained by working as a closely supervised te nant or hired worker on a successful farm. In addition, college training in agriculture and in agricultural busi ness management are of substantial value to the modern farmer. Several types of vocational train ing are available under federally as sisted programs. Training is offered in the following ways: 1. High school courses in agriculture. 2. Short courses for young farmers at colleges of agriculture, including inten sive training in farm planning, farm structures, construction, welding and related shop and repair work, as well as instruction in crop production, live stock feeding and management, recordkeeping, and other aspects of farming. 3. Adult evening classes (or day classes in off-seasons) that provide intensive instruction in subjects such as land and soil management, crop and livestock production, new technology and equip ment, and financial management. The most significant sources of in formation and guidance available to farmers are the services provided by the land-grant colleges and univer sities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. These services include research, publications, teaching, and extension work. The county agricul tural agent is often the best contact for the young person seeking advice and assistance in farming. The Farmers’ Home Administration sys tem of supervised credit is one exam ple of credit facilities combined with a form of extension teaching. Organ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ized groups, such as the Future Farmers of America and the 4-H Clubs, also furnish valuable training to young farm people. Opportunities on Specific Types of Farms Although the number of farms and farm jobs is decreasing, desirable and rewarding opportunities oc cur in agriculture production and related pursuits. The decision to enter farming may be made simply because an opening exists on the family farm or on a farm nearby. To be successful, a young person should appraise carefully the requirements in specific types of farm operations, and the prospects for success in them, taking into consideration apti tudes, interests, preferences, experi ence, knowledge, and skills in direct ing labor and handling livestock and machinery. Young people also must consider family labor supply and financial resources, as the labor and capital requirements for an oper ation of adequate size vary widely from one type of farm to another. A realistic decision to go into farming can be made only in terms of a particular area or community. This section evaluates, from an occupa tional standpoint, some of the more common types of farm. The accom panying table gives illustrative data on size of farm, capital require ments and net farm incomes re ceived by operators of typical or representative farms in various parts of the country. Many farms are larger than these and offer more re turn than is shown here. Some are smaller and offer the operator little income or opportunity to improve his status without major changes. On most of the farms, the major part of the work is done by the farm oper ators and their families. Whereas, some of the smaller farms hire work ers only during the peak labor sea AGRICULTURE son, large ones often use hired labor the whole year. The figures in the table on capital invested mean that the operator con trols or uses resources valued at that amount. Many farmers supplement their own capital with borrowed funds; others rent part or all of the land they use, thus reserving more of their funds for the purchase of live stock, feed, machinery, and equip ment. Still others have partners who provide most of the working capital. For example, many farmers who raise broilers are in partnership with a feed dealer. No brief general statement can be made about specialization versus diversification in farming oper ations that would apply in all parts of the country. The general trend favors more specialized farming. Farms that produced many products a generation ago now may produce only two or three. Efficient produc tion of most farm products requires a substantial investment in specialized equipment. If the farm operator is to receive the full benefit from his in vestment, he must produce on a large scale. Two other factors contrib uting to specialization are the in creased emphasis on quality of farm products, and the greater knowledge and skill required for effective production. Few farmers, however, find it advantageous to produce only one product. The main reasons for producing more than one product are the desirability of spreading price and production risks, the more effec tive use of labor (particularly family labor), and the fuller utilization of most other resources than can be realized in a one-product system. Dairy Farms Dairy farms are common in most parts of the country. Despite modern methods of processing and trans porting milk, production is still con 621 centrated near the large population centers particularly in the Northeast and the Great Lakes States. How ever, many areas in the far West and the South are becoming large pro ducers of dairy products. Many of the newer type large dairy farms are “drylot” or barn operations with lit tle or no pasture land. Some are cooperatively operated. However, on typical dairy farms in the Lake States, and to a lesser extent in the Northeast, crops are important, often requiring operators to hire or exchange labor at harvest time. There is work every day throughout the year on dairy farms, so that effective use can be made of labor, and a regular force can be occupied most of the time. Though cows have to be milked daily, most people do not like to be “tied down” 7 days a week. As a re sult, the current practice in many areas is to arrange work schedules so each person can have some time off during the month. Dairying is also a good choice for the person who likes to work with mechanical equipment. Dairy farmers who produce much of their own feed find variety in the many different jobs that must be done. The dairyman’s sales and income are distributed more evenly through out the year than other farmers’. Moreover, the prices he receives are less subject to year-to-year fluctua tions than are prices received by operators in most other types of farming. The accompanying table shows the average net farm income on dairy farms in central and south eastern Wisconsin for 1970—71. Compared with farmers in most other areas, dairy farmers in the more concentrated milksheds of the Northeast (such as the dairy farms in the Central Northeast shown in the table) generally have larger herds, purchase a larger proportion of their feed, and buy rather than raise their herd replacements. In the most highly specialized producing area near Los Angeles, dairy farms are drylot operations. They are quite small in acreage, but large in milk production and number of cows milked. No crops are produced; these dairy operators buy their en tire feed requirements from outside the area. Most of the cows are bought at freshening time and are re placed when their lactation period is completed. Net farm income represents the re turn to the farm operator and his family for their labor as well as the return on the capital invested in the farm business—provided the oper ator owns his land and is free from debt. If he rents part or all his farm, not all the net farm income is avail able for family living; part of it must be used for rent. Similarly, the farmer who is in debt must deduct in terest costs and payments on the principal. Livestock Farms and Ranches A general livestock farm is a good choice for the farmer who is inter ested in working with livestock and mechanical equipment and is appro priately skilled. Many farmers pre fer general livestock farms—such as the hog-beef feeding farms in the Corn Belt (see table)—because dur ing much of the year they require fewer chores than dairy farms. The timing of daily hog and beef cattle farm chores also is more flexible than the milking schedule on dairy farms. Practically all of the regular labor on most general livestock farms is provided by the operator and his family. During some seasons of the year, full-time or part-time work exists for several members of the family, but, these are usually off set by slack labor periods when there is time for leisure or nonfarm ac tivities. 622 The livestock farmer’s income is not as well distributed throughout the year as the dairyman’s, and it is less likely to be uniform from year to year, as well. Financial and manage ment problems result, increasing the risks of operation. Moreover, on farms of limited acreage—often found in the Eastern States—the level of income from general live stock farming is usually lower than from a dairy herd on similar acreage. Most hog producers have their own breeding stock, and raise the pigs they fatten for market. Some farmers who fatten cattle and sheep also raise their own stocks of calves and lambs. But most of the cattle and sheep fattened and marketed by the livestock farmer are bred and raised originally by someone else—usually the livestock rancher of the West. The accompanying table includes data for four types of Western live stock operations: Northern Plains and Northern Rocky Mountain cat tle ranches, sheep ranches in UtahNevada, and cattle ranches in the Southwest. In these areas of low rainfall, the main source of feed is range grass, and several acres are re quired to provide enough pasture for their stock; ranchers spend much of their time in the saddle, truck, or jeep managing their herds. Much of this range comes from the public do main. Except where irrigation is available, feed crops usually are not grown. Poultry Farms One-third of the farmers in the United States raise some poultry, but in 1969, about 2 percent were classified as poultry farmers. Many poultry farms concentrate on egg production. Most of the larger and more specialized of these farms are in the Southeast, in the Northeast and in California. Many highly concen trated centers of broiler production are east of the Mississippi River, and a few are on the West Coast. Turkey producers also are specialized. A concentration of specialized produc ers of ducks is located in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Most specialized poultry pro ducers, particularly those who pro duce broilers or large laying flocks, produce crops for sale. They pur chase supplies of special poultry feeds and laying mash. Commercial poultry farmers in New Jersey, for example, buy all their feed. The typi cal broiler producer in Maine, the Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) peninsula, and Georgia de votes almost all his capital and labor to the production of broilers. Poultry farming requires special ized skill in handling birds, espe cially on the part of the operator. The combination of bulk handling of feed and mechanical feeding, a wide spread practice, requires little physi cal strength. For these reasons, poul try farms make considerable use of family help. Data on average capital invest ment and net farm income for repre sentative egg producers in New Jersey and broiler operators in Georgia for 1968-69 are given in the table. These averages do not reveal the sharp year-to-year fluctuations in income that occur. Because they have a high proportion of cash costs and a thin margin of profit, rela tively small changes in prices of feed, broilers, and eggs can bring about sizable fluctuations in net farm in come. The incomes of most broiler pro ducers, however, are fairly stable be cause they produce “under con tract.” Contract production is more widespread in broiler production that in any other major type of farming. Under these arrangements, the financing agency (usually a feed dealer) furnishes the feed, chicks, and technical supervision—almost OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK everything except the buildings, equipment, and the direct produc tion labor. The grower receives a stipulated amount per 1,000 birds marketed, and often a bonus for superior efficiency. Many turkey producers operate under similar con tracts, but these arrangements are not nearly so universal for the production of turkeys as for broilers. Corn and Wheat Farms For the man who likes working with crops and farm machinery, cash grain farming (growing soybeans, corn, or wheat for sale, not for use as feed) has much to offer. Many peo ple dislike being tied down with daily responsibilities the year around, as with livestock chores. They prefer, instead, to work long days with large laborsaving equipment during the busy seasons, as in soil preparation, planting, and harvesting, and then to have some free time in slack periods. The table shows the investment re quired and the recent income experi ence of some representative cash grain farms. Farms of this type in clude cash grain farms in the Corn Belt, spring wheat-fallow farms in the Northern Plains, and winter wheat-fallow farms in the Pacific N o rth w est. Some of these farms—particularly in the Northern Plains—raise some beef cattle for sale as feeders, and a small number keep a few milk cows. However, this livestock production is usually of sec ondary importance. Many of these cash crop farmers do not raise any livestock. Two of the main risks faced by the commercial wheat grower are un favorable weather and low prices. However, crop insurance has re duced the risk of low yields, and Government price support pro grams have lessened the risk of low prices. AGRICULTURE Cotton, Tobacco, and Peanut Farms In terms of number of farmers, production of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts makes up a large part of the agriculture .in the Southeastern and South Central States. These prod ucts are grown on farms that range from very small operating units to comparatively large ones. Market competition in these crops has been keen, and many growers have been forced to diversify and enlarge their farms—adjustments which require capital investment. Competition from cotton growers in irrigated areas of the West and Southwest has forced many farmers in the South east to discontinue cotton produc tion. Some of them have diversified their operations, and others have 623 found better opportunities in obtained only through experience. Enterprises of this kind should be un southern industrial expansion. dertaken only by persons with con siderable experience and some of the Crop Specialty Farms special skills and techniques re quired. An individual having an apti Many farmers throughout the tude skills usually can learn country have unique background, them forbythese working years as a skills, resources, or other advan hired hand on sucha afew specialty tages for particular kinds of farming or as a tenant for a landlord whofarm chiefly because of their location, give direction and assistance. can home training, or neighborhood practices. They may specialize in the Annual returns from these spe production of a single crop—such as cialty farms usually vary greatly grapes, oranges, potatoes, sugar from year to year because of the cane, or melons—or a combination vagaries of nature and the changes in prices. Operators of these farms who of related specialty crops. Operators of these enterprises usu keep abreast of production and ally employ many seasonal workers marketing conditions are usually and require relatively expensive well-rewarded for their ability to specialized equipment. They need manage, produce, and market their specific skills many of which can be products. Table 1. Average size of farm by product and location, capital invested, and net farm income on commercial farms, 1970-71 Type of farms and location Size of farm as measured by Capital invested in — Land Machinery Live Crops and and stock buildings equipment Total Net farm income1 Dairy farms: $ 40,000 $18,930 $20,440 $ 8,130 $ 87,500 $16,632 Central New York..................... 40 milk cows..................... 8,900 129,410 20,290 78,570 19,860 22,080 Southeastern Wisconsin .......... 40 milk cows..................... 8,330 0 54,380 10,592 2,730 43,320 Egg-producing farms, New Jersey2 . 5,550 layer chickens........ 4,940 860 160 27,600 1,973 21,640 Broiler farms, Georgia2 ..................... 44,600 produced annually Corn Belt farms: 21,000 22,500 233,000 148.000 21,000 43,000 Hog-beef feeding....................... 280 acres of cropland 0 3,000 317,000 21,500 280.000 34,000 Cash grain crop ......................... 375 acres of cropland Cotton farms:2 0 0 530,200 48,700 453.750 76,450 Mississippi D elta....................... 900 acres of cropland Southern High Plains, Texas 0 0 454,700 20,350 413,700 41,000 Irrigated............................. 870 acres of cropland 0 0 209,850 20,950 193.750 16,100 Nonirrigated ..................... 860 acres of cropland Tobacco farms, Coastal Plain, 5,520 680 690 50,750 5,888 43,860 North Carolina2............................. 50 acres of cropland........ Tobacco-livestock farms, Bluegrass 2,290 142,820 10,998 7,020 10,520 123.000 area, Kentucky2 ............................. 64 acres of cropland........ Wheat-fallow farms: 0 0 238,500 23,425 198.500 40,000 Northern Plains......................... 1800 acres of cropland ... 0 0 288,000 31,930 248.000 40,000 Central Plains ........................... 1800 acres of cropland . . . 0 0 408,500 29,485 358.500 50,000 Pacific Northwest ..................... 1800 acres of cropland ... Cattle ranches: 5,170 454,960 28,791 335,460 20,670 93,660 Northern Plains......................... 307 beef cow s................... 10,040 340,850 29,378 223,850 19,620 87,340 314 beef cow s................... Northern Rocky Mountain 8,859 0 535,000 443,370 12,260 79,370 Southwest................................... 278 beef cows . . . . Migratory-Sheep Ranches, 1,380 230,540 16,956 134,360 15,150 79,650 Utah-Nevada ............................... 2025 breeding ewes 1 The information presented here is on an owner-operated basis, 2 Refers to 1968-69, latest data available. Source: Prepared in the Farm Production Economics Division primarily for comparability between types of farm. Net farm in come is the combined return to total capital plus return to operator Economic Research Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture. and other unpaid members of the family for their labor and manage ment. No allowance has been made for payment of rent, interest, or mortgage. 624 hunters during the game season and mechanics and service engineers for watercraft. Guides are also in de Public demand for outdoor recrea mand for nature trails and scenic tion is far in excess of the existing tours. and projected supply of public facil ities. The public sector is not flexible Other Specialties enough to supply the specialized types of recreation or services de Other highly specialized oper manded by smaller groups. The pri ations, such as fur farms, apiaries, vately-owned outdoor recreation greenhouses, nurseries, and flower enterprise, particularly the farm- farms, require special knowledge and base type, is in a unique position to skilled management. Special skills supply these types of recreation serv and equipment are required, and risks are high. Even with the high ices and activities to the public. The 1969 Census of Agriculture risk, from the standpoint of capital reported over 2.7 million farms in the invested and income, the venture is United States. Of this total, about often rewarding to individuals who 30,400 earned money from some have the ability and the resources to engage in it. type of recreation activity. Many farm operators in the vicin ity of national, State, and local Sources of Additional parks, or near wildlife preserves have Information taken advantage of their location in establishing recreation businesses. Additional information may be The average amount received from obtained from the U.S. Department this activity was about $1,630 per of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; the Department of Com farm reporting. These farmers sell hunting or fish merce, Washington, D.C. 20230; ing rights to individuals, form hunt and from Colleges of Agriculture. ing clubs, or establish private camp grounds. They absorb the overflow from public campgrounds or cater to the individuals who want more privacy in their camping. Vacation A G R IC U LTU R E-R E LA TED PR OFESSIONAL farms cater to family groups during W ORKERS the summer and allow hunting later in the year when children are in school. Many farmers enlarge and Nature of the Work improve their ponds or irrigation reservoirs. They stock ponds for fish The discussion that follows deals ing and have swimming areas in the primarily with job categories that are summer and skating in the winter. generally termed professional fields. Old farm buildings, sheds, and barns These occupations generally require are converted into riding stables or at least a bachelor’s degree, and horse boarding stables, or a com master’s and Ph.D. degrees are be bination of both. Shore and back coming increasingly valuable both water areas are used to dock pri from the standpoint of salary level vately owned craft. In making such and of performing the functions re facilities available, many farmers quired on the job. Some of these jobs have converted a liability into an are discussed more fully elsewhere in asset. Farmers become guides for the Handbook. (See index.) Private Outdoor Recreation Farms OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Agricultural economists (D.O.T. 050.088) deal with problems related to production, financing, pricing, and marketing of farm products both in the United States and in several foreign countries. These economists are factfinders, evaluators, analysts, and interpreters who provide eco nomic information to farmers, policymakers, and other interested persons. They provide cost-benefit analyses for evaluating farm pro grams at the National, State, and farm level. They study the effects of mechanization, technological ad vances, and other developments that influence the supply and demand for farm products and the accompany ing effects on costs and prices of farm products. Agricultural engineers (D.O.T. 013.081) develop new and improved farm machines and equipment, deal with the physical aspects of soil and water problems in farming; design and supervise installation of irriga tion systems, watershed protection, flood prevention, and related works; devise new techniques for harvesting and processing farm products; and design more efficient farm buildings. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.081) are concerned with growing, breeding, and improving field crops such as cereals and grains, legumes and grasses, tobacco, cotton, and others. They do research also in the funda mental principles of plant sciences and study and develop seed propa gation and plant adaption. Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen (D.O.T. 040.081) study and do research in the environ mental influences in relation to effi cient management of farm animals; they are concerned also with the breeding, growth, nutrition and physiology of livestock. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073.081) in spect livestock at public stockyards and points of entry into the United AGRICULTURE States; inspect establishments that produce veterinary biological sup plies; administer tests for animal dis eases; conduct programs for the con trol and eradication of animal dis ease; research livestock diseases and vaccines for disease control; work di rectly with farmers in protection or restoration of livestock health; and provide services for the care of small animals and pets. (See statement on veterinarians elsewhere in the Hand book for additional information.) Geneticists (D.O.T. 041.081) try to develop strains, varieties, breeds, and hybrids of plants and animals that are better suited than those pres ently available for the production of food and fiber. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.081) study bacteria and the relation of other micro-organisms to human, plant, and animal health and the function of these micro-organisms in the making of products such as vita mins, antibiotics, amino acids, sugars, and polymers. Plant scientists (D.O.T. 041.081) study plant diseases and their nature, cause, and methods of control. They also study the structure of plants and the growth-related factors in plants. Methods of improving fruits, vege tables, flowers, and ornamentals, and means by which improvements may be made by better manage ment, environment, and propaga tion are also of major concern. Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspectors (D.O.T. 041.081) who are trained in the biological sci ences, supervise and perform profes sional and scientific work in enforc ing plant quarantine and pest con trol laws. Plant Quarantine In spectors inspect ships, planes, trucks, and autos coming into the country to keep out dangerous insect pests. Plant Pest Control Inspectors con duct programs to protect the crops of the country by prompt detection, control, and eradication of plant 625 pests. Entomologists (D.O.T. 041.081) study insects, both beneficial and harmful to farming. They are con cerned particularly with identifying the populations and distributions of insects that injure growing crops and animals; that harm human beings; and that damage agricultural com modities during shipping, storage, processing, and distribution. These concerns are involved particularly toward finding means by which these insects may be controlled. Foresters (D.O.T. 040.081) are concerned with the protection, pro duction, processing, and distribu tion of our timber resources. They also study means by which wood may be seasoned, preserved, and given new properties. Human nutritionists (D.O.T. 077.128) study the means by which the human body utilizes food sub stances. Rural sociologists (D.O.T. 054.088) study the structure and functions of the social institutions (customs, practices, and laws) that are a part of rural society and/or affect it. School teachers (D.O.T. 091.228) in vocational agriculture and related fields supervise and give instructions in farm management, communica tions, mechanics, engineering, and related fields. Farm managers, including agri culture management specialists, supervise and coordinate the pro duction, marketing, and purchasing and credit activities of one farm or a group of farms. Places of Employment Persons trained in these special ties work in various capacities that relate to agriculture. Government agencies, colleges, agricultural ex periment stations, and private busi nesses that deal with farmers hire many research workers. They also hire people to take technical and ad ministrative responsibilities in public agencies involving farmers or programs affecting farmers. Agri businesses, farmer cooperatives, pri vate business, commercial, and fi nancial companies that buy from, sell to, or serve farmers also employ many professionals with agriculture related training. State, county, and municipalities hire many who serve as vocational agriculture teachers and workers in agricultural commu nications, in farmers’ organizations, or in trade associations whose mem bers deal with farmers. The number of research activities related to agriculture has increased very rapidly. The largest agencies in this field are the State agricultural experiment stations connected with the land-grant colleges and the various research branches of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Such agricultural specialists work for other research organizations in independent research, and in com panies that finance farming opera tions, market farm products, or pro duce chemicals, equipment, and other supplies or services for farmers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture employs workers in re search positions in various parts of the country: in Washington, D.C.; at the Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, Md.; and at land-grant colleges. Other Government depart ments also have many agricultural research jobs. Various independent research or ganizations, foundations, and pri vate business groups in many parts of the country recently have initiated research related to agriculture. They tend to be located either in indus trial centers or in areas of high agri cultural activity, and include pro ducers of feed, seed, fertilizer, and farm equipment; and of insecticides, herbicides, and other chemical dusts 626 and sprays. Public and private lending institu tions, which make loans to farmers, employ men with broad training in agriculture, and business. These workers ordinarily are required to have had practical farm experience, as well as academic training in agri culture, economics, and other sub jects. Making financially sound loans involves careful analysis of the farm business and proper evaluation of farm real estate and other farm property. These workers are em ployed by the cooperative Farm Credit Administration in its banks and in associations operating under its supervision throughout the coun try; by the Farmers Home Adminis tration in its Washington, State, and county offices throughout the coun try; by rural banks; and by in surance companies that have sub stantial investments in farm mortgages. The Federal and State Govern ments also employ various special ists in activities relating to agricul ture. These specialists have techni cal and managerial responsibilities in activities such as programs relating to the production, processing, mar keting, inspection, and grading of farm products; prevention and spread of plant pests, animal parasites, and diseases; and management and con trol of wildlife. Large numbers of professionally trained persons are employed by co operatives (businesses owned and run by the farmers) and business firms that deal with farmers. Employment in these organizations may be ex pected to expand, as farmers rely in creasingly on them to provide farm supplies, machinery, equipment, and services, and to market farm prod ucts. The size of the organization and the types of services it offers de termine the number of its employees and the nature of their jobs. Large farm supply cooperatives and busi nesses, for example, may have separate divisions for feed, seed, fer tilizer, petroleum, chemicals, farm machinery, public relations, and credit, each supervised by a depart ment head. In smaller businesses and cooperatives, such as local grain marketing elevators, the business is run almost entirely by the general manager who has only two or three helpers. Agricultural communications is another expanding area of special ization. Crop reporters and market news reporters are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop reporters gather in formation on crop production dur ing all stages of the growing season. Market news reporters collect in formation on the movement of agri cultural produce from the farm to the market. Radio and TV farm di rectors are employed by many radio and TV stations to report prices, sales, grades, and other agricultural information to farm residents. Agri cultural reporters and editors com pile farm news and data for farm journals, bulletins, and broadcasts. The nationwide, federally aided program of vocational education offers employment for persons tech nically trained in agriculture and re lated subjects. Teachers of voca tional agriculture not only teach high school students interested in farm ing, but provide organized instruc tion to assist young farmers in be coming satisfactorily established in farming and in becoming com munity leaders. They also provide organized instruction for adult farmers, giving individual consulta tion at their farms to keep them abreast of modern farm technology. The qualifications of workers in all of these fields ordinarily include a college education and special train ing in a particular line of work. In most of these fields, the demand for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers exceeds the supply. In recent years, the demand has been in creased because of the need to recruit professional personnel to staff agri cultural missions to other countries and to give technical aid to agricul tural institutions and farmers there. Sources of Additional Information Opportunities in Research. Ad ditional information at land-grant colleges may be obtained from the dean of agriculture at the State landgrant college. Information on em ployment in the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available from the USD A recruitment representatives at land-grant colleges and from the Office of Personnel, U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The following publications will be valuable: Profiles-Careers in the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture U.S. Department of Agriculture, October 1968. Super intendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $3.25. Careers in Agriculture and Natural Re sources—Agriculture American Asso ciation of Land-Grant Colleges and State Universities, Washington, D.C. 1966. Copies can be obtained free from State Agricultural Colleges. Opportunities in Agricultural Fi nance. Inquiries on employment op portunities in agricultural finance may be directed to the following: Farm Credit Administration, Wash ington, D.C. 20578. Farm Credit District—Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; Columbia, S.C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Orleans, La.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Nebr.; Wichita, Kans.; Houston, Tex.; Berkeley, Calif.; Spokane, Wash. Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250. AGRICULTURE Agricultural Director, American Bankers Association, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. 627 — Marketing positions—jobs ranging from responsibility for har vesting, transporting, assembling, grading, storing, and selling raw products to processing, packaging, selling, and distributing farm prod ucts to retail outlets. —Farm supply positions—jobs ranging from those in petroleum re fineries, and feed mills, or fertilizer manufacturing plants, to those work ing on the floor of a supply center. —Farm service positions—jobs such as those of field men who ad vise farmers on soil, seeds, and fer tilizer usage, and who do soil test ing; bulk feed deliverymen, machine operators who deliver supplies direct to farms, spread fertilizer on the field, or haul products to market for the farmer. — Personnel adm inistration positions—jobs such as those inter viewers, position classifiers, coun selors, and placement specialists. —Research positions—jobs cover ing product development, product testing, quality evaluation of prod ucts, and economics research. —Transportation—jobs such as physical distribution specialists, truck drivers, garage mechanics, traffic managers. —Office positions—jobs such as secretaries, typist, clerks, recep tionists. Requirements for the jobs vary widely. Some demand college or graduate degrees, others high school education. Still others require no for mal educational background, but do require basic skills such as those for writing up an invoice or handling a forklift truck in a warehouse. Opportunities with Cooperatives. About 22,000 cooperatives serve rural people in every area of the United States. These include mar keting and farm supply coopera tives, rural electric telephone as sociations, rural credit unions, farm credit cooperatives, mutual irriga tion and insurance associations, and artificial breeding associations. They range from small local co operatives serving one area to the large regional cooperatives made up of local cooperatives and their farmer members in several States. The locals usually have their head quarters in small towns, the re gional in larger towns or cities. Some regionals hire from 3,000 to 4,000 employees. Cooperatives in the individual communities are a good source of in formation on jobs either in their own organizations or in other coopera tives. Most States have a State coun cil or association of cooperatives that can provide information on co operative locations and some job in formation. The Cooperative Foundation, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111., 60605, has a publication, Careers in Cooperatives. It describes about 100 different kinds of jobs available in these businesses. Among the several hundred thou sand jobs these cooperatives provide are included: —Management positions—jobs ranging from managing small local grain elevators to managing co operatives that do several hundred million dollars worth of business a Opportunities for Agricultural Econ omists. For additional information year. about opportunities in agricultural economics, check with the Depart ment of Agricultural Economics at State land-grant colleges. For in formation on Federal employment opportunities, applicants may get in touch with USDA recruitment rep resentatives at the State land-grant college or write directly to the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Opportunities as Vocational Agri culture Teachers. As salaries, travel, and programs of vocational agricul ture teachers vary slightly among States, prospective teachers should consult the Head Teacher Trainer in Agriculture Education at the landgrant college or the State Super visor of Agricultural Education at the State Department of Public In struction in their respective States. FARM SER VIC E JO B S In almost every type of agricul ture, farmers require specialized services which can be learned and performed readily by other workers. A person can enter many of these services, either as an independent operator or as an employee. Some services require an extensive outlay of capital, and others require very lit tle. Some are highly seasonal; others are performed year round. These services and the operation of a small farm can sometimes be combined. Services that provide year-round employment include the following: Cow testing, artificial breeding, live stock trucking, whitewashing, well drilling, fencing, and tilling. MINING AND PETROLEUM INDUSTRY The mining and petroleum in dustry provides most of the basic raw materials and energy sources for in dustrial and consumer use. Metal mines provide iron, copper, gold, and other ores. Quarrying and other nonmetallic mining yield many of the basic materials such as limestone and gravel for schools, offices, homes, and highways. Nearly all of our energy for industrial and personal use come from oil, gas, and coal. Few products from mines reach the consumer in their own natural state; nearly all require further processing. The mining and petroleum in dustry employed about 607,000 wage and salary workers in 1972. About four-tenths of these worked in the ex ploration and extraction of crude pe troleum and natural gas. Coal min ing accounted for almost one-fourth of the industry’s workers, and quarrying and nonmetallic mineral mining nearly one-fifth. The re maining workers were in metal min ing. As shown in the accompanying tabulation, nearly seven-tenths of all workers in the industry hold bluecollar jobs, primarily as operatives. Included in the operative group are oil well drillers, mining machinery operators, and truck and tractor drivers. Skilled craftsmen and foremen constitute the second largest occu pational group. Mechanics and re pairmen maintain the complex equipment and machinery used in mining and oil well drilling. Many heavy equipment operators, such as power shovel and grader operators, work in open pit mining. Large numbers of pumpers, gagers, and enginemen hold jobs in the extraction and transportation of petroleum and natural gas. Foremen also constitute an important part of the industry’s work force. The industry’s white-collar em ployees are divided nearly equally among three occupat ional groups—professional and technical, clerical, and managerial workers. Taken together, these groups com pose the remaining three-tenths of the industry’s employment. Profes sional, technical, and kindred workers are concentrated largely in petroleum and gas extraction. Most are engineers, geologists, or techni cians engaged in exploration and re search. Two out of three clerical em ployees work in petroleum and gas extraction. Most are secretaries, of fice machine operators, and typists. Major occupational group All occupational groups................... Professional, technical, and kindred workers___ Managers, officials, and proprietors................. Estimated employment, 1972 (percent distribution) 100 12 7 Clerical and kindred workers............... 10 Sales workers............................... (') Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers ___ 27 Operatives and kindred workers2 ........................... 39 Service workers........................... 1 Laborers........................................ 4 1 Less than .5 percent. 2 Includes mine laborers. N o t e : Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal total. Employment in the mining and pe troleum industry is expected to de cline slowly through the mid-1980’s, despite increases in output. In creased demand for mining products will be met largely through im proved equipment operated by a highly skilled work force. Even though employment as a whole is ex pected to decline, different growth patterns are likely within the in dustry. Employment in metal min ing and petroleum and natural gas extraction is expected to decline. Quarrying and nonmetallic mining, on the other hand, are expected to in crease. The statements that follow pro vide information on employment op portunities in the petroleum and natural gas extraction industry and the coal mining industry. More de tailed information about occupa tions in the mining and petroleum in dustries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. 629 COAL MINING Nature of the Industry When most people think of coal they usually think of it in an old pot bellied stove heating a one room schoolhouse, small home, or coun try store. But today, coal is used for many purposes. Coal is an impor tant ingredient in steel, chemicals, cosmetics and for the all important electric power. Coal is usually divided into two major classes, bituminous and anthracite. Bituminous, or “soft” coal is the most widely used and the most plentiful, and accounts for most coal production. Production of anthracite, or “hard” coal, on the other hand, is steadily declining due to dwindling reserves. Other forms of coal, such as lignite and peat, are classified in the subbituminous cate gory, and are used in limited amounts. Most of the Nation’s coal is mined in the Appalachian area which ex tends from Pennsylvania through Eastern Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. A large amount of coal also is produced in Indiana, Illinois, and in the Rocky Mountain States. and location of the coal seam. Underground mines are used to reach coal that lies deep below the surface. An entry tunnel must be dug so that miners and equipment can reach the seam and coal can be car ried out. Depending on the depth of the coal seam, the entry may be ver tical (shaft mine), horizontal (drift mine), or at an angle (slope mine). (See chart 20). Shaft mines are used to reach coal lying far below the sur face. Drift and slope mines are usu ally not as far underground as shaft mines. After the coal seam has been reached, nearly all underground mines are constructed the same way. Miners make a network of intercon necting tunnels so that the mine resembles a maze with passageways going off in all directions, some times stretching over many miles. As coal is removed, the tunnels become longer and longer. A significant amount of coal is left between the tunnels to support the roof. When miners reach the end of the com pany’s property, they start working back toward the entrance. Some of the remaining coal is dug and the roof is then caved in as they retreat. If the coal seam is not too far be low ground, a surface mine is used. Two types of surface mines are strip and auger. At strip mines, huge machines tear the earth away and dig out the coal. Auger mining is used to remove coal from hillsides. A large auger (drill) bores into the hill and pulls the coal out. Occupations In the Industry In 1972 about 145,000 people worked in the coal mining industry. About 85 percent were the produc tion workers who mined and proc essed coal. Different types of mining jobs range from helpers who load coal with a shovel, to experienced miners who operate equipment worth several hundred thousand dollars. Jobs available in a mine, however, Four Types of Bituminous Coal Mines Shaft Mine Drift Mine Types of Mines Coal is either mined underground or dug from the earth’s surface. Underground mines produce about half of the bituminous coal and em ploy most of the miners. Surface mines account for the remaining coal, but employ only a small proportion of the industry’s workers. The type of mine a company decides to build depends on the depth 630 Surface Mine Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 20 631 COAL MINING vary by type and method of mining. Mining Occupations. Two basic methods of mining underground coal, conventional and continuous, account for 96 percent of total under ground production. A third method, longwall, makes up the remaining. Conventional mining is the oldest method and requires the most work ers and procedures. In conventional mining, a long strip is first cut under neath the coal seam to control the direction of falling coal when it has been blasted. The cutting is done by the cutting machine operator (D.O.T. 930.883), who runs a huge, electric chain saw, with a cutter rang ing in length from 9 to 15 feet. Next the drilling machine operator (D.O.T. 930.782) drills holes into the coal where the shot firer (D.O.T. 931.782) places explosives. After the blast the loading machine operator (D.O.T. 932.883) scoops up and dumps the coal into small railroad cars, which are run by the shuttle car operator (D.O.T. 932.883). These cars take the coal to a conveyor belt where the conveyor man (D.O.T. 630.381) controls the movement of coal to the main entry or to the sur face. The continuous mining method eliminates the drilling and blasting operations of conventional mining. The continuous-mining machine operator (D.O.T. 930.883) runs a machine that cuts or rips out the coal and loads it onto a conveyor or shut tle cars. Longwall mining is basically an extension of continuous mining. In this method one machine, run by the longwall machine operator digs and loads coal and at the same time rein forces the roof. Many other workers are required to run a safe and efficient under ground mine. A foreman, called a face boss (D.O.T. 939.138) super vises all operations at the work site Miner at control* of continuous mining machine. where coal is actually mined. Before miners are allowed to enter, the fire boss (D.O.T. 939.387) inspects the work area for dangerous gases and adequate ventilation. Coal dust is ex tremely explosive, and interferes with breathing. The rock-dust machine operator (D.O.T. 939.887) sprays limestone on the mine walls and ground to hold down the dust. Roof falls always pose a serious threat in a mine, so the work of the roof bolter (D.O.T. 930.883) is ex tremely important. This worker operates a machine to install roofsupport bolts. The brattice man (D.O.T. 869.884) constructs doors, walls or partitions in the passage ways to force air through the tunnels to working areas. Most surface miners operate the large machines that remove the earth above the coal, and dig and load the coal. In a strip mine the overburden is first drilled and blasted. Then the overburden stripping operator or dragline operator (D.O.T. 859.883) scoops the earth away to expose the coal. Next the coal loading machine operator (D.O.T. 932.833) loads the coal onto trucks to be driven to the preparation plant. In auger mines, the auger operator (D.O.T. 930.782) runs the machine that pulls the coal from sides of hills. Tractor oper ators (D.O.T. 929.883) drive bull dozers to move materials or pull out imbedded boulders or other objects. Helpers assist in operating these machines. Skilled repairmen, called fitters (D.O.T. 801.281) fix all types of min ing machinery, and electricians check and install electrical wiring. Carpenters construct and maintain benches, bins, and the wooden bodies of mine cars. Helpers may be sta tioned in any work area to aid ex perienced miners and to learn the trade. Many mechanics and elec tricians assemble, maintain, and re pair the machines used in mines. Truck drivers haul, the coal to preparation plants. Preparation Plant Occupations. Rocks and other impurities must be removed before coal is crushed, sized or blended, to meet the buyer’s wishes. These processes take place at the preparation plant. Many preparation plants are located next to the mine. The plant’s size and number of employees vary by the amount of coal processed and degree of mechanization. Some plants have all controls centrally lo cated and require only one worker to oversee all washing, separating and crushing operations. This worker is known as a preparation plant cen tral control operator (D.O.T. 549.138). At each step other plants 632 that are not as mechanized need workers such as the wash box attend ant (D.O.T. 541.782) and separation tender (D.O.T. 934.885). Wash box attendants operate equipment to size coal and separate impurities from it. Using currents of water, the separa tion tender operates a device that further cleans coal. Administrative, Professional, Cleri cal and Technical Occupations. The coal industry employs a wide range of administrative, professional, tech nical and clerical workers. At the top of the administrative group execu tives make all policy decisions. Deci sion making requires a staff of specialists such as accountants, at torneys, and market researchers. Clerical and secretarial workers assist the administrative staff. They may keep records on personnel, pay roll, sales, production and other paper work. Although most of our coal seams have been discovered, they must still be examined for purity and depth. The type of mine to be built also must be determined. This work generally is done by the mining engi neer (D.O.T. 010.081 and .187) who is involved in all aspects of building and maintaining a safe mine. Sur veyors (D.O.T. 018.188) also may be called in to help map out the mining area. Many other types of engineering and scientific personnel also are em ployed. Mechanical engineers over see the installation of equipment, such as centralized heat and water systems. Safety engineers attempt to prevent or correct hazardous condi tions in the mines. Involved in re search such as converting coal into a gas or a liquid are physicists, chem ists, and geologists. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK helpers to experienced workers and learn mining skills on the job. Some companies supplement on-the-job training with formal programs, but training varies from company to company. For example, some com panies have training mines where skills are taught; others give class room instruction for a few weeks be fore allowing workers into a mine. Many courses also are available on health and safety procedures, mining techniques, and mining machinery. The U.S. Bureau of the Mines, coal companies, and the United Mine Workers of America conduct classes on health, safety and mining methods. Mine machinery manufacturers offer courses in machine operation and maintenance. As miners gain more experience they can move to higher-paying jobs. When a vacancy occurs, an an nouncement is posted and all work ers who believe they are qualified may bid for the job. A mining machine operator’s helper, for exam ple, may become an operator. The position is filled on the basis of sen iority and ability to do the work. A small number of miners advance to supervisory positions and, in some cases, to administrative jobs in the office. Miners must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. A high school diploma is not required. All miners should be able to work in close areas and have quick reflexes in cases of emergencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most young people start out as Rock dusting machine operator sprays powdered limestone to control coal dust. COAL MINING Scientists and engineers should have at least a Bachelor’s Degree. Requirements for administrative and clerical jobs are similar to those in other industries. College graduates are preferred for jobs in advertising, personnel, accounting, and sales. For clerical and secretarial jobs, employ ers usually hire high school gradu ates who have training in areas such as stenography and typing. Employment Outlook As the Nation’s demand for elec tric power grows, more coal will be mined to fuel electric power plants. More coal also will be needed to make steel, chemicals, and other products, or for conversion into fuel oil or natural gas. Most job open ings, however, will arise as experi enced miners retire, die, or transfer to other Fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to create several thousand openings each year through the mid-1980’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Union wage rates for miners in late 1972 ranged from $4.80 an hour 633 to $5.75 an hour. In comparison, production workers in manufac turing averaged $3.81 an hour. On the average, workers in under ground mines earn slightly more than those in surface mines or preparation plants. Because underground miners spend much time traveling from the mine entrance to their working areas, they have a slightly longer working day than surface workers. Those in surface occupations work a 7-1/4 hour day (36-1/2 hour week), while underground miners work in 8hour day (40 hour week). Many mines operate around the clock so some miners work on after noon or night shifts for slightly higher wages. Most miners receive 9 holidays and 14 days of paid vacation each year. As their length of service in creases, they gain extra vacation days up to a total of 24. Union work ers also receive benefits from a wel fare and retirement fund, and work ers suffering from pneumoconiosis (black lung) receive federal aid. Miners have unusual and harsh working conditions. Underground mines are damp, dark, noisy and cold. At times, several inches of water may be on tunnel floors. Al though mines have electric lights, many areas are illuminated only by the lights on the miners’ caps. Work ers in mines with very low roofs have to work on their knees, backs, or stomachs in cramped areas. Though safety conditions have im proved considerably, miners must constantly be on guard for hazards. There is also the risk of developing pneumoconiosis (black lung) from coal dust and silicosis from the rock dust generated by the drilling in the mines. Surface mines and prepara tion plants are less hazardous than underground mines. Sources of Additional Information For details about job oppor tunities in mining contact individual coal companies. General informa tion on mining occupations can be obtained from: United Mine Workers of America, 900 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Bituminous Coal Operator’s Associ ation, 918 16th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20006. OCCUPATIONS IN PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND GAS PROCESSING Nature and Location of the Industry Petroleum is one of the fuels form ed by the decay of living matter. It is extracted mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. This :-chapter deals with workers who are em ployed in the United States to find oil and gas and bring them to the earth’s surface and to convert gas to usable products. In 1972, about 260,000 workers were engaged in these activities. Occupations in oil refin ing are discussed in a separate chap ter elsewhere in the Handbook. Crude oil and natural gas produc tion covers three broad fields of work: exploration, drilling, and oper ation and maintenance of wells. Firms that specialize in these activ ities under contract to oil companies employ almost one-half of all work ers in petroleum production. Major oil companies employ most of the re mainder. Gas processing involves removing water, sulfur compounds and other inpurities from natural gas, and separating liquid gases such as ethane and propane. Since oil and gas are difficult to find, exploration and drilling are key activities in the petroleum industry. After scientific studies indicate the possible presence of oil, the com pany selects a well site and installs a towerlike steel rig to support the drilling equipment. A hole is bored deeper and deeper into the earth until oil is struck or the company decides to write the effort off as a loss. Al though a few large oil companies do 634 customers. These liquids—chiefly ethane, propane, butane, and natural gasoline—are important raw mate rials for refineries and chemical plants. Some are widely used as heat ing fuels in rural areas. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in about three-fourths of the States, about 90 percent of the indus try’s workers are employed in 10 States. Texas leads in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisiana, California, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Wyoming, Mississippi, Colorado, and Illinois. Thousands of additional Americans employed by oil companies work in foreign coun tries, particularly the Middle East, Africa, Western Europe, South America, and Indonesia. their own drilling, more than 95 per cent is done by contractors. When oil or gas is discovered, pipes, valves and other equipment are installed to control the flow of these raw materials from the well. There were more than 600,000 wells in this country in 1972, and about half of all the petroleum industry’s production workers were needed to operate and maintain them. Oil and gas are transported to Occupations In the refineries by pipeline, ship, barge, or Industry truck. Many refineries are thou sands of miles from oil fields, but gas Workers with a wide range of processing plants usually are near the education and skills are needed to fields so that liquid compounds can drill, operate, and maintain wells and be removed before the gas is piped to to process natural gas. Production geologist studies core sample at well site. OCCUPATIONS IN PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND GAS PROCESSING Exploration. Exploring for oil is the clude draftsmen (D.O.T. 010.281) first step in petroleum production. and surveyors (D.O.T. 018.188), who Small crews of specialized workers assist in surveying and mapping travel to remote areas to search for operations. geological formations likely to con Most geophysical exploration is tain oil. Exploration parties, led by a done by seismic prospecting. The petroleum geologist (D.O.T. seismograph is a sensitive instru 024.081) , study the surface and sub ment that records natural and man surface of the earth. Geologists seek made earthquakes. Artificial earth clues to the possibility of oil traps by quakes in petroleum exploration are examining types of rock formations made by detonating explosives in the on and under the earth’s surface. ground. The time it takes for sound Besides making detailed ground sur waves to reach an underground rock veys, petroleum geologists depend on layer and return indicates the depth aerial exploration and magnetic sur of the layer. By setting off explo veys for a broad picture of the area. sions at a number of locations, scien Subsurface evidence is collected by tists can map underground forma boring and bringing up core samples tions with considerable accuracy, of the rocks, clay, and sands that thus providing a clue to the where form the layers of the earth. From abouts of traps that may contain oil. these examinations geologists draw A geophysicist (D.O.T. 024.081) cross-section maps of the under usually leads a seismograph crew ground formations to pinpoint areas that may include prospecting com where oil or gas may be located. In puters (D.O.T. 010.288), who per offshore exploration, they also may form the calculations and prepare obtain rock samples from the bot maps from the information re tom of the sea in their search for corded by the seismograph; observ ers (D.O.T. 010.168) who operate clues to oil-bearing formations. Many geologists work in district and maintain electronic seismic offices of oil companies or explora equipment; shothole drillers (D.O.T. tion firms where they prepare and 930.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. study geological maps. They also 930.886), who operate portable drill study samples from test drilling to ing rigs to make holes into which ex plosives are placed; and shooters find any clues to oil. (D.O.T. 931.381) who place and In addition to the petroleum detonate explosives. geologist, exploration parties may include other geology specialists: Before geophysical exploration the Paleontologists (D.O.T. 024.081) oil company must obtain permission study fossil remains in the earth to to use the land. The landman or locate oil-bearing sands; mineralo leaseman (D.O.T. 191.118) makes gists (D.O.T. 024.081) study physi the necessary business arrangements cal and chemical properties of min with landowners or with owners of eral and rock samples; stratig- mineral rights. raphers (D.O.T. 024.081) determine the rock layers most likely to con Drilling. Exploration methods are tain oil and natural gas; photogeolo used to find likely oil fields but only gists (D.O.T. 024.081) examine and drilling can prove the presence of oil. interpret aerial photographs of land Overall planning and supervision of surfaces; and petrologists (D.O.T. drilling usually are the responsibil 024.081) investigate the history of ities of the petroleum engineer. the formation of the earth’s crust. Wells are almost always started in Exploration parties may also in the same way. Rig builders (D.O.T. 635 869.884) and a crew of helpers (D.O.T. 869.887) install a portable drilling rig to support the machinery and equipment that raises and low ers the drilling tools. In one method called rotary drill ing, a revolving steel bit bores a hole in the ground by chipping and cut ting rock. Most drilling is done by the rotary method. The bit is at tached to a length of pipe (drill stem) which is rotated by a diesel engine or an electric motor. As the bit cuts through the earth, the drill stem is lengthened by more pipe screwed on at the upper end. A stream of mud is continuously pumped into the hol low pipe and comes out through holes in the drill bit. This mud, a mixture of clay, chemicals, and water, cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, and carries the cuttings to the sur face. A typical rotary drilling crew con sists of a driller and three to five helpers. Divided into three crews, 15 to 20 workers generally operate a rig 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. A rotary driller (D.O.T. 930.782) oper ates machinery that controls speed and pressure, selects the proper drill bit, and records operations. The driller must be prepared to meet emergencies such as a breakdown of equipment or a fire. A derrickman (D.O.T. 930.782), who is second in charge, works on a small platform high on the rig to help run a pipe in and out of the well opening. The derrickman also oper ates pumps that circulate mud through the pipe. Other members of the drilling crew include rotary helpers (D.O.T. 930.884) , also known as rough necks, who guide the lower end of the pipe to and from the well opening and connect and disconnect pipe joints and drill bits. An engineman (D.O.T. 950.782) may be added to 636 operate the engines that provide power for drilling and hoisting. The tool pusher or chiefdriller (D.O.T. 930.130) is the foreman of one or more drilling rigs and sup plies materials and equipment to rig builders and crews. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.884) or general labor ers, though not considered part of a drilling crew, do general oil field maintenance and construction work. They clean tanks, build roads, and help welders and other craftsmen. Well operation and maintenance. When oil is found, the drill pipe and bit are pulled from the well, and cas ing is lowered and cemented in place. The upper ends of the tubing and cas ing are fastened to a system of valves called a “Christmas tree.” Pressure in the well forces crude oil and gas to the surface, through the Christmas tree, and into gas traps and storage tanks. If natural pressure is not great OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK enough to force the oil to the sur face, pumps are used. Petroleum production engineers generally plan and supervise well operation and maintenance. To pre vent waste, they decide the rate of oil flow and anticipate performance of oil reservoirs by analyzing informa tion such as pressure readings from the wells. Engineers are increasingly using computers for analytical work. Some engineers specialize in over coming effects of corrosion on well casings, in the selection and design of production equipment and proc esses, or in the prevention of pollu tion. Some companies hire engineer aides to make tests, keep records, post maps, and otherwise assist engineers. Pumpers (D.O.T. 914.782) and their helpers operate and maintain motors, pumps, and other equip ment to force oil from wells. Their chief duty is to regulate the flow of oil according to a schedule set up by the petroleum engineer and produc tion foreman. Generally, a pumper operates a group of wells. Switchers work in fields where oil flows under natural pressure and does not re quire pumping. They open and close valves to regulate the oil flow from wells to tanks or into pipelines, and gaugers (D.O.T. 914.381) measure and record the flow and take sam ples to check quality. Treaters (D.O.T. 541.782) test the oil for water and sediment and remove these impurities by opening a drain at the tank’s base or by using special chemical or electrical equipment. In some fields, pumping, switching, gaging, and treating operations are automatic. Many skilled workers are em ployed in maintenance operations. Welders, pipefitters, electricians, and machinists repair and install pumps, gages, pipes, and other equipment. Natural gas processing. Most proc essing workers control equipment. The dehydration-plant operator (D.O.T. 541.782) tends an auto matically controlled treating unit which removes water and other im purities from natural gas. The gaso line-plant operator (D .O.T. 914.132), operates compressors that raise the pressure of the gas for transmission in the pipelines. The gas-compressor operator (D.O.T. 950.782) assists either of the two employees named above. Many workers in the larger natural gas processing plants are em ployed in maintenance activities. The instrument repairman and the elec trician are two key workers needed to maintain the instruments that con trol automatic equipment. Welders and their helpers also do much main tenance work in the processing plant. Other maintenance workers include engine repairmen, roustabouts, help ers, or laborers. OCCUPATIONS IN PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND GAS PROCESSING In numerous smaller natural gas These offshore operations require the plants, workers combine skills, usu same type of drilling crews as are ally of operator and maintenance employed on land operations. In man. Many small plants are so addition, offshore operations re highly automated they are virtually quire radio operators, cooks, sail unattended. They are checked by ors, and pilots for work on drilling maintenance workers or operators at platforms, crewboats, barges, and periodic intervals, or they are check helicopters. ed continuously by instruments (Detailed discussions of profes which automatically report prob sional, technical, mechanical, and lems and shut down the plant if an other occupations found not only in the petroleum and natural gas emergency develops. production industry, but in other in Other oilfield services. Companies dustries as well, are given elsewhere that offer services on a contract basis in the Handbook in the sections provide another important source of covering individual occupations.) employment. Among these employ ees are skilled workers such as cementers (D.O.T. 930.281), who mix Training, Other Qualifications, and pump cement into the space be and Advancement tween steel casings and well walls to Most workers in nonprofessional prevent cave-ins; acidizers (D.O.T. with an exploration crew begin 930.782) , who force acid into the bot jobs as helpers and advance into one of tom of the well to increase the flow the specialized Their training of oil; perforator operators (D.O.T. may vary fromjobs. several months to 931.782) , who use subsurface “guns” several years. New workers to pierce holes in drill pipes or cas are hired in the field by the crewusually chief ings to make passages for oil to flow or by local company representa through; sample-taker operators tives. College students majoring in (D.O.T. 931.781), who take samples physical or earth sciences or in of soil and rock formations from engineering often work part-time or wells to help geologists determine the summer an exploration crew. presence of oil; and well pullers They maywith work (D.O.T. 930.883), who remove pipes, after graduation. into a full-time job pumps, and other subsurface devices Members of drilling crews usually from wells for cleaning, repairing, or begin as roughnecks. As they ac salvaging. quire experience they may advance Offshore operations. Most explora to more skilled jobs. For example, a tion, drilling, and producing activ worker may be hired as a rough ities are on land but an increasing neck, advance to derrickman and, amount of this work is done off after several years, become a driller. shore, particularly in the Gulf of A driller can advance to the job of Mexico off the coasts of Louisiana tool-pusher in charge of one or more and Texas. Some additional off drilling crews. Crew members usu shore work is being done in the ally are between the ages of 20 and Pacific Ocean off California, 40, since the work requires heavy Oregon, Washington, and Alaska labor. Some companies, however, re and in many foreign locations such port that their best drillers are over as the Persian Gulf, Bass Strait, and 50 and even in their sixties, for this North Sea. Some wells have been job requires good judgment and ex drilled over 100 miles from shore and perience rather than physical labor. in water more than 1,000 feet deep. Companies generally hire people 637 who live near operating wells for well operation and maintenance jobs. They prefer applicants who have mechanical ability and a knowledge of oil-field processes. Because this type of work is less strenuous and offers the advantage of a fixed locale, members of drilling crews or ex ploration parties who prefer not to travel often transfer to well oper ation and maintenance jobs. New workers may start as roustabouts and advance to jobs as switchers, gaugers, or pumpers. Training usu ally is acquired on the job; at least 2 years of experience are needed to be come an all-round pumper. For scientists, such as geologists and geophysicists, college training with at least a bachelor’s degree is re quired. The preferred educational qualification for a petroleum engi neer is a degree in engineering with specialization in courses on the petroleum industry. However, col lege graduates having degrees in chemical, mining, civil, or mechan ical engineering, or in geology, geo physics, or other related sciences, often are hired for petroleum engi neering jobs. Petroleum engineering aides include people with 2-year technical degrees as well as former roustabouts or pumpers who have been promoted. Scientists and engineers usually start at junior levels, and after sev eral years of experience can advance to managerial or administrative jobs. Scientists and engineers who have re search ability, particularly those with advanced degrees, may transfer to research or consulting work. Information on training, quali fications, and advancement in natural gas processing plants is simi lar to that for petroleum refining. A statement on petroleum refining can be found elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Outlook Employment in petroleum and 638 natural gas production is expected to decline slowly through the mid1980’s. Nevertheless, many job open ings will be available to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Employment may decline in most established oil fields in the United States because of diminished oil reserves in these fields. However, the need for additional resources to meet fuel shortages is likely to cause employment increases in some areas. More exploration and drilling, for example, is expected in Alaska, at some offshore loca tions, and in other remote and unexplored areas of the world. In workers who have electrical or mechanical training to maintain and repair its increasingly complex machinery. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972 nonsupervisory employ ees in oil and gas extraction aver aged $3.97 an hour. In comparison, the average for nonsupervisory workers in all industries, except farming, was $3.65 an hour. Most oilfield employees work out doors in all kinds of weather. Oil fields often are far from populated areas, sometimes in swamps or deserts. Increasingly, oilfield employees are involved in offshore operations. Drilling employees may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in less than a year. Exploration field personnel may be required to move even more fre quently. They may be away from home for weeks or months at a time and live in a trailer or tent. Well operation and maintenance workers often remain in the same location for long periods. In offshore operations, earnings usually are higher than those in land operations. Except for drilling activ ity that is close to shore, workers’ liv ing quarters are on platforms held fast to the ocean bottom or on ships anchored nearby. In offshore opera tions many work 7 days, 12 hours a day, and then have 7 days off. Most workers in natural gas proc essing plants do not have to travel. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Their jobs require only moderate physical effort although some work ers must climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights. Some employ ees in natural gas processing have unusual working conditions. They travel rough, unpaved terrain in all kinds of weather to check small, unattended automated plants in iso lated locations. These maintenance jobs may be very satisfying to those who like working alone outdoors. Sources of Additional Information Further information about jobs in the petroleum industry may be avail able from the personnel offices of in dividual oil companies. Information on scientific and technical jobs may be obtained from: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, P. O. Box 979, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 6200 North Central Ex pressway, Dallas, Tex. 75206. American Geological Institute, 2201 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20037. CONSTRUCTION The activities of the construction industry touch nearly every aspect of our daily lives. The houses and apart ments in which we live; the factories, offices, and schools in which we work; and the roads on which we travel are examples of some of the products of this important industry. The industry includes not only new construction projects, but also ad ditions, alterations, and repairs to existing structures. In 1972, about 3.5 million people worked in the contract construction industry. An additional 1.3 million workers are estimated to be either self-employed—mostly owners of small building firms—or are State and local government employees who build and maintain our Nation’s vast highway systems. The contract construction in dustry is divided into three major segments. About half of the job holders work for electrical, air con ditioning, plumbing, and other spe cial trade contractors. Almost onethird work for the general building contractors that do most residen tial, commercial, and industrial con struction. The remaining one-fifth build dams, bridges, roads, and similar heavy construction projects. As illustrated in the accompany ing tabulation, workers in blue-collar occupations make up 80 percent of the construction industry employ ment. Craftsmen and foremen alone account for 55 percent of the total employment in this industry—a much higher proportion than that of any other major industry. Most of these skilled workers hold jobs as carpenters, painters, plumbers and pipefitters, construction machinery operators, and bricklayers, or in one of the other construction trades. Laborers are the next largest occu pational group and account for 17 percent of employment. They pro vide materials, scaffolding, and gen eral assistance to the craftsmen at the worksite. Semiskilled workers (operatives and kindred workers), such as truck drivers, welders and apprentices, represent about 8 per cent of the industry’s work force. Managers, officials, and proprie tors—mostly self-employed—ac count for about the same share of employment. Professional and tech nical workers make up about 4 per cent of the work force. Engineers and engineering technicians, draftsmen, and surveyors account for most of the employment in this occupational group. Clerical workers, largely typists, secretaries, and office machine operators, constitute another 7 percent of the industry’s employment. Major occupational group Estimated employment 1972 (percent distribution) All occupational groups......................... 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers . . . . 4 Managers, officials, 10 and proprietors...... Clerical and kindred workers.... 7 Sales workers............ (') Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers . . . . 55 Operatives and kindred workers.................. 8 Service workers....... (') Laborers.................... 17 Less than 0.5 percent. NOTE: Due to rounding, sums of individual items may not add to total. Construction industry employ ment is expected to rise rapidly through the mid-1980’s, as popula tion and income growth create a de mand for more houses, schools, fac tories and other buildings. Likewise, the number of construction workers employed by State and local high way departments should increase as the country’s highway systems ex pand. Because of laborsaving im provements in tools, materials, and work methods, however, employ ment will not grow as rapidly as con struction activity. Contract construction is the major source of employment for skilled craftsmen such as bricklayers, painters, and carpenters. For in formation on these and other con struction crafts, see the chapter on Construction Occupations else where in the Handbook. For in formation on occupations that are found in many other industries, see the index in the back of the book. 639 MANUFACTURING Manufacturing is a key activity of our Nation’s economy. The prod ucts of the manufacturing industries range in complexity from simple plastic toys to intricate electronic computers, and in size from minia ture electronic components to gi gantic aircraft carriers. Manufac turing involves many diverse proc esses. Workers process foods and chemicals, print books and news papers, spin and weave textiles, make clothing and shoes, and pro duce the thousands of other prod ucts needed for our personal and na tional welfare. About 18.9 million people worked in manufacturing—the largest of the major industries—in 1972. About three-fifths of all manufacturing em ployees worked in plants that pro duced durable goods, such as steel, machinery, automobiles, and house hold appliances. The rest worked in plants that produced food, clothing, chemicals, and other non-durable goods. In 1972, nearly 5.4 million women worked in manufacturing, which ac counted for more than one-fifth of all women workers. Women represent a large proportion of the production workers in some industries, particu larly the apparel, textiles, tobacco, and leather products industries. As illustrated in the accompany ing table, blue-collar workers (crafts men and foremen, operatives, and laborers) make up about two-thirds of manufacturing employment. Operatives and kindred workers alone account for over four-tenths of the work force; many of these are spinners and weavers, sewing ma chine operators, machine tool opera tors and welders, or operators of the specialized processing equipment used in the food, chemical, paper, and petroleum industries. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers make up the next largest group of workers and account for nearly one-fifth of employment in manufacturing. Many of these skill ed workers install and maintain the wide assortment of machinery and equipment required in all factories. Others are employed in skilled pro duction occupations. Machinists, for example, are especially important in the metalworking industries, as are skilled inspectors and assemblers. In the printing and publishing in dustries, compositors, typesetters, photoengravers, lithographers, and pressmen make up a large share of the work force. White-collar workers (profes sional, managerial, clerical, and sales workers) account for nearly onethird of manufacturing employ ment. Clerical workers, such as sec retaries and office machine opera tors, are the largest white-collar group. Clerical workers hold about 1 out of every 8 jobs in manufacturing. Professional, technical, and kin dred workers account for about 1 out of every 10 jobs in manufacturing. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians represent a large share of the professional workers. These highly trained workers not only oversee and guide the production processes, but also carry out the extensive research and development activities needed in the aerospace, electronics, chemical, petroleum, and other industries. Major occupational group Estimated employment 1972 (percent distribution) All occupational groups _____ 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers............................ 9 Managers, officials, and 6 proprietors.................................... Clerical and kindred workers .. 12 Salesworkers .................................. 2 Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers............................ 19 Operatives and kindred workers.......................................... 44 Service workers.............................. 2 Laborers........................................... 5 N oth: Because of rounding, sums of indi vidual items may not add to total. Population growth, rising per sonal income, and expanding busi ness activity will create a substantial increase in the demand for manufac tured products through the mid1980’s. Employment in manufactur ing, however, is expected to increase at a slower pace than production. The application of modern technol ogy to manufacturing processes will make possible substantial increases in production of goods without a cor responding increase in the work force. Although the average rate of employment growth will be slow, employment trends of individual in dustries will vary widely. In the rubber and miscellaneous plastics products and furniture and fixtures industries, employment should in crease about one-third, far above the average increase. Employment in several other industries—including machinery, instruments, and stone, clay, and glass—should increase more rapidly than the average for all 641 642 manufacturing. On the other hand, employment in some manufacturing industries is expected to decline, Tobacco, food, and lumber and wood products all may decrease in employment through the mid-1980’s, The statements that follow pro vide information on employment opportunities in several of the manufacturing industries. More detailed OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK information about occupations that are found in manufacturing as well as in many other industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See in dex in the back of the book.) OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING Firms that manufacture and as semble aircraft, missiles, and space craft make up what is known as the “aerospace” industry. In 1972, more than three quarters of a million peo ple worked in the industry: about 500,000 in manufacture and assem bly of complete aircraft, aircraft engines, propellers, and auxiliary parts and equipment; 90,000, mis siles and spacecraft; and 160,000 in companies that make electronic equipment and instruments for air craft, missiles, and spacecraft. Thou sands of workers in other industries produced parts, machinery, and equipment used in the manufacture of aerospace vehicles. Also, thou sands of Federal workers were en gaged in aerospace related work, since the Government is a major pur chaser of the industry’s products. They worked primarily in the National Aeronautics and Space Ad ministration (NASA) and in the De partment of Defense. Aerospace jobs exist in almost every State. The largest concentra tion is in California. Other States with large numbers of aerospace jobs include New York, Washington, Connecticut, Texas, Florida, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Massa chusetts, Kansas, Alabama, Mary land, New Jersey, and Georgia. Nature of the Industry Although there are many kinds of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, they all have the same basic com ponents: a frame to hold and sup port the rest of the vehicle, an engine to propel the vehicle, and a guidance and control system. Missiles and spacecraft reach into space at speeds many times that of sound, while air craft fly in the earth’s atmosphere at much slower speeds. Missiles are powered by either jet or rocket engines; spacecraft are rocketpowered only. Aircraft are powered by piston, jet, or rocket engines. Types of aircraft vary from small personal or business planes that cost not much more than an automobile, to multi-million dollar jumbo trans ports and supersonic Fighters. Most aircraft (in dollar value) are manu factured for military use; however, those made for commercial and pri vate use have been increasing. Missiles are chiefly for military use and generally carry destructive warheads. Some are capable of traveling only a few miles, such as those that support ground troops and defend against low flying aircraft. Others have intercontinental ranges of 7,000 miles or more. Some mis siles are launched from land or un derground; others from aircraft, sub marines, or ships. Most of the country’s spacecraft are built for NASA and the Depart ment of Defense to explore outerspace or to monitor conditions within the earth’s atmosphere (for example, weather conditions). They carry instruments that record and transmit to earth stations scientific data. On manned flights, a cabin capsule carries the astronauts. Some spacecraft probe the space environ ment and then fall back to earth. Others may enter into earth orbit and become artificial satellites. Still others may orbit or land on the moon and on distant planets. Major aircraft, missile and space craft firms contract with govern ment or private business to produce an aerospace vehicle. As con tractors, they are responsible for managing and coordinating the en tire project. This involves much plan ning and decision making. The firm’s engineering department prepares final design drawings and specifica tions for the product, which then go to the production department where planners work on the many details regarding machines, materials, and operations needed to manufacture the vehicle. Production includes de signing and producing the tools and fixtures needed to produce thou sands of parts and accessories that make up an aerospace vehicle. Parts and components must be inspected and tested many times before being assembled, and completed systems are examined for conformance to specifications. Before a finished ve hicle is delivered, it is checked out by a team of mechanics, or flight-tested if it is an aircraft. Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturers generally make many components of a craft and do final assembly work. However, because there are so many components that make up aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, much of the work is sub contracted to outside firms. There are thousands of subcontractors in volved in the production of parts that go into aerospace vehicles. Some subcontractors make parts or sup plies such as bearings, rocket fuels, or special lubricants. Others pro duce subassemblies such as com munication or guidance equipment, or jet engines. Some of the firms may even depend on other subcon tractors to supply parts for their subassemblies. Because of the complex and changing nature of aerospace tech nology, firms need workers with 643 644 many different job skills that vary according to their fields of work. Re search and development labora tories employ mainly engineers, sci entists, and supporting technicians and craftsmen. Production opera tions, on the other hand, require as semblers, inspectors, machinists, and other plant workers. Major jobs in aerospace manu facturing are described under three main categories: professional and technical; administrative, clerical, and related occupations; and plant occupations. Many of these jobs are in other industries as well and are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. Research and development (R&D) are vital to the aerospace in dustry. Efforts are being made to de velop vehicles with greater speeds, ranges, and reliability. Engines with more power and new sources of rocket propulsion such as nuclear and electric energy are being inves tigated and may be available in the future. Metals and plastics are con tinually being explored for wider ca pabilities, as are electronic guidance and communication systems. The pace of discovery in aerospace tech nology is so rapid that much equip ment becomes obsolete while still in an experimental stage or soon after being put into production. Emphasis on R&D makes the aer ospace industry an important source of jobs for technical personnel. In 1972, almost one-fourth of all em ployees were engineers, scientists, and technicians, a considerably higher proportion than in most other manufacturing industries. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians work together in developing de signs for aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Before an engineering de partment can approve a design for production, it must conduct tests to determine whether various design possibilities meet the conditions un der which the vehicle will be operat ing. A scale model is made from a preliminary design. It is tested in wind, temperature, and shock tun nels and in other testing areas that simulate actual flight conditions. The next step is to build a full-sized ex perimental model, or prototype, which is thoroughly tested in the air and on the ground. If the test results are satisfactory, production may begin. The design is modified many times during the course of develop ment, and often after production has started. Many kinds of engineers and sci entists work in the aerospace in dustry. Electronic, electrical, aero space, chemical, nuclear, mechani cal, and industrial engineers are among the larger engineering classi fications. Scientists in the industry include physicists, mathematicians, chemists, metallurgists, and astron omers. Aerospace engineers and sci entists work in a wide and varied range of applied fields such as mate rials and structures, energy and power systems, and space sciences. Among the many types of workers assisting scientists and engineers are technicians such as draftsmen, math ematics aides, and engineering and science technicians who do technical work that otherwise might have to be done by scientists and engineers. En gineers and scientists also work with other technical personnel such as production planners (D.O.T. 012.188), who plan the layout of ma chinery, movement of materials, and sequence of operations for efficient manufacturing processes; and tech nical illustrators (D.O.T. 017.281), who help prepare manuals and other technical literature describing the operation and maintenance of aero space products. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Managerial and administrative jobs generally are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK comparable to similar jobs in other industries, except that they are often filled by engineers, scientists, and other technical personnel. Personnel in these jobs include executives re sponsible for the direction and super vision of research and production, and officials in departments such as sales, purchasing, accounting, and industrial relations. The industry also employs many thousands of clerks, secretaries, stenographers, typists, tabulating machine and com puter operators, and other office per sonnel. Plant Occupations. About one-half of all workers in the aerospace in dustry have plant- or production-re lated jobs. Plant jobs can be classi fied in the following groups: Sheetmetal work; machining and tool fab rication; other metal-processing; as sembly and installation; inspecting and testing; flight checkout; and ma terials handling, maintenance, and custodial. Sheet-Metal Occupations. Follow ing blueprints and other engineering information, sheet-metal workers (D.O.T. 804.281) shape complicated parts from sheets of thin metal by hand or machine methods. Hand methods include the shaping of parts by pounding them with mallets and by bending, cutting, and punching them with handtools. Machine methods involve the use of power hammers and presses, saws, tube benders, and drill presses. Less skilled workers do the more routine metal-shaping work. Among these are workers who specialize in the use of a single machine and fab ricate parts required in large numbers. Some of these workers are punch press opera to rs (D.O.T. 615.782), power hammer operators (D.O.T. 617.782) and power shear operators (D.O.T. 615.782 and .885). OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING Sheet metal workers sometimes shape complicated parts using hand tools. Machining and Tool Fabrication Oc cupations. Another important group of workers engaged in shaping and finishing metal parts with machine tools includes machinists (D.O.T. 600.280 and .281) and machine tool operators (D.O.T. 609.885). These workers represent a higher-thanaverage proportion of the work force in engine and propeller plants, which are basically metal-working estab lishments, than in plants assembling complete aerospace vehicles. The most skilled machinists are the all-round or general machinists who lay out the work and set up and operate several types of machine tools. They perform highly varied, nonrepetitive machining operations, frequently in departments making experimental and prototype vehicles. Machine tool operators produce metal parts in large volume. They generally operate a single type of machine tool such as a lathe, drill press, or milling machine. Skilled operators set up work on a machine and handle difficult and varied jobs. Less skilled operators do more re petitive work. Skilled metal workers also produce jigs, fixtures, tools, and dies required for the production and as sembly of parts for aerospace vehi cles. On the basis of information re ceived from an engineering depart ment, jig and fixture builders (D.O.T. 693.280) plan the sequence of metal-machining operations for making a jig and carry the job through to completion. Tool and die makers (D.O.T.601.280) make the cutting tools and fixtures used in machine tool operations, and the dies used in forging and punch press work. Other Metal-Processing Occupa tions. Some of the many other metal working occupations include tube benders (D.O.T. 709.884), who form tubings used for oil, fuel, hydraulic, and electrical conduit lines; and riveters (D.O.T. 800.884) and welders (D.O.T. 810.782 and .884; 81 1.782 and .884; 812.884 and 813.380 and .885), who use me chanical and electrical devices to join fabricated parts. Metal-working jobs also are in foundry plants where workers produce castings by pour ing molten metal into molds. Many aircraft, missile, and space craft parts are chemically-treated 645 and heat-treated during their manu facture to clean, change, or protect their surfaces or structural condi tion. For example, sheet-metal parts are heat-treated to keep the metal soft and malleable for metal-shap ing work. The surfaces of parts often require many other treatments such as painting and plating. Workers in these metal-processing jobs have titles such as heat treater (D.O.T. 504.782), painter (D.O.T. 845.781), and plater (D.O.T. 500.380). Assembly and Installation Occupa tions. Practically all plants in the aerospace industry employ assem bly and installation workers. Some work in the assembly of engines, electronic equipment, and auxiliary components, but most assemble complete aircraft or spacecraft. They do final assembly work such as the fitting together of major subassem blies and installing major compon ents. In an aircraft, for example, this work involves joining wings and tails to the fuselage and installing the engine and auxiliary equipment such as the fuel system and flight con trols. Assemblers perform tasks such as riveting, drilling, bolting, and soldering. A large proportion of assemblers are semiskilled and do repetitive work. However, many are skilled mechanics and installers who read blueprints and interpret other en gineering specifications as they take apart, inspect, and install complex mechanical and electronic assem blies. Some, such as final assem blers of complete aircraft (D.O.T. 806.781) and missile or rocket as sembly mechanics (D.O.T. 625.281), do general assembly work, and often work on experimental, prototype, or special craft. Other skilled as semblers work in plants that pro duce relatively large numbers of air craft and missiles rather than a few experimental types. These assem blers often specialize in one field of 646 work; for example, armament as semblers (D.O.T. 801.381) special ize in installing weapons and related equipment in aircraft. Assemblers also specialize in other systems such as power plants, electrical wiring, heating and ventilation, and plumb ing. Inspecting and Testing Occupa tions. Because aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft are extremely complex and affect the life and safety of peo ple, firms employ workers to con duct thousands of painstaking in spections and tests as each compo nent and part moves through the pro duction and assembly stages. The final product also is thoroughly tested before delivery. Inspections, which often involve the use of com plex equipment, are made not only by employees of the manufacturers but also by employees of Federal OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK semblies and installations such as fu selage, wing, and nose sections to in sure their proper fitting. They also check the functioning of hydraulic, plumbing, and other systems. Less skilled inspectors usually check subassemblies. Flight Checkout Occupations. Checking-out every part of an air craft or spacecraft before its first flight requires a team of mechanics having different levels and types of skills. The crew chief is the most skilled mechanic of the team, and di rects other workers in the entire checking-out operation. Among the other workers in the team are engine mechanics specializing in checking out the powerplant of a craft, in cluding the engine, propellers, and oil and fuel systems; and electronics checkout men who do the final operational checkout of radio, radar, automatic pilot, fire control, and electronic guidance, and other sys tems. Sometimes the checking-out process requires making minor re pairs sometimes it involves return ing the craft to the plant when it needs extensive repairs. Materials Handling, Maintenance, and Custodial Occupations. Aero space plants employ large numbers of materials handlers such as truck drivers, shipping clerks, and tool room attendants. Maintenance workers who keep equipment and buildings in good operating condi tion and make changes in the layout of the plant, include maintenance mechanics, electricians, carpenters, and plumbers. Guards, firemen, and janitors make up a major portion of the plant’s protective and custodial employees. agencies and commercial firms that have contracted for the equipment. Inspectors generally specialize in a certain area of aerospace manufac turing. Among the most skilled in spectors, especially in final as sembly plants, are outside produc tion inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381) who examine machined parts, subassem blies, and tools and dies ordered from other firms. They also serve as a “link” between their own en gineering department and supplying companies. Among the inspectors in production are machined parts in spectors (D.O.T. 609.381) and fab rication inspectors (D.O.T. 807.381) who examine machined parts and fabricated sheet-metal respectively to see if they meet engineering speci Other Qualifications, fications. As parts are fitted to Training, and Advancement gether, they are examined by assem bly inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381), who A college degree in engineering or usually inspect complete major as in one of the sciences usually is the OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING minimum requirement for working as an engineer or scientist in the aero space industry. A few workers ob tain these jobs without a college degree, but only after years of work experience and some college-level training. An undergraduate prepar ing for a career as an aerospace en gineer or scientist should get as solid a background as possible in mathe matics and physics. More special ized fields of the industry require graduate school education or on-thejob training. An increasing number of techni cal occupations such as draftsmen and electronics technicians require two years of formal education in a technical institute or junior college. Others may qualify through several years of diversified work experience. Plant jobs require many skill levels. Some less skilled jobs that re quire repetitive work can be filled by workers with little or no training and learned quickly on the job. On the other hand, more skilled jobs re quire some combination of job re lated experience, high school or vo cational education, and on-the-job training. Many workers often start at trainee level positions and work their way up to the more skilled oc cupations. Skilled assemblers often need 2 to 4 years of plant experience in addi tion to a high school or vocational school education. They must be able to read and interpret engineering blueprints, schematic diagrams, and production illustrations. Skilled inspectors often have sev eral years of machine shop experi ence. They must be able to install and use various kinds of testing equipment and instruments, read blueprints and other specifications, and use shop mathematics. New workers who have little or no experi ence in shop trades also may obtain training for less skilled inspecting jobs. Mechanics who do final checkout of aircraft and spacecraft qualify for their job in several ways. Many gain experience working in earlier stages of the production line; others receive all their training in checkout work or as “line maintenance” mechanics with commercial airlines. Chief mechanics usually need 3 to 5 years of experience in the manu facture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, including at least 1 year as a checkout mechanic. Specialized mechanics, working under the super vision of a chief mechanic, usually need at least 2 years’ experience. Less experienced helpers or assist ants learn on the job through plant training courses. Apprenticeship programs are sometimes available for craftsmen such as machinists, tool and die makers, sheet-metal workers, air craft mechanics, or electricians. The programs vary in length from 3 to 5 years depending on the trade and during this time the apprentice handles work of progressively in creasing difficulty. Besides on-thejob training, the apprentice receives classroom instruction in subjects re lated to the craft. Such instruction for a machinist apprentice, for exam ple, includes courses in blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, trade theory, physics, and other subjects. Because complex and rapidlychanging products require highly trained workers, aerospace plants sometimes support formal training to supplement day-to-day experi ence and help workers advance more rapidly. Most are short-term programs to meet immediate needs. Some major producers conduct training classes or pay tuition and re lated costs for outside courses. Some classes are held during working hours; others may be after working hours. Training programs generally cover many skills and areas, for ex 647 ample, blueprint reading, drafting, welding, aircraft maintenance, and electronic data processing. Employment Outlook Employment in the aerospace in dustry is expected to rise above re cent levels by the mid-1980’s. The number of people working in this in dustry, however, probably will re main below the peak levels of the late 1960’s. Thousands of jobs will open each year because of the growth expected in the industry, and to replace workers who retire, die, and transfer to jobs in other industries. Job op portunities should be most favorable for highly-trained workers such as engineers and technicians. Some jobs will become available for skilled plant workers. However, employ ment of semiskilled and unskilled workers is expected to decrease, since many aerospace products are custom made. A large proportion of aerospace products are primarily for national defense and to advance the Nation’s goals in space. Therefore, the in dustry’s future depends largely on the level of Federal expenditures. Changes in these expenditures usual ly have been accompanied by sharp fluctuations in aerospace employ ment. For example, aerospace em ployment declined sharply from the high levels of the late 1960’s partly because of decreased aircraft re quirements for Vietnam and re duced expenditures for space explora tion. The current outlook for this in dustry is based on the assumption that defense spending will be slightly below the levels of the late 1960’s and R&D spending will be above current levels. If they should differ sub stantially, the outlook will be af fected accordingly. Growing demand for civilian air craft products also is an important 648 element underlying the expected in crease in aerospace employment. The increasing mobility of the popu lation should encourage expanded use of large wide-bodied commer cial aircraft and development of rapid air-taxi operations between major urban centers. Increased busi ness flying, expanded use of helicopters for such tasks as medical evacuation and traffic reporting, and exports of aircraft to foreign nations are some of the other major factors influencing the growth of civilian air craft manufacturing. Earnings and Working Conditions Plant workers’ earnings in the aer ospace industry are higher than those in most other manufacturing in dustries. In 1972, for example, pro duction workers in plants making aircraft and parts averaged $192 a week, or $4.60 an hour; production workers in all manufacturing in dustries as a whole averaged about $135 a week, or $3.60 an hour. The following tabulation indi cates an approximate range of hourly wages for selected occupations in 1972 obtained from the collective bargaining agreements of a number of major aerospace companies; these rates do not include incentive earn ings. The ranges in various jobs are wide, partly because wages within an occupation vary according to workers’ skills and experience, and partly because wages differ from plant to plant, depending upon type of plant, locality, and other factors. Aircraft mechanics ........ Assemblers....................... Electronics technicians .. Heat treaters ................... Inspectors and testers ... Jig and fixture builders .. Machinists ....................... Maintenance craftsmen .. Riveters ........................... Tool and die makers . . . . Welders............................. $4.00—5.70 $3.25-5.00 $4.50-6.00 $3.50—4.90 $3.30—5.75 $4.60—5.80 $3.70—5.70 $3.70—5.80 $3.50-4.20 $4.10—5.90 $3.50—5.25 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are represented by several unions in cluding the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio, and Ma chine Workers. Some craftsmen, guards, and truck drivers are members of unions that represent their specific occupational groups. Sources of Additional Information Fringe benefits in the industry usually include 2 weeks of paid va Additional information about cation after 1 or 2 years of service, careers in the aerospace Field is avail and 3 weeks after 10 to 12 years. able from: Employees generally get eight to Aeronautics and Space Ad twelve paid holidays a year and 1 National ministration, Washington, D.C. week of paid sick leave. Other major 20546. benefits include life insurance; medi Electronics Industries Association, cal, surgical, dental, and hospital in 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, surance; accident and sickness in D.C. 20006. surance; and retirement pensions. Most employees work in modern For specific information about an factory buildings that are clean, well- occupation contact: lit and ventilated. Some work out International Union, United Auto doors. Operations such as sheetmobile, Aerospace, and Agricul metal processing, riveting, and weld tural Implement Workers of ing may be noisy, and some assem America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., blers may work in cramped quarters. Detroit, Mich. 48214. Aerospace plants, however, are rela International Union of Electrical tively safe plants in which to work. Radio, and Machine Workers, Most plant workers in the aero AFL-CIO, CLC 1126 16th St. space field are union members. They NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY Aluminum was once considered a specialty metal having limited appli cations. Today it is produced in quantities second only to iron and steel. It is used in products that range from household appliances and cooking utensils to automobiles, air craft, and missiles. In recent years, many new uses for aluminum have been developed, including house sid ing, containers, and electrical cables. In 1972, the industry produced about 8.2 billion pounds of primary alumi num, or twice the output of only 10 years earlier. This chapter describes occupa tions in plants that produce primary aluminum and aluminum alloys. It also describes occupations in plants that roll, draw, and extrude alumi num and aluminum-base alloys. Oc cupations concerned with casting, forging, stamping, machining, and fabricating of aluminum are dis cussed separately in the Handbook statements dealing with forge shop, foundry, and metalworking oc cupations. The South Central area of the country, including Alabama, Arkan sas, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Tex as, leads in the production of pri mary aluminum, although the State of Washington is the Nation’s larg est producer. Plants within its borders represent about one-fifth of national primary aluminum capac ity. The North Central area, con sisting of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky, is the center for aluminum rolling, drawing, and ex truding plants. More than 95,000 persons worked in the aluminum industry in 1972. Employment was concentrated mainly in the rolling and extruding sector, although individual primary reduction plants in some cases em ployed more workers than rolling and extruding plants. Occupations in the Industry Employment in the aluminum in dustry falls into several categories. First, there is a wide assortment of jobs directly concerned with smelt ing (reduction) and transforming aluminum into industrial and con sumer products. Workers in another group of occupations maintain and service the complex machinery and equipment used in the manufac turing process. These two large groups include about three-fourths of the industry’s workers. The remain ing one-fourth are in clerical, sales, professional, technical, adminis trative, and supervisory positions. Women make up about 2 percent of the work force in primary alumi num plants and are mostly in secre tarial and other clerical occupa tions. In rolling and drawing plants, however, women make up 10 per cent of the work force, and are found in occupations such as sorter and in spector, as well as in clerical jobs. Processing Occupations. The largest proportion of employees in the aluminum industry are in factory jobs processing the metal. To illus trate the types of processing occupa tions found in the industry, a descrip tion of the major steps in the produc tion and fabricating of aluminum follows. Reduction. Aluminum is obtained from alumina, a dry, fine white powder processed from bauxite ore. The alumina is made into a solution in deep rectangular steel cells or “pots” lined with carbon. The pots contain molten cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride). Carbon blocks suspended in the solution or “bath” act as one pole (anode) and the car bon lining the pot as the other pole (cathode). Direct electrical current is sent through the solution, causing the alumina to change form (be re duced) to aluminum and accumulate in the bottom of the cell. Oxygen that has been driven from the alumina is converted to carbon dioxide. Anode men (D.O.T. 630.884) maintain the anodes on the reduc tion cells. They pull pins from the anodes by means of hydraulic pull ers, and clean scales from the pins using a sandblasting device. They may replace the pins using a steel driver. Pot liners (D.O.T. 519.884) re build the anodes and reline the reduc tion furnaces when burned out. To line the pot, they loosen the sedi ment with water and dig out the material using jackhammers or dig gers. Then they lay a brick base, drop carbon mix into the cell, line the walls and floor with carbon blocks, and finally tamp carbon paste into cracks using a pneumatic hammer. Potmen (D.O.T. 512.885) see that the pots operate continuously. Each potman tends a number of different cells. During the operation of the pot, the alumina gradually is con sumed. As the alumina content in the cells decreases, the potman breaks the crust of the “bath” and stirs in additional alumina. Every 24 to 72 hours, molten aluminum is siphoned from the bot tom of the reduction cells into huge cast-iron pots or “crucibles.” The tapper (D.O.T. 514.884) and tapper helper (D.O.T. 514.887) signal the 649 650 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Rolling mill operator oversees computerized cold rolling. hot-metal crane operator (D.O.T. 921.883) to place the overhead crane near the pot. Using an automatic pot puncher, they break a hole in the crust. One end of a curved cast iron tube is inserted into the pot, the other into a crucible. After a compressed air hose is attached to the siphon, the molten metal is drawn into the cruci ble. After several tappings, an over head crane moves the loaded cruci ble to a remelting or holding furnace. A scaleman (D.O.T. 502.887) weighs and samples the molten metal for laboratory analysis and sepa rates alloys to be blended with molten aluminum. Workers oper ating overhead cranes pour the molten metal in the crucible into a remelting furnace. A remelt oper ator (D.O.T. 512.885) adds portions of aluminum scrap, other molten metal, and alloys to obtain desired properties. Finally, a hand skimmer removes aluminum oxides forced to the surface of the molten metal by a fluxing compound. The metal is then transferred to the second or holding compartment of the furnace until a sufficient sup ply is obtained for pouring. The d.c. casting operator (D.O.T. 514.782) has charge of the pouring station where the molten metal is cast into ingots—large blocks of metal. The operator controls the cooling condi tions of the casting unit by main taining a constant level of metal in the molds and operates a series of in struments that spray water against the molds to produce ingots of uni form quality. Rolling and Finishing. Aluminum products such as plate, sheet, and strip are produced by rolling. The first step in rolling is to remove sur face impurities from the ingot. The scalper operator (D.O.T. 605.782) manipulates levers of a scalper machine and cuts thin layers of metal from the ingots. Heat treating brings the ingots to proper working temperatures for rolling. Workers operating overhead cranes lower them into furnaces, or “soaking pits,” where they are kept sealed for 12 to 18 hours. The soaking pit oper ator (D.O.T. 613.782) manages the furnace and controls the temper ature and heating time. The huge ingots are positioned on the “breakdown” or hot rolling mill where they are converted into elon gated slabs. Rolling mill operators (D.O.T. 613.782) manipulate the in gots back and forth between power ful rollers until they are reduced in thickness to about 3 inches. The slabs then move down the line on the rollers to additional hot mills that work them down to a thickness of 651 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY about one-eighth of an inch. At the end of the hotline, a coiler operator (D.O.T. 613.885) tends a coiler that automatically winds the metal onto reels. The coiled aluminum cools at room temperature before being cold rolled still thinner. Cold rolling pro duces a better surface finish and in creases the metal’s strength and hardness. Since continuous cold-roll ing could make the metal too brittle, an annealer (D.O.T. 504.782) occa sionally heat treats (anneals) the metal. After annealing, the metal may be further cold rolled to a specified thickness and again heat treated to soften it for future fabrication. Stretcher-leveler-operators (D.O.T. 619.782) and stretcher-leveler-operator helpers (D.O.T. 619.886) then position the finished plate or sheet in a stationary vise, determine the stretch required to remove surface contours, and operate the machine that pulls the metal from end to end. During both the production and fabricating processes, workers and machines inspect the metal to assure quality. Radiographers (D.O.T. 199.381) operate various types of Xray equipment to inspect the metal. Computers monitor operations and automatically adjust metal tempera ture and mill speed. In the rod and bar mill, square castings called “blooms” are heated to make them softer and then rolled through progressively smaller open ings, until the desired size is reached. To produce wire, hot rolling con tinues until the rod is about threeeighths of an inch in diameter. Then, wire draw operators (D.O.T. 614.782) operate machines that cold draw the wire through a series of dies that gradually reduce its diameter. The machine also automatically coils it on revolving reels. Structural shapes such as I-beams and angles may be hot-rolled or ex truded. Hot rolled structural are made by passing a square bloom with rounded corners between grooved rolls that gradually reduce the thick ness and change the shape of the metal. Extrusion. Extruding of metal often is compared with squeezing tooth paste from a tube. Extruded alumi num shapes are produced by placing heated billets (bars) in an enclosed cylinder in a powerful press. A hy draulic ram that usually has a force of several million pounds pushes the metal through a die at the other end of the cylinder. The metal takes the contour of the die in cross-section and then may be cut into desired lengths. By designing different dies, almost any shape of aluminum prod uct may be formed. An extrusion press operator (D.O.T. 614.782) regulates the rate at which the metal is forced through the press. Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. Large numbers of workers in the alumi num industry keep machines and equipment operating properly. Others move materials, supplies, and finished products throughout the plants; still others are in service oc cupations such as guard, policeman, and custodian. Many of these oc cupations are common to other in dustries. (See index to the Hand book.) Since electricity is vital in the reduction process, the industry needs many electricians to install elec trical fixtures, apparatus, and con trol equipment. Electronics mechan ics repair computers, industrial con trols, and other complex electronic gear. Mill worker operates machine that makes aluminum cable. 652 Millwrights move, maintain, and repair mechanical equipment. Maintenance machinists make and repair mechanical parts for plant machinery. Stationary engineers operate and maintain the powerplants, turbines, steam engines, and motors used in aluminum plants. Diemakers lay out, assemble, and repair dies used in aluminum metal working operations. Bricklayers build, rebuild, and reline boilers, fur naces, soaking pits, and similar in stallations. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and maintain piping and piping systems for steam, water, and industrial materials used in aluminum manufacture. Main tenance welders join metal parts by hand or machine riveting and by resistance welding and electric arc and gas welding. Professional, Technical, Adminis trative, and Clerical Occupations. Engineers, scientists, and tech nicians make up a significant propor tion of the industry’s workers in other types of activities. Companies employ quality con trol chemists to analyze the alumi num and the raw materials used in its production. Process metallurgists determine the most efficient methods of producing aluminum from raw materials. Physical metallurgists test aluminum and aluminum alloys to determine their physical character istics. They also develop new alloys and new uses for aluminum. Chemical engineers and mechan ical engineers design and supervise the construction and operation of reduction and fabricating facilities. Most mechanical engineers work in the fabricating sectors of the indus try, where they may design, regu late, and improve rolling mills and related equipment. Electrical engi neers plan and oversee the instal lation, operation, and maintenance of the electric generators and trans mission and distribution systems used in the manufacture of alumi num. Industrial engineers conduct work measurement studies and de velop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis. Engineering technicians, labora tory technicians, and chemical ana lysts assist engineers and chemists in research and development work. Draftsmen prepare the working drawings that are required for the manufacture and repair of reduction and fabricating machinery. A wide range of other profes sional and administrative workers are needed in the manufacture of aluminum. Top executives manage the companies and determine policy. Middleline managers and super intendents direct individual depart ments, offices, and operations. The industry also employs other adminis trative personnel and accountants, lawyers, statisticians, economists, and mathematicians. Clerical work ers, including bookkeepers, secre taries, stenographers, clerk typists, and keypunch and computer oper ators keep company records and do other routine office work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aluminum companies generally hire and train inexperienced work ers for processing and maintenance jobs. A bachelor’s degree is required for most professional jobs, and graduate degrees in science or engi neering are preferred for research and development work. Adminis trative and managerial positions usu ally are filled by workers who have engineering or science backgrounds and have been promoted to these jobs. Some new graduates who have degrees in business administration or liberal arts may fill entry level ad ministrative jobs. Sales positions OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK often are filled by persons with tech nical backgrounds. Applicants and current employees who demonstrate an aptitude for technical work have opportunities to qualify as technicians, laboratory assistants, and other semi-profes sionals. Some college background in engineering and science or gradu ation from a technical institute or community college is required for many technical jobs. An unskilled worker begins his career in a labor pool and substi tutes for absent workers until he be comes eligible for a permanent posi tion in a shop or department. As these workers acquire additional skills and seniority with the com pany, they usually move to more responsible and better paying posi tions. Former production and main tenance workers fill many foreman and supervisory jobs. Craftsmen usually are trained on the job. A number of companies, particularly the larger ones, have craftsmen apprenticeship programs that include classroom or home study courses, as well as on-the-job training. Generally, candidates for these programs are chosen from promising young workers already employed by the company. The length of the apprenticeship varies according to the craft, although most requires 3 to 4 years. Examples of crafts that can be learned through apprenticeship are: electrician, welder, brickmason, carpenter, machinist, maintenance mechanic, pipefitter, and general maintenance mechanic. Employment Outlook Employment in the industry is ex pected to rise moderately through the mid-1980’s, although the amount of aluminum produced annually is likely to increase much more rapidly. Most job opportunities will stem OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. Demand for aluminum is ex pected to continue to grow as popu lation increases and consumers have more money to spend on products made from aluminum. Industries that represent major markets for aluminum are growing industries with potential for new product development. For example, alumi num is being used widely in the con struction of large office and institu tional buildings and for residential construction and remodeling. Furthermore, the aluminum indus try supports a strong research and development program and an aggres sive marketing program which should continue to develop new al loys, processes, and products. As a result, the number of engineers, scientists, and technical personnel is expected to increase as a proportion of total employment. On the other hand, larger cell and plant capaci ties and technological develop ments, such as continuous casting and computer controlled rolling operations, will limit employment growth among some production oc cupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings of plant workers in the aluminum industry are higher than the average for manufacturing industries. In 1972, production work ers in primary aluminum plants aver aged $4.95 an hour, and those in aluminum rolling and drawings plants averaged $4.44. In compari son, production workers in manu facturing industries as a whole aver aged $3.81 an hour. Skilled operators and skilled maintenance and craft workers hold the highest-paying plant jobs. Hourly rates in 1972 for selected occupa 653 tions in a number of plants covered tures. The potroom is often hot, dus by one major union-management ty, and smoky. Working conditions contract are shown below. in reduction plants have been im proved as a result of fume control Hourly Occupation wage rate programs and other projects. The Reduction: fabricating side of the industry offers Anode m an........................... $ 4.16 more favorable work conditions Pot liner ............................... 4.61 though workers in certain jobs are Potman......................... 4.46 subject to heat, noise, and other dis 4.68 Tapper ................................. Scaleman ............................. 4.09 comforts. Because aluminum reduc tion is a continuous operation, some Fabricating: workers have to work nights and Scalper operator ................. 4.68 weekends. Soaking pit operator........... 4.31 The industry stresses safe work Hot mill operator, junior ... 4.61 ing conditions and conducts safety Continuous mill operator .. 5.12 Annealer........................ 4.31 education programs. Reduction Sheet stretcher-leveler plants have had a consistently lower operator ........................... 4.24 rate of injuries per manhour than Inspector........................ 4.31 plants that smelt and refine other pri Extrusion press operator ... 4.75 mary nonferrous metals, such as cop per and zinc. For example, in 1970 Maintenance: the injury-frequency rate in alumi Boiler Fireman ..................... 4.53 num reduction plants was about oneBricklayer..................... 5.12 third of the rate in copper smelting Welder, pipefitter, millright ........................... 5.05 plants and less than half the average Electrician, machinist.......... 5.27 rate for all manufacturing. The rate Aluminum workers receive many in aluminum rolling and drawing fringe benefits, such as paid vaca plants, however, is about one-fourth tions and holidays, retirement bene higher than the average rate for all fits, life and health insurance, shift manufacturing. differentials, supplemental jury-duty Most process and maintenance pay, and supplemental unemploy workers in the aluminum industry ment benefits. Most workers receive belong to labor unions. In addition, paid vacations ranging from 1 to 4 labor organizations represent some weeks, depending on length of serv office and technical personnel. The ice. In addition, there are extended unions having the greatest number of vacation plans that provide a 13- members in the industry are United Steelworkers of America; Alumi week vacation every 5 years. Salaried personnel generally re num Workers International Union; ceive benefits comparable to those and International Union, United for hourly employees. Starting sala Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul ries are determined by the job being tural Implement Workers of filled, the applicant’s qualifications, America. comparable area and industry wage scales, and the structure of the hour Sources of Additional ly pay scale at the plant. Graduates Information of accredited colleges receive good starting salaries, and engineering Information on aluminum produc graduates usually receive the highest tion and uses, as well as careers, may be obtained from: offers. The reduction of alumina to The Aluminum Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. aluminum requires high tempera OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY The apparel industry is an impor tant source of jobs for workers who have widely different skills and inter ests. Many of these jobs can be learn ed in a few weeks; others take sev eral years. Nature and Location of the Industry About 1.3 million people were em ployed in the apparel industry in 1972. Approximately 585,000 pro duced women’s and children’s ap parel and about 490,000 men’s. The rest made various items including fur goods, gloves, hats, curtains, and draperies. The apparel industry is the largest employer of women in manufactur ing. Four out of Five workers in the industry are women. Although apparel factories are lo cated in nearly all States, about 80 percent of the workers are employed in 15 States: New York, Pennsyl vania, California, North Carolina, New Jersey, Georgia, Texas, Ten nessee, Massachusetts, South Caro lina, Alabama, Mississippi, Vir ginia, Missouri, and Illinois. Some of the important North eastern apparel manufacturing centers are in the New York CitySuburban New Jersey, Boston, and Philadelphia industrial areas, and in smaller cities in Pennsylvania such as Wilkes-Barre, Hazelton, and Allen town. Leading Midwestern and Western centers include Chicago, St. Louis, Dallas, El Paso, San An tonio, and Los Angeles. Apparel manufacturing in the Southeast tends to be widely dispersed. North 654 Carolina, for example, has plants in about 80 of its 101 counties. Most apparel plants are small. Only about 1 out of every 7 employs more than 100 workers. Plants that manufacture standard garments such as work pants usually are larger than those making expensive dresses and other items that are subject to rapid style change. Occupations In the Industry The major operations in making apparel are designing the garment, cutting the cloth, sewing the pieces together, and pressing. Generally, high grade and style-oriented ap parel is more carefully designed and involves more handwork than cheaper, more standardized items. For example, much hand-detailing goes into a fashionable cocktail dress or a high-priced suit or coat, while apparel such as undershirts and over alls usually are sewn entirely by ma chine. To make the many different kinds of garments, workers with various skills and educational back grounds are needed. Designing Room Occupations: Typ ically, the manufacturing process begins with the designer (D.O.T. 142.081), who creates new types and styles of apparel. Inspiration for a new design may come from any of a variety of experiences: traveling, ob serving life styles, and seeing the work of other designers, to name but a few. In addition to creativity, de signers must have practical knowl edge of the apparel business so that they can translate their ideas into styles that can be produced at corn- OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY petitive prices. They must, for exam ple, be familiar with labor costs for various factory operations such as cutting, sewing, and pressing. A large manufacturer generally has a head designer and several as sistants. Many small firms, how ever, do not employ designers but purchase ready-made designs or patterns. A designer usually works with one type of apparel, such as suits or dresses, although some work with several. For a high-quality dress, de signers start by drawing sketches and choosing fabrics, trim, and colors. Using these sketches as guides, de signers and their assistants make an experimental dress. They cut mate rials and pin, sew, and adjust the dress on a form or a live model until it matches the sketch. Sample makers (D.O.T. 785.385) use this experimental dress as a guide in cutting and sewing fabrics to make a finished sample of the dress. After management has approved the sam ple, a pattern maker (D.O.T. 781.381) constructs a master pat tern. Working closely with the de signer, the pattern maker translates the sketch or sample dress into paper or fiberboard pieces, each one repre senting a part of the garment. A pattern grader (D.O.T. 781.381) measures the pieces that make up this master pattern, and modifies them to fit various sizes. Some large plants use computers to reduce the time needed to draw up the patterns for each size. Styles for many items, such as men’s suits and jackets, do not change significantly from year to year; thus, some of the steps de scribed above are not required. A de signer may alter the style of a suit, for example, by simply making minor changes on the master pat tern. Before making such changes, however, the designer must be able to sketch or mentally picture how the total appearance of the suit will be affected. Cutting Room Occupations. Workers in the cutting room prepare cloth for sewing. There are five basic operations in the cutting depart ment: spreading, marking, cutting, assembling, and ticketing. Small shops may combine two or more of these operations into a single job. Hand spreaders (D.O.T. 781.887) lay out bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting table. Ma chine spreaders (D.O.T. 781.884) are aided by machines in laying the cloth evenly across the table. Markers (D.O.T. 781.484) trace the fiberboard pattern pieces on large sheets of paper, and may make several carbons of these tracings. In some cases they trace the pattern pieces with chalk directly on the cloth itself, rather than on paper. To get the greatest number of garments from a minimum quantity of cloth, markers arrange pattern pieces so that there is just enough distance be tween them for the cutter to work. A cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts out the various garment pieces from 655 layers of cloth. Sometimes these layers are as high as 9 inches. The cutter follows the outline of the pat tern on the cloth with an electrically powered knife which cuts through all the layers at once. The work of a cutter and a marker frequently is combined into a single job. The pieces of cloth that have been cut are prepared for the sewing room by another group of specialized workers. Assemblers, sometimes called bundlers or fitters (D.O.T. 781.687), bring together and bundle the pieces and accessories (linings, tapes, and trimmings) needed to make a complete garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark lo cations for pockets, buttonholes, but tons, and other trimmings. They identify each bundle with a ticket, which is also used to figure the earn ings of workers who are paid ac cording to the number of pieces they produce. The bundles are then routed to the various sections of the sewing room. Cutter directs electrically powered knife through many layers of cloth. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 656 Sewing Room Occupations: About 2 out of every 5 apparel workers are handsewers and sewing machine operators. Expensive garments and finishing touches on moderate-priced clothing may need much hand sew ing. Most sewing, however, is done with machines. Sewing machine operators (D.O.T. 787.782) use machines that are heavier and run faster than the ones found in the home. These workers generally specialize in a single operation such as sewing shoulder seams, attaching cuffs to sleeves, or hemming blouses. Some make sections such as pockets, col lars, or sleeves; others assemble and join these completed sections to the main parts of the garment. Sewing machine operators gen erally are classified by type of ma chine they use, such as single-needle sewing machine operator or blindstitch machine operator, and by the type of work performed, such as collar stitcher or sleeve finisher. Most hand sewing is done on better quality or highly-styled dresses, suits, and coats. Hand sewers (D.O.T. 782.884) use needle and thread to perform various opera tions ranging from simple sewing to complex stitching. Many hand sewers specialize in a single opera tion, such as lapel-basting or liningstitching. Instead of being sewn, parts such as collars and lapels may be “fused” together by heat and pressure. A fus ing machine operator places the gar ment part on a loading platform of a fusing press which is adjusted to app ly the precise amount of pressure and temperature needed for a permanent bond. In a typical apparel plant, bundles of cut garment pieces move through the sewing department, where the garments take form as they pass through a series of sewing opera tions. Each operator performs one or Sewing machine operator on special machine. two assigned tasks on each piece in the bundle and then passes the bun dle to the next operator. Many plants employ material handlers (D.O.T. 929.887) often called floor boys or floor girls who move garment bundles from one sewing operation to another. At various stages of the sewing operations, inspectors and checkers (D.O.T. 789.687) examine garments for proper workmanship. They mark defects, such as skipped stitches or bad seams, which are repaired be fore the garments are passed on to the next sewing operation. Inspec tors sometimes make minor repairs. Trimmers, hand (D.O.T. 781.887), often called thread trimmers and cleaners, remove loose threads, bast ing stitches, and lint from garments. This is called “in-process inspec tion.” Tailoring Occupations. Tailors (D.O.T. 785.261 and.381) and dress makers (D.O.T. 785.361) are skilled workers who do difficult kinds of hand and machine sewing. Most of them are employed in making ex pensive clothing that needs precise shaping and finishing. Although some tailors and dressmakers make complete garments, most specialize in a few operations such as collar set ting and lapel padding. Bushelmen (D.O.T. 785.281) are tailors who repair defects in finished garments rejected by the inspector. They alter parts that have not been sewn correctly, rearrange padding in coats and suits, and do other sewing necessary to correct defects. Pressing Occupations. The shape and appearance of the finished garments depend, to a large extent, on the pressing that is done during and after sewing operations. Pressers (D.O.T. 363.782, .884, and .885) use various types of steam pressing machines, and may work with manikins and body forms, or use hand irons to flatten seams and to shape parts and finished gar ments. There are two basic types of pressers—underpressers and finish pressers. Underpressers specialize on particular garment parts, such as collars, shoulders, seams, or pockets. Their duties vary from simple smoothing of cloth and flattening of seams to skillful shaping of garment parts. Finish pressers generally do final pressing and ironing at the end of the sewing operations. Fur Shop Occupations. Because furs are expensive and difficult to work with, each operation in making a fur garment requires an experienced craftsman. Many of these workers have special skills not found in plants that make other types of apparel. The most skilled craftsman in a fur garment plant is the cutter, who also may be the foreman. A fur cutter (D.O.T. 783.781) selects and matches enough fur skins to make a single garment, such as a coat or OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY jacket, and arranges and cuts the skins on pattern pieces so that the choice sections of fur are placed where they will show. Following the sewing instructions given by the cutter, fur machine operators (D.O.T. 787.782) stitch these pelts together to make garment sections. A fur nailer (D.O.T. 783.884) wets the sewn garment sections, stretches them by hand, and nails them on a board so that they will cover the pat tern. When the sections are dry, this worker removes the nails and trims the fur exactly along the outline of the pattern. The fur machine opera tor then Finishes sewing the various sections to complete the garment. Fur finishers (D.O.T. 783.381) sew in the lining, tape edges, make pockets, and sew on buttons and loops. Administrative, Sales, and Mainte nance Occupations. Most adminis trative positions in an apparel plant are in the production department. Production managers are respon sible for estimating production costs, scheduling the flow of work, hiring and training workers, controlling quality, and supervising the overall production activities of the plant. In some small apparel Firms, the pro duction manager also is a designer. Industrial engineers advise man agement about the efficient use of machines, materials, and workers. (Further discussion of industrial en gineers is included elsewhere in the Handbook.) Clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra phers, and other office workers make up payrolls, prepare invoices, keep records, and attend to other paper work. In some large plants, many clerical functions are handled with computers. This requires keypunch operators, computer programmers and operators, and systems analysts. Salesmen, purchasing agents, models, accountants, and sewing ma chine mechanics are among other types of workers in the apparel in dustry. (Discussions of many of these jobs can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most production (plant) workers in the apparel industry pick up their skills on the job by helping and ob serving experienced workers. Train ing time ranges from a few weeks to several years, depending on the type of occupation, the worker’s apti tude, and the employer’s training programs. A relatively small number of employees are trained in formal apprenticeship programs for highly skilled occupations, such as cutter and tailor. Apprenticeships include both classroom and on-the-job train ing. Some private and public schools in apparel manufacturing centers offer courses in patternmaking, cut ting, and tailoring, as well as ma chine and hand sewing. Students who complete these courses, however, usually need additional on-the-job training. Many production occupations are well suited for the handicapped and the aged, because the work is done while the worker is seated. Little physical effort is required. Good eye sight and manual dexterity, how ever, usually are required. Entry into beginning hand or ma chine-sewing jobs is relatively easy, since there are few restrictions re garding education and physical con dition. New workers start by sewing straight seams, under the super vision of a skilled worker or fore man, and progress to more compli cated sewing as they gain experi ence. Many large companies have special on-the-job training pro grams for sewing machine opera tors. The operator is taught how to perform each operation with mini mal Finger, arm, and body move 657 ment. The ability to do routine work rapidly is essential, since nearly all sewers are paid by the number of pieces they produce. Some sewers advance to other jobs in the plant, such as tailor or dressmaker; others become foremen. Most sewers, how ever, stay on the same general opera tion throughout their working lives and can look forward only to mov ing from simple sewing tasks to more complicated ones that pay higher piece rates. New workers usually enter the cut ting room by taking jobs as assem blers (bundlers or Fitters). Patience and the ability to match colors are necessary for these jobs. An assem bler may be promoted to spreader, and after a few years, to marker or cutter. Pattern graders usually are se lected from employees working in the cutting room or in other plant jobs. Training in drafting is helpful since much of the work requires the use of drafting tools and techniques. Most patternmakers pick up the skills of the trade by working for sev eral years as helpers to experienced patternmakers. Cutters and pattern graders are occasionally promoted to patternmaking. Patternmakers must be able to visualize from a sketch or model the size, shape, and number of pattern pieces required for a partic ular garment. They also must have a knowledge of fabrics, body propor tions, and garment construction. For beginning tailor and dress making jobs, many employers prefer to hire vocational school graduates who have had courses in these sub jects. With a few years of additional apprenticeship or informal on-thejob training, graduates can qualify as skilled craftsmen. Some of these workers eventually become de signers or supervisors. They can also transfer to jobs outside the apparel manufacturing industry as Fitters and alteration tailors in clothing stores and drycleaning shops. Pressers usually begin as underpressers, working on simple seams and garment parts. Underpressing can be learned in a short time, and the worker can progress to the more difficult job of finish presser. These workers also can transfer to press ing jobs in drycleaning shops. Many apparel firms prefer to re cruit designers from colleges that offer specialized training in this field. Young graduates usually start as as sistant designers. Some designers, however, have come up through the ranks by advancing from cutting, patternmaking, or tailoring jobs. Designers should have a thorough knowledge of fabrics, a keen sense of color, and the ability to translate de sign ideas into a finished garment. They should also acquaint them selves with garment making tech niques by working briefly in various plant jobs, such as sample making, cutting, and machine sewing. De signers should know how to sketch. A production manager usually be gins as a management trainee, and an industrial engineer as a junior en gineer. A college education increas ingly is being required for these jobs. For those without college, many years of on-the-job training in all production processes, ranging from selection of fabrics to shipment of finished apparel, are required to qualify as a production manager. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK job openings each year are expected from retirements and deaths alone. Demand for apparel in the years ahead is expected to increase as pop ulation and incomes continue to grow. The industry’s greater empha sis on styling also may stimulate de mand. Because of imported cloth ing, however, domestic production probably will not rise as fast as de mand. Employment in the industry is not expected to keep up with the pro duction of apparel, because new mechanized equipment and im proved methods of production and distribution are expected to result in greater output per worker. Ex amples of laborsaving equipment in clude sewing machines that can posi tion needles and trim threads auto matically; devices that automati cally position fabric pieces under the needle and remove and stack com pleted pieces; and computer-con trolled pattern making, grading, and cutting. Computers also are improv ing managerial control over sales, in ventories, shipping, and production. Despite technological advances in equipment, apparel manufacturing operations will continue to require much manual labor. Most employ ment opportunities will be for sew ing machine operators, because this occupational group is the largest in the industry. Some job openings also will arise for pressers and designing and cutting room workers. Opportunities will be numerous for engineers, fabric buyers, produc tion managers, salesmen, and sew ing machine mechanics. Young peo ple who plan to become designers will face keen competition, because the number of people trying to get Employment Outlook Apparel industry employment is expected to grow slowly through the mid-1980’s. Most job openings, how ever, will arise because of the need to replace workers who leave the in dustry. About 80 percent of the in dustry’s employees are women, a large proportion of whom leave their jobs to marry or raise families. Also, a large number of the employees are near retirement age. Thousands of Sewing machine operators in garment shop. OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY into this field exceeds the number of available jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, production workers in the apparel industry averaged $2.61 an hour, compared with $3.81 an hour for those in all manufacturing in dustries. Production workers in the apparel industry worked fewer hours per week than those in manufactur ing as a whole. Average hourly earnings of pro duction workers in 1972 varied among different kinds of apparel plants, ranging from $2.16 in plants that made men’s and boys’ workclothing to $3.26 in those that made men’s and boys’ suits and coats. Earnings of apparel workers also varied by occupation and geo graphical area. For example, aver age earnings of cutters and markers in almost all areas were higher than those of sewing machine operators; and earnings of all apparel workers generally were lower in the South than in the Northeast. The ac companying tabulation gives esti mated average hourly earnings in 1971 for selected occupations and ge ographical areas in one segment of the apparel industry. Because most production workers in the apparel industry are paid for the number of pieces they produce, their total earnings depend upon speed as well as skill. Many apparel workers are union members, particularly those who work in metropolitan areas. The Women’s and Misses dresses All production workers..................................... Cutters and markers ................................. Pressers, hand ............................................ Sewers, hand .............................................. Sewing machine operators, section system ....................................... Sewing machine operators, single hand (tailor) system...................................................... major unions in this industry are the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, and the United Garment Workers of America. Some of these unions spon sor health care and child day care centers, cooperative housing, and va cation resorts for the benefit of their members. Workers may be laid off for sev eral weeks during slack seasons, par ticularly in plants that make sea sonal garments, such as women’s coats and suits. Employment is usually more stable in plants that produce standardized garments, such as pajamas and men’s shirts, which are worn all year. In many plants, the available work during slack periods is divided so that all workers can be assured of at least some earn ings. While many plants are housed in old buildings, others are located in modern buildings that have ample work space, good lighting, and air conditioning. Because most employees sit when they sew, the work is not physically strenuous, but the pace is rapid and many tasks are monotonous. A sewer may occasionally pierce a finger with a needle, but serious ac cidents are rare. Working conditions in cutting and designing rooms are pleasant. These rooms often are in a separate area of the plant, away from the hustle and bustle of the sewing and pressing operations. Designing and cutting jobs are more interesting and less Estimated average hourly earnings Los AngelesLong Beach Dallas New York City $ 3.79 . S 2.55 $ 2.19 4.19 3.04 5.23 2.67 1.92 7.12 2.14 2.03 3.22 2.33 2.22 3.45 2.65 2.04 3.78 659 monotonous than most other ap parel jobs. Sources of Additional Information Information on vocational and high schools that offer training in de signing, tailoring, and sewing may be obtained from the Division of Voca tional Education of the Department of Education in each State capital. Information on apprenticeships may be obtained from the Ap prenticeship Council of the State Labor Department or the local of fices of State employment services. Some local Employment Service of fices give tests to determine apti tudes that are important for many apparel industry jobs. General information on jobs in the industry may be obtained from the following sources: Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 15 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. American Apparel Manufacturers As sociation, 1611 North Kent St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Associated Fur Manufacturers, Inc., 101 West 30th St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Clothing Manufacturers Association of U.S.A., 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. National Outerwear and Sportswear Association, Inc., 347 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, 1710 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. United Garment Workers of America, 31 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. International Association of Clothing Designers, 12 South 12th St., Phila delphia, Pa. 19107. National Board of the Coat and Suit Industry, 450 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y. 10001. National Dress Manufacturers’ As sociation, Inc., 570 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y. 10018. atomic energy is in the use of radio isotopes which decay or disintegrate spontaneously. These radioisotopes emit radiation that special instruments’ suc^as Sickness gauges, can OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY detect, and are valuable research FIELD tools in environmental studies, agriculture, medicine, and industry. Atomic energy is a source of heat eliminating refueling, nuclear How Atomic Energy and radiation that can be used for propulsion extends the range and Is Produced peaceful as well as military pur mobility of our naval forces. poses. Although peaceful applica Although existing reactors al Although there are several proc tions have been expanding more ready generate huge quantities of esses for producing atomic or rapidly in recent years, they are still power from a small amount of urani nuclear energy, the most common in the early stages of development, um, more efficient reactors may be method used today is the fusion and continuing research and develop operational by the mid-1980’s. process. It involves splitting ura ment programs will be needed dur Scientists have produced uncon nium or plutonium nucleus under ing the next several decades to find trolled fusion in the hydrogen bomb, neutron bombardment. When neu new and more efficient ways of utiliz but have not yet produced a con trons emitted from this fission proc trolled fusion reaction on a rela ess bombard other nuclei, further fis ing this energy. sion takes place and, under proper In 1972, more than 235,000 people tively small scale. conditions, results in a “chain” reac worked in atomic energy activities. As part of the U.S. Atomic tion. This reaction releases energy Large numbers did research and Energy Commission’s (AEC) “Plow which is converted into power. The development work. Others worked in share” program, research is under detonation of an atomic bomb is an industries that manufacture nuclear way to develop peaceful uses for application of the explosive release weapons and other defense mate nuclear explosives. The program has of atomic energy. However, this rials, nuclear reactors, and nuclear potential applications in areas such energy must be controlled for com fuels. Most atomic energy workers as gas and oil recovery, and the ex are scientists, engineers, tech cavation of harbors, canals, and mercial uses. mountain passes. nicians, and craftsmen. Controlled fission is the essential Another significant application of feature of a nuclear reactor. The reApplications of Atomic Energy One significant use of atomic energy is the production of commer cial electricity by nuclear reactors. (See chart—.) Steam produced by re actors now generates electricity for several communities. These reactors have become competitive with sys tems that use fossil fuels (such as coal and oil), and approximately 160 nuclear facilities will be built by the mid-1980’s. Dual-purpose nuclear power-desalting plants, which would provide at the same time both a new source of fresh water and electric power, are being studied. Nuclear reactors also power sub marines and surface vessels. By 660 Nuclear Reactor Generating Electricity Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 21 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD actor is like a furnace, and needs fuel to operate. The principal source material for reactor fuel is uranium 235. Uranium in its natural state contains less than 1 percent of read ily fissionable material, uranium U235. Although natural uranium is sometimes used as reactor fuel, a more concentrated and enriched fuel is produced and used by increasing the proportion of U-235 isotopes through a process called gaseous dif fusion. The rate of fission and energy produced in a nuclear reactor usu ally is controlled by inserting special neutron-absorbing rods into the fuel chamber or “core.” When atomic energy is used com mercially for power, the heat gener ated must be converted to electricity by conventional equipment. The major difference between nuclear and conventional thermal electric power stations is that the steam to drive turbines comes from a nuclear reactor rather than from a conven tional one. Fission releases nuclear radiation that ruins equipment and is danger ous to unprotected personnel. There fore, special radiation resistant materials are used in reactors and caution is taken to protect personnel. Nature of the Atomic Energy Field Many kinds of research and indus trial activities are required for the production and use of nuclear energy. These processes include the mining, milling, and refining of ura nium-bearing ores; the production of nuclear fuels; the manufacture of nuclear reactors, reactor compo nents, and nuclear instruments; the production of special materials for use in reactors; the design, engineer ing, and construction of nuclear facilities, the operation and main tenance of nuclear reactors; the dis posal of radioisotopes; the produc tion of nuclear weapons; and re search and development work. These activities take place in plants, laboratories, and other facil ities. Some work, such as mining and milling, manufacturing heat transfer equipment, and constructing facil ities, differs little from similar work in other Fields. Other activities, how ever, such as producing fuels needed to run reactors, are unique to the atomic energy Field. The Federal Government sup ports most of the basic atomic energy activities even though private support has been increasing. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program and regu lates the use of nuclear materials by private organizations. The oper ation of AEC-owned facilities, in cluding laboratories, uranium proc 661 essing plants, nuclear reactors, and weapons manufacturing plants, is contracted to private organizations. More than half of all workers in the atomic energy Field are employed in government-owned facilities. Pri vately owned facilities do all types of atomic energy work except for the development and production of mili tary weapons and certain nuclear fuel-processing operations. A large amount of research and develop ment work is carried out in AECowned laboratories, university and college laboratories, nonproFit in stitutions, and industrial organiza tions under AEC contracts. Occupations in the Atomic Energy Field Engineers, scientists, technicians, and craftsmen account for a higher 662 proportion of total employment in this field than in most others, mainly because much of the work is still in the research and development phase. Office personnel in administrative and clerical jobs represent another large group. Most of the remainder are semiskilled and unskilled work ers involved in production oper ations, plant protection, and services. Although many engineers work ing in the atomic energy field are trained in nuclear technology, engi neers in all other fields are em ployed. Mechanical engineers are the largest single group but many elec trical and electronic, chemical, civil, and metallurgical engineers also are employed. Many of these engineers OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK do research and development work; others design nuclear reactors, nuclear instruments, and other equipment. Research laboratories and other organizations that do atomic energy work employ scientists in basic and applied nuclear research. Most are physicists and chem ists, but mathematicians, biological scien tists, and metallurgists also do atomic energy research. Large numbers of technicians assist engineers and scientists in re search and development and in designing and testing equipment and materials. These workers include draftsmen, engineering and physical science technicians, and radiation monitors. Many highly-skilled workers build equipment for experimental and pilot work and maintain the complex equipment and machinery. Mainte nance mechanics and all-round machinists work in most atomic energy activities, as do electricians, plumbers, pipefitters, and other craftsmen and chemical process operators. Activities in the Atomic Energy Field The following briefly describes some important atomic energy activ ities and their workers. Uranium Exploration and Mining. The 6,500 people employed in ura nium exploration and mining in 1972 had jobs similar to those in mining of other metallic ores. They mainly work in the Colorado Plateau area of the Far West, in the States of New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. A relatively few mines account for the bulk of production and employment. Most workers in uranium mines are in production jobs such as miners and drillers in underground mines, and truck driv ers, bulldozer operators, and machine loaders at open pit mines. About 1 out of 8 employees in ura nium exploration and mining is in a professional job, such as mining engineer or geologist. Uranium Ore Milling. In uranium mills, metallurgical and chemical processes are used to extract ura nium from mined ore. Uranium mills, located primarily in the Colorado Plateau, employed about 1,600 workers in 1972. These mills employ skilled machinery repairmen, millwrights, pipefitters, carpenters, electricians, and chemical process operators. A small proportion of those working in OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD milling operations are scientists and engineers. Uranium Refining and Enriching. Milled uranium is chemically proc essed to remove impurities and con verted to metal or intermediate chemical products for reactor fuel preparation. Conventional chemical and metallurgical processes are used, but they must meet more exacting standards than in most other indus tries. The output of refining plants may be further processed to obtain enriched uranium. Activity in this segment of the atomic energy field is centered in Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois. In 1972 uranium refining and enriching plants employed about 7,200 workers. Maintenance craftsmen, particu larly in the highly automated ura nium enriching plants, account for a large proportion of skilled workers. Large numbers of chemical process operators also are employed. Chemi cal engineers and chemists account for more than a third of the engi neers and scientists. Many of the technicians work in the chemical laboratories associated with produc tion processes. Reactor Manufacturing. About 23,500 people were employed in the de sign and manufacturing of nuclear reactors and reactor parts in 1972. Reactor manufacturers do extensive development work on reactors and auxiliary equipment, design the reac tor, and generally build most of the intricate components, such as fuel elements, control rods, and reactor cores. More than two-fifths of the employees in firms that design and manufacture reactors are scientists, engineers, and technicians. Engi neers alone represent more than onequarter of the employment. Most are mechanical engineers and reactor engineers who specialize in reactor 663 Workmen load cylinders of enriched uranium for shipment. technology. Most of the scientists are physicists, but many chemists, mathematicians, and metallurgists also are employed. Assisting these engineers and scientists are many draftsmen, engineering aids, and physical science technicians. Skilled workers, mostly all-round machinists, are employed by reactor manufacturers in experimental, production, and maintenance work. Other craftsmen such as sheet metal workers, instrument makers, machinery repairmen, instrument repairmen, and electricians also are employed. Reactor manufacturers employ nuclear reactor operators to operate experimental and test reac tors. Reactor Operation and Main tenance. Almost 4,800 workers oper ated and maintained nuclear reac tors in 1972. Nuclear power stations employ mechanical, electrical and electronic engineers, instrument and electronic technicians, radiation monitors, reactor operators, and other plant operators and attend ants. Machinery and instrument repairmen, electricians, and pipe fitters maintain and repair the reac tors. Research and Development Facil ities. A number of research' and development laboratories are oper ated for the AEC by universities and industrial concerns. These facilities are major centers for basic and ap plied nuclear research in engineer ing, physical and the life sciences, and in the development of nuclear reactors and other nuclear equip 664 ment. More than half of the 42,500 employed in AEC research and development facilities are engineers, scientists, and supporting tech nicians, including radiation monitors. Administrative and clerical work ers account for a large proportion of employment. Skilled workers in clude large numbers of machinists, electricians, machinery repairmen, and millwrights, and many tool and die makers, instrument makers, and pipefitters. Nuclear reactor oper ators operate research and test re actors and many service workers are employed in plant protection and security operations. Although most nuclear energy re search is in AEC research and development facilities, additional re search is done in privately owned re search laboratories of educational in stitutions, other nonprofit institu tions, and industrial concerns. Like the AEC facilities, these labora tories employ a large proportion of workers, nearly 3 out of 4, in scien tific, engineering, and other tech nical jobs. Production of Nuclear Weapons and Other Defense Materials. Establish ments that produce nuclear weapons and weapon components, pluto nium, and other defense materials employed more than 32,000 people in 1972. Skilled workers include large numbers of machinery repair men and millwrights, chemical proc ess operators, machinists, elec tricians, instrument repairmen, pipe fitters, tool and die makers, and in strument makers. Among the large number of scien tists and engineers employed at these facilities are chemists, physicists, and mechanical, chemical, and electrical and electronic engineers. Many engi neering and physical science aids, draftsmen, radiation monitors, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK electronic technicians assist scien tists and engineers. Other Atomic Energy Activities. Nearly 1,400 workers produce spe cial materials such as beryllium, zir conium, and hafnium for use in reac tors. About 6,000 workers are in companies that make reactor con trol instruments, radiation detection and monitoring devices, and other in struments. Production of these in struments is similar to other instru ment manufacturing. Large num bers of engineers and technicians are employed in these industries. More than 800 people were em ployed by manufacturers of particle accelerators and their specialized components. Particle accelerators enable scientists to study the struc ture and properties of elementary particles in the nucleus of an atom. Workers employed in the design and manufacture of these machines in clude mechanical, electrical and elec tronic engineers, physicists, drafts men, electronic technicians, and machinists. Other workers process and pack age radioisotopes, produce radiog raphy units and radiation gauges and package and dispose of radioactive wastes. Government Employment. The Atomic Energy Commission, which Plant ecologists investigate radio-activity in the soil. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program, employed more than 7,200 workers in its head quarters and Field offices in 1972. About 1,800 were scientists and engi neers. Since the AEC is primarily an adimistrative and regulatory agency, nearly 9 out of 10 employees are in administrative, professional, or cleri cal jobs. Several thousand employ ees are engaged in atomic energy work in other Federal agencies and in regulatory and promotional activ ities of State and local governments. Unique Atomic Energy Occupa tions. Most of the occupations dis cussed in the preceding sections are similar to those found in other indus trial activities, although they may have job titles unique to the atomic energy Field (such as nuclear engi neer, radiation chemist, and nuclear reactor operator) and require some specialized knowledge of atomic energy. (A detailed discussion of the duties, training, and employment outlook for most of these occupa tions appears elsewhere in the Hand book.) The health physics occupations, which are unique to the atomic energy Field, and some other occupa tions that require training in the Field, or in the handling and use of radioactive materials or radiationproducing equipment, are discussed briefly in the following sections. Health physicists (sometimes call ed radiation or radiological physi cists or chemists) detect radiation and apply safety standards to con trol exposure to it. In 1972 nearly 1,200 health physicists were employed in radiation protection work, re search, or teaching. Health physicists are responsible for planning and organizing radio logical health programs at atomic energy facilities. They establish in spection standards and determine procedures for protecting employees and eliminating radiological haz ards. Some supervise the inspection of work areas with potential radia tion hazards and prepare instruc tions covering safe work procedures. Health physicists also plan and supervise training programs dealing with radiation hazards and advise others on methods of dealing with them. In some cases, they are em ployed on research projects dealing with the effects of human exposure to radiation and may develop proce dures for using radioactive materials. Radiation monitors (also called health-physics technicians) gener ally work under the supervision of health physicists. An estimated 1,800 radiation monitors were employed in the atomic energy Field in 1972. They use special instruments to monitor work areas and equipment to detect radioactive contamination. Soil, water, and air samples are taken fre quently to determine radiation levels. Monitors also may collect and ana lyze radiation detectors, such as Film badges and pocket detection cham bers, worn by workers. 665 Radiation monitors inform their supervisors when a worker’s ex posure to radiation or the level of radiation in a work area approaches a maximum limit and recommend work stoppage. They calculate the amount of time that personnel may work in contaminated areas, consid ering maximum radiation exposure limits and the radiation level. Moni tors also give instructions in radia tion safety procedures and prescribe special clothing requirements and other safety precautions for workers entering radiation zones. Nuclear reactor operators per form work in nuclear power stations similar to that of boiler operators in conventional ones, however, the con trols operated are different. In addi tion, they may assist in the loading and unloading of reactor cores. Nuclear reactor operators who work with research and test reactors check reactor control panels and adjust controls to maintain specified oper ating conditions within the reactor. Nearly 1,500 people worked as Health physics technician counting routine smear surveys obtained from plant site. 666 nuclear reactor operators in 1972. Accelerator operators set up and coordinate the operation of particle accelerators. They adjust machine controls to accelerate electrically charged particles, based on instruc tions from the scientist in charge of the experiment, and set up target materials that are to be bombarded by the particles. They also may help maintain equipment. Radiographers take radiographs of metal castings, welds, and other objects by adjusting the controls of an X-ray machine, or by exposing a source of radioactivity to the object to be radiographed. They select the proper type of radiation source and film and use standard mathematical formulas to determine exposure dis tance and time. While taking radio graphs, they use radiation detection instruments to monitor the work area for potential radiation hazards. Radiographers also may remove and develop the film plates and assist in their analysis. Hot-cell technicians operate remote-controlled equipment to test radioactive materials that are placed in hot cells—rooms enclosed with radiation shielding materials such as lead and concrete. By controlling “slave manipulators” (mechanical devices that act as a pair of arms and hands) from outside the cell and ob serving their actions through the cell window, these technicians perform standard chemical and metallurgical operations with radioactive mate rials. Hot-cell technicians also may enter the cell wearing protective clothing to set up experiments or to decontaminate the cell and equip ment. Decontamination men have the primary duty of decontaminat ing equipment, plant areas, and materials exposed to radiation. They use radiation-detection instruments to locate the contamination; elimi nate it by the use of special equip ment, detergents, and chemicals; and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK then verify the effectiveness of the process. Waste-treatment operators operate heat exchange units, pumps, compressors, and other equipment to decontaminate and dispose of radio active waste liquids. Waste-disposal men seal contaminated wastes in concrete containers and transport the containers to a burial ground. Radioisotope-production oper ators use remote control manipu lators and other equipment to pre pare radioisotopes for shipping and perform chemical analyses to ensure that radioisotopes conform to specifications. Training and Other Qualifications Training and education require ments and advancement oppor tunities for most workers in the atomic energy field are generally similar to those doing comparable jobs in other industries. These are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book under the specific occupation. However, specialized training is re quired for many workers because the field requires exacting work stand ards in both its research and produc tion activities, and has unique health and safety problems. Engineers and scientists at all levels of professional training work in the atomic energy field. Many have advanced training, particularly those doing research, development, and design work. About one-fourth of the scientists and engineers em ployed in research and development by major AEC contractors have a Ph.D. degree. The proportion of engineers with Ph.D. degrees is smaller than that of scientists. How ever, graduate training is preferred for an increasing number of both scientific and engineering jobs. Training in nuclear engineering, al though increasing at the under graduate level, is mostly at the graduate level. The specialized knowledge of nuclear energy essential for most scientific and engineering positions can be obtained at a college or un iversity or sometimes through onthe-job experience. Colleges and universities have ex panded their facilities and curriculums to provide training in nuclear energy. Engineers and scientists planning to specialize in the atomic energy field should take graduate work in nuclear energy, although in troductory or background courses may be taken at the undergraduate level. Some colleges and universities award graduate degrees in nuclear engineering or nuclear science. Others offer graduate training in these fields, but award degrees only in the traditional engineering or scientific fields. Health physicists should have at least a bachelor’s degree in physics, chemistry, or engineering, and a year or more of graduate work in health physics. A Ph.D. degree often is re quired for teaching and research. Craftsmen doing some jobs in the atomic energy field need more train ing than those doing similar work in other industries. High skill require ments are often needed, because of the exact precision required to in sure efficient operation and mainte nance of complex equipment and machinery. For example, pipefitters may have to fit pipe to tolerances of less than one ten-thousands of an inch and work with pipe made from rare and costly metals. Welding also may have to meet higher reliability standards than in most fields. These craftsmen generally obtain the re quired specialized skills on the job. Many AEC installations also have apprentice-training programs to develop craft skills. High school graduates with courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry can qualify for on-the-job training as radiation workers. They OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD must become familiar with char acteristics of radiation, maximum permissible radiation exposure levels, and methods of calculating exposure periods. They also must learn how to calibrate the instru ments they use. Nuclear power reactor operators need a basic understanding of re actor theory and a working knowl edge of reactor controls. Most oper ator trainees are high school gradu ates. Trainees usually are selected from conventional power plant per sonnel with experience operating boiler, turbine, or electrical machin ery. Preference may be given to those who complete college level courses in science and engineering. Workers operating nuclear reactor controls must be licensed by the AEC. To qualify for a license, the trainee must Technicians placing low level irradiated materials in hot cells through a special pass-through drawer. pass an operating and written test given by the AEC, along with a medical examination. An accelerator operator usually needs a high school education that includes courses in mathematics and physics to qualify for on-the-job training. Accelerator operators re ceive several months of on-the-job training covering operating, repair, and safety procedures. To qualify for on-the-job training as a radiog rapher, a high school education in cluding courses in mathematics, chemistry, and physics usually is suf ficient. High school graduates who have some mechanical experience can qualify for on-the-job training as hot-cell technicians and decon tamination men. The training may last several months. Radioisotopeproduction operators usually re quire a high school education with courses in chemistry. These gradu ates may also qualify as waste-treat ment operators, since experience in reading electronic instruments or working in a chemical laboratory is desirable. High school graduates also can qualify for employment as waste-disposal men. They receive onthe-job training in operating equip ment and avoiding radiation hazards. Other workers in the atomic energy field also need special train ing because of potential radiation hazards. Employees who work in the vicinity of such hazards are always given on-the-job training in the nature of radiation and the proce dures to follow in case of its acci dental release. Individuals who handle classified data (restricted for reasons of national security) or who work on classified projects in the atomic energy field must have a security clearance based on an investigation of a person’s character, loyalty, and associations. 667 The Atomic Energy Commission, at its contractor-operated facilities, supports on-the-job and specialized training programs to help prepare scientists, engineers, technicians, and other workers for the atomic energy field. Additional educational and train ing opportunities are offered in cooperative programs arranged by AEC laboratories with colleges and universities. Temporary employ ment at these laboratories is avail able to faculty members and stu dents. Undergraduate and graduate engineering students may work at laboratories and other Commission facilities on a rotation basis, and many graduate students do their thesis work at AEC laboratories. Many Commission contractors provide employees with training at their own plants or at nearby col leges and universities. Employment Outlook Job opportunities in the atomic energy field are expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s as uses of atomic energy are ex panded and new ones developed. In addition, others will be needed to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations or in dustries. Many factors point to a long-term expansion in this field. Increased ex penditures for research and develop ment should increase opportunities in both research and production ac tivities. The use of nuclear reactors in electric power generating stations will become more widespread as the demand for electricity increases and other fuels become more scarce. Greater use of nuclear reactors for propulsion of surface ships and rockets is anticipated, although progress in this area may not be as rapid as in electric power generation. Employment opportunities are ex 668 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pected to rise significantly for work ers who design and manufacture nuclear power reactors and instru ments, and who process and pack age radioisotopes. As more nuclear reactors are built and put into oper ation, opportunities will increase both in operation and maintenance jobs, and in related activities such as the fabrication and reprocessing of reactor fuel elements and the dis posal of radioactive wastes. Employ ment in mining, milling, refining, and enrichment of uranium will in crease as the demand for nuclear fuel increases. As more nuclear power is developed, additional regulatory workers will be needed to insure its safe use. Expansion in these areas of atomic energy should create favora ble opportunities for trained profes sional and technical workers and for skilled craftsmen. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972 blue-collar workers em ployed by contractors at AEC laboratories and other installations had average hourly earnings of $4.63; blue-collar workers in all manufacturing industries had aver age earnings of $3.62 an hour. Professional workers employed at AEC installations averaged $16,600 a year in 1972, and other white-collar workers (largely clerical and other office personnel) averaged nearly $8,100 a year. (Earnings data for many of the occupations found in the atomic energy field are included in the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working conditions in uranium mining and milling, instrument and auxiliary equipment manufacturing, and facilities construction are gener ally similar to those in other indus tries, except for radiation safety pre cautions. All uranium mines are equipped with mechanical ventila tion systems that reduce the concen tration of radioactive radon gas—a substance that can cause lung injury if inhaled over a number of years. Ef forts to eliminate this hazard are continuing. In the other atomic energy activities working conditions generally are very good. Buildings and plants are well lighted and venti lated. Equipment, tools, and machines are modern and the most advanced of their type. Only a small proportion of employees in the atomic energy field actually work in areas where direct radiation dangers exist. Even in these areas, shielding, automatic alarm systems, and other devices and clothing give ample protection to the workers. In some cases, plants are located in remote areas. Extensive safeguards and oper ating practices protect the health and safety of workers, and the AEC and its contractors have maintained an excellent safety record. The AEC regulates the possession and use of radioactive materials, and inspects nuclear facilities to insure compli ance with health and safety require ments. Constant efforts are being made to provide better safety stand ards and regulations. Most hourly paid plant workers belong to unions that represent their particular craft or industry. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the atomic energy field is available from: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 20545. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY One of the largest food-process ing employers in the United States, the baking industry provides steady, year-round employment for thou sands of workers throughout the country. Jobs exist to suit a wide va riety of interests, skills, and talents. Bakery workers make, wrap, pack, sell and deliver products. Mechanics maintain and repair plant ma chinery and service delivery trucks. Managers and sales specialists direct operations and clerical workers per form regular office duties. Nature and Location of the Industry Almost every community has at least one bakery, but nearly half of all industrial bakery employees work in California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Texas. Nearly 60 percent of the indus try’s employees are production workers. They do the actual baking, handle raw materials, maintain equipment, wrap and pack products, and keep the bakeries sanitary. Another 20 percent of the em ployees deliver the industry’s prod ucts. Most of them are driver-sales men who sell to retail stores. Other drivers with no sales duties deliver bakery products to distribution centers, hotels, restaurants, and stores. The remaining 20 percent of the work force are in administrative, professional, technical, and clerical jobs. About one-fifth of the workers are women, most of them office workers such as secretaries or bookkeepers. Some have production jobs, such as slicing machine operator, wrapping machine operator, or pie and cake packer, but few women are bakers. In addition to the industrial baker ies described, over 12,000 single-shop retail bakeries employed about 100,000 men and women including shop owners. Most retail shops had only 5 or 6 workers, but some had 20 or more. Because many operations in retail shops are done by hand rather than by machine, these shops offer skilled baking craftsmen many op portunities not available in indus trial bakeries. The baking industry includes large wholesale bakeries that sell to retail stores, restaurants, hotels, and other large customers; bakeries owned and operated by grocery chains; and cen tral baking plants of companies each operating several retail bake shops. In 1972, the industry employed 271,000 workers in about 3,700 bakeries. Nearly 85 percent of these workers were employed in bakeries that produced perishable goods such as bread, rolls, pies, cakes and doughnuts. Most of these bakeries serve only local markets and employ an average of 50 workers; however, improvements in the highway system have allowed many to expand their markets and the size of their plants. The remaining workers were employed in bakeries producing “dry” goods such as cookies, crack ers, pretzels, and ice cream cones. These bakeries serve regional or even national markets and employ an average of 120 workers per plant. Production Occupations. Although not all baked goods are made in ex actly the same way, most bakery production jobs are similar. Pro duction workers blend, sift, and mix ingredients to form a dough; shape and bake the dough; and wrap and pack the final product. Since bread is the primary prod uct of the industry, occupations de scribed here are those found in a bread bakery. Jobs may be some what different in a bakery which makes other products or is more automated. The first step in baking is to com bine the ingredients needed to make dough. Mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) load blending machines with the ex act amounts of flour, water, and yeast needed for the bread. Using in struments, they carefully control the temperature, timing, and mixing speed of the machines to insure a un iform, well-blended dough. After the dough is mixed, it is dropped into a trough and pushed to a warm proof ing room for the yeast to ferment and the dough to rise. The risen dough is poured back into the blender and sugar, salt, shortening, and more flour and water are added. The dough is allowed to rise again before it is shaped into loaves. Dividermen (D.O.T. 526.728) operate machines which divide and roll the dough into loaf-size balls. A conveyor carries the balls of dough to dough molders or molding ma chine operators (D.O.T. 520.885) who press out the air bubbles, form the balls into loaves, and drop the loaves into pans. If fancy shaped bread or rolls are to be made, bench hands (D.O.T. 520.884) knead and form the dough by hand and place it in the pans. The pans containing the dough go back to the proofing room for about an hour before being placed in the oven. Ovenmen (D.O.T. 526.885) load and unload the ovens and adjust the temperature and timing of the 669 670 ovens to make sure that the bread is properly baked. Some bakeries use an automatic process called “continuous mix” that eliminates many of the steps de scribed above. With this process all ingredients are mixed at once and the dough is divided, shaped, put into pans, and then proofed only once be fore baking. In small bakeries, all-round bakers (D.O.T. 526.781), assisted by helpers, usually do all the steps need ed to turn out finished baked prod ucts. In large bakeries, all-round bakers are employed as working foremen. They supervise the em ployees in their department and co ordinate their activity with that in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK slicing and wrapping operations, ad just the machines, and keep them supplied with bags and labels. A con veyor then takes the wrapped loaves to the shipping platform. Bakery employees in icing depart ments give finishing touches to cakes, pastries, and other sweet goods following special formulas of the bakery. Icing mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) prepare cake icings and fill ings. They weigh and measure in gredients and mix them by machine. They also prepare cooked fillings for pies, tarts, and other pastries. Hand icers (D.O.T. 524.884) are skilled craftsmen who decorate special products such as wedding cakes, birthday cakes, and fancy pastries. When the product is uniform or re quires no special decoration, the frosting may be applied by machine icers (D.O.T. 524.885). Bakeries also employ many work ers in storage, warehousing, and shipping departments. Receiving and stock clerks check, record, and deliver incoming supplies and in gredients to various departments. Packers and checkers make up orders of bakery products for delivery by driver-salesmen. other departments to meet pro duction schedules. A considerable number of helpers (D.O.T. 526.886) are employed in baking operations. They may assist all-round bakers and other workers. They have job titles such as dough mixer helper, and ovenman helper. Helpers also perform such jobs as greasing pans, removing bread from pans, pushing troughs and racks, and washing pans. After baked goods leave the oven and are cooled, several types of workers prepare them for delivery to customers. Slicing-and-wrapping ma chine operators (D.O.T 521.885) feed loaves of bread onto conveyors leading to the machines, watch the Maintenance Occupations. Bakeries employ skilled maintenance work ers such as machinists, electricians, and stationary engineers to keep ma chinery and equipment in good con dition. Large plants need many of these workers because their baking operations are highly mechanized. Many bakeries also employ truck mechanics to service their fleets of delivery trucks. Sales and Driving Occupations. Sell ing and delivering finished baked foods to customers requires many thousands of workers. Some sell baked goods, some drive trucks, and many do both. Driver-salesmen, also called route- OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY men (D.O.T. 292.358), work for wholesale bakeries. They deliver, and collect payment for baked foods to grocery stores along their routes. At tracting new customers and urging old customers to buy more prodducts are a major part of their job. Driver-salesmen arrange their baked goods on shelves or display racks in grocery stores and may restock shelves several times a day in busy stores. They also list items they think grocers will buy the next day that are used to make up production sched ules for the next morning. Route supervisors assign delivery routes and check delivery schedules. A large bakery may employ several of these workers, each in charge of 6 to 10 driver-salesmen. In a smaller bakery, one supervisor may be in charge of all salesmen. Route super visors also train new driver-sales men, and many temporarily replace salesmen who are absent. Chain grocery store bakeries and multioutlet retail bakeries employ truckdrivers rather than driver-sales men to deliver baked foods to each of their company’s stores. Stock clerks or sales clerks arrange the display, of baked foods in the stores. Administrative, Clerical, and Pro fessional and Technical Occu pations. Administrators in large bakeries and owners of small baker ies coordinate all baking activities, from the purchase of raw materials to the production and delivery of fin ished products. In large firms, ac tivities are divided into separate departments or functions and are supervised by plant managers, comp trollers, sales managers, and other executives. Some administrative em ployees specialize in fields such as ac counting, purchasing, advertising, personnel and industrial relations. Bakeries employ many types of cleri cal workers, including bookkeepers, cashiers, clerks, business machine operators, typists, and switchboard operators. A large proportion of these office workers are women. Some large baking companies have laboratories and test kitchens where chemists, home economists, and their assistants test ingredients and prepare formulas and recipes. (De tailed discussion of the duties, train ing, and employment outlook for maintenance, sales, driving, adminis trative, clerical, and technical per sonnel appear elsewhere in the Hand book.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for occu pations in the baking industry range from a few days on the job to several years of experience or advanced edu cation. Slicing and wrapping ma chine operators can learn their job in a few days, but skilled workers, such as all-round bakers, mixers, ovenmen and other baking specialists, need three or four years of training. Professional personnel and some ad ministrative workers must have a college degree or considerable ex perience in their specialty. Most inexperienced production workers in the baking industry are hired as helpers (utility workers). They are usually assigned such tasks as carrying ingredients to mixing machines, or pushing troughs of dough to the proofing room. Help ers are often able to learn more ad vanced baking skills while working alongside experienced bakers, and may be selected to enter an appren ticeship program. Employers usu ally require an apprentice to be be tween 18 and 26 years of age and to have a high school or vocational school diploma. Apprenticeship pro grams last 3 or 4 years, and include on-the-job training in all baking operations and classroom instruction in related subjects. 671 Some workers take courses in vo cational school or learn baking in the Armed Forces. Such training may not qualify a person as a skilled baker, but it may help him to be come an apprentice and perhaps shorten his apprenticeship. Training programs for unemploy ed and underemployed workers seek ing entry jobs as bakers or cake dec orators are in operation in several cities under provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. Bakers may be promoted to jobs such as working or department fore men. Some bakers who have devel oped special skill in fancy cake making or piemaking may find jobs in hotel or restaurant bakeries. All round bakers with some business ability sometimes open their own bakeshops. Bakery employees must be in good health because most States require a health certificate indicating that the worker is free from contagious dis eases. Good health also is important because of the irregular working hours and high temperature in bakeries. Some bakeries have apprentice ship programs for maintenance jobs such as machinists, electricians, and mechanics. Other plants hire inex perienced workers as mechanics’ helpers, who gain experience and know-how while working with skilled mechanics. Some bakeries hire only skilled maintenance men. For jobs as driver-salesmen or truckdrivers, baking firms generally hire inexperienced young men with a high school education. These work ers often begin as stock clerks, pack ers, or checkers, and are promoted to driving jobs. Applicants must be able to get a chauffeur’s license and are sometimes tested by the baking com panies to determine whether they are safe drivers. Classroom instruction in sales, display, and delivery proce- 672 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK process. In addition, bakeries can prepare a week’s baked foods at one time and store them in the freezer until ready for sale. Despite the anticipated decline in the number of production workers, employment in some occupations is expected to increase. More truck drivers will be needed as suburban developments spread and sales ter ritories expand. As bakeries become more mechanized additional main tenance workers will be needed to keep equipment in operating order. Some increase may occur in the number of clerical workers as bak eries become larger. Earnings and Working Conditions dures is sometimes given to new driver-salesmen, but most training is given on the job by route super visors. Driver-salesmen may be pro moted to route supervisor and sales manager. Administrative jobs are usually filled by upgrading personnel already employed in the firm. Some owners and production managers of baker ies have come from the ranks of bak ing craftsmen and some began their careers in sales occupations. In re cent years, large baking firms have required their new administrative workers to have a college degree in an administrative field, such as marketing, accounting, labor rela tions, personnel, or advertising. Kan sas State University at Manhattan offers a bachelor of science degree in baking science and management. The American Institute of Baking conducts a school of baking for per sons with a bachelor’s degree who wish to qualify for managerial posi tions. Young persons who have com pleted ^ commercial course in high school, junior college, or a business school usually are preferred for secretarial, stenographic, and other clerical jobs. Employment Outlook Employment in the baking in dustry is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Neverthe less, several thousand job openings are anticipated each year because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Despite a growing demand for bakery products due to population growth, fewer production workers will be needed because processes are becoming more efficient. Pneumatic handling systems and pumps can transfer ingredients from trucks or railroad cars to storage containers quickly and easily. The “continuous mix’’ process eliminates dough mix ing and proofing operations, and conveyor systems can be used to move panned dough from ovens to labeling machines in one continuous In 1972, earnings of production workers in the baking industry averaged $147.31 a week, or $3.72 an hour, which is slightly less than the average for all manufacturing indus tries. Bakeries producing perishable products generally offer higher wages than those producing “dry’’ products. Wage rates also tend to be higher in the West and North than in the South and Southwest. According to union contracts covering employees in 24 wholesale bakeries producing bread and re lated products, minimum hourly rates in major occupations in 1972 were as follows: Baking foremen and all-round bakers.......... $4.35-5.79 Molders and dividers and molding and dividing machine operators___ 3.23—5.34 Mixers (dough or icing) .. 3.42-5.34 Ovenmen ......................... 3.42—5.34 Benchmen......................... 3.42—5.25 leers and decorators . . . . 3.70-4.54 Wrapping machine operators ..................... 3.42-4.48 Utilitymen (general helpers)......................... 2.66—4.12 Porters and cleaners . . . . 3.13—4.74 Some plant employees work night OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY shifts and weekends because many plants do baking around the clock. Workers receive extra pay for night work. Some bakeries are elimi nating the night shift since baked goods can be frozen and stored until needed. Most plant workers are on a 40-hour workweek, but some work 35 or 37-1/2 hours, and others 44 to 48 hours regularly. Driver-salesmen usually receive a guaranteed minimum salary plus a percentage of their sales. According to limited information from union contracts, driver-salesmen for whole sale bakeries had minimum weekly salaries of from $98 to $189 in 1972. By selling more baked products to more customers, driver-salesmen can increase their earnings. Companies generally pay for uniforms and their maintenance. Working conditions in bakeries are generally good. However, many jobs involve some strenuous physi cal work, despite the considerable mechanization of baking processes. Work near ovens can be hot, es pecially in the summer. Nearly all employees of industrial baking firms get paid vacations, which usually range from 1 to 5 weeks according to length of service. Employees also get from 5 to 11 paid holidays, depending on the locality. Most baking firms have life and health insurance programs and retirement pension plans. Many em ployees are covered by joint unionindustry plans which are paid for en tirely by the employer. Most bakery workers belong to labor unions. Bakers and other plant workers are organized by the Bakery and Confectionary Workers’ Inter national Union of America, and driver-salesmen and transport drivers usually are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some maintenance workers are members of craft unions such as the International Association of Ma 673 chinists and Aerospace Workers and the International Union of Oper ating Engineers. Sources of Additional information Information on local baking jobs and training opportunities may be obtained from bakeries in the com munity, local offices of the State employment service, or locals of the labor unions noted previously. General information on job oppor tunities in the industry and on schools which offer courses or degrees in baking science and technology may be obtained from: American Bakers Association, 1700 P en n sy lv a n ia A ve. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on opportunities in retail bakeries may be obtained from: Associated Retail Bakers of America, 731-735 W. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, 111. 60613. OCCUPATIONS IN THE DRUG INDUSTRY References to potions and spells for the cure and prevention of pain and disease are numerous in medical folklore. But twentieth-century science has created a supply of drugs undreamed of by even the most im aginative apothecaries of the past. More than 10,000 prescription drugs are available to today’s physi cian. These drugs have resulted in the control of cardiovascular disease, malaria, pneumonia, and even some forms of cancer. Hormones have re lieved the pain and crippling effects of arthritis and other diseases. Tran quilizers and other drugs have done much to reduce the severity of men tal illness. Vaccines have reduced dramatically the toll of polio, whooping cough, and measles. Dis coveries in veterinary medicine have increased animal productivity and controlled various diseases, some of which are transmissible to man. The American drug industry has risen to a position of worldwide prominence in its record of research and development in new drugs, spending a higher proportion of its funds for research than any other American industry. A large pharma ceutical firm may test 4,000 or more substances a year and spend mil lions of dollars to develop one new drug. Although the drug industry looks to its many scientific and technical personnel to carry out its vast re search programs, 3 out of every 5 jobs in the industry do not require more than a high school education. 674 Nature and Location of the Industry In 1972, nearly 150,000 persons worked in the drug industry. About 120,000 of these worked in plants that made pharmaceutical prepara tions (finished drugs), such as tran quilizers, antibiotics and analgesics. Another 17,000 worked in plants that produced bulk medicinal chemi cals and botanicals used in making finished drugs; and about 13,000 worked in plants that made bio logical products, such as serums and vaccines. Drug manufacturing plants typi cally employ large numbers of work ers. About two-thirds are in plants having more than 500 workers, and some of the largest plants employ more than 5,000. Nearly three-fourths of the indus try’s workers were employed in six States: New Jersey, New York, In diana, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Michigan. Large plants are located in Indianapolis, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; N utley and Rahway, N .J.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Detroit and Kalamazoo, Mich.; and Pearl River, N.Y. One of the industry’s most strik ing characteristics is the emphasis on discovery of new products, number ing more than 150 in the last ten years. Because of this emphasis, the drug industry has an above-average concentration of its employees in re search and development activities. For testing new drugs, a primary research method is used, called screening. In screening an anti biotic, for example, a sample is plac ed in a bacterial culture. If positive Research is important to the drug industry. results follow, the antibiotic is next tested on infected laboratory animals. Promising compounds are studied further for evidence of use ful—and harmful—effects. A new drug will be selected for testing in man only if it promises to have thera peutic advantages over comparable drugs already in use, or if it offers the possibility of being safer. After laboratory screening, a clini cal investigation, or trial of the drug on human patients, is made. Sup plies of the drug are given to a small circle of doctors who administer it to carefully selected consenting patients. The patients are then ob served closely and special studies made to determine the drug’s effect. If a drug proves useful, arrange ments are made for more tests with a larger group of physicians, including some in private practice. Once a drug has successfully pass ed animal and clinical tests and has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), problems of production methods and costs must be worked out before manufac- 675 OCCUPATIONS IN THE DRUG INDUSTRY turing begins. If the original labora tory process of preparing and com pounding the ingredients is complex and expensive, pharmacists, chem ists, packaging engineers, and production specialists are assigned to develop processes economically adaptable to mass production. Drug manufacturers have de veloped a high degree of automation in many production operations. Mill ing and micronizing machines (which pulverize substances into extremely fine particles) are used to reduce bulk chemicals to the required size. These finished chemicals are combined and processed further in mixing machines. The mixed ingredients may then be mechanically capsulized, pressed into tablets, or made into solutions. One type of machine, for example, automatically fills, seals, and stamps capsules. Other machines fill bottles with capsules, tablets, or liquids, and seal, label, and package the bottles. Drug products are inspected at various stages during the manufac turing process to insure that they conform to specifications. Although some inspection operations are mechanized, many are performed manually. Occupations in the Industry Workers with many different levels of skill and education work in the drug industry. More than half are in white-collar jobs (scientific, tech nical, administrative, clerical, and sales); most of the remainder are in plant jobs (processing or produc tion, maintenance, transportation, and custodial). Two-fifths of the drug industry’s workers are women, larger than the proportion in most other manufacturing industries. The duties of some of the impor tant occupations are described brief ly below. (Detailed discussion of Quality control is a vital part of the drug production process. professional, technical, clerical and other occupations found in drug manufacturing, as well as in other in dustries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections covering individual occupations.) Scientific and Technical Occupa tions. About 1 out of every 5 employ ees in the industry is a scientist, engineer, or technician—a far greater proportion than in most other industries. The majority re search and develop new drug prod ucts. Others work to streamline production methods and improve quality control. Chemists (D.O.T. 022.081) com prise the largest number of scientific and technical personnel in the indus try. Organic chemists combine new compounds for biological testing. Physical chemists separate and iden tify substances, determine molec ular structure, help to create new compounds and improve manu facturing processes. Biochemists study the action of drugs on body processes. Radiochemists trace the course of drugs through body organs and tissues. Pharmaceutical chem ists set standards and specifications for form of product and storage con ditions and see that labeling and literature meet the requirements of State and Federal laws. Analytical chemists test raw and intermediate materials and finished products for quality. Several thousand biological scien tists (D.O.T. 041.081, .181) work in the drug industry. Biologists and bacteriologists study the effect of chemical agents on infected animals. Microbiologists grow strains of microorganisms which produce anti biotics. Physiologists investigate the effect of drugs on body functions and vital processes. Pharmacologists and zoologists study the effect of drugs 676 on animals. Virologists grow virus es, develop vaccines, and test them in animals. Botanists, with their spe cial knowledge of plant life, contrib ute to the discovery of botanical in gredients for drugs. Some other bio logical scientists include patholo gists, who study normal and abnor mal cells or tissues, and toxicolo gists, who are concerned with the safety, dosage levels, and the com patibility of different drugs. Pharma cists perform research in product development, studying many forms of medicines at various stages of production. Some set specifications for the purchase and manufacture of materials, and handled correspond ence relating to products. Drug manufacturers also employ physi cians and veterinarians. Engineers make up a small frac tion of scientific and technical employment. Chemical engineers (D.O.T. 008.081) design equipment and devise manufacturing processes. Industrial engineers (D.O.T. 012.081, .168, .187, .188, and .281) plan equipment layout and workflow to maintain efficient use of plant facilities. Mechanical engi neers (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .181, and .187) coordinate the installation and maintenance of sterilizing, heat ing, cooling, humidifying, and venti lating equipment. Technicians (D.O.T. 073.381, 078.128, .168, .281, .381, and .687) represent about one-fourth of the drug industry’s scientific and tech nical workers. Laboratory tests play an important part in the detection and diagnosis of a disease and in the discovery of medicines. Laboratory technicians perform these tests under the direction of scientists in such areas as bacteriology, biochemistry, microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), and cytology (analysis of cells). Administrative, Clerical, and Re OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lated Occupations. About 1 out of every 3 workers in drug manufactur ing is in an administrative, clerical, or other office job. At the top of the administrative group are the execu tives who make policy decisions con cerning matters of finance, market ing, and types of products to re search and develop. Other adminis trative and executive workers are ac countants, lawyers, purchasing agents, personnel and industrial rela tions workers, and advertising and marketing research workers. Cleri cal employees keep records on per sonnel, payroll, raw materials, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. Pharmaceutical detail men (D.O.T. 266.158) represent a smajl but important group of drug indus try employees. Detail men promote their companies products. They visit practicing and teaching physicians, pharmacists, dentists, and hospital administrators to provide informa tion on the latest drugs. Plant Occupations. Nearly half of the industry’s employees work in plant jobs. The majority of these workers can be divided into three major occupational groups: produc tion or processing workers who oper ate the drug producing equipment; maintenance workers who install, maintain, and repair this equip ment; and shipping clerks, truck drivers, and material handlers who help transport the drugs. Pharmaceutical operators (D.O.T. 559.782) control machines that pro duce tablets, capsules, ointments, and medicinal solutions. Granulator machine operators (D.O.T. 559.782) tend milling and grinding machines that reduce mixtures to designated sized particles. Compounders (D.O.T. 550.885) tend tanks and kettles in which solutions are mixed and compounded to make up creams, ointments, liquid medica tions, and powders. Compressors (D.O.T. 556.782) operate machines that compress ingredients into tab lets. Pill and tablet coaters (D.O.T. 554.782) control a battery of ma chines that apply coatings to tablets to flavor, color, preserve, add medication, or control disinte gration time. Tablet testers (D.O.T. 559.687) inspect tablets for hard ness, chippage, and weight to assure conformity with specifications. Ampoule fillers (D.O.T. 559.885) operate machines that fill small glass containers with measured doses of liquid drug products. Ampoule examiners (D.O.T. 559.687) exam ine the ampoules for discoloration, foreign particles, and flaws in the glass. After the drug product is pre pared and inspected, it is bottled or packaged. Most of the packaging and bottle filling jobs are done by semiskilled workers who operate machines that measure exact amounts of the product and seal con tainers. The drug industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to as sure that production equipment is operating properly and to prevent costly breakdowns. Included among maintenance workers are power plant operators who are responsible for high pressure boilers, turbo generators, compressors, refriger ation equipment, and plant water systems; electricians who install, maintain and repair the various types of electrical equipment; pipefitters who install and maintain heating, plumbing, and pumping systems; machinists who make and repair metal parts for machines and equip ment; and instrument repairmen who periodically inspect instruments and controls and repair or replace mal functioning parts. Plant workers who do not operate or maintain equipment perform a variety of other tasks. Some drive trucks to make deliveries to other parts of the plant; some load and un- OCCUPATIONS IN THE DRUG INDUSTRY Medications are packaged on this production line. load trucks and railroad cars; others keep inventory records. The indus try also employs custodial workers, such as guards and janitors, whose duties are similar to those of such workers in other industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the drug industry range from a few hours of on-the-job training to years of preparation. For production and maintenance occupations, drug manufacturers generally hire inexperienced work ers and train them on the job; high school graduates are preferred by most Firms. Beginners in production jobs assist experienced workers, while learning the operation of the processing equipment. With experi ence, an employee may advance to more skilled jobs in his department. Most maintenance jobs are Filled by people who start as helpers to elec 677 workers begin as laboratory helpers or aids, performing routine jobs such as cleaning and arranging bottles, test tubes, and other equipment. The experience required for higher levels of technician jobs varies from company to company. Generally, a minimum of one year of experience is required for assistant technician jobs, 3 years for technicians, 6 years for senior technicians, and 10 years for technical associates. Some com panies require senior technicians and technical associates to complete jobrelated college courses. For most scientific and engineer ing jobs, a bachelor of science de gree is the minimum requirement. Some companies have formal train ing programs for young college graduates with engineering and scientiFic backgrounds. These train ees work for brief periods in the vari ous divisions of the plant to gain a broad knowledge of drug manufac turing operations before being as signed to a particular department. In other Firms, newly employed scien tists and engineers are immediately assigned to a specific activity such as research, process development, production, or sales. Job prospects and advancement are usually best for professionals with advanced degrees. Some com panies offer training programs to help scientists and engineers keep abreast of new developments in their Fields and to develop administrative skills. These programs may include meetings and seminars with consult ants from various Fields. Many com panies encourage scientists and engi neers to further their education; some provide Financial assistance for this purpose. Publication of scien tific papers is also encouraged. tricians, pipeFitters, machinists, and other craftsmen. Many companies encourage production and maintenance work ers to take courses related to their jobs in local schools and technical in stitutes, or to enroll in corre spondence courses. Some com panies reimburse the workers for part, or all, of the tuition. Skilled production and maintenance work ers with leadership ability may ad vance to supervisory positions. For technicians in the drug indus try, methods of qualifying for jobs vary in many ways. Most tech nicians enter the Field with a high school education and advance to jobs of greater responsibility with experi ence and additional formal educa tion. However, companies prefer to hire men and women who are gradu ates of technical institutes or junior colleges, or those who have com Employment Outlook pleted college courses in chemistry, biology, mathematics, or engineer Drug manufacturing employment ing. In many Firms, inexperienced is expected to grow very rapidly 678 through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs produced by employment growth, many openings will result from the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The demand for drug products is expected to grow very rapidly. De mand will be stimulated primarily by the expected increase in popu lation—particularly the growing number of older people and chil dren. Other factors which are ex pected to increase the demand for drugs include greater personal in come, the rising health conscious ness of the general public, growth of coverage under health insurance pro grams and Medicare, and the dis covery of new drugs to treat illnesses not yet responding to therapy. A continued rise in drug sales to other countries also is anticipated. The industry’s employment will not increase as rapidly as the de mand for drug products, because technological improvements in production methods will increase output per worker. The more wide spread use of automatic processing and control equipment in operations formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor requirements, particu larly in plants where common drugs are mass-produced. Rates of employment growth will vary among occupations. The num bers of scientists, engineers, detail men, technicians, and maintenance workers are expected to increase faster than those of other occupa tional groups in the industry. De mand for scientists, engineers, and technicians will be spurred by con tinued expansion of research and development activities. The increas ingly technical nature of the detail man’s job and the rising sales of drug products are expected to make this one of the most rapidly growing oc cupations in the industry. More skill ed maintenance men (such as elec OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tricians, machinists, pipefitters, and instrument repairmen) will be needed to service the growing amount of automatic processing and control equipment. Employment of adminis trative and clerical workers is ex pected to increase moderately; how ever, most semiskilled plant occupa tions are expected to increase slowly, as more processes are adapted to automatic equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of plant workers in the drug industry are higher than the average for manufacturing indus tries. For example, in 1972, produc tion workers in the drug industry averaged $3.98 an hour, while those in manufacturing as a whole aver aged $3.81 an hour. National wage data are not avail able for individual occupations in the drug industry. However, statements on specific occupations, such as chemist, pharmacist, and tech nician, in other parts of the Hand book, will give general earnings in formation. Some employees work in plants that operate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. In most plants, workers receive extra pay when assigned to second or third shifts. Drug production is subject to little seasonal variation so work is steady. Paid vacations and holidays are typical benefits in this industry. Workers generally receive 2 weeks of vacation after 1 year, and progres sively longer vacations based on length of employment. Most work ers also receive health and life insur ance and pension benefits, financed at least partially by their employers. Employee stock-purchase plans are available in many firms. Working conditions in drug plants are better than in most other manufacturing plants. Much empha sis is placed on keeping equipment and work areas clean because of the danger of contamination to drugs. Plants are usually air-conditioned, well-lighted, and quiet. Ventilation systems protect workers from dust, fumes, and disagreeable odors. Spe cial precautions are taken to protect the relatively small number of employees who work with infectious cultures and poisonous chemicals. With the exception of work per formed by materials handlers and maintenance workers, most jobs re quire little physical effort. The fre quency of injuries in drug manufac turing has been about half the aver age for all manufacturing industries in recent years. Many of the industry’s employees are members of labor unions. The principal unions in the industry are the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; the International Chemical Workers Union; and District 50, United Mine Workers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in drug manufacturing may be ob tained from the personnel depart ments of individual drug manu facturing companies and from: Pharm aceutical M anufacturers Association, 1155 Fifteenth St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc., 1030 15th St. NW„ Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Occupations in the Industry ELECTRONICS An astronaut, a doctor, and a busi nessman all have something in com mon; without electronic devices they would be unable to do much of their work. We would never have reached the moon without the thousands of men and women working in elec tronics research and production. Nor would doctors be able to diagnose and treat many diseases without modern electronic machines. Busi nessmen also owe a lot to elec tronics. Electronic computers for ex ample, have helped them in such areas as inventory control, market research, and production schedules. Nature and Location of the Industry The birth of the electronics in dustry dates back to the early 1920’s when the first radios were produced. By the end of World War II the in dustry had diversified its production to include defense equipment. With the development of television and the computer, the electronics industry expanded even further to manufac ture a wide range of products. Today the industry is broken into four main market areas: govern ment products, industrial products, consumer products, and compo nents. Products sold to the govern ment make up a large portion of total electronic sales. Included in government purchases are widely dif ferent products such as missile and space guidance systems, commu nications systems and other elec tronic goods used in medicine, edu cation, crime detection and traffic control. Electronic products have become an important part of daily business operations. Industrial purchases in clude computers, radio and tele vision broadcasting equipment, and production control equipment. Consumer products are probably the most familiar types of electronic products. Every day thousands of people buy television sets, radios, m icrowave ovens, and tape recorders. Components are needed to manu facture and repair electronic prod ucts. Some of the most well-known components are transistors, tele vision picture tubes, and amplifiers. About 1.3 million workers were employed in the electronics industry in 1972. About 960,000 worked in plants that produce end products for government, industrial and con sumer use. The rest worked in plants that made electronic components. Electronics m anufacturing workers can find jobs throughout the country, but the majority of the jobs in 1972 were in eight States: Califor nia, New York, New Jersey, Illi nois, Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsyl vania, and Indiana. Metropolitan areas with large numbers of elec tronics manufacturing workers in clude Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, and Indianapolis. In addition to employees in elec tronics manufacturing plants, elec tronics workers were employed by the Federal government in activities such as research, development, and contract negotiations. Universities and nonprofit research centers em ployed a relatively small number of electronic workers. A wide variety of jobs were in the electronics manufacturing industry. About half of all workers are in plant jobs that include production, mainte nance, transportation, and service occupations. The rest were scien tists, engineers and other technical workers, and administrative, cleri cal, and sales workers. More than two-fifths of the elec tronics manufacturing workers are women. In some plants, women ac count for half or more of total employment. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The electronics industry is very dependent on research and develop ment. As a result, a large proportion of its workers are in engineering, sci entific, and other technical jobs. En gineers and scientists alone repre sent about 1 out of every 9 elec tronics workers. Electrical and electronics en gineers, the largest group of en gineers in the industry, work on re search and development and pro duction and quality control prob lems. Most of these engineers are highly specialized, however, and may work in only one specific area such as data systems, space exploration, or radar. Mechanical engineers help de velop new products and design tools and equipment. Industrial engineers work on production problems or on efficiency, methods or time studies. Chemical, metallurgical and ce ramic engineers also work for elec tronics companies. Physicists work on research-anddevelopment projects such as de signing more simplified circuits used in many color television sets. Chemists and metallurgists work mainly in research and in materials preparation and testing. Mathema ticians and statisticians help engi 679 680 neers and scientists on complex mathematical and statistical prob lems, especially in the design of mili tary and space equipment and com puters. Statisticians also are em ployed in quality control, produc tion scheduling, and sales analysis and planning. Industrial designers are concerned with the design of elec tronic products and the equipment used to manufacture them. Technicians—such as electronics technicians, draftsmen, engineering aids, laboratory technicians, and mathematical assistants—represent about 1 out of every 20 electronics manufacturing workers. Many elec tronics technicians help engineers de sign and build experimental models. They also set up and repair elec tronic equipment for customers. Other electronics technicians do complex inspection and assembly work. Draftsmen prepare drawings from sketches or specifications furn ished by engineers. Engineering aids assist engineers by making calculations, sketches, and drawings, and testing electronic components and systems. Labora tory technicians help physicists, chemists, and engineers in labora tory analyses and experiments. Mathematical assistants follow pro cedures outlined by mathematicians to solve problems. They also operate test equipment to develop com puters and other electronic products. Technical writers prepare training and technical manuals that describe the operation and maintenance of electronic equipment. They also prepare catalogs, product literature, and contract proposals. Technical il lustrators draw pictures of elec tronic equipment for technical pub lications and sales literature. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. About 1 out of 5 workers in electronics manufactur ing has an administrative or other of fice job. Administrative workers in clude purchasing agents, sales exec utives, personnel specialists, adver tising workers, and market re searchers. Secretaries, typists, and business machine operators are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics firms. A growing proportion of these office workers operate computers. Plant Occupations. About half of electronics manufacturing em ployees work in plant operations: as sembly, inspecting, machining, fab ric a tin g , p ro cessin g , and maintenance. Assembly Occupations (D.O.T. 729.884; 720.884; 726.781 and .884). Assemblers, most of whom are semi skilled workers, make up the largest group of employees. Most end prod ucts are assembled by hand with OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK small tools, soldering irons, and light welding machines. Assemblers use diagrams to guide their work. Some assembly is done by following in structions presented on color slides and tape recordings. Color slide pro jectors flash a picture of an as sembly sequence on a screen, while the assembler listens to recorded directions. Precision assemblers and elec tronics technicians install compo nents and subassemblies in complex products such as missiles. They also help make experimental models. Most of these workers are employed in the manufacture of military and industrial electronic equipment. Machines are used in some as sembly work. For example, in put ting together circuit boards, auto matic machines often are used to position components on boards and ELECTRONICS to solder connections. Here the as semblers work as machine operators or loaders. Most components are put together by machines, since their as sembly involves simple and repeti tive operations. Even some types of miniaturized semiconductors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through a needle’s eye, are assembled by machines. Hand assembly is needed for some items, such as receiving tubes and some types of resistors and diodes. Hand assemblers may do only a single operation as components move down the production line, but some put together complete compo nents. Tiny parts often are as sembled under magnifying lenses or microscopes. Precision welding equipment may be used to weld con nections in microminiature compo nents and circuit assemblies. Machining Occupations. Machining workers are needed in most elec tronics manufacturing plants, par ticularly for military, space, and in dustrial products. Machine-tool operators and machinists make precise metal parts. Toolmakers con struct and repair jigs and fixtures that hold metal while it is being stamped, shaped, or drilled. Diemakers build metal forms (dies) used in stamping and forging metal. Fabricating Occupations. Fabricat ing workers are employed in many electronics manufacturing plants, but most are in plants that make in dustrial products. Sheet-metal workers make frames, chassis, and cabinets. Glass blowers and glass lathe operators (D.O.T. 674.782) make tubes for experimentation and development work. In electron tube manufacturing, special fabricating workers are employed. For example, grid lathe operators (D.O.T. 725.884) wind fine wire around two heavy parallel wires to make grids (devices in tubes that control the flow of electrons). Other fabricating workers include coil winders (D.O.T. 724.781 and .884), crystal grinders and finishers (D.O.T. 726.884), and punch press operators (D.O.T. 617.885). Processing Occupations. Many elec tronic workers process or prepare parts for assembly. Electroplaters and tinners (D.O.T. 501.885) coat parts with metal; anodizers (D.O.T. 501.782) treat these parts in electro lytic and chemical baths to prevent corrosion. Other processing workers also coat electronic components with waxes, oils, plastics, or other mate rials. Some operate machines which encase microminiature components in plastic. Silk screen printers (D.O.T. 726.887) print patterns on circuit boards and on parts of elec tronic components. Etching equip ment operators (D.O.T. 590.885) do chemical etching of copper on cir cuit boards. Another group of processing workers operate furnaces and ovens to harden ceramics and eliminate contamination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of infrared ovens and hydrogen furnaces (D.O.T. 590.885) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufacturing, ex haust operators (D.O.T. 725.884) and sealers (D.O.T. 692.885) oper ate gas flame machines that clear the tube of impurities, exhaust the gas, and seal the tube. Inspection Occupations. Inspection begins when raw materials enter the plant and continues through manu facturing. Some inspection jobs re quire electronics technicians who have years of experience. These jobs are commonly found in complex pro duction work such as the manufac ture of computers and spacecraft. Most inspectors, however, do not need extensive technical training. Some inspectors check incoming 681 parts and components supplied by other firms. They may have job titles such as incoming materials inspec tor or plating inspector that indicate the work they do. During manufacturing, compo nents are either checked manually by workers using test meters or routed mechanically through automatic test equipment. Although many of these workers simply are called testers, others have job titles such as trans former-tester or coil-tester, that re flect the type of components they in spect. Some automatic equipment can check components, produce a punched tape of the results, and sort the components into batches for shipping. Workers who feed or monitor automatic equipment often are called test-set operators or test ing-machine operators. Electronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) examine as sembled products to make certain that they conform to blueprints and specifications. They inspect wiring, electrical connections, and other critical items to make sure every thing will work properly. Maintenance occupations. Many workers repair machinery and equip ment. Skilled electricians are re sponsible for the proper operation of electrical equipment. Machine and equipment repairmen make me chanical repairs. Maintenance ma chinists and welders build and repair equipment and fixtures. Air-condi tioning and refrigeration mechanics work in air-conditioned plants that have special refrigerated and dustfree rooms to protect sensitive parts. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, car penters, and sheet-metal workers also are employed in electronics plants. Other plant occupations. Many workers move and handle materials. Forklift operators stack crates in warehouses, and load and unload 682 trucks and boxcars. Truckdrivers move freight outside the plant. The industry also employs guards, watch men, and janitors. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations, found not only in electronics manufacturing plants, but also in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sec tions covering the individual oc cupations.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for jobs in electronics manufacturing plants range from a few hours of on-the-job training to years of specialized prep aration. Beginning engineering jobs usually are filled by recent college graduates, but some positions call for advanced degrees. A small number of workers without college degrees, however, are upgraded to professional engineering classifica tions from occupations such as en gineering assistant and electronics technician. Workers who become en gineers in this way usually take ad vanced electronics courses in night school or in other training pro grams. To keep up with new de velopments and to qualify for pro motion, professional and technical personnel obtain additional train ing, read technical publications, and attend lectures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, phys icists, and other scientists employed in electronics manufacturing have college degrees; many have ad vanced degrees. Job prospects are usually better for scientists who have at least a master’s degree. Technicians generally need spe cialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most electronics technicians at tend either a public, private, or Arm ed Forces technical school. Some complete 1 or 2 years of college in a scientific or engineering field, and some receive training through a 3or 4-year apprenticeship program. High school graduates who have had courses in mathematics and science are preferred for apprenticeship programs. Some workers advance to elec tronics technicians positions from jobs such as tester or laboratory as sistant. A relatively small number of plant workers become technicians. Opportunities for advancement are improved by taking courses in company-operated classes, night school, junior college, technical school, or by correspondence. Electronics technicians need good color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. Some technicians who test radio transmit ting equipment must hold licenses from the Federal Communications Commission as first- or second-class com m ercial radio-telephone operators. Draftsmen usually take courses in drafting at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship. Under an in formal arrangement with their employers, some qualify for both onthe-job training and part-time schooling. Because many draftsmen in this industry must understand the basic principles of electronic cir cuits, they should study basic elec tronic theory. Technical writers must have a flair for writing and usually are required to have some technical training. Employers prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in science or en gineering. Many, however, have col lege degrees in English or journal ism and receive their technical train ing on the job and by attending com pany-operated evening classes. Tech nical illustrators usually have at tended art or design schools. Many tool and die makers, ma OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK chinists, electricians, and other craftsmen learn their trades by com pleting a 4- or 5-year apprentice ship; others are upgraded from helpers’ jobs. Formal training is not necessary for workers entering plant jobs, but a high school diploma or its equiva lent is frequently required. Job ap plicants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for par ticular types of work. A short period of on-the-job training generally is provided for inexperienced workers. Assemblers, testers, and inspectors need good vision, good color percep tion, manual dexterity, and patience. Requirements for administrative and other office jobs are similar to those in other industries. Some be ginning administrative jobs are open only to college graduates with degrees in business administration, law, accounting, or engineering. For clerical jobs, employers usually prefer high school graduates with training in stenography, typing, bookkeeping, and office machines. Employment Outlook Employment in electronics manu facturing is expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs from employ ment growth, large numbers of open ings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or take jobs in other in dustries. The employment outlook pre sented here assumes relatively full employment, and strong growth in the economy. It also assumes that defense spending, an important de terminant of electronics manufac turing employment, will be lower than the level during the Vietnam conflict in the late 1960’s. If the Nation’s economic activity and de fense spending should differ sub stantially from the assumed levels, employment will be affected accor dingly. ELECTRONICS Production of electronic products will increase as business-men buy more computers and other elec tronic equipment to automate paper work and production processes. Business spending for electronic communication and testing equip ment also will grow. The demand for consumer goods such as television re ceivers and stereo systems, will rise as population and personal incomes grow. Government purchases for de fense will continue to account for a large proportion of electronics manufacturing output. An increas ing share of government purchases, however, is likely to be for elec tronic equipment used in medicine, education, pollution abatement, and other fields. The rates of employment growth will vary among occupational groups and individual occupations. For ex ample, employment of skilled maintenance workers is expected to rise at a more rapid rate than total employment, because of the need to repair the increasing amounts of complex machinery. On the other hand, employment of assemblers probably will rise at a slower rate, because of the growing mechaniza tion and automation of assembly line operations. Employment of engineers, sci entists, and technicians is expected to increase faster than total employ ment, because of continued high ex penditures for research and develop ment and the manufacture of more complex products. Among profes sional and technical workers, the greatest demand will be for en gineers, particularly those who have a background in certain specialized fields, such as quantum mechanics, and solid-state circuitry, product de sign, and industrial engineering. Many opportunities also will be available for engineers in sales de partments because the industry’s products will require salesmen with highly technical backgrounds. The demand for mathematicians and physicists will be particularly good because of expanding research in computer and laser technology. Earnings and Working Conditions As shown in the accompanying table, in 1972 electronics production workers who made government and industrial end products had higher average hourly earnings than pro duction workers in all types of manu facturing. Those making other elec tronic products, however, made less than the average for all manufactur ing industries. Type of product Production workers’ average hourly earnings, 1972 All manufacturing $3.81 industries ............ Major electronics manufacturing industries Government and industrial electronics end products. 4.06 Radio and television receiving sets, and phonographs............ 3.33 Electron tubes ............ 3.64 Semiconductors and other components, except tubes. 2.99 Electronics workers generally re ceive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Virtually all plants pro vide extra pay for evening and night 683 shift work. Many workers in electronics manufacturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay and from 6 to 8 paid holidays a year. Almost all electronics workers are covered by health and life insurance plans; many are covered by pension plans and other fringe benefits. Working conditions in electronics manufacturing compare favorably with those in other industries. Plants are usually well-lighted, clean, and quiet. Many plants are relatively new, and are located in suburban and semirural areas. The work in most occupations is not strenuous but as sembly line jobs may be monot onous. The injury rate in electronics manufacturing is far below the aver age in manufacturing as a whole, and injuries usually are less severe. Many workers in electronics manufacturing are union members. The principal unions involved are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; In ternational Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers; International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in this field can be obtained from the public relations departments of elec tronics manufacturing companies, the unions listed, and from the Elec tronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES Metal castings produced by foun dry workers are essential for thou sands of products ranging from mis siles to cooking utensils. In 1972, about 310,000 people worked in the foundry industry. Thousands of others worked in the foundry de partments of plants in other in dustries, such as automobile and ma chinery manufacturing. Casting is a method of forming metal into intricate shapes. To cast metal, a mold is prepared with a cavity shaped like the object to be cast. Metal is then melted and poured into the mold to cool and so lidify. The strength of metal which has been cast makes it suitable for many household and industrial items. Nature and Location of the Foundry Industry Nearly three-fourths of the foun dry industry’s employees work in iron and steel foundries. The re mainder work in plants that cast nonferrous metals, such as alu minum and zinc. Foundries usually specialize in a limited number of metals, because different methods and equipment are needed to melt and cast various alloys. There are six principle methods of casting, each named for the type of mold used. In the most common method, green-sand molding, a spe cial sand is packed around a pattern in a boxlike container called a flask. After the pattern is withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the mold cavity to form the desired metal shape. Sand molds can be used only once. A second method, called per 684 manent molding, employs a metal mold that can be used many times. Permanent molding is used chiefly for casting nonferrous metals. Pre cision investment casting, a third method (often called the lost wax process), uses ceramic molds. A wax or plastic pattern is coated with refractory clay; after the coating hardens, the pattern is melted and drained so that a mold cavity is left. Castings produced from these molds are precise and require little machin ing. Shell molding, a fourth process, is becoming increasingly important. In this method, a heated metal pattern is covered with sand coated with resin. The sand forms a thin shell mold that, after curing, is stripped from the pattern. Castings produced from these molds are precise and have a smooth surface. Die casting, a fifth process, is done mostly by machines. Molten metal under high pressure is forced into dies from which the castings are later auto matically ejected or removed by hand. A sixth method, centrifugal casting, is used to make pipe and other products that have cylindrical cavities. Molten metal is poured into a spinning mold where centrifugal force distributes the metal against the walls of the mold. Most foundries are small. More than 90 percent employ fewer than 250 workers, although several of the largest employ more than 5,000 workers. Small foundries generally pro duce a variety of castings in small quantities. They employ hand and machine molders and coremakers (the key foundry occupations) and a Machine molder produces sand molds. substantial number of unskilled laborers. Large foundries are often highly mechanized and produce great quantities of identical castings. These shops employ relatively few unskilled laborers, because cranes, conveyors, and other types of equip ment replace hand labor in the mov ing of materials, molds, and cast ings. Since much of the casting in large shops is mechanized, they also employ proportionately fewer skilled molders and coremakers than small shops. However, many skilled maintenance workers, such as mill wrights and electricians, are employed to service and repair the large amount of machinery. Though every State has some foundry employment, jobs are con centrated in States which have con siderable metalworking activity; for example, in Michigan, Ohio, Penn sylvania, Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin. Foundry Occupations Most of the industry’s 310,000 em ployees in 1972 were plant workers. OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES More than half of the plant workers ling. In this process, the castings to were in occupations not found in gether with an abrasive material and other industries. To illustrate more sometimes water are placed in a bar clearly the duties of these workers, a rel which is rotated. The man who brief description of the jobs involved controls the barrel is called a tumbler in the most common casting operator (D.O.T. 599.885). Sand blasters and tumbler operators may process—sand casting—follows: After the casting is designed, the also operate a machine that both patternmaker (D.O.T. 600.280 and tumbles and blasts the castings. A 661.281) makes a wood or metal pat chipper (D.O.T. 809.884) and a tern in the shape of the casting. Next, grinder (D.O.T. 809.884) use a hand molder (D.O.T. 518.381) pneumatic chisels, powered abrasive makes sand molds by packing and wheels, powersaws, and handtools, ramming sand, specially prepared by such as chisels and files, to remove a sand mixer (D.O.T. 579.782), excess metal and to finish the around the pattern. A molder’s castings. helper (D.O.T. 519.887) may assist Castings are frequently heatin these operations. If large numbers treated in furnaces to strengthen the of identical castings are to be made, metal; a heattreater, or annealer machines may be used to make the (D.O.T. 504.782), operates these fur molds at a faster speed than is pos naces. Before the castings are packed sible by hand. The operator of this for shipment, a casting inspector equipment is called a machine (D.O.T. 514.687) checks them to make sure they are structurally molder (D.O.T. 518.782). A coremaker (D.O.T.518.381 and sound and meet specifications. .885) shapes sand into cores (bodies Many foundry workers are em of sand that make hollow spaces in ployed in occupations that are com castings). Most cores are baked in an mon to other industries. For ex oven by a core-oven tender (D.O.T. ample, maintenance mechanics, ma 518.885). Core sections are put to chinists, carpenters, and millwrights gether by a core assembler (D.O.T. maintain and repair foundry equip 518.887) . After the cores are ment. Crane and derrick operators assembled, they are placed in the and truckdrivers move materials molds by core setters (D.O.T. from place to place. Machine tool 518.884) or molders. Now, the molds operators finish castings. Foundries also employ thousands of workers in are ready for the molten metal. A furnace operator (D.O.T. unskilled jobs, such as guard, janitor, 512.782) controls the furnace that and laborer. melts the metal which a pourer About a sixth of all foundry (D.O.T. 514.884) lets flow into workers are employed in profes molds. When the castings have so sional, technical, administrative, lidified, a shakeout man (D.O.T. clerical, and sales occupations. Of 519.887) dumps them, and sends these personnel, the largest number them to the cleaning and finishing are clerical workers, such as secre taries, typists, and accounting clerks. department. Dirty and rough surfaces of cast Foundries also employ substan ings are cleaned and smoothed. A tial numbers of professional workers. shotblaster (D.O.T. 503.887) Engineers and metallurgists do re operates a machine that cleans the search; design machinery and plant castings by blasting them with air layout; control the quality of cast mixed with metal shot or grit. The ings; or supervise plant operations castings may be smoothed by tumb and maintenance. In recent years, 685 Coresetter places cores in the mold. many of these workers have been hired to sell castings and to assist customers in designing cast parts. Most foundry technicians are con cerned with quality control. For ex ample, they may test molding and coremaking sand, make chemical analyses of metal, and operate ma chines that test the strength and hardness of castings. Administrative workers em ployed in foundries include office managers, personnel workers, pur chasing agents, and plant managers. The foundry work force is pre dominately male, since much of the work is strenuous. Women are em ployed primarily in office jobs, although some are employed in pro duction occupations such as core maker. Women also assemble wax and plastic patterns in investment casting foundries. Detailed discussions of three prin cipal foundry occupations—patternm ak ers, co rem ak e rs, and molders—appear elsewhere in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers start in unskilled jobs, such as laborer or helper, and, 686 after receiving on-the-job training from a foreman or experienced worker, gradually learn more skilled jobs. This is the usual practice, in training workers for casting process jobs such as melter, chipper, and grinder. Some sk illed foundry workers—particularly hand molders, hand coremakers, and pattern makers—learn their jobs through formal apprenticeship. In this train ing, young workers receive super vised on-the-job training for 4 to 5 years, usually supplemented by class room instruction. Management prefers workers who have completed an apprenticeship, because they have a greater knowledge of all foundry operations and are therefore better qualified to fill supervisory jobs. An increasing number of skilled foundry workers learn their jobs through a combination of trade school and on-the-job training; in some cases, trade school courses may be credited toward completion of formal apprenticeships. Some foun dries and the American Foundry So ciety Training and Research Insti tute conduct training programs to update and upgrade the skills of ex perienced workers. Employment Outlook Employment in the foundry in dustry is expected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, thousands of job open ings will become available each year because of the need to replace expe rienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Population growth and higher in comes will create a demand for more automobiles, household appliances, and other consumer products that have cast parts. More castings also will be needed for industrial machin ery as factories expand and moder nize. However, technological devel opments will enable foundries to meet the increased demand for cast ings without increasing employment significantly. Continued improve ments in production methods will result in greater output per worker. Although foundry employment as a whole is not expected to change sig nificantly through the mid-1980’s, employment will rise in some occu pations. For example, employment of scientists and engineers is ex pected to increase because of ex panding research and development activities. Technicians also will be needed in greater numbers to help improve quality control and produc tion techniques. More maintenance workers will be hired to keep the in dustry’s growing amount of machin ery in working order. In contrast, machine molding and coremaking will be substituted for hand processes, and will limit the need for additional hand molders and hand coremakers. As more machinery for materials handling is introduced, em ployment of laborers and other un skilled workers will decline. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in foundries have higher average earnings than those in manufacturing as a whole. In 1972, production workers in iron and steel foundries averaged $4.34 an hour, and those in nonferrous foun dries averaged $3.92. By com parison, production workers in all manufacturing industries averaged $3.81 an hour. Contracts between foundry com panies and unions generally provide for fringe benefits, such as holiday and vacation pay, life and health in surance, and retirement pensions. Working conditions in foundries have improved in recent years. Many foundries have changed plant layout and installed modern ventilating OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK systems to reduce heat, fumes, and smoke. Although the injury rate in foundries is higher than the average for manufacturing, employers and unions are attempting to reduce in juries by promoting safety training. Foundry workers belong to many unions, including the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union; the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Many pattern makers are members of the Pattern Makers’ League of North America. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities in foundry occupa tions may be obtained from local foundries, the local office of the State employment service, the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Information also is avail able from the following organ izations: American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Cast Metals Federation, Cast Metals Federation Building, 20611 Center Ridge Rd., Rocky River, Ohio 44116. Foundry Educational Foundation, 1138 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 East McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Industrial chemical products are the raw materials for all kinds of everyday items, from nylon stock ings to automobile tires. Chemicals are also used to treat drinking water, to propel rockets, and to make steel, glass, explosives, and thousands of other items. The discovery of nylon, plastics, and other new products has helped the manufacture of industrial chemicals become one of the Nation’s most important industries. About 520,000 people in many different occupations worked in the industrial chemical industry in 1972. Training varies from a few days on the job for some plant workers, to college degrees for engineers and chemists. Nature of the Industry The industrial chemical industry produces organic and inorganic chemicals, plastics, and man-made rubber and fibers. Unlike drugs, paints, and other chemical products sold directly to consumers, other in dustries use “industrial chemicals” to make their own products. Chemical products are made from coal, petroleum, limestone, mineral ores, and many other raw materials. After these materials go through chemical reactions, the finished products are vastly different from the original ingredients. Some plastics, for example, are made from natural gas. In a modern chemical plant automatic equipment controls the dissolving, heating, cooling, mixing, filtering, and drying processes that convert raw materials to finished products. This equipment regulates the combination of ingredients, flow of materials, and the temperature, pressure, and time for each process. Materials are also moved auto matically from one part of the plant to another by conveyors or pipes. Because of this automatic equip ment, relatively few workers can pro duce tons of chemicals in one con tinuous operation. About two-thirds of the 3,000 in dustrial chemical plants in the United States have fewer than 50 workers. Over half of the industry’s employees, however, are concen trated in large plants with more than 500 workers. Chemical plants are usually close to manufacturing centers or near the sources of raw material. Many plants that produce chemicals from petrole um, for example, are near the oil fields of Texas, California, and Louisiana. Although industrial chemical workers are employed in almost every state, about half of them work in Tennessee, New Jersey, Texas, Virginia, West Vir ginia, Ohio, and South Carolina. Occupations in the Industry Workers with many different skills and levels of education work in the industrial chemical industry. Re search scientists, engineers, and tech nicians develop products, and design equipment and production processes. Workers with many skills are in processing, maintenance, and other plant jobs. Administrators, profes sionals, and clerical workers handle financial and business matters, keep records, and advertise and sell chemical products. About 1 out of 8 workers in the industry is a woman. Scientific and technical occu pations. The industrial chemical in dustry is one of the Nation’s major employers of scientific and technical workers: 1 out of 5 of its employees a scientist, engineer, or technician. Many of them work in research and testing laboratories. An even larger number are administrators, sales men, or production supervisors. Chemists are the largest and most important group of scientists in the industry. Through basic and applied research, chemists learn about the properties of chemicals to find new and improved products and pro duction methods. Their efforts have led to the discovery of plastics, nylon, man-made rubber, and many other items. Chemists also work in activities other than research and develop ment. A large number supervise plant workers or analyze and test chemical samples to insure the quali ty of the final product. Others work as administrators, marketing ex perts, chemical salesmen, and techni cal writers. Engineers are another important group of industrial chemical work ers. Using their knowledge of both chemistry and engineering, chemical engineers convert laboratory processes into large scale produc tion methods. They design chemical plants and processing equipment, and sometimes supervise con struction and operation. Chemical engineers also fill sales, customer service, market research, plant management and technical writing jobs. Mechanical engineers design power and heating equipment. They also work with chemical engineers to design processing equipment, and supervise its installation, operation, 687 688 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ers operate Or maintain equipment or do other plant jobs. Skilled chemical operators (D.O.T. 558.885 and 559.782) and their helpers are the largest group of plant workers. They set dials, valves, and other controls on automatic equipment to insure that the right temperature, pressure, and amounts of material are used. As chemicals are processed, operators read instru ments that measure pressure, flow of materials, and other conditions. They also use instruments to test chemicals or send chemical samples to the testing laboratory. Operators keep records of instrument readings Plant Occupations. About 3 out of and test results and report equip every five industrial chemical work ment breakdowns. Chemical oper and maintenance. Electrical engi neers design electric and electronic instruments and control devices, and facilities for generating and distrib uting electric power. Many technical workers assist scientists and engineers. Laboratory technicians conduct tests and record the results in charts, graphs, and reports which are used by chemists and chemical engineers. Their work may range from simple routine tests to complicated analyses. Draftsmen provide engineers with specifi cations and detailed drawings of chemical equipment. ators are sometimes called filterers, mixers, or some other title, depend ing on the kinds of equipment they operate. To keep production processes run ning smoothly, instruments must give accurate measurements and equipment must withstand cor rosion, damaging chemicals, high temperatures, and pressure. Many skilled maintenance workers keep this equipment in good condition. Pipefitters and boilermakers lay out, install, and repair pipes, vats, and pressure tanks; maintenance ma chinists make and repair metal parts for machinery; electricians maintain and repair wiring, motors, and other electrical equipment; and instru ment repairmen install and service instruments and control devices. In some chemical plants one worker may do several of these jobs. Plant workers are also employed in many other jobs. They drive trucks, keep inventory of stock and tools, load and unload trucks, ships, and rail road cars, keep the plant and office clean, and do many other kinds of work. Administrative, clerical, and related occupations. About 1 out of 4 indus trial chemical workers holds an ad ministrative, clerical, or other nonscientific white-collar job. High-level managers generally are trained in chemistry or chemical engineering. These executives decide what prod ucts to manufacture, where to build plants, and how to handle the com pany’s finances. Executives depend on specialized workers including ac countants, sales representatives, lawyers, industrial and public rela tions workers, market researchers, computer programmers, and person nel and advertising workers. Many secretaries, typists, payroll and ship ping clerks and other clerical em ployees work in offices and plants. (Individual statements elsewhere in the Handbook give detailed dis- OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Engineers review model of chemical plant. cussions of many scientific, techni cal, maintenance, and other occu pations found in the industrial chemical industry, as well as other industries.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jobs in the industrial chemical in dustry require from a few days onthe-job training to many years of preparation. Some plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. Scientists, engineers, technicians, and chemical operators, on the other hand, spend several years learning their skills. Engineers and scientists must have at least a bachelor’s degree in engi neering, chemistry, or related science. Some research jobs, how ever, require advanced degrees or specialized experience. Many scien tists and engineers attend graduate courses at company expense. Some firms have formal training programs for newly hired scientists and engineers. Before they are as signed to a particular job, these em ployees work briefly in various departments to learn about the com 689 pany’s overall operation. In other firms, junior scientists and engineers are assigned immediately to a specific job. Technicians qualify for their jobs in many ways. Graduates of techni cal institutes, junior colleges, or vocational technical schools have the best opportunities. Companies also hire students who have completed part of the requirements for a college degree, especially if they have studied mathematics, science, or engineering. High school graduates with courses in chemistry can quali fy through on-the-job training and experience. Many technicians re ceive additional technical school or undergraduate training through company tuition-refund programs. Laboratory technicians usually start as trainees or assistants, and draftsmen begin as copyists or tracers. As they gain experience and show ability to work without close supervision, these technicians ad vance from routine work to more dif ficult and responsible jobs. Industrial chemical firms general ly hire and train inexperienced high school graduates for processing and maintenance jobs. Equipment oper ators and other processing workers usually start out in a labor pool where they are assigned jobs such as filling barrels or moving materials. A work er may be transferred from the labor pool to fill a vacancy in one of the processing departments. As he gains experience he moves to more skilled processing jobs. Thus, a worker may advance from laborer to chemical operator helper, and then to chemi cal operator. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. Most maintenance workers are trained on the job. Chemical com panies often have formal mainte nance training programs, including some classroom instruction, which may last from a few months to 690 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK several years. Instrument repairmen sometimes attend training programs offered by instrument manu facturers. Maintenance workers and trainees are encouraged to take jobrelated courses at local vocational or technical schools. Their employers may pay part or all of the tuition. Administrative jobs are usually filled by men and women with college degrees in business adminis tration, accounting, economics, statistics, marketing, industrial rela tions, and other fields. Chemists and engineers also hold administrative jobs. Some companies have ad vanced training programs for new administrative employees. Secretaries, bookkeepers, and other clerical workers generally have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Employment Outlook Production of industrial chemi cals will increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. However, continued shortages of petroleum, the raw material for many chemical prod ucts, will limit production. Employ ment will grow slowly as new chemical plants, improved equip ment, and better production methods help workers produce more chemi cals with less effort. The industry will still need many new workers each year, mainly to replace em ployees who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Job openings from deaths and retirements alone will average several thousand a year. Some groups of workers will grow faster than others. The number of administrative, professional, techni cal and clerical workers will grow faster than the number of plant workers. Because of the industry’s emphasis on research and develop ment, the largest increase will be for chemists, engineers, and science and engineering technicians. Most of the additional plant jobs will be for instrument repairmen, pipefitters, electricians, and other craftsmen needed to care for new and more complex equipment. Process equipment operators, however, will remain the largest group of workers in the industry. industrial chemicals industry. How ever, in 1972 hourly wages in a few union-management contracts were as follows: Earnings and Working Conditions Industrial chemical workers re ceive many fringe benefits, including sick leave, retirement plans, and life, health, and accident insurance. Most workers also receive paid vacations ranging from 2 weeks after 1 year of employment, to 5 weeks after 20 years. Because chemical plants usually operate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week—process ing workers can expect to work the second or third shift, usually for ex tra pay. Shift assignments are rotated, so an individual may work Production workers in the indus trial chemical industry have rela tively high earnings because a large proportion of them are in skilled jobs. In 1972 they averaged $4.60 an hour in plants making organic and inorganic chemicals, and $4.10 an hour in plants making plastics and man-made rubber and fibers. The average for production workers in all manufacturing was $3.81 an hour. National wage data is not availa ble for individual occupations in the Hourly rates Chemical operators.................. $4.10—5.25 Instrument repairmen............ 4.50—5.40 Pipefitters, boilermakers, and sheet-metalworkers............ 4.30—5.25 Laboratory technicians........... 4.30—5.25 Laboratory assistants ............. 4.00—4.30 OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY days one week and nights the next. Maintenance workers usually work only the day shift. Most industrial chemical jobs, ex cept those for laborers or materials handlers, are not strenuous. Equip ment operators are on their feet most of the time. Some workers must climb stairs or ladders to con siderable heights, or work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Workers may be exposed to dust, disagreeable odors, or high temperatures, al though most plants have ventilating or air-conditioning systems. Many chemicals are dangerous to touch or breathe, but the industrial chemical industry has one of the best safety records in the Nation. Protec tive clothing, eye glasses, showers, and eye baths near hazardous work stations and other safety measures help prevent serious injuries. Many production workers in the industrial chemical industry belong to labor unions including the Inter national chemical Workers Union; Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. 691 Sources of Additional Information Further information on careers in the industry may be obtained from employment offices of industrial chemical companies, locals of the un ions mentioned above, and from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. parts of the United States. The heart of U.S. steel manufacturing is a tri angular area, about 250 miles on a side, marked off by Johnstown, Pa., Buffalo, N.Y., and Detroit, Mich. Included in this area are major steel producing centers such as Pitts burgh, Pa., and Cleveland and Youngstown, Ohio. Large plants also are located on the south shore of Lake Michigan near Chicago. The Nation’s two largest steel plants are located at Gary, Ind., and Sparrows Point, Md. (near Baltimore). Much of the steelmaking in the South is in the vicinity of Birmingham, Ala., and Houston, Tex. Other steelmak ing facilities are located in the Far West at Pueblo, Colo.; Provo, Utah; and Fontana and near San Fran cisco, Calif. About 7 out of 10 of the industry’s workers are employed in five States—Pennsylvania, Ohio, In diana, Illinois, and New York. Penn sylvania alone accounts for nearly 3 out of 10. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Steel is the backbone of any in dustrialized economy. There is hard ly a product in daily use that has not been made from steel or processed by machinery made of steel. In 1971, U.S. steelmakers produced approxi mately 120 million tons of raw steel—about one-fifth of the world’s output. About 573,000 wage and salary workers were on the payrolls of the iron and steel industry’s more than 940 plants in 1972. Employees work in a broad range of jobs that require a wide variety of skills. Many of these jobs are found only in iron and steelmaking or finishing. The iron and steel industry, as dis cussed in this chapter, consists of blast furnaces, steelmaking furnaces, and rolling mills. The mining and the processing of raw materials used to make steel and the fabrication of steel are not described. (Employ ment opportunities in foundry, forg ing, and machining occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Blast furnaces make iron from iron ore, coke, and limestone. Steel making furnaces refine the iron into steel. Mills shape the steel into sheets, plates, bars, strips, and various other basic products. Many mills also produce finished items, such as pipe and wire. Most basic steel products, however, are shipped to the plants of other industries. The leading steel-consuming in dustries manufacture automobiles, construction materials, machinery and machine tools, containers, and household appliances. Steel sheets 692 are made into automobile bodies, ap pliances, and furniture. Steel bars are used to make parts for machin ery and to reinforce concrete in building and highway construction. Steel plates become parts of ships, bridges, railroad cars, and storage tanks. Strip steel is used to make pots and pans, razor blades, toys, and many other items. Individual plants in the iron and steel industry typically employ a large number of workers. About 80 percent of the industry’s employees work in plants which have more than 2,500 employees. A few plants have more than 20,000. Many plants, however, have fewer than 100 em ployees, particularly those plants Occupations in the which make highly specialized steel Industry products. Iron and steel plants are located Workers in the iron and steel in mainly in the northern and eastern dustry hold more than 1,000 differT h e Steelm aking Process 22 4* blast M hJ fI ufurnace olast I( k n R aw material / ■ I B ____Iron T . *4 % Iron & scrap o p e e a r t h furnace scrap metal 7 ----------------------T basic j S * oxygen furnace '►oxvaen Steel_____ *j||l c ^ r v ^^fTuunrn c electric^**/furnace electric stripping t e c m i n g E j ing< ► flpfll) To rolling mills sla b s. plate, sheet & strip Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. ^ ^ ^ ^ b l o o m s .structural steel ^ soaking 3 ^^**billets .ro d s, bars, seam less C==^ p > - pipes & tubes OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY ent types of jobs. Many workers are directly engaged in making iron and steel and converting it into semifin ished and finished products. Others maintain the vast amount of ma chinery used in the industry, operate cranes and other equipment that move raw materials and steel prod ucts about the plants, or perform other kinds of production jobs. In addition, many workers are needed to do clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, and super visory work. Men constitute 95 percent of all employees in the industry, and an even higher proportion of the pro duction workers. About two-thirds of the women employed in the in dustry work in supervisory, admin istrative, technical, research, and clerical jobs. Women in production departments work in jobs such as assorter and inspector. Processing Occupations. The majori ty of the workers in the industry are employed in the many processing operations involved in converting iron ore into steel and then into semi finished and finished steel products. To provide a better understanding of the types of jobs, brief descriptions of the major steelmaking and finishing operations and of the more impor tant occupations connected with them are given below. Blast furnaces. The blast furnace, a large steel cylinder lined with heatresistant brick, is used to reduce iron ore to molten iron. A mixture of ore, coke, and limestone (called a “charge”) is fed into the top of the furnace, and hot air blown in the bot tom from giant stoves produces in tense heat, thus melting the charge. Molten iron trickles down through the charge and collects in a pool at the bottom of the furnace. At the same time, the intense heat causes the limestone to combine with silica and other impurities in the ore and 693 Pouring molten iron into molds. coke to form “slag”, a byproduct that is used for making cement and insulating materials, and other pur poses. The slag, too, trickles down through the charge and floats on top of the heavier molten iron. Every 3 or 4 hours, the furnace is cast to re move the molten iron; slag is re moved more frequently. A blast furnace operates con tinuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless it is shut down for re pairs or for other reasons. A single furnace may produce up to 7,500 tons of iron in a 24-hour period. The raw materials used in blast furnaces are stored in a stockhouse below furnace level. Here stockhouse men or stockhouse larrymen (D.O.T. 919.883) load traveling larry cars with iron ore, coke, and lime stone. They weigh these raw mate rials into various amounts de termined by the kind of hot metal desired. The loaded stock cars are emptied into waiting “skip cars,” which carry the materials up tracks to the top of the blast furnace, where they are automatically dumped. Other stockhouse men, or skipmen (D.O.T. 921.883), stationed on the ground below, control the skip cars through electric and pneumatic con trols. Stove tenders (D.O.T. 512.782) and their assistants operate the stoves which heat air for the blast furnace. They regulate valves to con trol the heat of the stoves and the flow of air to the furnace. The persons responsible for the quantity and quality of iron pro duced are called blowers (D.O.T. 519.132). They direct the operation of one or more blast furnaces, in cluding loading and tapping the fur nace and regulating the air blast and furnace heat. Blowers carefully check the metal produced, periodi cally sending samples of the molten iron and slag to the laboratory where 694 quality tests are made. Keepers (D.O.T. 502.884), under the direc tion of the blower, are responsible for tapping the furnace. They direct their helpers and cindermen or stag gers (D.O.T. 519.887) in lining (with special heat-resistant sand) the troughs and runners through which the molten iron and slag are run off into waiting ladles. Some iron is made into finished products such as automobile engine blocks and plumbing pipes. Most of it, however, is used to make steel. Because steel is stronger than iron and can be hammered and bent with out breaking, it can be used for a much larger variety of products. Steel furnaces. Steel is made by re fining iron to remove some of the carbon and impurities and adding scrap steel and alloying agents such as copper and manganese. This is done in several types of furnaces: basic oxygen, open hearth, and elec tric. More than half of all domestic steel is made in basic oxygen fur naces (BOF’s), and about a third in open hearth furnaces. Both produce similar kinds of steel, but BOF’s do the job faster and are expected to re place many of the open hearths now in operation. Electric furnaces pri marily are used to produce high quality metals such as tool and stain less steel. A melter (D.O.T. 512.132) is re sponsible for the quality and quantity of the steel produced in a furnace. The melter makes the steel to the de sired specifications by varying the proportions of iron, scrap steel, and limestone in the furnace, and by add ing small amounts of other mate rials such as manganese, silicon, copper or other alloy additives. Those working with open hearth fur naces supervise three grades of helpers—-first (D.O.T.512.782), se cond (D.O.T. 502.884), and third (D.O.T. 519.887). Melters in charge of BOF’s supervise BOF operators (D.O.T. 512.782). Helpers and operators prepare the furnaces for each batch of steel, regulate furnace temperatures, take samples of molten steel for laboratory tests, direct the adding of various alloying materials, and tap the molten steel from the furnace into a ladle. The BOF operators also regulate the shooting of oxygen through a nozzle to the furnace. When the batch of steel is ready to be tapped from an open hearth fur nace, the furnace crew knocks out a plug in the furnace with a “jet tapper” (small explosive charge fired into the plug) which allows the molten metal to flow into a ladle. The slag floats to the top of the ladle and overflows into a slag pot. The OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK crew taps steel from a BOF by tilt ing the furnace on its side and pour ing out the steel through a nozzle or lip at the top. The molten steel is made into large bars called “ingots.” A ladle crane man (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane which picks up the ladle of molten steel and moves it over a long row of ingot molds rest ing on flatbottom cars. The steel pourer (D.O.T. 514.884) operates a stopper on the bottom of the ladle or tilts the ladle to let the steel flow into these molds. As soon as the steel has solidified sufficiently, an ingot stripper (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane, which removes the molds from the ingots. Rolling andfinishing. The three prin cipal methods of shaping steel are Melter takes sample of molten steel to test quality. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY rolling, casting, and forging. About three-fourths of all steel products are shaped by the rolling process. In this method, heated steel ingots are squeezed longer and flatter between two cylinders or “rolls.” Before in gots of steel are rolled, they are heated to the temperature specified by the plant’s metallurgist. The heat ing is done in large furnaces called “soaking pits,” located in the plant floor. A heater (D.O.T. 613.782) controls the soaking pit operation. He directs helpers in heating the in gots to the specified temperature and, with the help of control equip ment, determines when they are ready for rolling. A soaking pit craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane, by means of elec trical controls, to lift the ingots from small rail-cars and place them into the soaking pit. When the ingots are hot enough, the heater opens the fur nace covers and the craneman re moves the ingots and places them on an ingot buggy, which carries them to the first rolling mill, sometimes called a “break down” mill. Here, the ingots are rolled into smaller, more easily handled semifinished shapes called blooms, slabs, and billets. Blooms are generally be tween 6 and 12 inches wide and 6 and 12 inches thick. Slabs are much wider and thinner than blooms. Billets are the smallest of these three shapes. The rolling of blooms illustrates the semifinishing process. In the blooming mill, as in other rolling mills, the ingot moves along on a roller conveyor to a machine which resembles a giant clothes wringer. A “two-high” blooming mill has two grooved rolls which revolve in op posite directions. The rolls grip the approaching ingot and pull it between them, squeezing it thinner and longer. When the ingot has made one pass through the rolls, the rolls are reversed, and the ingot is fed back through them. Throughout the rolling operation, the ingot is peri odically turned 90 degrees by mechanical devices called “manipu lators,” and passed between the rolls again so that all sides are rolled. This operation is repeated until the ingot is reduced to a bloom of the desired size. The bloom then is ready to be cut to specified lengths. A blooming mill roller (D.O.T. 613.782), the man in charge of the mill, works in a glass-enclosed con trol booth, located above or beside the roller line. His duties, which appear to consist principally of mov ing levers and pushing buttons, look relatively simple. However, the quality of the product and the speed with which the ingot is rolled de pends upon his skill. The roller regu lates the opening between the rolls after each pass. Long experience and a knowledge of steel characteristics are required for a worker to become a roller. A manipulator operator (D.O.T. 613.782) sits in the booth be side the roller and coordinates his controls over the ingot’s position with those of the roller. Upon leaving the rolling mill, the red-hot bloom moves along a con veyor to a place where a shearman (D.O.T. 615.782) controls a heavy hydraulic shear which cuts the steel into desired lengths. In a blooming mill that has auto matic controls, a rolling mill attend ant is given a card that has been punched with a series of holes. The holes represent coded directions as to how the ingot is to be rolled. The at tendant inserts the card into a card “reader” then presses a button that starts the automatic rolling se quence. When this process is used, the roller’s job is shifted from oper ating the controls to directing and coordinating the rolling process. Of increasing use in steel shaping is the continuous casting process, which eliminates the necessity of pro 695 ducing large ingots that in turn must be put through huge blooming and slabbing mills. In the continuous casting process, molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mold of the desired product shape, such as slab or billet shape. As the mold is filled, the steel cools and solidifies along the bottom and lower sides, and passes down through a chamber where it is further cooled by a water spray. Pinch rolls control its descent and support its weight, and the mold ed slab or billet of steel is cut into lengths as it emerges from the rolls. After the steel is rolled or cast into semifinished shapes, most of it is put through semifinishing operators. Slabs, for example, can be reduced and shaped into plates and sheets. Rods can be reduced to wire, and wire can be processed into nails, fencing, and other end products. Equipment operator, inspector, and assorter are among the major occupations in finishing operations; women frequently are employed in these jobs. Wire drawer (D.O.T. 614.782) and piercer-machine operator (D.O.T. 613.885) are ex amples of equipment operating oc cupations. The wire drawer controls equipment that pulls a steel rod through a die. The die has a tapered hole, one end of which is smaller than the rod. As the rod passes through the tapered hole, it is made thinner and longer and becomes wire. The piercer-machine operator controls machinery that makes seamless pipe from solid billets of steel. The operator passes a heated billet between two barrel-shaped rolls which spin the billet and force one end of it against a sharp plug or “mandrel.” The mandrel smooths the inside wall of the billet and makes the diameter of the hole un iform. Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. Large OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 696 buildings and offices. Pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping that is used to carry the large amounts of liquids and gases used in steel making. Boilermakers test, repair, and rebuild heating units, storage tanks, stationary boilers, and con densers. Locomotive engineers and other train crew members operate trains that transport materials and products in the vast yards of iron and steel plants. Other skilled workers operate the various boilers, turbines, and sw itchboards in factory powerplants. Other types of maintenance and service workers include carpenters, oilers, painters, instrument repair men, scale mechanics, welders, loaders, riggers, janitors, and guards. Many laborers are employed to load and unload materials and do a varie ty of cleanup jobs. Operators tend tandem rolling mill. numbers of workers are required in steel plants to support processing ac tivities. Some maintain and repair machinery and equipment, and others operate the equipment which provides power, steam, and water. Other groups of workers move ma terial and supplies and perform a variety of service operations. Machinists and machine tool operators make and repair metal parts for production equipment. Diemakers use machine tools to form dies, such as those used to make wire. Roll turners (D.O.T. 613.780) use lathes, grinders, and other machine tools to finish the steel rolls used in the rolling mills. Millwrights overhaul machinery and repair and replace defective parts. Electricians install wiring and fixtures and hook up electrically operated equipment. Electrical re pairmen (motor inspectors) keep wir ing, motors, switches, and other elec trical equipment in good operating condition. Electronic repairmen install, repair, and adjust the increasing number of electronic devices and systems used in steel manufacturing plants. Typically, this equipment in cludes communication systems such as closed-circuit television; elec tronic computing and data record ing systems; and measuring, proc essing, and control devices such as X-ray measuring or inspection equipment. Bricklayers repair and rebuild the brickwork in furnaces, soaking pits, ladles, and coke ovens, as well as mill Administrative, Clerical, and Tech nical Occupations. Professional, ad ministrative, clerical, and sales workers account for about one-fifth of the industry’s total employment. Of these, the majority are clerical workers, such as secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, accounting clerks, and general office clerks. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians make up a substantial propor tion of the industry’s white-collar employment. Several thousand of these workers perform research and development work to improve exist ing iron and steel products and proc esses, and to develop new ones. Among the technical specialists employed in steelmaking are mechanical engineers, whose prin cipal work is the design, construc tion, and operation of mill machin ery and material handling equip ment. Metallurgists and metallur gical engineers work in laboratories and production departments where they have the important task of spe cifying, controlling, and testing the OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY quality of the steel during its manu facture. Civil engineers are engaged in the layout, construction, and maintenance of steel plants, and the equipment used for heat, light, and transportation. Electrical engineers design, lay out, and supervise the operation of electrical facilities that provide power for steel mill opera tion. Chemists work in the labora tories, doing chemical analyses of steel and raw materials. Laboratory technicians do routine testing and assist chemists and engineers. Draftsmen prepare working plans and detailed drawings required in plant construction and maintenance. Among the employees in adminis trative, managerial, and supervisory occupations are office managers, labor relations and personnel managers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and industrial engineers. Working with these personnel are several thousand professional workers, including accountants, nurses, lawyers, economists, statisti cians, and mathematicians. The in dustry also employs several thou sand sales workers. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in processing opera tions usually are hired as unskilled laborers. Openings in higher-rated jobs usually are filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Fac tors considered when selecting workers for promotion are ability to do the job, physical fitness, and length of service with the company. Training for processing occupa tions is done almost entirely on the job. Workers move to operations re quiring progressively greater skill as they acquire experience. A crane man, for example, first is taught how to operate relatively simple cranes, and then he advances through several steps to cranes much more difficult to run, such as the hot-metal crane. To help them advance in their work, many employees take parttime courses in subjects such as chemistry, physics, and metallurgy. In some cases, this training is pro vided by the steel companies and may be given within the plant. Other workers take evening courses in high schools, trade schools, or univer sities in their communities or enroll in correspondence courses. Workers in the various operating units usually advance along fairly well-defined lines of promotion within their departments. Examples of possible lines of advancement in the various operating units are de scribed in the next paragraph. To become a blast furnace blower, a worker generally starts as a la borer, advancing to cinderman or slagger, keeper’s helper, keeper, blower’s helper, and finally to blower. In the steel furnace depart ment, a man may begin by doing general cleanup work around the fur nace and then advance to third helper, second helper, first helper, and eventually to melter. A possible line of job advancement for a roller in a finishing mill might be pitman, roll hand, manipulator, rougher, and finish roller. Workers may be trained for skilled jobs, such as blower, melter, and roller, which are among the highest rated steelmaking jobs, in a minimum of 4 or 5 years, but usually they have to wait much longer before openings occur. Although many maintenance workers start as helpers and pick up their skills from experienced workers, apprenticeship is the best way to learn a maintenance trade. 697 Apprenticeship programs usually are of 3 or 4 years’ duration and consist mainly of shop training in various as pects of the particular jobs. In addi tion, classroom instruction in re lated technical subjects usually is given, either in the plant or in local vocational schools. Steelmaking companies have dif ferent qualifications for apprentice applicants. Generally, employers re quire applicants to have the equiva lent of a high school or vocational school education. In most cases, the minimum age for applicants is 18 years. Some companies give apti tude and other types of tests to ap plicants to determine their suit ability for the trades. Apprentices generally are chosen from among qualified young workers already em ployed in the plant. The minimum requirement for en gineering and scientific jobs is usual ly a bachelor’s degree with an ap propriate major. Practically all the larger companies have formal train ing programs for college-trained technical workers. In these pro grams, the trainees work for brief periods in various operating and maintenance divisions to get a broad picture of steelmaking operations before they are assigned to a par ticular department. In other com panies, the newly hired scientist or engineer is assigned directly to a spe cific research, operating, mainte nance, administrative, or sales unit. Engineering graduates frequently are hired for sales work and many of the executives in the industry have en gineering backgrounds. Engineering graduates, as well as graduates of business administration and liberal arts colleges, are employed in jobs in sales, accounting, and labor-man agement relations, as well as in man agerial positions. Completion of a business course in high school, junior college, or busi ness school usually is preferred for 698 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working tion and scholarship assistance. entry into most of the office occupa Conditions tions. Office jobs requiring special Working conditions vary by de knowledge of the steel industry gen Earnings of production workers in partment. Maintenance shops gen erally are filled by promoting per iron and steelmaking are among the erally are clean and cool. Rolling sonnel already employed in the in highest in manufacturing. In 1972, mills and furnaces are hot and noisy. dustry. they averaged $5.04 an hour, while Some plants have developed methods production workers in manufactur to reduce job discomfort. The use of remote control, for example, enables ing as a whole averaged $3.81. Employment Outlook employees to work outside the im Agreements between most steel Employment in the iron and steel companies and the United Steel mediate vicinity of processing opera industry is not expected to increase workers of America include some of tions. In other instances, the cabs in significantly in the long run (1972- the most liberal benefits in industry. which the men sit while operating 85). Nevertheless, many workers will Most workers receive vacation pay mechanical equipment, such as be hired to replace those who retire, ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depend cranes, are air-conditioned. Because die, or transfer to other fields. The ing on length of service. A worker; in certain processes are operated con total number hired may fluctuate the top 50 percent of a seniority list tinuously, many employees are on from year to year, because the in receives a 13-week vacation every 5 night shifts or work on weekends. dustry is sensitive to changes in busi years; the remaining workers re The iron and steel industry has ness conditions and defense needs. ceive 3 extra weeks vacation once in been a leader in the development of Production of iron and steel is ex a 5-year period. Professional and ex safety programs for workers, em pected to increase moderately as ecutive personnel in some com phasizing the use of protective cloth population and business growth panies receive similar benefits. ing and devices on machines to pre create a need for more automobiles, Workers may retire on company- vent accidents. In recent years, steel household appliances, industrial ma paid pensions after 30 years of serv plants had an average injury fre chinery, and other products that re ice, regardless of age. Employees quency rate (injuries per million quire large amounts of these metals. having 2 years or more of service are hours of work) that was less than half Because of laborsaving technology, eligible to receive supplemental un the rate of all manufacturing. however, employment is not ex employment benefits for up to 52 Most plant workers in the iron and pected to keep pace with increases in weeks. Some other benefits are steel industry are members of the production. Open hearth furnaces, health and life insurance, and educa United Steelworkers of America. for example, will continue to be re placed with more efficient basic ox Basic straight-time hourly earnings' of workers in selected occupations in basic iron and steel ygen furnaces, thus increasing the establishments, mid-1972 amount of steel produced per Hourly earnings worker. The greater use of com Blast furnaces: puters to control plant equipment Larrymen............................................................................................... $4.26 and process business records also will Stock unloaders..................................................................................... 3.70 Basic oxygen furnaces: increase efficiency. Steel pourers ......................................................................................... 4.83 Employment trends will differ Furnace operators................................................................................. 5.30—5.58 among occupations. The number of Open hearth furnaces: engineers, metallurgists, laboratory Charging machine operators................................................................ 4.83 technicians, and other technical First helpers........................................................................................... 5.58 workers will increase as a result of Bloom, slab, and billet mills: Soaking pit cranemen ........................................................................... 4.73 the industry’s expanding research Manipulators......................................................................................... 4.54 and development programs. Employ Continuous hot-strip mills: ment of computer programers and Chargers................................................................................................. 3.89 operators also will increase. Em Coilers ................................................................................................... 4.36 ployment in processing occupations, Maintenance: Bricklayers............................................................................................. 4.92 on the other hand, is expected to de Millwrights............................................................................................. cline slightly as more efficient plant 1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and4.83late shifts. In machinery and equipment is in centive payments, such as those resulting from piecework or production bonus systems and costtroduced. of-living allowances are included. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Sources of Additional American Iron and Steel Institute, Information 1000 16th St- NW-’ Washington, D.C. 20036. Additional information about careers in the iron and steel industry may be obtained from the following organizations: 699 United Steelworkers of America, 1500 Commonwealth Building, Pitts burg, Pa. 15222. OCCUPATIONS IN LOGGING AND LUMBER MILLS Young people who have a high school education and a love for the outdoors and wildlife may find rewarding careers in the logging and lumber industry. Logging camps and sawmills provide many job op portunities in the South and Pacific Northwest, the Nation’s major timber-producing regions. Because the building and furnishing of homes, hospitals, schools, stores, and most other structures depend upon lum ber and wood products, thousands of job openings will be available each year through the mid-1980’s. elsewhere in the Handbook. Lumber production has followed the same basic process for many years. A stand of timber is harvested in the forest, moved to a central lo cation or “landing” accessible to transportation, and then carried by truck or rail to a mill for processing. Logging crews typically consist of from 5 to 15 workers. Several crews, each working at a different location, may be needed to supply logs for a single mill. The crew moves from time to time through the forest as one area after another is harvested. Years ago these workers lived in camps close to the cutting site. With better roads, most of them can now live at home and commute to work. In the sawmill, logs are debarked, rough-sawn into various widths and lengths, and then seasoned (dried) so the wood will not warp. A small amount of rough lumber is sold without further processing, but the rest must be sent to a planing mill before it goes to market. In this mill, rough boards are finished to give them a smooth surface. Boards also are made into flooring, siding, moulding and other forms of build ing trim. Since logs cost more to ship than lumber, sawmills usually are lo cated near tree harvesting areas. Some of these mills are small, porta- Nature and Location of the Industry In 1972, nearly 70,000 wage and salary workers were employed in logging to help harvest trees and re move them from forests. A much larger number—about 217,000— worked in sawmills and planing mills where logs are converted into lum ber. In addition, more than 50,000 workers were self-employed, most of them in logging. Because of the heavy physical labor involved, about 5 percent of the industry’s employ ees were women, most of whom worked in clerical occupations. This statement deals with activi ties and jobs involved in cutting and removing timber from forests, and in the processing of logs into rough and finished lumber. It excludes the manufacture of paper, plywood, veneer, and other wood products such as furniture and boxes. Occu pations in paper manufacturing are discussed in a separate statement 700 Sawmill deckmen roll log to carrier. OCCUPATIONS IN LOGGING AND LUMBER MILLS ble operations that can be moved about from week to week as the harvest progresses, but the large ones are permanent. Planing mills may be near sawmills or hundreds of miles away. About three-fourths of all mills employ fewer than 20 workers, but some have more than 100. Although some logging and lumber mill workers are employed in nearly every State, the following 7 account for about half of the indus try’s employment: Oregon, Washing ton, California, Alabama, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Georgia. Logging. Before a stand of timber is harvested, a professionally trained forester (D.O.T. 040.081) decides which trees to cut. Foresters also map the cutting areas, plan and supervise the cutting, and plant seed lings to replace the trees that were removed. Timber cruisers (D.O.T. 449.287) estimate the volume and grade of standing timber and help foresters make maps. Heavy equip ment operators build access roads and trails to the cutting and loading areas so that they can be reached by logging crews. The initial harvesting task—“fall ing and bucking”—is the process of cutting the tree to the ground and further cutting (bucking) it into logs for easier handling. Falters (D.O.T. 940.884), working singly or in pairs, cut down trees marked by the forester. Using a chain saw, the faller first makes a wedge shaped cut on the side of the tree toward which he wants it to fall. Next, he makes a “backcut” on the opposite side of the tree. As the tree starts to fall, he quickly dislodges the saw so that it will not be damaged and scrambles away from the stump. Expert fallers can usually drop a tree in the exact spot where they want it, making sure other trees are not injured in the process. As soon as the tree is down, buckers (D.O.T. 940.884) use chain saws to remove the limbs and saw the trunk into logs. The next task—“skidding”—is a method of removing logs from the cutting area. A choker (steel cable) is noosed around the log by chokermen (D.O.T. 942.887) and then at tached to a tractor which drags the log to the landing. A rigging slinger (D.O.T. 942.884) supervises and assists chokersetters and tractor drivers. In rough terrain where logs must be moved up or down steep slopes or across ravines, the “highlead” method is used instead of trac tor skidding. This method is some what like a fisherman’s rod and reel. Steel cables run from a dieselpowered winch (reel) through pul leys at the top of a large steel tower (rod) and down to the cutting area which may be hundreds of feet away from the tower. Chokersetters noose the end of the cable around a log and a yarder engineer (D.O.T. 942.782) operates the winch to pull the log into the landing. Experiments are now being made with heavy duty helicopters. Hovering above a log ging site, the helicopters can lift and move logs weighing several tons. After logs reach the landing, they are loaded on a truck trailer and hauled to a mill. A loader engineer (D.O.T. 921.883) operates a ma chine that picks up logs and places them on the trailer. A second loader (D.O.T. 949.884) directs the posi tioning of logs on the trailer. Al though trucks usually are used, logs are sometimes carried by railroad cars. Sawmills and Planing Mills. At the sawmill incoming logs are stacked on the ground (cold decking) or dumped into a pond to await cutting. Water storage protects the wood from shrinking, insect damage, and fire. Cold-decking, on the other hand, permits greater storage volume per acre, and some hardwoods such as 701 oak must be stored this way because they will sink in water. Scalers (D.O.T. 941.488) measure logs and look for defects, such as knots and splits, to estimate the amount and quality of lumber available. Pondmen (D.O.T. 921.886) wearing spik ed boots walk about on logs in the pond, and use long poles to sort the logs so that all of one kind or size go into the mill together. A bull-chain operator (D.O.T. 921.885) controls a conveyor that pulls logs up a chute into the saw mill. A barkerman (D.O.T. 533.782) operates machinery to remove bark and foreign matter that could damage saws. One kind of machine has rough metal bars or knives that rub or chip the bark away. Another kind tears it off with the high pres sure force of water. The removed bark may be processed into garden mulch. As a log enters the sawing area, a deckman (D.O.T. 667.887) rolls it onto a platform called a “carriage,” and a block setter (D.O.T. 667.885) aligns the log and locks it into posi tion. The carriage, which moves back and forth on rails, carries the log into the teeth of a large bandsaw, and each time it passes the saw a board is sliced off. This operation is con trolled by a head sawyer (D.O.T. 667.782) , who is one of the most ex perienced workers in the mill. The quantity and quality of lumber ob tained from logs depends largely on his skill and knowledge. After leaving the carriage, the lumber moves to an edger saw, con sisting of two or more circular blades. Operated by an edgerman (D.O.T. 667.782), the edging ma chinery cuts the lumber to the de sired width. For example, the production run may be cutting boards to a 4 inch width. Next, a trimmer saw operator (D.O.T. 667.782) , using a series of circular cross-cut saws, cuts the lumber to 702 various lengths, such as 8, 10, or 12 feet. When all sawing is completed, a conveyor system moves the rough lumber into a sorting shed, where graders (D.O.T. 669.587) examine each board carefully and determine its grade. After grading, sorters (D.O.T. 922.887) pull and stack boards according to type, grade, and dimension. At this stage, the lumber is still green and must be seasoned so that it will not warp. It may be stacked out doors where the sun and wind will remove the moisture. More fre quently, however, it is placed in a specially heated building (dry-kiln). Dry-kiln operators (D.O.T. 563.381) control temperature, humidity, and ventilation in kilns. They also direct workers who stack lumber in kilns and remove it after drying. Some seasoned lumber is ready for use without further processing, primarily in the construction indus try. The remainder must pass through a mill before being shipped to market. In this mill, the rough dried lumber is run through a set of rotating knives controlled by a planer operator (D.O.T. 665.782). Some knife heads produce smooth surfaces, while others tongue-andgroove the boards for flooring, siding, or paneling. Similarly, a wide variety of moulding or other build ing trim may be cut. The dressed or finished lumber is usually graded again before storage or shipment by a planer mill grader (D.O.T. 669.587). In addition to occupations de scribed in the logging and milling processes, many other occupations require a broad range of training and skills. Maintenance mechanics in stall and repair saws and related ma chinery. Saw filers sharpen and repair saws, and electricians main tain and repair wiring, motors, and other electrical equipment. Truck drivers transport logs to the mills and deliver the finished lumber prod ucts to wholesalers. Many workers are employed in clerical, sales, and administrative occupations. For example, many firms employ office managers, purchasing agents, personnel manag ers, salesmen, office clerks, stenogra phers and typists, bookkeepers, and business machine operators. Also, the industry employs professional and technical workers, such as civil and industrial engineers, draftsmen and surveyors, and accountants. (De tailed discussion of professional, technical, and mechanical occu pations, found not only in logging and milling but in other industries as well, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sections covering in dividual occupations.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most loggers and mill hands get their first jobs without previous training. Employers prefer high school graduates, but applicants with less education frequently are hired. Entry level jobs usually can be learn ed in a few weeks by observing and helping experienced workers. A beginner on a logging crew may start by helping chokermen or buckers. In the mill, a beginner may be assigned to a labor pool to do odd jobs, such as stacking and sorting lumber. As workers gain experience, and as vacancies occur, they can advance to higher paying jobs. A chokerman, for example, who has an aptitude for operating machinery may become a truck or tractor driver, or a yarder engineer. Mill hands also can learn various kinds of machine operating jobs, such as bull-chain operator and edgerman. Mechanics, electricians, and others who repair and maintain the industry’s equipment are trained on OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the job under the guidance of super visors and experienced workers. In some firms, this training is sup plemented by classroom instruction. Maintenance trainees frequently are selected from workers already em ployed in mills or logging crews. Many firms, however, will hire inex perienced young people who have mechanical aptitude. Generally, it takes a trainee 3 to 4 years to qualify as a skilled craftsmen in one of the maintenance jobs. Workers who have leadership ability and years of experience can advance to supervisory positions in mills and logging crews. As in other industries, however, opportunities for promotion are limited because relatively few of these positions exist. Loggers and mill workers must be in good physical condition. Al though modern equipment has re duced some of the heavy labor, stamina and agility are still impor tant qualifications, particularly for loggers. Because of the danger in volved in operating and working around heavy machinery, workers should be alert and well coordinated. A bachelor’s degree usually is the minimum educational requirement for forester, engineer, accountant, and other professional occupations. Completion of commercial courses in high school or business school is usually adequate for entry into cleri cal occupations, such as secretary, typist, and bookkeeper. Employment Outlook Employment in logging and lumber mills is expected to decline moderately through the mid-1980’s despite increases in wood production to meet the Nation’s population and industrial growth. Nevertheless, the industry will need several thou sand new workers each year to re place those who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. OCCUPATIONS IN LOGGING AND LUMBER MILLS Laborsaving machinery will make it possible for logging contractors and mills to harvest and process more lumber with fewer employ ees. More workers, however, will be needed in some occupa tions. Additional mechanics, for example, will be needed to main tain the growing stock of logging equipment, trucks, and mill ma chinery. More foresters will find jobs in this industry as forest replanting and conservation programs receive greater attention. Engineers will be in greater demand as the industry’s production methods become more complex. Most job openings, how ever, will be for logging crewmen and mill hands; because these workers make up a very large proportion of the industry’s total employment, replacement needs are high. Reduction in the size of logging crews is not likely, but improved equipment will speed-up the harvest ing operations, thus reducing the number of crews. Sawmills and planing mills may reduce employ ment requirements by installing new machinery and improving plant layouts. In the kiln area, for ex ample, a stacking machine operated by 2 or 3 men can replace 6 men who stack by hand. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, production workers in logging averaged $4.11 an hour; those in sawmills and planing mills averaged $3.20. In comparison, production workers in manu- 703 Logging Deck men .............................................. Pondmen .............................................. Sorters .................................................. Trimmermen ....................................... Chokermen............................................ Block setters.......................................... Edgermen.............................................. Lumber stackers ................................. Truckdrivers.......................................... Planer operators ................................. Graders, planed lumber....................... Tractor drivers, skidding................... Head-saw operators, circular saw ... Head-saw operators, band saw .......... Fallers and buckers, power................. facturing industries as a whole aver aged $3.81 an hour. Wage rates vary considerably by occupation, size of firm, machines and equipment used and, above all, by geographic area. Average hourly rates for selected occupations in West Coast and Southern logging operations and mills in 1972 are shown in the accompanying tabula tion. Most logging jobs are outdoors. The forest may be wet, muddy, and hot, with annoying insects during the summer; conversely, working condi tions may be difficult and time lost because of snow, sleet, and low temperature during the winter. Saw mills and planing mills may be noisy and dusty, and uncomfortably warm during the summer. Moreover, work at logging sites and in mills is more hazardous than in most manu facturing plants. For many persons, however, the opportunity to work and live in forest regions away from crowded cities more than offsets these disadvantages. Hourly Rates South West Coast $3.90 $2.00 2.30 3.90 2.00 3.90 2.10 4.10 2.15 4.25 2.25 4.35 4.40 2.15 2.00 4.40 2.25 4.45 2.90 4.65 2.40 4.70 2.40 5.00 3.00 5.35 4.00 5.80 2.50 7.10 The major unions in this industry are the International Woodworkers of America and the United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, both AFL-CIO affiliates. A recent survey showed that threefifths of the industry’s production workers on the West Coast were cov ered by union-management con tracts. On the other hand, only onesixth of those in the South were covered. Sources of Additional Information Further information about job op portunities and working conditions in this industry is available from the following organizations: American Pulpwood Association, 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. International Woodworkers of Ameri ca, 1622 N. Lombard St., Portland, Oreg. 97217. National Forest Products Asso ciation, 1619 Mass. Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Few products are as important to everyday life as the automobiles, trucks, buses, and other vehicles built by the motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing industry (or auto mobile industry). In 1972, 4 out of 5 families owned at least one car, and nearly 1 family out of 3 owned two or more. A total of about 118 million cars, trucks, and buses traveled the Nation’s streets and highways. The widespread use of motor ve hicles has made significant contribu tions to the Nation’s economy. The automobile industry (SIC 371) employs more workers than any other single manufacturing in dustry. Moreover, it is a major con sumer of steel, rubber, plate glass, and other basic materials. Many businesses, including repair shops, gas stations, highway construction, and truck and bus transportation fa cilities, have been created because of motor vehicles. To build the more than 11 million vehicles produced in 1972, the auto mobile industry employed 860,000 workers. In addition to workers dis cussed in this chapter, thousands of persons work in other industries that produce automobile glass, auto motive stampings, lighting systems, storage batteries, tires, and many other components. Like other large industries, the automobile industry employs men and women with widely different ed ucation and training. Job require ments vary from a college degree for engineers and other professional and technical workers, to a few hours of on-the-job training for some as 704 semblers, materials handlers, and custodians. Most of the automobile industry’s employees work in factory (plant) jobs. Plant occupations range from the highly skilled tool and die maker, millwright, and electrician, to the un skilled machine tender, power truck operator, and custodian. A large number of people also work in office and administrative jobs as clerks, business machine operators, stenog raphers, purchasing agents, and per sonnel specialists. Nature and Location of the Industry The automobile industry is able to produce millions of vehicles because of mass production of standardized parts and assembly line manufactur ing. Parts plants make thousands of interchangeable parts. At the as sembly plants workers put these parts together to build a complete ve hicle. New cars are driven off the as sembly line at the rate of about one a minute. The industry has about 2,800 plants, ranging from small parts plants with only a few workers to huge assembly plants that employ several thousand. About 85 percent of the industry’s employees work in plants with 500 or more workers. About 44 percent of all auto mobile industry employees work in plants that assemble complete vehi cles. Another 43 percent work in parts and accessories plants that pro duce brakes, transmissions, and other components. The remainder work in plants that make bodies and truck trailers. Over two-thirds of the automobile industry’s employees work in the Great Lakes region, including Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and western New York. Michigan alone has almost 40 per cent of the total, with half of these workers in the Detroit metropolitan area. Other important automobile industry centers in the Great Lakes area are Flint and Lansing, Michi gan; Cleveland and Warren, Ohio; Indianapolis and Ft. Wayne, In diana; Buffalo, New York; and Chicago, Illinois. Major automobile manufacturing centers are also found in other parts of the country, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Kansas Ci ty, St. Louis, A tlanta, and Philadelphia. How Automobiles are Made There are three stages in produc ing an automobile: designing, en gineering, and testing; production of parts and subassemblies; and Final assembly. (Although the rest of this statement discusses only auto mobiles, the same information ap plies to trucks, buses, and other motor vehicles.) Designing, Engineering, and Testing. About 2 to 3 years of designing, en gineering, and testing precede the ac tual production of a new car. First, executives decide what kind of car to produce—a sports car, com pact, or luxury car—and approve basic specifications for the car’s size and cost. Stylists design the car’s body and interior. From the stylists’ sketches and drawings, skilled model makers make scale and full-size clay and Fiberglass models of the car. The models are used to reFine the styling, to evaluate safety features, and Final ly to make master dies for produc- MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS ing the car. Engineers design the car’s engine, transmission, suspension, and other parts. Their designs must meet safety and pollution control standards, as well as pass cost and performance tests. They work with physicists, chemists, metallurgists and other sci entists to research and develop new parts, stronger and lighter metal al loys, ways to use plastic and fiber glass, and thousands of other im provements. Engineers also work with draftsmen who draw up blue prints and specifications. Each new design and improve ment is thoroughly tested in the la boratory and on the road. Engines are run thousands of miles under nearly all driving conditions. Safety features are tested in the laboratory and in actual crashes. Components that fail must be redesigned before the car can be produced. Production of Parts. Once the car is finally designed and tested, the thou sands of parts that are needed to as semble complete vehicles must be produced. Parts are made from a variety of materials, including steel, copper, aluminum, glass, rubber, plastic and fabric. Several different methods are used to make metal parts. The casting process is used for bulky parts such as engine blocks. Axles and other parts that must withstand great stress are forged. Body panels are stamped out of sheet metal by huge presses. Most rough cast, forged, and some stamped parts are then ma chined to exact dimensions. Some parts are made entirely by machine. These metalworking processes are explained more fully under plant oc cupations. Other parts are produced by a variety of manufacturing processes. 705 Plastic and glass parts are molded and cut, seat cushions are sewn, and many parts are painted. Parts are also assembled into units or “subassemblies” , such as complete transmissions. Throughout production many in spections and tests are made to in sure that the assembled car will meet quality and safety standards. Final Assembly. After many months of designing, testing, and producing parts, the car is finally assembled. A conveyor carries the chassis along the assembly line, workers attach the parts and subassemblies in the right order. Axles are attached; the engine and transmission are mounted; body panels are welded together, painted, and joined to the chassis; instrument panels and seats are installed. Near the end of the line, hubcaps, mir rors, and other finishing touches are added. Gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank, headlights and wheels are aligned, and the car is inspected and driven off the line. The whole final assembly process may take as little as 90 minutes. Assembling hundreds of cars a day requires expert timing and co ordination. Parts and subassemblies are delivered according to produc tion schedules arranged months in advance. They are fed continually to workers from storage areas along the assembly line. Instructions for the color and special equipment for each car are transmitted along the line. This system allows cars of different colors and types to follow each other on the assembly line—a blue sedan may follow a red station wagon. In spections are made at many as sembly stations to make sure the car is put together correctly. Occupations in the Industry Engineers use mannikin to plan auto interior. The automobile industry employs 706 workers in hundreds of occupations. Semiskilled plant workers, includ ing assemblers and inspectors, make up about one half of all employees. An additional one-quarter are fore men, machinists, tool and die makers, mechanics, and other skilled craftsmen. Clerical workers make up another one-tenth of the total. The rest are professionals, technicians, sales workers, managers, guards, and unskilled workers. About 9 percent of the industry’s employees are women. About half of them are assemblers, inspectors, and other production workers. The rest are in clerical and other office jobs, including research and technical jobs. Some of the important occupa tions are described briefly below. De tailed discussions of many of the pro fessional, technical, craft, and plant jobs may be found elsewhere in the Handbook. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The modern automobile is the product of the research, design, and development work of thousands of engineers, chemists, draftsmen, and other professional and technical workers. Nearly 30,000 engineers worked in the automobile industry in 1972. Most of them were mechanical, elec trical or industrial engineers. Me chanical engineers design improve ments for engines, transmissions, and other working parts. Electrical engineers design the car’s electrical system, especially the ignition system and accessories. Industrial engineers concentrate on plant layout, work standards, scheduling, and other pro duction problems. The industry also employs metallurgical, civil, chemical, and ceramic engineers. The industry employed over 3,000 m athem aticians, physicists, chemists, and other physical sci entists in 1972. Most of them work on research and development proj ects such as finding ways to reduce air pollution and studying the be havior of metals under certain con ditions. Mathematicians and sta tisticians design quality control systems and work with research sci entists and engineers. Some sci entists supervise technical phases of production. Metallurgists, for ex ample, supervise melting and heat ing operations in the casting and forging departments. Draftsmen are the largest group of technical workers. They work closely with engineers and stylists to draft blueprints and specifications for each part of the car. Engineering aids, la boratory assistants, and thousands of other technicians also assist en gineers and scientists. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Executives decide what kind of vehicles to produce, what prices to charge, where to build plants, and whether to manufacture or buy certain parts. They are assisted by lawyers, market ana lysts, economists, statisticians, in dustrial relations experts and other professionals, who may also super vise plant or office staffs. Purchas ing agents, personnel managers, and other administrative workers direct special phases of the company’s business. Secretaries, bookkeepers, ship ping clerks, keypunch and business machine operators, typists, and other clerical employees work in the in dustry’s plants and offices. Plant Occupations. About threefourths of the automobile industry’s employees work in the plant. Most of them make parts or work on the assembly line. Others service and repair machinery and equipment. Foundry Occupations. Engine blocks and many other parts are “cast” or molded from melted metal. Pattern OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK makers, coremakers, and machine molders make sand molds which have a hollow space inside in the shape of the part. Workers called melters and pourers melt the metal in electric furnaces or cupolas, and pour it into the mold. After it cools and hardens into the shape of the part, shakeout men remove the cast ing from the mold. Forging Occupations. Axles, driveshafts, and other forged parts are made by pounding metal into dies. Workers called heaters heat the metal in a furnace and place it in a forging die. Hammermen then use a drophammer to pound the metal into the shape of the die. Other forge shop workers clean, finish, heat-treat, and inspect forged parts. Machining and other Metalworking Occupations. Most rough cast, forg ed, and some stamped parts must be machined to exact dimensions before they can be used. Machine tool operators, representing one of the in dustry’s largest metal working occu pations, run machine tools that cut or grind away excess metal from rough parts. Most operators use only one kind of machine tool and are called lathe operators, milling machine operators or some other special title. Operators on some machines make simple tool changes and gauge machined areas of the parts. Some machine tools are auto matic and can be linked together to do a series of machining operations. A rough engine block, for example, can be moved through hundreds of automatic drilling, cutting, and grinding operations with little or no manual labor. Some of the inspec tion is also automatic. Workers must monitor a control panel to spot inter ruptions and breakdowns. Assembly Occupations. (D.O.T. 806.887) The largest group of workers in the automobile industry MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS are the assemblers. They put to gether small parts to make subassemblies, and put subassemblies together to build a complete vehicle. Each assembler has a job to do as the vehicle passes his work station. For example, one worker mounts a tire and the next worker tightens the nuts with a power wrench. Most assem bly jobs are repetitive and require limited skills. However, they do re quire good coordination, and may be strenuous. Finishing Occupations. “Finishing” includes painting, polishing, uphol stering, and other operations that protect the car’s surface and add to the car’s comfort and appearance. Electroplaters (D.O.T. 500.885) coat bumpers, grills, hubcaps, and trim with chrome. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 705.884) File and polish rough metal surfaces in preparation for painting. Sprayers (D.O.T. 741.887) apply primers and paint with power spray guns. Polishers (D.O.T. 705.884) polish Finished sur faces by hand or with a power bufFing wheel. Several different kinds of workers combine their skills to make the car’s upholstery. Working from a pat tern, cutters (D.O.T. 781.884) cut fabric or leather with hand or elec tric shears. Sewing machine opera tors (D.O.T. 787.782) sew the pieces together into seat covers or head liners. Cushion builders (D.O.T. 780.884) fasten springs, padding, and foam rubber to the seats and other upholstered areas and install the covers. Inspection Occupations. (D.O.T. 806.281, .283, .381, .382, .387, .684, and .687). Throughout the manu facture and assembly of a new car, inspectors inspect certain parts for defective materials and workman ship. They inspect raw materials, examine parts during manufactur ing, check the quality and uniformity of subassemblies, and test drive the new car. Inspectors need various skills, depending on the part of process they inspect. Many of them use micrometers, gauges, testing instruments, and read blueprints and specifications. Other Plant Occupations. Many other workers help keep the plant operating by delivering materials and parts, repairing equipment, and cleaning and guarding the plant. Assembly line production re quires an elaborate materials han 707 dling and delivery system. Materials handlers load and unload raw mate rials and parts from trucks, ships, and railroad cars. Overhead crane operators move heavy machinery and raw steel. Power truck operators move parts and materials about the plant. Checkers, stock chasers, and stock clerks make sure parts and tools are delivered to the assembly line at the right time. They receive and distribute materials and keep records of shipments. A large staff of workers set up the Inspector uses gauges to check engine parts. 708 plant’s equipment and keep it in good condition. Skilled mainte nance mechanics and electricians service and repair complex me chanical hydraulic, electrical, and electronic equipment. Millwrights move and install heavy machinery. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, in stall, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Car penters, stationary engineers, and sheet metal workers also work in automobile plants. The industry also employs many protective and custodial workers, in cluding guards, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Engineers and scientists must have at least a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Advanced degrees or specialized experience are sometimes required for research and development jobs. About a dozen colleges offer undergraduate or graduate courses in automotive en gineering, and many companies have training programs in automotive spe cialties for engineers and scientists. Most companies also offer grants, loans, or tuition refund plans to their employees for advanced study. En gineers and scientists may become supervisors of research or produc tion units, and sometimes enter ad ministrative or executive positions. Most automotive stylists are graduates of art institutes or have bachelor’s degrees in industrial design. Stylists should have a back ground in practical applications, such as model-building, as well as in design theory and techniques. Most engineering aids, laboratory assistants, draftsmen and other tech nicians in the automobile industry are graduates of technical institutes or junior colleges. Others are trained on the job, at company schools, or at company expense at local technical schools or junior colleges. Techni cians sometimes advance to en gineering jobs through experience and study toward an engineering degree. Although a college education is not always required, administrative jobs are usually filled by men and women with degrees in business ad ministration, engineering, market ing, accounting, industrial relations, and similar fields. Some companies offer advanced training in these specialties. For semiskilled jobs, the industry seeks people who can do routine work at a steady pace. Most as sembly jobs can be learned in a few hours, and the less skilled machine operating jobs in a few weeks. Plant workers should be in good health and have good coordination and ability to do mechanical work. Tool and die makers, pattern makers, electricians, and some other craftsmen in the automobile in dustry need at least 4 years of train ing. Although many workers learn their skills by working with experi enced craftsmen, apprenticeship training is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Automobile manufac turers, working with labor unions, offer apprenticeships in many crafts. Applicants for apprenticeship usually must be high school, trade, or vocational school graduates, or have equivalent training. Training should include mathematics, science, me chanical drawing, and shop courses. Apprentices must pass physical ex aminations, mechanical aptitude tests and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship includes both classroom and on-the-job instruc tion. Shop math, blueprint reading, shop theory, and such special sub jects as electronics and hydraulics are studied in the classroom. In the shop apprentices learn the tech niques of their trade and how to use tools and machinery. Foremen usually are selected from employees already employed in the firm, especially if they have appren OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ticeship training and considerable ex perience. Newly promoted foremen usually go through a special training program. Training for many of the produc tion, clerical and technical jobs in the automobile industry is available un der the Manpower Development and Training Act. These training programs for unemployed and un deremployed workers may last up to a year. Trainees in some programs may need further on-the-job or ap prenticeship training. Employment Outlook Employment in the automobile in dustry is not expected to increase sig nificantly in the long run (19721985). Nevertheless, many workers will be hired to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other in dustries. The total number hired will fluctuate from year to year because the industry is sensitive to changes in general business conditions, con sumer preferences, availability of credit, and defense activity. The demand for motor vehicles will grow substantially during the next decade as population and in come increase. More automobiles will be needed as families move from the cities to the suburbs, and to re place cars that wear out. More trucks and buses will be needed to carry freight and passengers. Because of labor-saving technol ogy, however, employment in the in dustry will not keep pace with pro duction. Automobile companies will use more automated and computer ized equipment for machining, as sembling, and inspecting. A recent example is the versatile “industrial robot” which can be programmed to weld body panels, feed parts into ma chine tools, and do a variety of other tasks. More efficient processes, such as electron beam welding and elec trical discharge machining will be more widely used. Also, new or MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS modernized plants will have the latest conveyor equipment for mov ing parts and materials. Many other changes will also reduce the amount of labor needed to produce a vehicle. For example, more parts will be made of plastics, which can be molded in one piece and need less machining and Finish ing than do metal parts. Some of the industry’s increased efficiency, however, will be offset by other developments. More workers will be needed to design, test, and build additional safety and exhaust control equipment. Although the variety of models built is declining slowly, more cars will have air-con ditioning, power brakes, and other special equipment. Changes in the kinds of vehicles built and how they are produced will affect the type as well as the number of workers employed in the auto mobile industry. More engineers, sci entists, technicians, and other pro fessionals will be employed to meet the industry’s research and develop ment needs, especially to design new engines, exhaust systems, and safety equipment. The use of computers will increase the need for systems analysts and programmers, but will limit employment growth in many clerical occupations. The employment of skilled workers, as a group, may decline slightly, mainly because fewer ma chinists and welders will be needed as more efficient processes are intro duced. Some skilled occupations will grow, including electricians, mill wrights, pipefitters, and machine repairmen. Overall, the number of semiskilled workers will remain about the same. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the auto mobile industry are among the 709 highest paid in manufacturing. In 1972 they averaged $5.11 an hour, compared to $3.81 an hour for pro duction workers in all manufactur ing industries. Besides wages and salaries, auto mobile workers receive a wide range of fringe benefits. They are paid one and one-half times their normal wage for working more than 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week or working Satur day. They receive premiums for working late shifts, and double the normal wage for Sundays and holi days. Most workers get paid vaca tions (or payment instead of vaca tions) and 12 paid holidays a year. Most companies provide annual wage increases, plus automatic in creases when the cost of living rises. Life, accident, and health insurance are provided, also. A great majority of the industry’s workers are covered by companypaid retirement plans. Retirement pay varies with the length of service. Many plans provide for retirement at age 55, or after 30 years service re gardless of age. Most wage workers and some sal aried employees receive sup plemental unemployment benefit plans, paid for entirely by their em ployers. These plans provide pay during layoff and short work week benefits when workers are required to work less than a full week. Dur ing layoff, provisions are included for life, accident, and health in surance; survivor income benefits; relocation allowances; and separa tion payments for those laid off 12 continuous months or more. Most wage workers and some sal aried workers are required to join a union, usually within 40 days after they are hired. Most production and maintenance workers in assembly plants, and a majority in parts plants belong to the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of 710 America. In some parts plants, the International Union, Allied In dustrial Workers of America is the bargaining agent. Other workers belong to the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Pattern Maker’s League of North America; the Inter national Molders’ and Allied Worker’s Union of North America; the Metal Polishers Buffers, Platers, and Helpers International Union; the International Union, United Plant Guard Workers of America (Ind.); the Mechanics Educational Society of America; the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.). Most automobile industry em ployees work in plants that are rela tively clean and free of dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work areas, how ever, are hot, noisy, and filled with dust and fumes. These conditions have been greatly improved by the introduction of better ventilation and noise control systems. Automobile plants are compara tively safe places to work, although safety conditions vary among indi vidual shops or plants. The rate of disabling injuries in automobile plants has been less than half that in all manufacturing in recent years. Some plants have fully equipped medical facilities with doctors and nurses. Sources of Additional Information Further information on employ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment and training opportunities in the automobile industry can be ob tained from local offices of the State employment service; employment of fices of automobile firms; locals of the unions listed above; and from: International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica. 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Asso ciation of the U.S., Inc., 320 New Center Building, Detroit, Mich. 48202. Information on careers in auto motive engineering and a list of schools offering automotive en gineering courses are available from: Society of Automotive Engineers, 2 Pennsylvania Plaza, New York, N.Y. 10001. Seven States account for twothirds of the employment in plants manufacturing conventional busi ness machines and scales: Ohio, New York, California, Illinois, Connect icut, New Jersey, and Kentucky. The OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER following areas are some of the im MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS portant manufacturing centers: Dayton, Toledo, and Euclid, Ohio; the New York-Northeastern New During the last decade, employ specialize in software or that rent or Jersey industrial area; Hartford and ment in the office machine and com lease computers and provide related Stamford, Conn.; Chicago, 111.; puter industry grew four times faster services. Detroit, Mich.; and Lexington, Ky. than employment in manufacturing In 1972, more than 70,000 people were employed in factories that pro as a whole. Growth was spear headed by a rapid expansion in the duced conventional office machines Occupations in the Industry production of computers. For many and scales. Of this total, about 30,years, the industry’s chief products 000 produced desk calculators, cash of occupations, requir were typewriters, adding machines, registers, coin and ticket counters, ingA avariety broad range of training and calculators, and other conventional and adding, accounting, and voting skills, are found in plants that make machines; another 27,000 produced office machines. Today, plants that office machines and computers. industrial and household scales and make computers account for more More than half of the industry’s than half of the industry’s produc miscellaneous office machines, in workers are in white-collar jobs tion. cluding items as diverse as postage (engineering, scientific, technical, ad meters and dictating machines; and ministrative, sales, and clerical); the the rest produced typewriters. others are in plant jobs in Nature and Location Large plants account for most of spection, maintenance,(assembly, transporta of the Industry the employment in office machine and service). In 1972, the office machine and and computer manufacturing. About tionWhite-collar workers represent a computer manufacturing industry 7 out of every 10 of the industry’s significantly larger of employed 245,000 workers in ap employees are in plants that have 1,- total employment in proportion the computer proximately 870 plants. About 7 out 000 or more employees; several com industry than in most other manufac of every 10 of them worked in plants puter plants have more than 5,000 turing industries. that produced computer equipment, employees. of the key occupations in the remainder in plants that pro New York, California, and thisSome industry described briefly in duced conventional office machines Minnesota have about two-thirds of the following are section. (Detailed dis and scales and other weighing computer manufacturing employ cussions of professional, technical, devices. ment, and the following States ac skilled, and other occupations found Computer equipment manufac count for most of the remainder: in the office machine and computer turing plants employed about 172,- M assachusetts, Pennsylvania, industry, as well as in many other in 000 workers in 1972. These plants Florida, Arizona, and Colorado. In dustries, elsewhere in the manufacture general purpose com New York, the lower Hudson River Handbook,areingiven sections puters as well as those used for spe Valley area has many important dividual occupations.) covering in cial applications, such as space ex computer manufacturing centers: ploration and missiles. They also Poughkeepsie, East Fish Kill, and Engineering and Scientific Occupa manufacture related equipment such Kingston. Large manufacturing tions. Nearly 1 out of every 10 work as machines that read magnetic num plants also are located in Rochester ers in the office machine and com bers on bank checks. In addition to and Utica, N.Y., and in the Boston, puter industry is an engineer or computers and related equipment, Mass., and Philadelphia, Pa. areas. scientist—a much greater propor plants may furnish “software” (com The leading center in the Midwest tion than in most industries. Most of puter programs and operating sys is Minneapolis-St. Paul. The Los them work at computer plants. tems). Thousands of people whose Angeles industrial area is the most The largest group of engineers employment is not included in this important computer manufacturing work with electricity or electronics. chapter are employed outside center in the West, followed by Most are engaged in research and manufacturing plants by Firms that Phoenix, Ariz.; and San Jose, Calif. development, although many work in 711 712 production. The industry also em ploys large numbers of mechanical and industrial engineers. Some mechanical engineers are engaged in product development and tool and equipment design. Others are con cerned with the maintenance, lay out, and operation of plant equip ment. Industrial engineers deter mine the most effective means of using the basic factors of produc tion—labor, machines, and mate rials. Chemists make up the largest group of scientists in office machine and computer manufacturing. Their work is primarily in chemical proc essing of printed circuits used in computers. Mathematicians make up another large group of scientists. Their work on complex mathe matical problems is important in designing computers. Physicists are employed in research and develop ment work on items such as mini aturized components and circuits. Statisticians work in fields such as quality control and production scheduling. The industry also employs sys tems analysts and computer pro grammers, many of whom have sci entific or engineering backgrounds. Systems analysts primarily devise new information processing tech niques and improve existing tech niques. Programmers design and test computer programs. Some analysts and programmers specialize in scien tific and engineering problems, while others process accounting, inven tory, sales, and other business data. Systems analysts and programmers may assist salesmen in determining data processing needs of customers. Technical Occupations. More than 1 out of every 20 workers in the indus try is a technician. Most specialize in electronics and assist engineers and scientists in research and develop ment, testing and inspecting elec tronic components, and doing com plex assembly work. Some elec tronics technicians specialize in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Technicians testing and debugging computers. repairing computers. Chemical con trol technicians prepare solutions used in the etching of circuit boards. Photographic technicians set up cameras and other equipment used in the tracing process to create copper etchings on circuit boards. Drafts men prepare drawings from sketches or specifications furnished by engi neers. Engineering aids assist engi neers by making calculations, sketches, and drawings, and by con ducting performance tests on com ponents. Administrative and Sales Occupa tions. About 1 out of every 13 work ers is an administrator. Included are top executives who manage com panies and determine policy deci sions and middle managers who direct departments such as adver tising and industrial relations. Other administrative employees in staff positions include accountants, law yers, and market researchers. Sales personnel hold about 1 out of every 25 jobs in the industry. Salesmen of conventional office machines usually work on their own. Computer salesmen, on the other hand, are assisted by a host of tech nical experts, such as engineers and systems analysts. Because com puters are complex and expensive, computer salesmen may have to OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS spend several months to complete a sale. Clerical Occupations. Nearly 1 out of every 6 workers in the industry is in a clerical job. Included in this group are secretaries, clerk-typists, file clerks, bookkeepers, and busi ness machine operators, as well as computer personnel such as key punch and computer operators. Plant Occupations. Nearly half of this industry’s employees are plant (blue-collar) workers. Most plant workers are engaged directly in mak ing computers and office machines. These workers include assemblers, inspectors or testers, machinists, machine tool operators, and the fore men who supervise them. Truckdrivers, material handlers, power truck operators, guards, and jani tors move materials and perform custodial duties, and plumbers and pipefitters, electricians, carpenters, and other workers maintain produc tion machinery and building facilities. Assembly Occupations. (D.O.T. 590.885; 692.782; 706.884; 726.781 and .884) Workers who assemble computers and office machines have many different skills, and make up the largest group of plant workers. Assemblers may put together small parts to make components or components to make sub-assemblies or the finished product. Much of their work is done by hand. Some hand assemblers do a single oper ation as components move down the assembly line. The assembly of type writers, for example, is divided into many simple operations. Each assembler does one job as the type writer passes the work station. Some assembly jobs are difficult and re quire great skill, while others are relatively simple. Skilled electronics assemblers, for example, use dia grams as guides to wire complex memory and logic panels for com puters. Machines are used for many assembly operations. Automatic wire-wrapping machines, for exam ple, wire panels and plugboards. Operators feed these machines and remove and inspect finished items. Electronic technicians usually do the most difficult hand assembly work. In research laboratories, they put together experimental equip ment. In plants, they put together complex items that require a knowl edge of electronics theory. Assemblers commonly use screw drivers, pliers, snippers, and solder ing irons and they use special de vices to position and hold parts dur ing assembly. Some assemblers use precision equipment to weld connec tions in circuit assemblies. Machining Occupations. Most office machine and computer manufac turing plants employ metal machin ing workers who operate powerdriven machine tools to produce metal parts for computers, type writers, accounting machines, calcu lators, and other products. Numer ical control machine operators tend machines that have been pro grammed to perform machining operations automatically. Toolmakers construct and repair equip ment used to make and assemble parts. Diemakers specialize in metal forms (dies) used in punch and power presses that shape metal parts. Inspection and Testing Operations. Testing and inspection begin when raw materials enter the plant and continue throughout the assembly process. Finished parts and products are tested and inspected thoroughly. Some inspectors examine individ ual parts; others inspect components during subassembly; still others in spect completed office machines and computers. Many inspecting jobs re quire highly skilled workers. On the other hand, relatively unskilled peo ple can run some automatic test equipment. Workers who feed or monitor the equipment are called test-set operators or testing machine 713 operators. Job titles indicate the work many inspectors do. Machined parts in spectors (D.O.T. 609.381) use preci sion testing instruments to deter mine whether parts have been machined properly. Type inspectors (D.O.T. 706.687) use a magnifying glass to examine typewriter type for defects. Electronic subassembly in spectors (D.O.T. 726.384) use micro scopes, meters, and various measur ing devices to examine circuits and other electronic subassemblies. Elec tronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) use special instruments to test electronic systems such as com puter memory units. In plants that manufacture con ventional office machines, final in spection is relatively simple. Inspec tors operate the machines, look for defects, and refer malfunctioning machines to repairmen. The final in spection or “debugging” of com puters, on the other hand, is very complex. Electronic technicians in spect new computers under the supervision of electronic engineers. They use complex equipment to run tests and detailed drawings and in structions to find causes of malfunc tions. Maintenance Occupations. Many maintenance workers with different types of training take care of the in dustry’s production machinery and equipment. Skilled electricians are responsible for the maintenance of electrical equipment. Machine and equipment repairmen make mechan ical repairs. Maintenance machin ists and welders build and repair equipment. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are em ployed in plants which are air-condi tioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building maintenance craftsmen also are employed. Other Plant Occupations. Many 714 truckdrivers are employed to make deliveries to various parts of plants. Laborers load and unload trucks and boxcars and do general clean-up work. Some other plant occupations are boiler operator, stationary engi neer, guard, and janitor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing or one of the sciences is usually required for engineering and scien tific jobs. For research and develop ment work, applicants with ad vanced degrees generally are pre ferred. Some companies have train ing programs designed to give young college graduates a broad picture of manufacturing operations before they are assigned to a particular department. Because of the highly technical nature of computers, many of the industry’s executives have backgrounds in engineering or science. Engineers and scientists, as well as graduates of business adminis tration and liberal arts colleges, are employed as salesmen, program mers, and systems analysts. Most business and liberal arts graduates, however, are employed in account ing, labor-management relations, and other administrative activities. Technicians qualify for their jobs in a number of ways. Some obtain training in either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Others have one or more years of scientific or engineering training, but have not completed all of the require ments for a degree. Still other tech nicians are promoted from lower grade jobs in the plant. A few wellqualified technicians have advanced to engineering jobs, after com pleting courses in mathematics, engi neering, and related subjects. People who complete commercial courses in high school or business school are preferred in clerical jobs such as stenographer or office machine operator. For computer operators, most firms prefer appli cants who have some college or tech nical training in data processing. With additional training, some com puter operators and clerical workers advance to programmer jobs. In selecting workers for plant jobs, firms generally prefer high school or vocational school graduates, who are then trained through on-the-job in struction and experience that varies from a few days to years. Some plants also conduct classroom train ing of short duration. Skilled crafts men, such as machinists and tool and die makers, may spend 3 to 4 years in learning their jobs and some firms have formal apprenticeship pro grams, which include both on-the-job training and classroom instruction related to the particular craft. Fre quently, openings for skilled jobs are filled by qualified young workers al ready in the plant. Workers who have little or no previous experience or training are hired for less skilled inspection, assembly, and machining jobs. Applicants may have to pass apti tude tests and demonstrate ability for particular types of work. Most assembly and inspection jobs re quire good eyesight and color perception, manual dexterity, and patience. Experienced plant workers have opportunities to advance to jobs with higher pay. Assemblers, for example, can become semiskilled inspectors, and eventually skilled inspectors. Machine tool operators can move to skilled machinist jobs. Craftsmen and skilled inspectors can become technicians, after completing courses in company-operated schools, junior colleges, or technical schools. Fore men jobs are open to well-qualified plant workers who have supervisory ability. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings that result from employ ment growth, many openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to jobs in other in dustries. Employment growth is expected to be concentrated in plants that pro duce electronic computer equipment as the demand for computers and re lated equipment continues to in crease. As the economy expands and becomes more complex, computers will become increasingly useful to business, government agencies, and other organizations. Demand also will be stimulated as new uses for computers are developed. Growth in the number of computers will be ac companied by a need for additional computer-related equipment—input and output, storage, and communi cation devices. Employment in plants that pro duce conventional office machines is expected to grow slowly. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. The demand for most types of office machines is ex pected to rise rapidly as business and government organizations grow and the volume of paperwork increases. However, imported machines have been gaining a greater share of the office machinery market and this trend may continue. Moreover, technological improvements in production methods are expected to increase output per worker. For ex ample, increasing mechanization of operations formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor require ments, particularly in plants where products are mass-produced, such as typewriters and calculators. Some occupational groups in the office machine and computer manufacturing industry are ex Employment Outlook pected to grow faster than others. Employment in this industry is ex- For example, the number of profes- OFFICE MACHINE AND COMPUTER MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS sional and administrative workers, particularly engineers, scientists, technicians, systems analysts, and programmers, is expected to increase more rapidly than the number of clerical and plant workers. Demand for these workers will be spurred by continued high levels of research and development expenditures to im prove production processes, ad vance machine capabilities, and broaden the use of computers. Secretaries, stenographers, typ ists, and computer operating person nel will account for most of the growth in clerical occupations. More extensive use of computers in rou tine paperwork may result in a de cline in the employment of book keepers and file clerks. Semiskilled production workers, such as assemblers and inspectors, will continue to account for most of the work force in plant occupations, despite the growing use of auto mated and mechanized assembly line equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of plant workers in the office machine and computer indus try are higher than the average for other manufacturing industries. In 1972, they averaged $4.13 an hour, compared with $3.81 an hour for plant workers in manufacturing in dustries as a whole. National wage data are not avail able for individual occupations in the office machine and computer indus try. However, the following tabula tion, based on data obtained from a small number of union contracts, provides an example of the range in hourly wage rates for selected oc cupations in 1972: Hourly rale ranges Assemblers..................... $2.16—3.74 3.50-4.15 Machinists ...................... Inspectors........................ 2.16—4.29 Wire-wrapping machine operators .................... 3.14-4.38 Tool and die makers. 4.01—4.39 Electricians............. 3.60-4.61 Some employees work night shifts and weekends because many plants operate around the clock. Employ ees working second or third shifts, or more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week generally receive extra pay. Paid vacations and holidays are al most universal in this industry. Most employees receive 1 to 4 weeks of vacation, depending on length of service. They also receive insurance and pension benefits at least par tially financed by the employer. Em ployee stock purchase plans are available in many firms. In general, the work surroundings in office machine and computer 715 plants are more favorable than those in most other types of factories. Work stations usually are welllighted and clean, and free from dust, fumes, and loud noises. Many com puter factories are relatively new and are located in suburban areas. Some plant jobs are repetitious, but very few require great physical effort. Fewer and less severe injuries take place in office machine and computer manufacturing than the average for all manufacturing. Many plant workers are covered by union contracts. The principal un ions in this industry are the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Sources of Additional Information Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association 1828 L. St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Federation of Information Processing Societies, Inc., 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES In 1972, the paper and allied prod ucts industry employed about 700,000 people to produce many differ ent kinds of paper and paperboard products. The industry employs workers in occupations ranging from unskilled to highly specialized technical and professional jobs, many found only in the paper in dustry. About 140,000 women worked in this industry in 1972 Many worked in office jobs; others worked in plant jobs, mainly as machine operators and inspectors. Nature and Location of the Industry The paper industry is highly mechanized. Pulp, paper, and many finished paper products are manu factured by machines—some as long as a football field—in a series of nearly automatic operations that re quire very little handling of mate rials by workers. Manufacturing plants in the paper industry are engaged in one or more of three different operations: the production of pulp (the basic ingredient of paper) from wood, reused fibers, or other raw materials; the manu facture of paper or paperboard (thick paper) from pulp; or the conversion of rolls or sheets of paper or paperboard into finished products. The largest group of employees in the industry work in mills that pro duce pulp, paper, or paperboard. The next largest group work in plants that make boxes and containers; and the remainder in plants that make a 716 variety of other paper products. More than 80 percent of the indus try’s employees work in factories employing 100 workers or more each. Workers in this industry are lo cated throughout the country, al though about half are employed in eight States: New York, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California, Other States having large numbers of paperworkers are Michi gan, Georgia, Washington, Maine, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, and Alabama. Occupations In the Industry Employees in the paper industry work in a variety of occupations, re quiring a broad range of training and skills. Many workers operate and control specialized papermaking, finishing, and converting machines. Some workers install and repair papermaking machinery. Truck drivers make deliveries, and other workers load and unload trucks, rail road cars, and ships. Other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry employs many work ers in clerical, sales, and adminis trative occupations. For example, it employs purchasing agents, person nel managers, salesmen, office clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, and business machine operators. Also, because of the complex proc esses and equipment used, the indus try employs many professional and technical workers, including chemi cal and mechanical engineers, chem ists, laboratory technicians, and pulp and paper testers. (Detailed dis cussions of professional, technical, and mechanical occupations, found not only in the paper industry but in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sections cover ing individual occupations. Production Jobs. In 1972, more than three-fourths of all employees in the industry worked in production jobs. The simplified description of paper making occupations and processes that follows applies to a plant which combines the production of pulp, paper, and finished paper products into one continuous operation. (See chart 23.) After logs are received at the pulp mill, the bark is removed. One ma chine used for this operation is a large revolving cylinder known as a “ drum barker.” Logs are fed mechanically into this machine by a semiskilled worker called a barker operator (D.O.T. 533.782). The ma chine cleans bark from the logs by tumbling them against each other and also against the rough inner sur face of the drum. Next, pulp fibers in the logs are separated from other substances by a chemical or mechanical process, or both, depend ing on the type of wood used and the grade of paper desired. In the mechanical process, pulpwood is held against a fast-revolving grindstone that separates the fibers. In the more commonly used chemi cal process, pulpwood is carried on conveyor belts to a chipper machine operated by a chipperman (D.O.T. 668.885). The machine cuts the pulpwood into chips about the size of a quarter. These wood chips are “cooked” with chemicals under high temperature and pressure in a “digester,” a kettlelike vat several stories high. The digester is oper- OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES Th e Paperm aking Process__________________ 23 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. ated by a skilled worker called a digester operator (D.O.T. 532.782). He determines the amount of chemi cals to be used and the cooking temperature and pressure; he also directs the loading of the digester with wood chips and chemicals. By checking an instrument panel he makes certain that proper condi tions are being maintained. When the pulp fibers are removed from the digester, they are washed to remove chemicals, partially cooked chips, and other impurities. These fibers, called pulp, resemble wet, brown cot ton. To turn pulp into paper, the pulp is mixed thoroughly with water and further refined in a machine oper ated by a skilled worker called a beater engineer (D.O.T. 530.782). The kind and amount of chemicals and dyes he uses and the length of time he “beats” the solution deter mines the color and strength of the paper. The pulp solution, now more than 99 percent water, is turned into paper or paperboard by machines which are among the largest in American industry. The machines are of two general types. One is the Fourdrinier machine, by far the most commonly used; the other is the cylinder ma chine used to make particular types of paper, such as building and con tainer board. In the Fourdrinier, the pulp solution pours into a con tinuously moving and vibrating belt of fine wire screen. As the water drains, millions of pulp fibers adhere to one another, forming a thin wet sheet of paper. After passing through presses that squeeze out more water, the newly formed paper passes through the dryer section of the 717 papermaking machine to evaporate remaining water. The quality of the paper produced largely depends on the skill of the paper machine operator (D.O.T. 539.782). He controls the “wet-end” of the papermaking machine to form paper of specified thickness, width, and physical strength. He checks control-panel instruments to make sure the flow of pulp and the speed of the machine are coordinated. The paper machine operator also deter mines whether the paper meets re quired specifications by interpreting laboratory tests or, in some in stances, by visually checking or feel ing the paper. He supervises the less skilled workers of the machine crew and, with their help, keeps the paper moving smoothly through the machine. The backtender (D.O.T. 532.885), who is supervised by the paper machine operator, controls the pressure and temperature of machinery that dries and finishes the paper and gives it the correct thick ness. He inspects the paper for im perfections, and makes sure that it is being wound tightly and uniformly into rolls. The backtender also ad justs the machinery that cuts the rolls 718 into smaller rolls and, with the help of assistants, may weigh and wrap the rolls for shipment. Paper mills that produce a fine grade of paper for books, maga zines, or stationery usually have finishing departments. Most workers in these departments are either semi skilled or unskilled. One semiskilled worker, the supercalendar operator (D.O.T. 534.782), aided by several helpers and by mechanical handling equipment, places huge rolls of paper onto a machine that gives the paper a smooth and glossy finish. He also in spects the finished paper to make sure that specifications have been met. Another semiskilled worker, the paper sorter and counter (D.O.T. 649.687), inspects sheets of paper for tears, dirt spots, and wrinkles; counts them; and may fill customer orders. In converting plants, machines operated by semiskilled or skilled OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers convert paper and paperboard into envelopes, napkins, cor rugated shipping containers and other paper products. Occupations in converting plants differ widely, depending largely on the product be ing manufactured. An example of a semiskilled worker is the envelope machine operator (D.O.T. 641.885) who feeds and tends an automatic machine that makes envelopes from either rolls of paper or prepared envelope blanks. One of the few skill ed workers in a converting plant is the printer-slotter operator (D.O.T. 651.782) who controls a machine that cuts and creases paperboard sheets and prints designs or lettering on them. Converting plants employ thou sands of workers to print designs and lettering on bags, labels, wallpaper, and other paper products. Among these are compositors who set type, and pressmen who prepare and operate printing presses. Maintenance Jobs. The paper indus try employs many skilled mainte nance workers to care for its com plex machinery and electrical equip ment. Millwrights install and repair machinery. They also take apart and reassemble machines when they are moved about the plant. Instrument repairmen install and service instru ments that measure and control the flow of pulp, paper, water, steam, and chemical additives. The job of instrument repairman is becoming increasingly important with the greater use of automatic control equipment. Other important maintenance em ployees include electricians, who re pair wiring, motors, control panels, and switches; maintenance ma chinists, who make replacement parts for mechanical equipment; and pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes. Stationary engineers are em ployed to operate and maintain powerplants, steam engines, boilers, air compressors, and turbines. Professional and Technical Occu pations. The complexity of pulp and paper manufacturing requires thou sands of workers who have engi neering, chemical, or other technical training. Approximately 15,000 scientists and engineers and 7,000 technicians were employed by the paper industry in 1972. Many chemists are employed to control the quality of the product by supervising the testing of pulp and paper. In research laboratories, chemists study the influence of various chemicals on pulp and paper properties. In addition, some chem ists and engineers are employed as salesmen, supervisors of plant workers, or as administrators in positions requiring technical knowl edge. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES Chemical and mechanical engi neers transform new pulp and paper making techniques into practical production methods. Some chemi cal engineers supervise the produc tion process. Electrical engineers supervise the operation of power generating and distributing equip ment and instruments. Packaging engineers design and supervise the production of con tainers and packages. A few box manufacturers also employ artists who develop letterings, designs, and colors for containers. Foresters manage large areas of timberland and assist in the wood buying operations of pulp and paper companies. They map forest areas, plan and supervise the harvesting, and seed or plant new trees to assure continuous production of timber. Systems analysts and computer programmers are becoming in creasingly important to this industry due to the greater use of com puterized controls in the production process. They analyze business and production problems and convert them to a form suitable for solution by computer. Frequent tests are performed dur ing the manufacture of pulp or paper to determine whether size, weight, strength, color, and other properties meet standards. Some testing is done by machine operators, but in many mills testing technicians are em ployed. These employees, who have job titles such as laboratory techni cian, pulp tester, and chemical analyst, also assist engineers and chemists in research and develop ment activities. Administrative, Clerical and Related Occupations. The paper industry em ploys many administrative, clerical, and other office personnel. Execu tives plan and administer company policy. To work effectively, execu tives require information from a wide variety of personnel, including accountants, sales representatives, lawyers, and personnel in industrial relations, transportation, market re search, and other activities. Book keepers, secretaries, shipping clerks, and other clerical workers keep records of personnel, payroll, inven tories, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Paper and pulp companies generally hire and train inexperi enced workers for production and maintenance occupations. Many companies prefer to hire high school graduates between the ages of 18 and 25. Inexperienced workers usually start as laborers or helpers and ad vance along fairly well-defined paths to more skilled jobs. Some large plants have formal ap prenticeship programs for mainte nance workers. Under these pro grams, which usually last 3 to 4 years, young people are trained for jobs, such as machinist, electrician, millwright, and pipefitter. General ly, an applicant is given a physical examination, mechanical aptitude tests, and similar qualifying tests. Apprenticeship includes both on-thejob training and classroom instruc tion related to the occupation. The machinist apprentice, for example, receives classroom instructions in mathematics, blueprint reading, and shop theory. A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum educational requirement for scientists, engineers, foresters, and other specialists. For research work, persons with advanced degrees are preferred. Many engineers and chemists (called process engineers and paper chemists) have special ized training in paper technology. A list of schools offering such training is available from the American 719 Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Many com panies have summer jobs for college students specializing in paper making, and upon graduation fre quently hire them on a permanent basis. Some associations, colleges, and individual companies offer scholarships in pulp and paper making technology. Some companies have formal training programs for college gradu ates with engineering or scientific backgrounds. These employees before being assigned to a particular department may work for brief periods in various parts of the plant to gain a broad knowledge of pulp and paper manufacturing. Other firms immediately assign junior chemists or engineers to a specific re search, operation, or maintenance unit. Generally, no specialized edu cation is required for laboratory assistants, testing technicians, or other kinds of technicians. Some em ployers, however, prefer to hire technical institute or junior college graduates. Beginning technicians start in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility after they acquire experience and can work with minimum supervision. Administrative positions usually are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business ad ministration, marketing, account ing, industrial relations, or other specialized business fields. A knowl edge of paper technology is helpful for administrators and sales occu pations. This is true especially for salesmen who give customers techni cal assistance. Most pulp and paper companies employ clerks, book keepers, stenographers, and typists who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. For production workers, promo tion generally is limited to jobs with in a “work area,” which may be a 720 department, section, or an operation on one type of machine. To become a paper machine tender, for example, the worker may start as a laborer, wrapping and sealing finished rolls of paper as they come off the paper making machine. As he gains experi ence and skill, he moves to more dif ficult assignments, finally he may be come a machine tender in charge of operating a machine. These pro motions may take years, depending on the availability of jobs. Experi ence gained within a work area usu ally is not transferable; unskilled or semiskilled workers who transfer to jobs outside their seniority area or to other plants usually must start in en try jobs. Many plant foremen and super visors are former production workers. In some plants, qualified workers may be promoted directly to foremen or other supervisory posi tions. In others, workers are given additional training before they are eligible for promotion. This training often is continued after the worker is promoted—through conferences, special plant training sessions, and sometimes courses at universities or trade schools. Most firms provide some financial assistance for em ployees who take courses outside the plant. Employment Outlook Employment in the paper and allied products industry is expected to grow moderately through the mid1980’s. Most openings, however, will stem from the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, transfer to jobs in other industries, or die. Paper production is expected to in crease substantially as population and businesses grow and new uses for paper are developed. Rising popula tion, for example, will create a greater demand for textbooks, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Hourly rate writing papers, magazines, and news ranges papers. Business expansion will Production occupations: heighten the need for paper prod Barker operator, drum ... $3.08-4.57 ucts, such as business forms and Chipperman............ 2.87-4.03 packaging. Employment will grow at Digester operator (cook) ............................. 3.37-5.11 a slower rate than production, how Head stock preparer ever, because of the increasing use of (beater engineer) ........... 3.66-5.13 laborsaving machinery. Beaterman ......................... 3.12-4.62 Occupational groups in the indus Paper machine tender . . . . 3.02-7.50 try are expected to grow at different Backtender.............. 3.51-7.12 Supercalendar operator ... 3.52-4.74 rates. The numbers of engineers, scientists, technicians, and mainte nance workers are expected to in crease faster than other occu pational groups in the industry. More scientific and technical person nel will be needed as research and development activities expand, and more maintenance workers will be required to service the growing in ventory of complex machinery. Employment of administrative and clerical workers also is expected to rise at a faster pace than total employment. The number of produc tion workers, on the other hand, may decline slightly as more laborsaving machinery is introduced. Never theless, replacement needs will create many job openings for production workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the paper industry had average earnings of $3.94 an hour in 1972. In the same year, production workers in all manufacturing industries averaged $3.81 an hour. The following tabulation, based on information from a score of unionmanagement contracts in the paper industry, illustrates the approximate range of hourly wage rates for selected production and mainte nance occupations in 1972. Local rates within these ranges depend on geographic location, type and size of mill, kinds of machines used, and other factors. Maintenance occupations: Pipefitter.................. 3.06-5.38 Machinists.............. 3.48-5.25 Electrician ......................... 3.11-5.21 Millwright ......................... 4.15-5.22 Most pulp and paper plants oper ate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Production workers can expect to work on eve ning or night shifts from time to time. Maintenance workers usually are employed on the regular day shift. In most plants the standard work week is 40 hours; in a few it is 36 hours or less. Workers normally have year-round employment be cause paper production is not subject to seasonal variations. Paid vacations and holidays are al most always provided. Pension plans and life and health insurance usually are financed completely or partially by paper companies. Employee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the company makes con tributions, are also available in some firms. Most pulp and papermaking jobs do not require strenuous physical ef fort. Some employees, however, work in hot, humid, and noisy areas. They also may be exposed to dis agreeable odors from chemicals in the papermaking process. The rate of disabling injuries in this industry has been about the same as the rate for all manufacturing in recent years. A majority of the production workers are members of trade un ions. A large number belong to the OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES 721 National Paper Box Manufacturers Association, Inc., 121 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. Paper Industry Management Associa tion, 2570 Devon Ave., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Sources of Additional International Brotherhood of Pulp, Information Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; the United Papermakers and Paper- Further information about job op workers; or the Association of portunities in this industry is availa Western Pulp and Paper Workers. ble from local offices of the State Many printing workers belong to the Information on job opportunities service and from: International Printing Pressmen and employment for paper and paper products sales American Paper Institute, 260 Assistants’ Union of North America. men may be obtained from: Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. Some maintenance workers and 10016. National Paper Trade Association, other craftsmen belong to various Fibre Box Association, 224 South Inc., 420 Lexington Ave., New craft unions. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60604. York, N.Y. 10017. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY The petroleum and natural gas in dustries provide about 75 percent of all the energy fuels consumed in this country. Crude oil products supply the fuels and lubricants used for motor vehicles, locomotives, air craft, and ships. Oil and gas provide much of the heat for homes, fac tories, and stores, as well as the fuel for over one-quarter of the electric power generated in this country. In addition, basic petroleum com pounds are used to manufacture hun dreds of everyday products such as synthetic rubber and plastics. In 1972 about 150,000 workers, who have a wide range of educa tional backgrounds and skills, were employed in the petroleum refining industry. This chapter deals only with occupations and activities in volved in refining oil. Occupations in petroleum and natural gas produc tion and processing are discussed in a separate chapter elsewhere in the Handbook. refining consists of heating crude oil as it flows through a series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil pass into a tower where the various “fractions,” or parts, of the oil are condensed. The heaviest parts (for example, heavy fuel oils and asphalt) are drawn off along the bot tom of the tower where tempera tures are highest; lighter parts, jet fuel and diesel fuel are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest (gasoline and gases) are taken off at the top where tempera tures are lowest. Further processing by more complicated methods com bines or modifies compounds ob tained through fractionating. Treat ing units are used to remove water, sulfur compounds, and other im purities. About 250 refineries were in operation in this country in 1972. They ranged in size from plants with fewer than 50 employees to those with several thousand. Although many States have refineries, about 80 percent of the crude oil was re fined in only 10 States: Texas, Cali fornia, Louisiana, Illinois, Pennsyl vania, Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Refineries usually are located near oil fields, in dustrial centers, or deepwater ports where tankers can dock. Occupations In the Industry About 1 out of every 5 workers in refineries is an operator. A key worker in converting crude oil into usable products is the Stillman (D.O.T. 542.280), or chief operator, who is responsible for one or more processing units. The Stillman, with help from assistant operators, makes adjustments for changes in tempera ture, pressure, and oil flow. In the modern refineries, operators can watch instruments on panels that Nature and Location of the Industry A modern refinery is a compli cated plant made up of tanks and towers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the re finery to the shipment of finished products, the flow of production is almost continuous. Operators use in struments to measure and regulate the flow, volume, temperature, and pressure of liquids and gases going through the equipment. Manual han dling of materials is virtually eliminated. Briefly, the first step in petroleum 722 Petroleum industry workers observing the control center of a refinery. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY show the entire operation of all proc essing units in the refinery. From time to time, they patrol units to check their operating condition and to test samples. Other plant workers include pumpmen or pumpers (D.O.T. 549.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 549.884), who maintain and operate pumps that circulate petroleum products, chemicals and water; and treaters (D.O.T. 549.782), who oper ate equipment to remove impurities from gasoline, oil, and other products. Many refineries employ large numbers of maintenance workers to repair, rebuild, and clean equip ment. In other plants, maintenance work is contracted to companies out side the petroleum industry. Mainte nance workers are needed because high heat, pressure, and corrosion quickly wear out the complex refin ing equipment. Included are skilled boilermakers, electricians, instru ment repairmen, machinists, pipe fitters, sheetmetal workers, and welders. Helpers and apprentices also are in these trades. Some skilled workers have a primary skill in one craft as well as the ability to handle closely related crafts. For example, a pipefitter also may be a boilermaker and welder. Maintenance workers who have such combined jobs are sometimes called refinery mechanics. Plant workers who do not operate or maintain equipment do many other tasks. Some workers drive delivery trucks; some load and un load materials on trucks, trains, or ships; and others keep stock and tool inventory records. The industry also employs custodial workers such as guards and watchmen. About 14 percent of the workers in petroleum refining are scientists, engineers, and technicians. Among these are chemists, chemical engi neers, mechanical engineers, waste treatment engineers, laboratory tech nicians, and draftsmen. Chemists and laboratory technicians control the quality of petroleum products by making tests and analyses to deter mine chemical and physical proper ties. Some chemists and chemical engineers develop and improve prod ucts and processes. Laboratory tech nicians assist chemists in research projects or do routine testing and sample taking. Some engineers de sign chemical processing equipment and plant layout, and others super vise refining processes. Waste treat ment engineers and technicians supervise and improve treatment and disposal of refinery waste waters and gases. Draftsmen prepare plans and drawings needed in refinery con struction and maintenance. Refining companies employ many administrative, clerical, and other white-collar personnel. Adminis trative workers include managers, 723 accountants, purchasing agents, law yers, and personnel and training specialists. Typists, secretaries, bookkeepers, and business machine operators assist administrative work ers. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in petroleum refining but also in other industries are presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New plant workers usually begin as aides in a labor pool where they move materials, pack cartons, fill barrels and do maintenance work. They may be transferred to the proc essing department or maintenance shop when a vacancy occurs. Apti tude testing and interviewing fre quently are used in selecting appli cants for plant jobs. Oil industry scientists conduct experiments in oil company research. 724 Workers newly assigned to a proc essing department learn to operate equipment under experienced oper ators. Helpers may advance to assist ant operator and then to chief oper ator. Formal training courses fre quently are given in plant operation. A foreman trains inexperienced workers in the maintenance shop. Some refineries have classroom in struction related to particular work. After 3 or 4 years, a person may ad vance from helper to skilled crafts man in one of the maintenance jobs. Some large refineries train workers in several crafts. For example, a qualified instrument repairman may be given electrician or machinist training. For scientists and engineers a bachelor’s degree in an appropriate field usually is the minimum educa tional requirement. Scientists and engineers with advanced degrees are preferred for research work. For most laboratory assistant jobs, 2year technical school training is re quired. Laboratory assistants begin in routine jobs and advance to posi tions of greater responsibility as they acquire experience and learn to work without close supervision. Inexperi enced draftsmen begin as copyists or tracers, and can advance to more skilled drafting jobs. Administrative positions gener ally are filled by men and women who have college degrees in science and engineering, accounting, indus trial relations, or other specialized fields. For positions as clerks, book keepers, secretaries, and typists, most refineries employ persons who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. For oc cupations associated with com puters, educational requirements range from a high school level for key punch operators to a college de gree in the physical science field for analysts. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment in petroleum refining is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to jobs in other industries. Refinery output will rise rapidly to meet the Nation’s growing demand for petroleum products. Improved methods of refining crude oil and larger plants with greater capacity, however, will increase output per worker, and thus reduce employment needs. Most jobs will be for professional, administrative, and technical work ers, particularly chemical and mechanical engineers and tech nicians for research and develop ment. More maintenance workers, such as electricians, pipefitters, and instrument repairmen also will be needed to take care of the increasing amount of automated equipment and complex control instruments. Earnings and Working Conditions Refinery workers are among the highest paid employees in manufac turing. In 1972 production workers in petroleum refining averaged $5.25 an hour, compared with an average of $3.81 an hour for production workers in manufacturing industries as a whole. Refinery workers have better-than-average earnings be cause a large proportion are skilled. Entry salaries for chemical engi neers in the petroleum refining indus try were among the highest in American industry, according to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society in 1972. The aver age monthly salary for chemists who have a bachelor’s degree and no ex perience was $800, and for chemical engineers $950. Most petroleum refinery workers receive a 2-week vacation with pay after 1 year of service; 3 weeks after 5 years; 4 weeks after 10 years; and 5 weeks after 20 years. Refinery work ers also receive paid holidays. Most refineries have health and life insur ance and pension plans for their employees. Employee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the employer makes contributions, are offered by many firms. Because petroleum is refined around-the-clock, operators may be assigned to any one of the three shifts, or they may be rotated on various shifts. Some operators work weekends and get days off during the week. Employees usually receive additional pay for shift work. Most maintenance workers are on duty during the day. The industry has lit tle seasonal variation and regular workers have year-round jobs. Most refinery jobs require only moderate physical effort. A few workers, however, have to open and close heavy valves and climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights. Others may work in hot places or may be exposed to unpleasant odors. Refineries are relatively safe. The in jury frequency rate has been less than half the rate for manufacturing as a whole. Most refinery workers are union members and belong to the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. Some refinery workers are members of AFL-CIO craft unions or of various independ ent unions. Sources off Additional Information More information on job oppor tunities in the petroleum refining in dustry may be obtained from the per sonnel offices of individual oil com panies. General information on jobs in the industry is available from: National Petroleum Refiners Associa tion, 1725 DeSales St. NW„ Wash ington, D.C. 20036. O C C U P A TIO N S IN TH E PRINTING IN D U S TR Y Printing is both an art and one of our chief means of communication. In 1972, the printing and publishing industry employed about 1.1 million workers. Government agencies and private firms that do their own print ing, such as banks and insurance companies, also employed thou sands of printing workers. Nature and Location of the Industry Included in the industry are the printing and publishing of news papers, magazines, books, and advertising matter; the production of business forms; the production of greeting cards and gift wrappings; commercial or job printing; book binding; and the provision of type setting, photoengraving, platemak ing, and other printing services, pri marily for printing establishments. In 1972, the largest division in terms of employment was news paper printing and publishing, with over 375,000 employees. Most daily and many weekly newspapers throughout the Nation do their own printing. Although some major newspapers have more than 2,000 employees many have fewer than 20. Commercial printing shops, the second largest division of the indus try employed about 344,000 work ers. These shops produce a variety of materials, including advertising matter, business cards, calendars, catalogs, labels, maps, and pam phlets. They also print limited-run newspapers, books, and magazines. Many commercial shops have sev eral hundred workers, but employ ment is concentrated in smaller shops. Printing jobs are found through out the country. Almost every town has at least one printing shop—fre quently, a small newspaper plant that also may do other printing. However, more than half of the Nation’s printing employees are in five States—New York, Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Within these States, most printing activities are in or near manufac turing, commercial, or financial areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, San Francisco-Oakland, Cincinnati, and Cleveland. Other leading centers of printing employment are Boston, Detroit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Washington, D.C., St. Louis, and Baltimore. Employment in book and magazine printing is highly concen trated in these areas. A much larger proportion of employment in news paper plants is found outside these centers because of the great number of small local newspapers. Printing Methods Printing is a means of transfer ring ink impressions of words and pictures to paper, metal, or other materials and printing methods have common characteristics. A plate of metal, wood, linoleum, rubber, or plastic is prepared so that part of it can be covered with ink. The ink is then transferred to a sheet of paper or other material that is pressed against the plate. In relief printing, the letters and images stand up from the rest of the printing plate. Ink is rolled over the raised surface and then paper is pressed against it. In gravure print ing, the image is etched into the sur face of the plate. The whole surface is covered with ink and then wiped off; ink is left only in the sunken or etched areas. When paper is pressed against the surface, the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. In lithography (offset printing), the printing plate surface is smooth, with both image and nonimage areas on the same level. Lithography is based on the principle that grease and water do not mix. The plate’s image areas are coated with a substance to make the greasy printing ink stick to the plate and then moistened with water so that only the image areas take up the ink. The inked image is transferred from the plate to a rubber blanket and then to the paper. Screen printing is a method in which inks or other materials such as paint and varnish are forced through a stencil mounted on a finely woven screen. The shape of the stencil open ings determines the design to be printed. This process may be ap plied to a variety of surfaces such as paper, glass, metal, plastic, and tex tiles. Printing Occupations Production of printed materials requires workers in a wide variety of occupations. Printing craftsmen represent a large segment of these employees. They usually specialize in one area of printing operations: type composition, photography, plate making, presswork, or binding. Their training generally is confined largely to only one of the basic print ing methods—letterpress, lithog raphy, or gravure. Some of the prin cipal printing crafts are briefly de scribed below. Detailed information on these crafts is presented in the sec tion on printing occupations, else where in the Handbook. 725 726 The printing process begins in a composing room where manuscript copy is set in type, proofed, and checked for errors. Machine and handset type and other materials such as photoengravings are assem bled there and prepared for the pressroom. In 1972, about 40 percent of all printing craftsmen—170,000—were employed in composing room oc cupations. This group includes com positors (D.O.T. 973.381) who set type by hand or machine; typesetter perforator operator (D.O.T. 208.588) who punch tapes used to operate some typesetting machines; bankmen (D.O.T. 973.381) who assemble type in shallow trays called “galleys” and make trial copy of this type; proofreaders (D.O.T. 209.688) who check the trial copy with the original copy for errors; and make up men (D.O.T. 973.381) who assemble type and photoengravings. Electrotypers and stereotypers (D.O.T. 974.381 and 975.782) make duplicate press plates of metal, rub ber, and plastic for letterpress print ing. These plates are made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotypes are used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereotypes, which are less durable, are used chiefly in news paper work. Photoengravers (D.O.T. 971.381) make metal printing plates of illus trations and other copy that cannot be set up in type. The printing sur faces on these plates stand out in re lief above the nonprinting spaces, as do the letters and the accompanying type. Similarly, gravure photo engravers (D.O.T. 971.381), a specialized type of photoengraver, make gravure plates in which the im age is etched below the surface for use in reproducing pictures and type. The actual printing operation is performed in the pressroom. Print ing pressmen (D.O.T. 651.782, .885 and .886) “makeready” (prepare) type forms and press plates for final printing and tend the presses while they are in operation. Small com mercial shops generally have small and relatively simple presses that often are fed paper by hand. At the other extreme are the enormous presses used by the larger news paper, magazine, and book printing plants. They automatically print the paper and cut, assemble, and fold the pages. These machines are operated by crews of pressmen assisted by less skilled workers. Lithography (offset printing) is growing in importance. Practically all items printed by other processes also can be produced by lithog raphy. Lithography is a process of photographing the matter to be printed, making a printing plate from the photograph and pressing the inked plate against a rubber blanket which in turn presses it onto the paper. Several operations are in volved in lithography, and each is performed by a specialized group of workers. The main group of litho graphic workers are cameramen (D.O.T. 972.382), artists and letterers (D.O.T. 971.281), strippers (D.O.T. 971.381), platemakers (D.O.T. 972.381), and pressmen (D.O.T. 651.885). Because of the increasingly com plex and highly mechanized printing equipment in use today, the need is growing for technically trained peo ple in all areas of printing manage ment and production. For example, an increasing number of production technicians (D.O.T. 019.281) are em ployed to see that the standards for each printing job are met. Many printed items, such as books, magazines, pamphlets, busi ness forms, and calendars, must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders. In many binderies, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK however, the work is done mostly by semiskilled assemblers. Besides printing craftsmen, the in dustry employs people in a variety of other occupations. Many mailroom workers are employed in news papers and magazine plants to ad dress, bundle, and tie the printed matter for distribution. Modern mailroom processes are mechanized to a considerable extent. Mailers operate addressing, stamping, stack ing, bundling, and tying machines. Many large printing firms employ mechanics and machinists to repair and adjust typesetting machines, printing presses, and other equip ment. Printing firms employ a great many people as executives, sales men, accountants, engineers, com puter programers, stenographers, clerks, and laborers. Newspapers and other publishers employ a con siderable number of reporters, editors, and photographers. These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities recom mend apprenticeship as the best way to learn printing trades. A sub stantial number of people, however, learn these trades by working as helpers or through a combination of work experience and schooling. Printing apprenticeships usually last from 4 to 6 years, depending on the occupation and shop or area practices. The apprenticeship pro grams cover all phases of a particu lar trade and generally include class room or correspondence study in re lated technical subjects and on-thejob training. Apprenticeship appli cants generally are required to be be tween 18 and 30 years of age and must pass a physical examination. However, in many printing crafts there is no maximum age limit for applicants. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINTING INDUSTRY Most employers prefer applicants to have a high school education or its equivalent. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, the funda mentals of grammar, and basic mathematics is essential in many of the printing trades. A knowledge of the basic principles of chemistry, electronics, and physics is becoming increasingly important because of the growing use of photomechanical and electronic processes in printing. An artistic sense also is an asset since the finished product should be pleas ing in balance and design. Most printing crafts require people with good eyesight, about average physi cal strength, and a high degree of manual dexterity. Mental alertness, patience, and the ability to work with others are also necessary. The abil ity to distinguish colors is important in areas of printing where color is us ed. Many employers require appli cants to take one or more aptitude tests developed for printing oc cupations. Apprentices often are chosen from among the young people already employed in various un skilled jobs in printing plants. About 4,000 schools — high schools, vocational schools, tech nical institutes, and colleges—offer courses in printing. These courses may help a young person to be selected for apprenticeships or other job openings in the printing and publishing industry. Administrative jobs are usually filled by upgrading experienced peo ple. Many owners and production managers of printing firms have come from the ranks of printing craftsmen. In recent years, however, more firms are filling administrative positions with people who have col lege degrees in business adminis tration, marketing, accounting, in dustrial relations, or other special ized business fields. Most firms hire clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists who have completed commercial courses in high school or business school. Although many computer pro grammers in the printing industry have technical school training, many learn their skills on the job. Also, many compositors and typesetters are being taught computer program ming skills, and the International Typographic Union has established a training center for this purpose. Employment Outlook Employment in the printing and publishing industry is expected to grow moderately through the mid1980’s. In addition to the job open ings that will result from employ ment growth, many openings will oc cur from the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. The volume of printed material is expected to increase rapidly because of population growth, the increas ingly high literacy level of the popu lation, and the trend to greater use of printed materials for information, packaging, and various industrial and commercial purposes. Employ ment will grow at a slower rate than the volume of printing, however, be cause of laborsaving technological changes in printing methods. Occupational groups in the indus try are expected to increase at differ ent rates. Employment of adminis trative, technical, maintenance, and clerical workers will increase at a faster pace than total employment. Employment growth will vary among the printing crafts. The num ber of lithographic craftsmen, for ex ample, is expected to increase be cause of the growing use of lithog raphy. On the other hand, since lithography does not require photo engraving, employment of photo engravers is expected to decline. The trend to computerization of typeset ting operations will reduce the need 727 for some machine operators in com posing rooms while creating a de mand for more computer pro gramed. More mechanics will be hired to maintain the industry’s in creasingly complex machinery. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the printing and publishing industry, including unskilled and semiskilled workers and printing craftsmen, are among the highest in manufac turing. In 1972 production workers in this industry averaged $4.48 an hour, while those in manufacturing industries as a whole averaged $3.81. The accompanying tabulation shows the average union minimum hourly rates for selected printing oc cupations in 1972 based on a survey of 69 large cities. These are the mini mum basic rates for daywork, and do not include overtime, other special payments, or bonuses. Most printing craftsmen who are covered by union contracts work fewer than 40 hours a week. Some contracts specify a standard work week of less than 35 hours, but most fall within a 35 to 37-1/2 hour range. Time and a half generally is paid for overtime. Work on Sundays and holidays is paid for at time and onehalf or doubletime rates in most commercial printing firms. In news paper plants, however, the crafts men’s workweek often includes Sun days. Time and one-half or double time is paid for these days only when they are not part of the employee’s regular shift. Night-shift workers generally receive pay differentials above the standard day rates. The starting wage rates of appren tices are generally from 40 to 50 per cent of the basic rate for journey men in the shop. Wages are in creased periodically, usually every 6 months, until the apprentice reaches the journeyman rate. 728 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A verage minimum hourly rate July I, 1972 Newspaper_________ Book andjob shops $ 5.86 Bookbinders.............................................. — Compositors: $ 5.94 6.06 Hand...................................................... 6.06 5.99 Machine operators............................... 5.58 Electrotypers ............................................ 6.46 Photoengravers ........................................ 5.80 Pressmen (journeymen)........................... 5.92 Pressmen (cylinder)............................. 5.49 Pressmen (platen) ............................... 5.72 5.85 Stereotypers.............................................. 5.55 Mailers...................................................... — — — — — obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the unions men tioned above, or the local office of State employment services. Some State employment service offices screen applicants and give aptitude tests. General information on the print ing industry may be obtained from the following organizations: — Most employers provide paid vacation ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depending on the employee’s length of service. Other benefits, such as paid holidays, retirement plans, and life and health insurance, also are common. The injury-frequency rate in the printing industry is somewhat lower than the average for all manufac turing industries. A large proportion of the printing trades workers are members of un ions affiliated with the AFL-CIO. The largest printing trades unions are the Graphic Arts Union, the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America, the International Typographical Union, and the Lithographers and Photoengravers Union. Other print ing trades unions include the Inter national Brotherhood of Book binders, the International Stereo typers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America, and the Inter national Mailers Union (Ind.). Most unionized lithographic workers are in plants under contract with the Graphic Arts Union, which includes both printing craftsmen and other lithographic workers. American Newspaper Publishers Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Gravure Technical Institute, 60 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10020. International Typographical Union, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, Colo. 80901. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. (See the section on Printing Oc cupations elsewhere in the Hand Sources of Additional book for names of labor organiza Information tions and trade associations that can Details about employment oppor provide more information on spe tunities and apprenticeships may be cific printing trades.) TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND PUBLIC UTILITIES The transportation, communica tions, and public utility industries produce most of the energy that powers, heats, and lights our fac tories and homes. The transporta tion industry moves goods and peo ple by air, rail, water, and highway; the communications industry pro vides communications systems such as telephones and radio and TV broadcasting. Other public utilities supply the Nation with electricity, gas, and sanitation services. Transportation, communications, and public utility firms are semi public in character. Some State and local governments operate their own transit lines or electric companies as well as other types of utilities. Pri vately owned transportation and public utility firms are regulated closely by commissions or by other public authorities to make sure they operate in the public interest. In 1972, 4.5 million people worked in the transportation, communica tions, and public utility industry group. In addition, more than onehalf million persons held jobs with State and local governments in pub licly owned transit and utility sys tems. Almost half of the workers in this major industry group worked in two industries: the communications industry, with 1.1 million workers (including telephone, telegraph, and radio and TV broadcasting); and the motor freight industry, with 1 million workers (including local and long-distance trucking). Electric, gas, and sanitary services companies employed about 720,000 workers and railroads about 575,000. Other industries employing a significant number of workers were air trans portation and local and interurban passenger transit. The remaining workers were employed by firms that provide water and pipeline transpor tation and transportation services. As shown in the accompanying tabulation, blue-collar workers made up 60 percent of all workers in the transportation, communications, and public utility industry group in 1972. Operatives alone accounted for 26 percent of the total. Most of these semiskilled workers are truck, bus, and taxi drivers, and railroad brakemen and switchmen. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers made up another 22 percent. Among the major occupations in this group are airplane mechanic, motor vehicle mechanic, telephone lineman, and locomotive engineer. Another 9 per cent were laborers, such as material handlers and truckdrivers’ helpers. Forty percent of the industry group’s employees were white-collar workers, mostly in clerical occupa tions such as telephone operator, ticket agent, secretary, and book keeper. Eight percent of all em ployees were managerial workers, and 7 percent were professional and technical workers. Many of the pro fessional and technical workers are in the communications industry, where, in addition to large numbers of engineers and technicians, many actors, entertainers, and writers are employed. Percent Major occupational group of workers All workers............................... 100 White-collar workers............... Professional, technical, and kindred workers . . . . Managers, officials, and proprietors....................... Clerical and kindred workers Sales workers....................... Blue-collar workers................. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers............... Operatives and kindred workers............................. Service workers................... Laborers............................... 40 7 8 24 1 60 22 26 3 9 Employment in the transporta tion, communications, and public utility industry group is expected to increase slowly through the mid1980’s. In addition to openings re sulting from growth, many thou sands of jobs will be available each year because of the need to replace workers who die or retire. Transfers of employees to other industries will provide still more opportunities. Employment growth in individual industries will vary significantly. In creasing popularity of air transpor tation for both passengers and cargo will spur continued rapid employ ment growth in this area. Rising pop ulation, business expansion, and growth of suburbs will stimulate em ployment in trucking. On the other hand, little employment change is ex pected in local and interurban pas senger transportation (buses, taxis, and subways) because consumers probably will continue to rely heavily on private automobiles. The long run decline in railroad employment is ex pected to continue, but at a decreas ing rate. 729 730 Employment in communications is expected to grow slowly through the mid-1980’s. Although demand for the industry’s services will increase rapidly, advances in technology are expected to limit employment growth, particularly in telephone communications. Computers and other electronic equipment are ex pected to be applied increasingly to work previously done by wage earners. Employment in electric and gas utilities also will be affected strongly by advancing technology and will grow slowly despite rapid in creases in output. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The statements that follow cover major industries in the transporta tion, communications, and public utility fields. More detailed in formation about particular occupa tions in these fields appears else where in the Handbook. employment. They include the pilots, copilots and flight engineers who fly the planes and the flight attendants who assist passengers. Detailed dis cussions of most of the principal oc CIVIL AVIATION cupations in civil aviation are pre sented elsewhere in the Handbook in the section on Air Transportation The rapid development of air NTSB investigates aircraft ac Occupations. transportation has increased the mo cidents. bility of the population and has In 1972, about 360,000 civil avia created many thousands of job op tion employees worked for domestic Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement portunities in the civil aviation in airlines. In addition, several thou dustry. In 1972 about 500,000 people sand were employed in the United Jobs are available to young per were employed in a variety of inter States by foreign airlines that serve sons with a wide variety of training esting and responsible occupations in this country. Most of the remaining and backgrounds. Although some this industry. civil aviation employees worked for jobs require previous training and firms that fly and maintain their own may require certificates from the aircraft and for firms that repair air Federal Aviation Administration Characteristics of the craft. Others worked for the Federal (FAA), others can be learned on the Industry Government. In 1972, the FAA job. Many different organizations and employed about 52,000 people, and Pilots and copilots usually have an many different activities are grouped the CAB about 650. in civil aviation. The most familiar About half of all airline em air transport or commercial pilot’s are airlines that provide transporta ployees work at airports near New certificate from the FAA when they tion for passengers and cargo. Air York, Miami, Chicago, Los Angeles, begin work. They also must have an lines account for more than three San Francisco, and Dallas, the cities instrument rating to fly when the times as much intercity passenger where major airlines are based. weather is bad. As a rule, airline travel as buses and railroads com Others work at similar airports pilots and copilots begin as flight bined. scattered throughout the country. engineers. The civil aviation industry also in Most other civil aviation employees Young people may obtain pilot cludes other kinds of flying, as well work near cities although some are training from military or civilian fly ing schools. Physical requirements as government licensed aircraft employed in small communities. are high. With or without glasses, repair shops. Many businesses trans they must have 20/20 vision, good port executives in company planes. Civil Aviation Occupations hearing and no physical handicaps Some firms use their own planes for crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, About four-fifths of all civil avia that prevent quick reactions. In ad tion employees work in ground oc dition, airlines generally require two and other activities. The regulatory and accident in cupations. Many of these are me years of college and prefer college vestigation functions of the Federal chanics and aircraft maintenance graduates. Before qualified pilots can Aviation Administration (FAA), the personnel. These workers refuel, fly as a flight engineer, they must ob Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), and clean, inspect, and repair the planes tain a flight engineer’s certificate the National Transportation Safety between flights. Other large groups from the FAA. Board (NTSB)—all part of the make reservations and sell tickets for Although most flight attendants Federal government, are another the airline companies. Some are air are women, present airline policy part of civil aviation. The FAA traffic controllers and flight service permits men and women to compete develops air safety regulations, co specialists for the Federal Aviation equally for available jobs. Appli ordinates flights, operates ground Administration. Other ground cants must be in excellent health, and navigation equipment, and licenses workers included cargo and freight those who have some college and personnel such as pilots, dis handlers, and clerical, administra have experience in dealing with the public are preferred. Applicants are patchers, and aircraft mechanics. tive, and professional personnel. The CAB makes policy on matters Flight crew members make up the trained for their jobs at company such as airline rates and routes. The remaining one-fifth of civil aviation schools. 731 732 When hiring aircraft mechanic trainees or apprentices, employers prefer high school or trade school graduates who are in good physical condition. Experience in automotive repairs or other mechanical work also is helpful. Most mechanics re main in the maintenance field, but they may advance to head me chanics, inspectors, and in a few cases, supervisory and executive positions. Some jobs require aircraft mechanics to be certified by the FAA as an airframe mechanic, a power plant mechanic, or both. New reservation and ticket agents are trained by the company. A good speaking voice and a pleasant per sonality are necessary, because such personnel deal directly with the public. A high school education is required. Air traffic controllers are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service Systems. Applicants must pass a rigid physical examina tion and a written test. The FAA trains new workers on the job and at the FAA Academy. All workers must be certified by FAA examiners before they can work as controllers. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller and to higher man agement jobs in air traffic control. Com pletion of com mercial courses in high school or business school is usually adequate for entry into general clerical occupations such as secretary or typist. Addi tional on-the-job training is needed for specialized clerical occupations, such as bookkeeper. Administrative and sales posi tions are usually filled by college graduates who have majored in busi ness administration, marketing, ac counting, industrial relations, or transportation. Some companies have management training pro grams for college graduates in which trainees work for brief periods in various departments to get a broad OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK picture of air transportation opera may fly at greatly reduced rates with tions, before they are assigned to a other airlines. Airlines operate flights at all hours particular department. of the day and night. Personnel in some occupations, therefore, often have irregular hours or work sched Employment Outlook ules. Maximum hours of work per The total number of workers in month for workers in flight occupa civil aviation occupations is ex tions have been established by the pected to increase rapidly through FAA. Flight personnel may be away the mid-1980’s if fuel shortages do from their home bases about onethird of the time or more. When they not continue. Airline employment will increase are away from home, the airlines rapidly as passenger and cargo provide living accommodations or traffic grow in response to increases pay expenses. in population, income, and business Ground personnel, such as dis activity. The trend to longer vaca patchers and mechanics, usually tions and reduced fares on some do work a 5-day 40- hour week. Their mestic and overseas flights also will working hours, however, often in stimulate passenger traffic. Employ clude nights, weekends, or holidays. ment in other civil aviation activities Ground personnel generally receive is expected to rise rapidly as more extra pay for overtime work or an aircraft are purchased for business, equal amount of time off. agricultural, fire fighting, and rec Airline employees usually receive reation purposes. to 4 weeks of vacation with pay, de Employment trends will differ 2pending upon length of service. They among occupations. Employment of also receive sick leave, retire flight attendants and reservation and ment benefits,paid and and health in ticket agents, for example, is ex surance. FAA andlifeother pected to grow very rapidly as more government employees receiveFederal to people travel by air. On the other 26 days of annual leave and 13 13days hand, air traffic controller employ of sick leave a year, as well as retire ment will grow moderately because ment, life insurance, and health new equipment will permit them to benefits. direct more planes. Earnings and Working Conditions Airline employees earned an aver age of $13,921 a year in 1972, about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Among the major occupations, beginning salaries rang ed from $650 a month for ticket agents to $3,000 a month for airline captains. As a rule, airline employees and their immediate families are entitled to a limited amount of free or re duced-fare transportation on their companies’ flights. In addition, they Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportu nities in a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of companies are available from the Air Transport Association of Amer ica, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries about jobs with the FAA should be addressed to the personnel department at the nearest FAA regional office. Addresses of the regional offices are available from: CIVIL AVIATION Personnel Operations Division, Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20591 733 proved schools that offer training for Service AIS-200, Federal Aviation aircraft mechanics, pilots, or other Administration, Washington, D.C. technical Fields in aviation may be 20591. obtained from the Research and In quiry Division, Office of Information Information concerning FAA-ap- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY steam generating stations, however, use nuclear energy. A considerable amount of electricity also is pro duced in hydroelectric generating stations which use water power to operate the turbines. Some genera tors, primarily for use in standby service or to provide electricity for special purposes, are powered by diesel engines or combustion tur bines. After electricity is generated, it passes through a “switchyard” where the voltage is increased so that the electricity may travel long distances without excessive loss of power. The electricity passes onto transmission lines that carry it from the generat ing plant to substations, where the voltage is decreased and passed on to the distribution networks serving in dividual customers. Transmission lines tie together the generating sta tions of a single system and also the power facilities of several systems. In this way, power can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet varying demands. In 1972, 520,000 people worked in the electric power industry. Most of them, 450,000, worked in privately owned utilities and cooperatives and 70,000 worked in Federal and ed by cooperatives; others are owned by cities, counties, and public utility districts, as well as by the Federal Government. While some utilities generate, transmit, and distribute only electricity, others distribute both electricity and gas. This chapter is concerned with employment relat ing only to the production and dis tribution of electric power. Producing and distributing large quantities of electrical energy in volves many processes and activi ties. The accompanying chart shows how electric energy is generated, and how it travels from the generating station to the users. The first step in providing electrical energy occurs in a generating station or plant, where Nature and Location huge generators convert mechanical of the Industry energy into electricity. Electricity is The delivery of electricity to the produced primarily in steamuser at the instant he needs it is the powered generating plants which use distinctive feature of the operation of coal, gas, or oil for fuel. Some new electric power systems. Electricity cannot be stored efficiently but must be used as it is produced. Because a H ow Electricity is Made and Brought to customer can begin or increase his the Users use of electric power at any time by Generating Plant High Voltage Transmission merely flicking a switch, an electric utility system must have sufficient capacity to meet peak consumer needs at any time. An electric utility system includes High Voltage Distribution in Cities Office buildings and|| » stores power plants that generate electric power, substations that increase or decrease the voltage of the power, and vast networks of transmission and distribution lines. Electric Low Voltage Residential and Commercial Distribution utilities range from large systems serving broad regional areas to small power companies serving individual Stores Schools communities. Most electric utilities Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. are investor-owned (private) or own Electricity has become so much a part of our daily lives that most peo ple take it for granted. But, just im agine not being able to ride the ele vator to your apartment and instead having to walk up all those flights of stairs! Or, think about having no lights, televisions, or radios in your home! Today, it would be difficult to get used to living without electricity. Bringing electricity into our homes and places of work and recreation is not as simply done as just turning on a switch. There are thousands of men and women working in the electric power industry to make all this possible. 133,000 V .••‘**120/240 734 24 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY municipal government utilities. A few large manufacturing establish ments, which produce electric power for their own use, also employ elec tric power workers. Since electricity reaches almost every locality, jobs in this industry are found throughout the country. Although hydroelectric power proj ects have created jobs in relatively isolated areas, most utility jobs are still found in heavily populated urban areas, especially where there are many industrial users, or where a large utility has its headquarters. Electric Utility Occupations. Many different types of workers are re quired in the electric power in dustry. About 40 percent of the in dustry’s employees work in occupa tions related to the generation, trans mission, and distribution of electri city, and in customer service occu pations. (These occupations are dis cussed in detail later in this chapter.) The industry also employs large numbers of workers in engineering, scientific, administrative, sales, cleri cal, and maintenance occupations. A brief discussion on these occupa tions is given below. Further in formation can be found in state ments covering individual occupa tions elsewhere in the Handbook. Engineering and Scientific Oc cupations. Engineers plan generat ing plant additions, interconnections of complex power systems, and in stallations of new transmission and distribution equipment. They super vise construction, develop improved operating methods, and test the effi ciency of the many types of electri cal equipment. In planning modern power systems, engineers help select plant sites, types of fuel, and types of plants. Engineers also help in dustrial and commercial customers make the best use of electric power. They stimulate greater use of elec tricity by demonstrating the ad vantages of electrical equipment and suggesting places where electricity can be used more effectively. Administrative and Clerical Oc cupations. Because of the enormous amount of recordkeeping required, electric utilities employ a high pro portion of administrative and cleri cal personnel. Many of these workers are women. Large numbers of ste nographers, typists, bookkeepers, of fice machine operators, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and cashiers are employed. These workers keep records of the services rendered by the company, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and statistical reports. An increasing amount of this work in the larger offices now is being performed by the use of elec tronic data processing equipment. This generally results in more cleri cal work being done with the same number of employees or even fewer. The use of this equipment also creates requirements for pro gramed and computer operators. Administrative employees include accountants, personnel officers, pur chasing agents, and lawyers. Maintenance Occupations. A con siderable number of workers test, maintain, and repair equipment. The duties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of maintenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, instrument repair men, maintenance mechanics, ma chinists, pipefitters, and boiler makers. 735 replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. All types of consumers will re quire more and more electricity. The widening use of electric power in in dustrial processes will spur in dustry’s demand for electricity. At the same time, commercial buyers will need more electricity because of the construction of new store and of fice buildings, and the moderniza tion of existing ones. Residential cus tomers will increase their use of elec tric power for heating and air-condi tioning and for an increasing number and variety of appliances. The growing use of automatic con trols in this highly mechanized in dustry, however, will allow sharp in creases in electric power production with only minor increases in em ployment. The number of powerplant and customer service workers should remain approximately at its present level while the number of transmission and distribution workers is expected to increase slightly. There will be many open ings for maintenance and repair workers to keep complex machinery in good working order. Because of the increasing use of electronic data processing equip ment for billing and record-keeping, only a small increase in office em ployment is expected. However, the relatively high turnover in office jobs will provide many openings for new workers each year. Some increase in employment also is expected in ad ministrative jobs; in scientific, en gineering, and other technical jobs; and in areas such as sales and market development. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Although the production and use Conditions of electric power will increase sub stantially, employment in the in Earnings in the electric utility in dustry is expected to grow slowly dustry are relatively high. In 1972, through the mid-1980’s. Most job nonsupervisory employees in private openings will result from the need to electric power companies averaged 736 $4.89 an hour, about one-third more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry as a whole, except farming. Many nonsupervisory electric utility workers in production, trans mission, and distribution depart ments are union members. The bar gaining representative for most of these workers is either the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America. Independent un ions represent some utility workers. Because supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity, some employees work evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union con tracts with electric utilities provide a higher rate of pay for evening and night work than the basic day rate. Overtime work is often required especially during emergencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “emergency callout,” which is a short-notice request to re port for work during nonscheduled hours, the worker generally is guar anteed a minimum of 3 or 4 hours’ pay at 1-1/2 times his basic hourly rate. Travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime. In addition to these provisions which affect pay, electric utilities provide other employee benefits. Generally, annual vacations are granted to workers according to length of service. A typical contract or employee benefit program pro vides for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, and 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years. Some contracts and pro grams provide for 4 weeks after 18 years, for 5 weeks after 25 years, and 6 weeks after 30 years. The number of paid holidays ranges from 6 to 12 a year. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their employees. A typical program provides life, hos pitalization, and surgical insurance and paid sick leave. Retirement pen sion plans supplement Federal social security payments and generally are paid for in full or in part by the employer. Because of the dangers of electro cution and other hazards, electric utilities and unions have made in tensive efforts to enforce safe work ing practices. This has resulted in an injury rate much lower than in most manufacturing industries. Some oc cupations, however, are more sub ject to accidents than others. Acci dents occur most frequently among the line—and cable—splicing crews. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information More information about jobs in the electric power industry may be obtained from local electric utility companies, industry trade associa tions, or from the local offices of un ions that have electric utility workers among their membership. Addi tional information also may be ob tained from: Edison Electric Institute, 750 3d Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Utility Workers’ Union of America, 1875 Conn. Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20006. POW ERPLANT O C C U P A TIO N S Nature of the Work Operators are key workers in a powerplant. They observe, control, and keep records of the operation of various kinds of powerplant equip ment. They make sure the equip ment functions efficiently and detect any trouble that aiises. Operators in clude four basic classes—boiler, tur bine, auxiliary equipment, and switchboard. In many new steam plants, these jobs are combined, and operators and their assistants are known as steam operators, powerplant operators, or central control room operators. Of increasing im portance are the maintenance men and repairmen, including electrical, instrument, and mechanical repair men. Other powerplant workers in clude helpers and cleaners, and the custodial staff, including janitors and watchmen. Coal handlers are em ployed in steam generating plants that use coal for fuel. Hydroelectric plants employ gate tenders who open and close the headgates that control the flow of water to the turbines. Supervision of powerplant oper ations is handled by a chief engineer called an operations supervisor, and by his assistants, the watch engi neers (shift supervisors). Boiler operators (D.O.T. 950.782) regulate the fuel, air, and water sup ply in the boilers and maintain proper steam pressure needed to turn the turbines, on the basis of informa tion shown by gages, meters, and other instruments mounted on panel boards. One man may operate one or more boilers. Boiler operators are employed only where steam is used to generate electricity. Turbine operators (D .O.T. 952.138) control the operation of steam- or water-powered turbines that drive the generators. (In small plants, they also may operate auxil iary equipment or a switchboard.) Modern steam turbines and gener ators operate at extremely high speeds, pressures, and temperatures; therefore, close attention must be given the pressure gauges, thermom eters, and other instruments which show the operations of the turbo generator unit. Turbine operators record the information shown by these instruments and check the oil OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY pressure at bearings, the speed of the turbines, and the circulation and amount of cooling water in the con densers that change the steam back into water. They also are respon sible for starting and shutting down the turbines and generators, as directed by the switchboard oper ator in the control room. Other workers, such as helpers and junior operators, assist the turbine operators. Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 952.782) check and record the readings of instruments that indi cate the operating condition of pumps, fans, blowers, condensers, evaporators, water conditioners, compressors, and coal pulverizers. Since auxiliary equipment may occa sionally break down, these oper ators must be able to detect trouble quickly, and sometimes make re pairs. In small plants which do not employ auxiliary equipment oper ators, these duties are performed by turbine operators. Switchboard operators (D.O.T. 952.782) control the amount of elec tric power flowing from generators to outgoing powerlines by operating switchboards and watching instru ment panels. Switches control the movement of electricity through the generating station circuits and onto the transmission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any instant, the powerload on each line leaving the station, the amount of current being produced by each generator, and the voltage. The operators use switches to dis tribute the power demands among the generators, to combine the cur rent from two or more generators, and to regulate the flow of the elec tricity onto various powerlines. When power requirements change, they order generators started or stopped and, at the proper time, con nect them to the power circuits in the station or disconnect them. In doing this work, they follow telephone orders from the load dispatcher who directs the flow of current through out the system. Switchboard operators and their assistants also check their instru ments frequently to see that elec tricity is moving through and out of the powerplant properly, and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, they keep records of all switching operations and of load conditions on gener ators, lines, and transformers. They obtain this information by making regular meter readings. Control Room Operator (D.O.T. 950.782). In most powerplants con structed in recent years, the oper ation of boilers, turbines, auxiliary equipment, and the switching re quired for balancing generator out put has been centralized in a single control room. Here, central control room operators or power plant oper ators regulate all the generating equipment, which in older plants re quires specialists such as boiler and turbine operators. Control room operators have several assistants who patrol the plant and check the equip ment. Operators report to the plant superintendent or a watch engineer when equipment is not operating properly. Watch engineers or shift super visors (D.O.T. 950.131) oversee the employees who operate and main tain boilers, turbines, generators, transformers, and other machinery and equipment. Watch engineers are supervised by a chief engineer or a plant superintendent who is in charge of the entire plant. 737 work gives beginners an opportunity to become familiar with the equip ment and the operations of a powerplant. They advance to the more responsible job of helper, as open ings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. Applicants generally are required to have a high school education or its equivalent. It takes from 1 to 3 years to be come an auxiliary equipment oper ator and from 4 to 8 years to be come a boiler operator, turbine oper ator, or switchboard operator. A per son learning to be an auxiliary equip ment operator progresses from helper to junior operator to opera tor. A boiler operator generally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. Depending on open ings and the worker’s aptitude, the helper may advance to junior boiler operator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the mainte nance department and work his way up to boiler repairmen. In most large cities, boiler operators, who operate high-pressure boilers, are required to be licensed. Turbine operators are selected from auxiliary equipment operators in other plants. In most large cities, turbine operators are required to be licensed. Some powerplant workers em ployed in atomic-powered electric plants must have special training to work with Fissionable, radioactive fuel, in addition to the knowledge and skills required for conventional steam generated electric power. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators First get experience in the smaller stations and then are pro moted to jobs in the larger stations as Training, Other Qualifications, vacancies occur. New workers in the and Advancement switchboard operators section begin New powerplant workers gener as helpers, advance to junior oper ally begin at the bottom of the lad ators, and then to switchboard oper der—usually on cleanup jobs. Such ators. Some utility companies pro- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 738 plant requires about the same num ber of employees as a steam-gener ating plant powered by coal. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of powerplant work ers depend on their types of jobs, the section of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows esti mated average hourly earnings for selected powerplant occupations in privately owned utilities in 1972. A verage hourly earnings Auxiliary equipment operator $4.23 Boiler operator..................... 5.54 Control room operator___ 6.15 Switchboard operator: Switchboard operator, Class A ............................. 5.64 Switchboard operator, Class B ............................. 5.24 Turbine operator................. 5.44 Watch engineer ................... 6.49 mote substation operators to switch board operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. Switchboard operators can advance to work in the load dis patcher’s office. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant oper ators. At least 5 to 10 years of ex perience as a first-class operator are usually required to qualify for a watch engineer’s job. Employment Outlook The total number of jobs for powerplant operators is expected to show little change through the mid1980’s, although the production of electrical energy will increase at a rapid rate. However, job openings will occur each year because of the need to replace operators who re tire, die, or leave the industry for other work. The use of increasingly larger and more efficient equipment will result in great increases in capacity and production with little increase in the number of powerplant operators. For example, one operator can con trol a large modern turbogenerator as readily as he can control a much smaller one. Also, the growing use of more automatic equipment reduces the number of operators needed, and makes it possible to direct all oper ating processes from a central con trol room. However, because of the expected increased demand for elec tric power, it will be necessary to build and operate many new gener ating stations. Generally, a nuclear-powered A powerplant is typically welllighted and ventilated, clean, and orderly, but there is some noise from the equipment. Switchboard operators in the con trol room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine oper ators are almost constantly on their feet. The work of powerplant oper ators generally is not physically strenuous, particularly in the new powerplants. Since generating sta tions operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, some powerplant employees must work nights and weekends. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY The load dispatcher’s source of in TR AN SM ISSION AND formation for the entire trans D ISTR IB U TIO N mission system centers in the pilot O C C U P A TIO N S Nature of the Work One-fifth of the workers in the electric power industry are in trans mission and distribution jobs. The principal workers in transmission and distribution jobs are those who control the flow of electricity—load dispatchers and substation oper ators—and the men who construct and maintain powerlines—linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 950.168), also called system oper ators or power dispatchers, control the flow of electricity throughout the area served by the utility. The load dispatcher’s room is the nerve center of the entire utility system. From this location, he controls the plant equip ment used to generate electricity and directs its flow. He telephones in structions to the switchboard oper ators at the generating plants and the substations. He tells the operators when additional boilers and gener ators are to be started or stopped so that power production will be in bal ance with power needs. The load dispatcher must antici pate demands for electric power so that the system will be prepared to meet them. Power demands on util ity systems may change from hour to hour. A sudden afternoon rainstorm can cause a million lights to be switched on in a matter of minutes. He also directs the handling of any emergency situation, such as trans former or transmission line failure, and routes current around the af fected area. Load dispatchers also may be in charge of interconnec tions with other systems and direct ing transfer of current between sys tems as the need arises. board. This board, which dominates the load dispatcher’s room, is a com plete map of the utility’s trans mission system. It enables the dis patcher to determine, at a glance, the conditions that exist at any point in the system. Lights may show the positions of switches which control generating equipment and trans mission circuits, as well as high volt age connections with substations and large industrial customers. The board also may have several record ing instruments which make a graphic record of operations for future analysis and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 952.782) generally are responsible for the operation of the substation. Under orders from the load dis patcher, they direct the flow of cur rent out of the station by means of a switchboard. Ammeters, volt meters, and other types of instru ments on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flow ing through each line. The flow of electricity from the incoming to the outgoing lines is controlled by cir cuit breakers. The substation oper ators connect or break the flow of current by manipulating switch board levers that control the circuit breakers. In some substations, where alternating current is changed to direct current to meet the needs of special users, the operator controls converters which perform the change. In addition to switching duties, the substation operators check the oper ating condition of all equipment to make sure that it is working prop erly. They supervise the activities of the other substation employees on the same shift. In smaller sub stations, the operator may be the only employee. Some utilities employ a mobile 739 operator who drives from one auto matic station to another, inspecting, cleaning up trouble, operating con trols, and assisting customers’ elec tricians in large commercial or government installations. Since this job requires considerable inde pendent judgment, the mobile oper ator is usually more experienced than the substation operator. Linemen (D.O.T. 821.381) con struct and maintain the network of powerlines that carry electricity from generating plants to consumers. Their work consists of installations, equipment replacements, repairs, and routine maintenance. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Linemen splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equipment. Most linemen now work from “bucket” trucks with pneu matic lifts that take them to the top of the pole at the touch of a lever. In some power companies, line men specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction, and others may do only repair work. Troublemen (D.O.T. 821.281) are experienced linemen who are as signed to special crews that handle emergency calls. They move from one special job to another, as ordered by a central service office which re ceives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen receive their orders by direct radio communications with the central service office. These workers must have a thor ough knowledge of the company’s transmission and distribution net work. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then at tempt to restore service by making the necessary repairs. Depending on the nature and extent of the prob lem, a troubleman may restore serv ice in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and remove 740 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK make sure that the conductors do not become mixed up between the sub station and the customer’s premises. Cable splicers also make sure the insulation on the cables is in good condition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement damaged equipment. He must be familiar with all the circuits and switching points so that he can safely disconnect live circuits. Groundmen (D.O.T. 821.887) dig poleholes and help linemen erect the poles or towers which carry the dis tribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles and bolt or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. Groundmen then help the linemen raise the wires and cables and install them on the poles by at taching them to the insulators. In addition, with assistance from groundmen, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles, such as lightning arrestors, trans formers, and switches. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) install and repair insulated cables on utility poles and towers, as well as those buried underground or those installed in underground conduits. When cables are installed, the cable splicers pull the cable through the conduit and then join the cables at connecting points in the trans mission and distribution systems. At each connection in the cable, they wrap insulation around the wiring. They splice the conductors leading away from each junction of the main cable, insulate the splices, and con nect the cable sheathing. Most of the physical work in placing new cables or replacing old ones is done by helpers. Cable splicers spend most of their time repairing and maintaining the cables and changing the layout of the cable systems. They must know the arrangement of the wiring systems, where the circuits are connected, and where they lead to and come from. When making repairs, they must Load dispatchers are selected from among the experienced switchboard operators and from operators of the large substations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switchboard or substation operator are required for promotion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an applicant must have knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally begin as assistant or junior oper ators. Advancement to the job of operator in a large substation re quires from 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training. About 4 years of on-the-job training is needed to qualify as a skilled lineman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship pro grams for linemen. Apprenticeship programs combine on-the-job train ing with classroom instructions in blueprint reading, elementary elec trical theory, electrical codes, and methods of transmitting electrical energy. The apprentice usually begins training by helping the groundman set poles in place and by passing tools and equipment up to the line man. After about 6 months the ap prentice begins to do simple linework under close supervision, and progresses to more difficult work as he gains experience. The training of linemen who learn their skills on the job generally is similar to the appren ticeship program; it usually takes about the same length of time, but does not involve classroom instruc tion. A lineman may advance to troubleman after several years of ex perience. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Candidates for linework should be strong and in good physical condi tion because climbing poles and lift ing lines and equipment is strenuous work. They also must have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their train ing on the job, usually taking about 4 years to become fully qualified. Workers begin as helpers and then are promoted to assistant or junior splicers. In these jobs, they are as signed more difficult tasks as their knowledge of the work increases. Employment Outlook Several thousand job oppor tunities are expected to be available in transmission and distribution oc cupations through the mid-1980’s. Most of these opportunities will oc cur because of the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some increase in the employment of transmission and distribution workers is expected, although employment trends will differ among the various occupations in this cate gory. In spite of the need to con struct and maintain a rapidly grow ing number of transmission and dis tribution lines, the number of line men and troublemen is expected to increase only slightly because of the use of more mechanized equipment. A limited increase in the number of cable splicers is expected because of the growing use of underground lines in suburban areas. The need for regu lar substation operators, however, will be reduced substantially, since the introduction of improved and more automatic equipment makes it possible to operate more substations by remote control. At the same time, more mobile substation operators will probably be required. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages for transmission and distri bution workers vary by occupation and geographic location. The follow ing tabulation shows average hourly earnings for major transmission and distribution occupations in privately owned utilities in 1972. A verage hourly earnings Groundman ............................. $4.02 Lineman................................... 5.95 Load dispatcher....................... 6.27 Substation operator................. 5.32 Troubleman............................. i 5.94 Load dispatchers and substation operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Linerhen, troublemen, and groundmen work outdoors and, in emergencies, in all kinds of weather. Cable splicers do most of their work in manholes be neath city streets—often in cramped quarters. Safety standards devel oped over the years by utility com panies, with the cooperation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the haz ards of these jobs. CUSTOM ER SER VICE O C C U P A TIO N S Nature of the Work Workers in customer service oc cupations include people who in stall, test and repair meters; meter readers; company agents in rural areas; and appliance servicemen. Metermen (D.O.T. 729.281), or meter repairmen, are the most skilled workers in this group. They in stall, test, maintain, and repair meters on customers’ premises. Some metermen can handle all types of meters, including the more com plicated ones used in industrial plants and other places where large 741 quantities of electric power are used. Others specialize in repairing the simpler kinds, like those in homes. Often, some of the large systems re quire specialists, such as meter in stallers (D.O.T. 821.381) and meter testers (D.O.T. 729.281). Installers put in and take out meters. Testers specialize in testing the small meters used in homes and some of the more complicated ones used by commer cial and industrial customers. Meter readers (D.O.T. 239.588) go to customers’ premises to check meters which register the amount of electric current used. They record the amount of current used in a specific period so that each customer can be charged for the correct amount. They also watch for, and report, any tampering with meters. District representatives usually serve as company agents in outlying districts which are too small to jus tify more specialized workers. They collect overdue bills, make minor re pairs, and read, connect, and dis connect meters. They receive and send service complaints and reports of line trouble to a central office. Appliance servicemen are dis cussed in a separate chapter else where in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Metermen begin their jobs as help ers in the meter testing and repair departments. Young persons enter ing this field should have a basic knowledge of electricity. About 4 years of on-the-job training are re quired to become a fully qualified meterman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship programs in which the trainee progresses accord ing to a specific plan. Inexperienced workers can qual ify as meter readers after a few weeks of training. Beginners accompany the experienced meter reader on his OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 742 rounds until they have learned the job. The duties of district represen tatives are learned on the job. An im portant qualification for this occupa tion is the ability to deal tactfully with the public in handling service complaints and collecting overdue bills. need for meter readers will be lim ited because of the trend toward less frequent readings. Moreover, auto matic meter reading may become more common, and new meters will require less maintenance. However, some job openings for metermen and meter readers will occur each year to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment Outlook Employment in customer service occupations is expected to show little change through the mid-1980’s. The Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of customer service workers vary according to the type of job they have and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the aver age hourly earnings for major cus tomer service jobs in privately owned utilities in 1972. A verage hourly earnings District representative............ $6.09 Meterman A ............................. 5.44 Meterman B ................................. 4.80 Meter reader ............................... 4.32 OCCUPATIONS IN THE MERCHANT MARINE INDUSTRY men have home bases in these cities. The Nation’s largest port is New York. Other major Atlantic ports are Philadelphia, Baltimore, Nor folk, Boston, Charleston, Savannah, Tampa, and Jacksonville. Gulf ports that handle large volumes of cargo include New Orleans, Houston, and Galveston. Shipping on the West Nature and Location Coast is concentrated in the areas of of the Industry San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, The merchant marine consists and Portland. mainly of private firms that carry U.S., foreign, and domestic com Occupations In the merce aboard ocean-going vessels. In Industry late 1972, about 7 out of every 8 of the 703 ships in the active fleet were More than half of the merchant privately owned. Government-owned marine industry’s employees are offi ships are operated by the Navy’s cers and seamen who make up ship Military Sealift Command (MSC) and have civilian seafaring per sonnel. About 60 percent of the ships in our merchant fleet are freighters, in cluding general cargo ships and spe cial vessels, such as roll-on-roll-off container ships. About 35 percent are tankers that carry liquid prod ucts, such as oil, mostly between the Nation’s Gulf and Atlantic Coast ports. The few remaining ships are com bination passenger-cargo carriers. Many ships operate on regular schedule to specific ports. Others sail for any port promising cargo. The size of a crew depends on the size and type of vessel. Cargo ships and tankers have crews varying from 36 to 65 men; passenger ships may have 300 or more. Most shoreside employees in the industry work in the country’s major port cities and most officers and sea In 1972, the merchant marine in dustry employed about 60,000 people in a variety of occupations that re quire different levels of skill and ed ucation. Many of these jobs are found only in the merchant marine industry. crews. Most of the industry’s shoreside employees are dock workers who load and unload ships. A small number of workers have administra tive and clerical jobs. Ship crews. The captain (D.O.T. 197.168) or master, has complete au thority and responsibility for ship operation, including discipline and order, and the safety of the crew, passengers, and cargo. Under the supervision of the captain, the work aboard ship is divided among the deck, engine, and steward depart ments. Deck officers (D.O.T. 197.133), under orders from the captain, direct the navigation of the ship and the maintenance of the deck and hull. Boatswains (D.O.T. 911.131) act as foremen-in-charge of deck crews and see that deck officers’ orders are car ried out. Able seamen (D.O.T. 911.887) steer the ship and report sightings to the deck officer. Or dinary seamen (D.O.T. 911.887), the entry rating in the deck department, 743 744 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Typical Crew Aboard a D ry- Cargo Ship Radio operator Deck department 1 : | Engine department 1 Steward’s department I Chief Mate Chief Engineer Chief Steward Second Mate 1st Assistant _I Chief Cook 2nd Assistant 2nd Cook and Baker i 1 2 Third Mates Boatswain y J"';~ H 2 Deck utility men 6 Able-bodied seaman 3 Ordinary seamen __________ 1________ 3 3rd Assistants | _______ 1________ Electrician Engine utility man 3 Oilers 3 Firemen-watertender 2 Wipers r 1 4 Messmen 2 Utility men __ j Officers [Crewmen Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. do general maintenance work such as chipping rust, painting, and splicing and coiling ropes. Deck utilitymen and ship’s carpenters also are em ployed to maintain the ship’s deck and hull. Marine engineers (D.O.T. 197.136) are responsible for start ing, stopping, and controlling the speed of the main engines and the operation of all other machinery aboard ships. They also direct sea men, such as oilers and wipers, in the lubrication and maintenance of engines, pumps, and other equip ment. Oilers (D.O.T. 911.884) lubri cate moving parts of mechanical equipment. Wipers (D.O.T. 699.887) keep the engine room and machin ery clean. Firemen/watertenders (D.O.T. 951.885) regulate fuel gauges and the amount of water in the boilers. The ships’ electrician (D.O.T. 825.281) repairs and main tains electrical equipment, such as generators and motors. The chief steward (D.O.T. 350.138) supervises the preparation of meals and the upkeep of living quarters aboard ship. The chief cook (D.O.T. 315.131) and assistant cooks prepare meals. Utilitymen (D.O.T. 318.887) carry food supplies from the storeroom, prepare vegetables, and wash cooking utensils. Messmen (D.O.T. 350.878) set tables, serve meals, wash dishes, and care for living quarters. Most ships employ radio officers (D.O.T. 193.282), who keep contact with the shore and other ships and maintain the radio equipment. Some cargo ships and all passenger vessels carry pursers (D.O.T. 197.168), who prepare the necessary papers to allow ships to enter port. Occupations aboard ship are dis cussed in detail elsewhere in the Handbook in the statements on mer chant marine officers and merchant seamen. Dock Workers. Many workers are needed to load and unload ships. Ste vedores or terminal managers are re sponsible for the hiring of dock workers called longshoremen (D.O.T. 911.883). Dock foremen or gang bosses supervise crews of long shoremen who load and unload ships and move cargo in and out of ware- 745 OCCUPATIONS IN THE MERCHANT MARINE INDUSTRY houses. Some operate materials han dling equipment, such as lift trucks and cranes. Longshoremen also posi tion and fasten hose lines to the ship’s tanks when loading or un loading liquid cargo, such as chemi cals and oil. Clerical Occupations. The merchant marine industry employs workers in general clerical jobs, such as payroll clerk, secretary, and typist. Other clerical workers have specialized jobs. Billing clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) type invoices that list items shipped and dates of shipment. Clerks and dispatchers, pilot station (D.O.T. 911.368) keep records of ships enter ing ports. Manifest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) compile and type ship’s manifest (a list of passengers and cargo) for use at customhouses or terminals. Receipt and report clerks (D.O.T. 911.388) prepare reports on labor and equipment costs for load ing and unloading cargoes. Administrative and Professional Oc cupations. The merchant marine in dustry employs a small number of administrative and other office per sonnel. Executives plan and ad minister company policy. The in dustry also employs accountants, lawyers, and labor relations and per sonnel workers. Some marine architects (D.O.T. 001.081) are em ployed to oversee the construction and repair of ships. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inexperienced workers may be hired as longshoremen to load and unload cargo. Applicants must be in good physical condition. A high school education is preferred but not required. Under the guidance of ex perienced workers, longshoremen can learn their jobs in a few weeks. As vacancies occur, they can ad vance to jobs such as lift truck operator and crane operator. Workers who have supervisory abili ty may become dock foremen or gang bosses. No educational requirements are established for jobs aboard ship, but a good education is an advantage. Formal training for officers is con ducted at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, at five State merchant marine academies, and through pro grams operated by trade unions. Unions also conduct training pro grams to upgrade the ratings of seamen. To obtain an officer’s license, a candidate must be a U.S. citizen, physically fit, and pass a written ex amination administered by the U.S. Coast Guard. Seamen also must ob tain licenses (merchant mariner’s document) from the Coast Guard. An applicant must pass a physical examination and present proof that he has a job offer aboard a U.S. mer chant vessel. A young person who is consider ing a career at sea must be able to live and work with others as a team. Although peace-time service is re laxed, they must adjust to some military-like discipline that is essential because of the nature of shipboard life. Most general clerical occupa tions, such as secretary or book keeper, usually require the comple tion of basic commercial courses in high school or business school. Ad ditional on-the-job training is neces sary for specialized clerical occupa tions, such as manifest clerk and re ceipt and report clerk. Administrative positions usually are filled by college graduates who have degrees in business administra tion, marketing, accounting, in dustrial relations, or other special ized fields. A knowledge of the mer chant marine industry is helpful. Marine architects must be licensed professionals. Requirements for li censing are set by the individual States and generally include gradu ation from an accredited profes sional school followed by 3 years of practical experience in an architect’s office. Employment Outlook Employment in the merchant marine industry is expected to de cline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, some openings will arise each year from the need to re place experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Competion for openings on ships, however, will be intense because the number of people seeking jobs is ex pected to exceed greatly the number of openings. Because of substantially higher shipbuilding and labor costs, our merchant fleet finds it difficult to compete in the world shipping market. To insure that our country has a merchant fleet operating in regular or essential trade routes, the Government subsidizes many ships. The Government also passed a law in 1970 to subsidize the construction of 30 new ships annually over a 10-year period and to improve tax incentives for firms to buy new ships. The number of ships built, however, is ex pected to be about the same as the number of older ones taken out of service. Therefore, the size of our merchant fleet probably will not grow. Employment of ship’s officers and seamen is expected to decline because new ships are larger and faster and can be operated by smaller crews. The greater use of container ized cargo ships and improvements in materials handling equipment will reduce the need for longshoremen. Employment in administrative and clerical occupations, on the other hand, is not expected to change significantly. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 746 Earnings and Working Conditions Longshoremen working along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts earned $5.55 an hour in 1972 and those on the Pacific Coast earned $5.10 an hour. Longshoremen also earn extra pay for handling hazardous cargo. Earnings aboard ships are rela tively high; most officers earned a base pay of about $1,150 a month in 1972. Seamen who have advanced a rung or two in rating could receive a base pay of nearly $600 a month. In addition, both officer and seaman earnings are supplemented by premium pay for overtime and assuming extra responsibilities. On the average, additional payments for assuming extra work or respon sibility add about 50 percent to base pay. Shipboard workers also receive free meals and lodging while at sea. Since ship’s crew members and longshoremen are subject to occa sional layoff, however, their annual earnings usually are not as high as the hourly rates and monthly sal aries would imply. Most shoreside workers in the industry have a 5-day, 40-hour workweek. The workweek for people aboard ships is con siderably different. At sea, most of ficers and seamen are required to stand watch, working split shifts around the clock. Generally, they work two 4-hour shifts during every 24-hour period and have 8 hours off between each shift. Some officers and seamen are on duty 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday. The merchant marine industry provides excellent fringe benefits. Most employers provide paid vaca tions and holidays. Vacations for seamen and officers range from 90 to 180 days a year. Many firms also provide other benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Of ficers and seamen may retire on full pension after 20 years of service, regardless of age. Longshoremen are eligible for pension at age 65. Working and living conditions aboard ship have improved over the years. Mechanization has reduced physical demands and newer vessels have private rooms, air-conditioning, television, and better recreational fa cilities. However, life aboard ship is confining, and since voyages last sev eral weeks or months, officers and seamen are away from home and families much of the time. Some tire of the lengthy separations and choose shoreside employment. How ever, for many people, the spirit and adventure of the sea, good wages, and fringe benefits more than com pensate for the disadvantages. The duties aboard ship are haz ardous compared to other in dustries. At sea, there is always the possibility of injuries from falls or the danger of fire, collision, or sink ing. Most shoreside jobs are not haz ardous, but longshoremen may do heavy lifting and risk injury from falling boxes and other freight when loading and unloading ships. Most employees are union members. All longshoremen are rep resented by either the Longshore men’s Association International Union or the Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union. Most of ficers aboard ships are represented by the International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots; and the National Marine Engineers Benefi cial Association. Seamen are members of the National Maritime Union of America and the Sea farers’ Union. Sources of Additional Information General information about jobs in the merchant marine industry may be obtained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Wash ington, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings and wages aboard ships can be ob tained from local maritime unions. If such a union is not listed in the local telephone directory, information may be obtained from: National Maritime Union of America, 36 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y. 10011. Seafarers’ International Union of North America, 675 Fourth Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11232. International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10006. National Marine Engineers, Beneficial Association, 17 Battery Place, New York, N.Y. 10004. Further information about long shoremen jobs may be obtained from: International Longshoremen’s Assocition (AFL-CIO), 17 Battery Place, New York, N.Y. 10004. International Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union (AFLCIO), 150 Golden Gate Ave., San Francisco, Calif. 94102. OCCUPATIONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING The glamor and excitement of radio and television make broad casting careers attractive to many young people. Electronics and the business aspects of broadcasting also are attractions. In 1972 about 108,000 full-time and 25,000 part-time staff were employed in broadcast ing; slightly more than half were em ployed in radio and the rest were in television. In addition, several thou sand free-lance performers, such as actors and musicians, work on a con tract basis for stations, networks, and other producers. Several thous and other employees work for inde pendent producers in activities close ly related to broadcasting, such as the preparation of filmed and taped programs and commercials. Broadcasting stations offer a variety of interesting jobs in all parts of the country. Opportunities for en try jobs are best at stations in small communities, although the highestpaying jobs are in large cities, es pecially those with national network stations. Nature and Location of the Industry In 1972 about 6,800 commercial radio stations were in operation in the United States. Approximately 4.400 were AM stations and about 2.400 were FM. Commercial tele vision stations numbered about 700 in 1972. Most commercial radio broadcast ing stations are small, independent businesses. The average station employs about 11 full-time and 4 part-time workers. Television sta tions are generally larger, and aver age about 75 full-time and 10 parttime employees. Commercial radio stations are served by seven nationwide net works and a large number of regional networks. Stations can af filiate with networks by agreeing to broadcast their programs on a regu lar basis. The seven national radio networks employed approximately 2,500 workers in 1972. Most television stations depend on one of three national television net works for programs that would be too expensive for individual stations to originate—for example, sports events, such as baseball games, or newscasts of national and interna tional significance. These networks, in turn, can offer national coverage to sponsors. Up to 200 stations across the country may carry a net work television show. In 1972 the three national networks employed about 17,000 workers, or almost 3 of every 10 staff employees in commer cial television. Most network pro grams originate in New York City and Los Angeles. In addition to commercial broad casting stations, there were about 550 educational radio stations (main ly FM) and 200 educational tele vision stations in 1972. These sta tions are operated principally by ed ucational agencies such as State commissions, local boards of educa tion, colleges and universities, and special community public television organizations. Educational stations employed more than 6,900 full-time and over 3,000 part-time workers in 1972 and accounted for about 1 out of every 14 workers in radio and tele vision broadcasting. There were also about 2,900 cable TV systems (CATV) serving 6.5 mil lion homes. Cable TV systems em ployed about 7,000 workers. Broadcasting Occupations About half of all employees in the broadcasting industry hold profes sional and technical jobs, such as staff announcers, newsmen, writers, or broadcast technicians. Clerical and sales workers make up an addi tional one-fourth, and managerial personnel, such as producers and di rectors, make up about one-sixth. Many of the remaining employees are craftsmen, such as electricians and carpenters. Jobs vary greatly between small and large stations. In small stations, the station manager, who frequently is the owner, may act as business and sales manager, or perhaps as pro gram director, announcer, and copy writer. Announcers in small stations may do their own writing, operate 747 748 the studio control board, and do sales work. The engineering staff may consist of only one full-time broadcast technician assisted by workers from the other depart ments. In large radio and television stations, jobs are more specialized and usually confined to one of four departments: programming, techni cal, sales, or business department. The kinds of jobs found in each of these departments are described in the following paragraphs. Programming Department. Staff employees produce daily and weekly shows, assign personnel to cover spe cial events, and provide general pro gram services such as sound effects and lighting. In addition to these staff employees, freelance actors, comedians, singers, and other enter tainers are hired for specific broad casts, a series of broadcasts, or for special assignments. The size of a station’s program ming department depends on the ex tent to which its broadcasts are live, recorded, or received from a net work. In a small station, a few peo ple make commercial announce ments, read news and sports sum maries, select and play recordings, and introduce network programs. In a large station, on the other hand, the program staff may consist of a large number of people in a wide variety of specialized jobs. Program directors are responsible for the overall program schedules of large stations. They arrange for a combination of programs that will be most effective in meeting the needs of advertisers and at the same time be most attractive and interesting to the audience. Traffic managers prepare daily schedules of programs and keep records of broadcasting time avail able for advertising. Continuity directors are responsible for the writ ing and editing of all scripts. They may be assisted by continuity writers, who prepare announcers’ books (“copy”) which contain the script and commercials for each pro gram along with their sequence and length. Directors plan and supervise indi vidual programs or series of pro grams. They coordinate the shows, select artists and studio personnel, schedule and conduct rehearsals, and direct on-the-air shows. They may be assisted by associate directors, who work out detailed schedules and plans, arrange for distribution of scripts and changes in scripts to the cast, and help direct on-the-air shows. Some stations employ pro gram assistants to aid directors and associate directors. Assistants help assemble and coordinate the various parts of the show. They arrange for obtaining props, makeup service, art work, and film slides and assist in timing. They use cue cards prepared from scripts, to cue the performers. Education and public affairs di rectors are a link between the sta tion and schools, churches, and civic organizations. They supervise and edit most noncommercial programs. In large stations, directors may work under the supervision of a producer (also called an operations manager), who selects scripts, con trols finances, and handles other pro duction problems. Many times these functions are combined in the job of producer-director. Announcers are the largest and best known group of program workers. Announcers introduce pro grams, guests, and musical selec tions and deliver most of the live commercial messages. In small sta tions, they also may do other work, such as operate the control board, sell time, and write commercial and news copy. In large stations, their duties are confined to the program ing department. Broadcast an OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nouncers are discussed in detail else where in the Handbook. Music is an important part of radio programing. Both small and large stations use recordings and transcriptions to provide musical programs and background music for other shows. Large stations, which have extensive music libraries, some times employ music librarians to maintain music files and answer re quests for any particular selection of music. The networks have special ized personnel who plan and arrange for musical services. Musical direc tors select, arrange, and direct suit able music for programs on general instructions from program di rectors. They select musicians for live broadcasts and direct them dur ing rehearsals and broadcasts. Musi cians are generally hired on a free lance basis, although a few stations employ staff musicians full time. News gathering and reporting is a key aspect of radio and television programing. News directors plan and supervise the overall news and special events coverage. Newscasters broadcast daily news programs and report special news events on the scene. News writers select and write copy for newscasters to read on the air. In small stations, the jobs of newscaster and newswriter often are combined. Stations that originate live tele vision shows must have staff members capable of handling stag ing jobs. Studio supervisors plan and supervise the setting up of scenery and props. Floor or stage managers plan and direct the actors’ positions and movements on the set according to directors’ instructions. The jobs of studio supervisor and floor manager often are combined. Floormen set up props, hold cue cards, and do other unskilled chores. Makeup artists prepare personnel for broadcasts by applying cosmetics. Scenic de signers plan and design settings and OCCUPATION IN RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING backgrounds for programs. They se lect furniture, draperies, pictures, and other props to help convey the desired visual impressions. Sound ef fects technicians operate special equipment to simulate sounds, such as gunfire or rain. About half of all commercial tele vision programming is on film, about 15 percent is live, and the remainder is recorded on video tape. Broadcast technicians make video tape record ings on electronic equipment that permits instantaneous playback of a performance. Video tape is used to record live shows and to prerecord programs for future broadcasts. Many stations employ specialized staff members to take care of filmed program material. Film editors edit and prepare all film for on-the-air presentation. They screen all films received, cut and splice films to in sert commercials, and edit locally produced film. Film librarians catalogue and maintain files of mo tion picture film. Technical Department. Technical staffs position microphones, adjust levels of sound, keep transmitters operating properly, and move and adjust lights and television cameras to produce clear, well-composed pic tures. They also install, maintain, and repair the many types of electri cal and electronic equipment re quired for these operations. Most stations employ chief engineers, who are responsible for all engineering matters, including super vision of technicians. In small sta tions, they also may work a regular shift at the control board. Large sta tions have engineers who specialize in fields such as sound recording, Film editor cuts and splices film. 749 maintenance, and lighting. Net works employ a few development en gineers to design and develop new electronic apparatus to meet special problems. Broadcast technicians have many jobs. For example, they control the operation of the transmitter to keep the level and frequency of broadcast within legal requirements. They also set up, operate, and maintain equip ment in the studio and in locations where remote broadcasts are to be made. (Further information on broadcast technicians is given else where in the Handbook.) Sales Department. Time salesmen, the largest group of workers in this department, sell advertising time to sponsors, advertising agencies, and other buyers. They must have thorough knowledge of the station’s operations and the characteristics of the area it serves. The latter includes population, number of radio and television sets in use, income levels, and consumption patterns. Time salesmen in large stations often work closely with sponsors and advertis ing agencies. Many stations sell a substantial part of their time, par ticularly to national advertisers, through independent sales agencies. Large stations generally have several workers who do only sales work. The sales manager supervises a staff of time salesmen, and also may handle a few of the largest ac counts personally. Some large sta tions employ statistical clerks and re search personnel to help analyze and report market information on the community served. Business Management. In a very small station, the owner and his sec retary may handle all the record keeping, accounting, purchasing, hir ing, and other routine office work. If the size of the station warrants full time specialists, the business staff 750 Broadcast technician regulating quality of picture. may include accountants, publicity specialists, personnel workers, and other professional workers. They are assisted by office workers, such as stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, clerks, and messengers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement for most entry jobs in broadcasting, although for many jobs some college training is preferred. A liberal arts education is a good qualification for the beginner because broadcasters need people with knowledge and in terests in many areas. Television pro gramming for networks and large in dependent stations generally re quires a college degree and some ex perience in broadcasting. Some young people without spe cialized training or experience get their start in broadcasting in jobs such as clerk, typist, floorman, or assistant to an experienced worker. As these new workers gain knowl edge and experience, they have the chance to advance to more respon sible jobs. A few young people get started in broadcasting with tempor ary jobs in the summer when regular workers go on vacations and broad cast schedules of daylight hours sta tions are increased. Technical training in electronics is required for entry jobs in engineer ing departments. In addition, anyone who operates or adjusts a broadcast transmitter must have a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Radiotelephone First Class Operator License. To obtain this li cense, an applicant must pass a series of technical examinations given by the FCC. Small radio stations with only a few employees sometimes prefer to have as many personnel as possible legally qualified to operate their transmitters. Because of this, nontechnicians, especially an nouncers, have a better chance of getting a job in radio if they have a first class license. A course in elec tronics at a recognized technical in stitute is probably the best way to prepare for the FCC test. Entry jobs as announcers in small stations usually do not require specific training or experience, but an applicant must have a good voice, a broad cultural background, and other characteristics that make a dramatic or attractive personality. Qualifications for administrative and sales jobs in broadcasting are similar to those required by other em ployers; a business course of study in high school or college is good preparation for such jobs. Most beginners start out in small stations. Although these stations cannot pay high salaries, they offer opportunities to learn the different phases of broadcasting work because they generally use personnel in com bination jobs. For example, an an nouncer may perform some of the duties of a broadcast technician. People in the technical depart ment tend to remain in this area of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK work, where thorough training in electronics is essential. Program em ployees usually remain in program ming work, although sometimes transfers to and from the sales and business departments are made. Transfers are easier between sales and business departments because of their close working relationship; in fact, in the small stations, they are often merged into one department. Although transfers of experienced workers between departments are limited to the extent noted, these dis tinctions are less important in begin ning and top-level jobs. At the higher levels, a station executive may be drawn from top-level personnel of any department. Employment Outlook Employment in the broadcasting industry is expected to grow mod erately through the mid-1980’s. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace expe rienced workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. Competition will be very keen for en try jobs, especially in the large cities, because of the attraction this field has for young people, and the rela tively few beginning jobs that will be available. New radio stations are expected to open, particularly in small commu nities, and will offer opportunities for some additional workers. In ex isting radio stations, however, tech nological developments will limit employment growth. Equipment to control transmitters from the studio will eliminate the need for a techni cal crew at the transmitter site, and automatic programming equipment permits radio stations to provide vir tually unattended programming. The number of educational tele vision stations is expected to in crease as private and government groups continue to expand in this 751 OCCUPATION IN RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING area. The growth of educational sta tions will increase job opportunities, especially in programming, en gineering, and station management. Cable television (CATV) has emerged as a powerful new force in communications, and some addi tional job opportunites for profes sional, technical, and maintenance workers will be created as CATV systems increasingly originate and transmit programs. By using cables instead of airwaves, CATV can offer customers a larger selection of sta tions plus many additional pro grams produced specifically for cable television. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972 earnings of nonsupervisory broadcasting workers aver aged $4.47 an hour, nearly onefourth more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Salaries range widely among occupations and locations in the broadcasting in dustry. Employees in large cities gen erally earn much more than those in the same kinds of jobs in small towns. Wages also tend to be higher in large stations than in small ones, and higher in television than in radio. Most full-time broadcasting em ployees have a scheduled 40-hour workweek; employees in many small stations work longer hours. Sales and business employees generally work in the daytime hours common to most office jobs. However, pro gram and engineering employees must work shifts which may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holi days. To meet a broadcast deadline, program and technical employees in the networks may have to work con tinuously for many hours under great pressure. Many unions operate in the broad casting field. They are most active in the network centers and large sta tions in metropolitan areas. The National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians and the International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers both organize all kinds of broadcasting workers, al though most of their members are technicians. The International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Em ployees and Moving Picture Ma chine Operators organizes various crafts, such as stagehands, sound and lighting technicians, wardrobe at tendants, makeup men, and camera men. Many announcers and enter tainers are members of the Amer ican Federation of Television and Radio Artists. The Directors Guild of America, Inc. (Ind.) organizes program directors, associate di rectors, and stage managers. The Screen Actors Guild, Inc., represents the majority of entertainers who appear on films made for television. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in radio and television broadcasting is available from: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information about college courses in television broadcasting is avail able from: Executive Secretary, Association for Professional Broadcasting, Na tional Association of Broadcast ing, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information about careers in public radio and television broad casting is available from: Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 888 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. O C C U P A TIO N S IN TH E RAILROAD IN D U STR Y The railroads, with their network of more than 200,000 miles of tracks reach into all parts of the country. Trains link people with goods and large communities with small. With about 575,000 workers in 1972, the railroads were one of the Nation’s largest employers and the second largest transportation indus try. Railroad workers operate trains, build and repair equipment and fa cilities, and provide services to cus tomers. In most of these jobs, workers start at the bottom and work their way up by learning their jobs and proving their abilities. hub of the Nation’s railroad net work is Chicago where the large eastern and western railroad systems meet. Large numbers of railroad em ployees also work in and near New York, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and St. Louis. Railroad Occupations Railroad workers can be divided into five main groups: operating em ployees; communications, station, and office workers; equipment maintenance workers; property maintenance workers; and passenger service attendants. Operating employees make up Nature and Location of the Industry almost one-third of all railroad The railroad industry is made up workers. Included are locomotive of “line-haul” railroad companies that transport freight and passen gers, and switching and terminal companies that operate in some large cities. About 93 percent of all railroad employees work for line-haul com panies that handle about 99 percent of the industry’s business. The re mainder work for short-line rail ways and switching and terminal companies. Most railroad revenue and employment comes from freight. Passenger service, though important, has declined substantially in the past 30 years. Although railroad workers are employed in every State except Hawaii and in communities of all sizes, the greatest number work at terminal points where the railroads have central offices, yards, and maintenance and repair shops. The 752 engineers, firemen, conductors, brakemen, and, on some passenger trains, baggagemen. Whether on the road or at terminals and railroad yards, they work together as train crews. Switchtenders help con ductors and brakemen by throwing switches. Hostlers fuel, check, and deliver locomotives from the engine house to the crew. Another one-fourth of all railroad workers are communications, sta tion, and office employees who con trol train movements and handle the railroads’ business affairs. Telegra phers, telephoners, and towermen pass on orders and other instruc tions to train crews and set signals and track switches. Agents manage business affairs of the railroad stations. Railroad clerks assist sta tion agents, do secretarial and other office work, and handle reservations and ticket sales. In small stations, they may tend baggage rooms. Other workers in this group are claims in vestigators, accountants, lawyers, and watchmen. More than one-fifth of all rail- OCCUPATIONS IN THE RAILROAD INDUSTRY road employees are equipment maintenance workers, who service and repair locomotives and cars. In cluded are carmen, machinists, elec trical workers, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. Property maintenance workers, who make up about one-sixth of all railroad employees, build and repair tracks, tunnels, signals, and other railroad property. Trackmen and other maintenance-of-way workers repair tracks and roadbeds. Bridge and building workers construct and repair bridges, tunnels, and other structures along the company’s rightof-way. Signal workers install and service the railroads’ vast network of signals, including highway crossing protection devices. The remaining and smallest group of railroad workers are passenger service attendants, who take care of passengers on trains. Included in this group are porters, cooks, and waiters. Chart 26 shows the number of workers in major railroad occu pations in 1972. Detailed infor 753 mation about these occupations is given elsewhere in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most beginning railroad workers are trained on the job by experi enced employees. Training for some office and maintenance jobs is available in high schools and voca tional schools. Universities and technical schools offer courses in ac counting, engineering, traffic management, transportation, and other subjects valuable to pro fessional and technical workers. New employees in some oper ating service occupations start as ex tra board workers. Their names are placed on lists for individual occu pations, and they substitute for regular workers who are on vaca tion, ill, or absent for other reasons. They also may be called when rail road traffic increases temporarily or seasonally. Experienced extra board workers with sufficient seniority move to regular assignments as they become available. The length of time on the extra board varies by type of job and number of available openings. Some workers do not receive regular assignments for many years. Beginners in shop trades are usu ally high school graduates with no previous experience, although some shop laborers and helpers are pro moted to the trades. All except elec trical workers serve apprenticeships that last 3 years for inexperienced Employment in Selected Railroad Occupations1 26 EMPLOYED 1972 (in thousands) 0 Clerks Shop trades Brakemen Track workers Conductors Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen Telegraphers, telephones,and towermen Signal department workers Bridge and building workers Station agents ^Estimated. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 20 40 60 100 754 workers and 2 years for helpers. Inexperienced electrician apprentices serve 4 year apprenticeships, and helpers serve 3 years. Most applicants for railroad jobs must pass physical examinations and those interested in train crew jobs need excellent hearing and eyesight. Color-blind persons are not hired as locomotive engineers or brakemen or for any other jobs that involve inter preting railroad signals. Railroad workers are promoted on the basis of seniority and ability. Job openings are posted on bulletin boards and workers may bid for them. The worker highest on the seniority list usually gets the job. To be promoted, however, workers may have to qualify by passing written, oral, and practical tests. Advance ment in train and engine jobs is along established lines. Most locomotive engineers, for example, are chosen from qualified firemen. Some rail roads promote brakemen to engi neer positions. Besides determining advancement procedures, seniority also gives workers some choice of working con ditions. A telegrapher, for instance, may have to work several years on the night shift at out-of-the-way locations before finally getting a day shift assignment near home. Employment Outlook The long run decline in railroad employment is expected to continue through the mid-1980’s, but at a de creasing rate. Nevertheless, thou sands of job opportunities will develop each year as the industry re places some experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Despite an expected increase in freight traffic, railroad employment will decline mainly as a result of in creased worker productivity due to technological innovations. For ex ample, more powerful diesel loco motives pull longer trains and decrease the number of train crews needed to move the same amount of freight. Roadway maintenance ma chines take the place of workers with handtools. Automatic switching lowers the number of conductors and brakemen required, and automatic signaling equipment in creases the productivity of telephoners, telegraphers, and towermen. Most people working in passenger service may eventually work for AMTRAK, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, created in 1971 to revive passenger service trains. However, it will take years to carry out the AMTRAK program and it is too early to determine its effect on these jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Nonsupervisory employees of linehour in 1972, about one-third higher than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, ex cept farming. Earnings of railroad workers vary widely, however, de pending on occupation. In 1972, for example, average hourly earnings for locomotive engineers in passenger service were $9.25; for freight serv ice brakemen, $5.98; for railway clerks, $4.78; and for track gang members, $4. Regional wage dif ferences are much less in rail roading than in other industries haul railroads averaged $4.94 an OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK because of nationally negotiated labor contracts. Most railroad employees work a 5-day, 40-hour week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Oper ating employees, station agents, and telegraphers and telephoners often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Extra board workers may be called at any time. Bridge and building workers, signal installers, and track men may work away from home for days at a time. Employees are usually paid for 9 holidays a year, and depending on length of service, receive 1 to 5 weeks of paid vacation a year. Federal laws provide retirement pensions for railroad workers who are age 65 and have at least 10 years of service. Workers with between 10 and 30 years of service may retire with a reduced pension at age 62. Other benefits include pensions for disabled workers, unemployment compensation, and pay for work days lost due to sickness or injury. Other insurance programs are operated under agreements with labor organizations. These provide group life insurance to employees and comprehensive hospital and medical insurance to employees and their dependents. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about oc cupations in the railroad industry may be obtained from local railroad offices. General information about the industry can be obtained from: Association of American Railroads, American Railroads Building, 1920 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. O C C U P A TIO N S IN TH E TE LE P H O N E IN D U S TR Y About 590 million local and long distance telephone calls are made daily in the United States and over seas. In 1972, approximately 960,000 employees were required to provide this service. The telephone industry offers men and women steady, year-round work in many different jobs. Some jobs, such as telephone operator and file clerk, can be learned in a few weeks; others, such as installer and repair man, require many months. More than half of all telephone workers are women. Nature and Location of the Industry Providing telephone service for the many millions of residential, com mercial, and industrial customers is the main work of the Nation’s tele phone companies. More than 125 million telephones were in use in the United States in 1972. Telephone jobs are found in almost every community. Most tele phone workers, however, are em ployed in cities which have large con centrations of industrial and busi ness establishments. The nerve center of the local telephone system is the central office that has the switching equipment through which a telephone may be connected with any other telephone. Every call travels from the caller through wires or micro-wave radio and cables to the cable vault in the central office. Thousands of pairs of wires fan out from the cable vault to a dis tributing frame where each set of wires is attached to switching equip ment. Electromechanical and elec tronic switching equipment make connections automatically. In a few remaining switchboards and in un usual situations an operator makes the connection. Some customers make and receive more calls than a single telephone line can handle. For these calls, a system somewhat similar to a minia ture central office may be installed on the customer’s premises. This sys tem is the private branch exchange (PBX), usually found in apartment and office buildings, hotels, depart ment stores, and other business firms. A newer type of service is called CENTREX, in which incoming calls can be dialed to any extension with out an operator’s assistance, and out going and intercom calls can be dial ed by the extension users. This equip ment can be located either on tele phone company premises or on the customer’s premises. Other communications services provided by telephone companies in clude conference equipment in stalled at a PBX to permit conversa tions among several telephone users simultaneously; mobile radio telephones in automobiles, boats, airplanes and trains; and telephones equipped to answer calls auto matically and to give and take messages by recordings. Telephone companies also build and maintain most of the vast net work of cables and radio-relay sys tems for communications services, including those joining the thou sands of broadcasting stations all over the Nation. These services are leased to networks and their af filiated stations. Telephone com panies also lease data and privatewire services to business and govern ment offices. The Bell System owns about 4 out of 5 of the Nation’s domestic tele phones. Independent telephone com panies serve the remainder. There are approximately 1,805 independent telephone companies in the United States. General Telephone and Elec tronics Corporation in New York City, United Utilities, Inc. in Kansas City, and Continental Telephone Corporation in St. Louis account for about 2 out of every 3 telephones serviced by independent companies. Telephone Occupations Although the telephone industry requires workers in many different occupations, telephone craftsmen and operators make up more than one-half of all workers. (See chart 27.) Telephone craft workers install, repair, and maintain telephones, cables, switching equipment, and message accounting systems. These workers can be grouped by the type of work they perform: construction workers place, splice, and maintain telephone wires and cables; installers and repairmen place, maintain, and repair telephones and private branch exchanges (PBX) in homes and of fices and other places of business; and central office craft workers test, maintain, and repair equipment in central offices. Operators make telephone con nections; assist customers in special ized services, such as reverse-charge calls; and give telephone infor mation. Detailed discussions of tele phone crafts occupations and tele755 756 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Telephone Crafts W orkers and Operators Make Up More Than One-Half of All W orkers Employed In the Industry 27 PRESENT D IS T R IB U T IO N 1972 43% Other 26% Telephone operators 31% Construction, installation, and maintenance employees Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. phone and PBX operators are presented elsewhere in the Hand book. More than one-fifth of all tele phone industry employees are cleri cal workers. They include ste nographers, typists, bookkeepers, of fice machine and computer oper ators, keypunch operators, cashiers, receptionists, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and payroll clerks. Clerical workers keep records of services, make up and send bills to customers, and prepare statistical and other reports. About one-tenth of the industry’s employees are professional workers. Many of these are scientific and technical personnel such as engi neers and draftsmen. Engineers plan cable and microwave routes, central office and PBX equipment installa tions, new buildings, the expansion of existing structures, and solve other engineering problems. Many top managers and administrators have engineering backgrounds. Other pro fessional and technical workers are accountants, personnel and labor relations workers, public relations men and publicity writers, computer systems analysts, computer pro gramed, and lawyers. Nearly one-tenth of the industry’s employees are business and sales representatives who sell new com munications services, directory ad vertising and handle requests for in stalling or discontinuing telephone service. About 3 percent of the industry’s workers maintain buildings, offices, and warehouses; operate and service motor vehicles; and do other mainte nance jobs in offices and plants. Skilled maintenance craftsmen in clude stationary engineers, car penters, painters, electricians, and plumbers. Other workers employed by the telephone industry are janitors, porters, watchmen, and guards. Employment Outlook Telephone industry employment is expected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs from employment growth, tens of thousands of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Employment will grow primarily because rising population and higher incomes will increase the need for telephone service. Greater demand for transmission of computerprocessed data and other infor mation via telephone company lines also will stimulate employment growth. Labor-saving technological innovations, however, will keep employment from growing as rapidly as telephone service. Because of direct-dialing and other improvements in equipment, the need for telephone operators will not increase significantly. Technological innovations will restrict employ ment growth in some skilled crafts. For example, mechanical improve ments, such as pole-lifting equip ment and earth-boring tools, will limit employment of linemen. On the other hand, new technology is ex pected to increase the demand for engineering and technical personnel, especially electrical and electronic engineers and technicians, computer programmers, and systems analysts. Employment in administrative and sales occupations will rise as tele phone business increases. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972 earnings for nonsupervisory telephone employees averaged $4.24 an hour. In comparison, nonsupervisory workers in all private in dustries, except farming, averaged $3.65 an hour. In early 1972, basic rates ranged from an average of $2.67 an hour for telephone operator trainees and $3.11 for experienced telephone operators, to $7.60 for professional and semi-professional workers. Clerical workers in non-supervisory positions averaged $3.62 an hour. A telephone employee usually 757 OCCUPATIONS IN THE TELEPHONE INDUSTRY starts at the minimum wage for his particular job. Advancement from the starting rate to the maximum rate generally takes 5 years. More than two-thirds of the workers in the industry, mainly tele phone operators and craftsmen, are members of labor unions. The Com munications Workers of America represents the largest number of workers in the industry, but many other employees are members of the 13 independent unions which form the Alliance of Independent Tele phone Unions. Others are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the amount of time required to advance from one step to the next for most telephone workers. The contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6 to 8 hours a day, or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most con tracts provide a pay differential for night work. Overtime work sometimes is re quired, especially during emergen cies, such as floods, hurricanes, or bad storms. During an “emergency call-out,” which is a short-notice re quest to report for work during nonscheduled hours, workers are guaranteed a minimum period of pay at the basic hourly rate. Travel time between jobs is counted as worktime for crafts workers under some con tracts. Paid vacations are granted accord ing to length of service. Usually, con tracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years; 3 weeks for 11 to 17 years; 4 weeks for 18 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on locality, holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Most telephone workers are covered by paid sick plans and group insurance which usually provide sickness, acci dent, and death benefits, and retire ment and disability pensions. The telephone industry has one of the best safety records in American industry. The number of disabling in juries has been well below the average. Whare To Go for More Information More details about employment opportunities may be obtained from the telephone company in your com munity or local offices of the unions that represent telephone workers. If no local union is listed in the tele phone directory information may be obtained from the following: Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 16518. Communication Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. O C C U P A TIO N S IN TH E TR U C K IN G IN D U S TR Y In 1972, the trucking industry employed approximately 1 million workers—more than the rival rail, air, and pipeline transportation in dustries combined. It is a major em ployer of many young persons not planning to attend college, since nearly 90 percent of its freight handlers, drivers, truck mainte nance personnel, or clerical workers require only a high school education. Nature and Location of the Industry The trucking industry is made up of firms that furnish hauling and storage services, both local and long distance, on a for-hire basis. Its ter minals, located in various cities, han dle distribution and pickup of freight and maintenance of trucking equip ment. Local trucking companies serve a single city and its suburbs. Others, long-distance carriers, usually travel through many States. Some firms specialize in the type of goods carried: for example, they may carry oil, grain, livestock, automobiles, or furniture that often require special equipment for truck rigging and loading and unloading. Trucking companies operate as either contract or common carriers. Contract carriers haul commodities of one or a few shippers exclusively; common carriers serve the general public. The industry’s employment is con centrated in a relatively small number of large companies. Fewer than 10 percent of the trucking com panies in interstate commerce have 758 annual revenues of $1 million or more; however, these account for almost half of total industry employ ment. A large proportion of com panies are small, particularly those which serve a single city. Many are owner-operated, and the owner does the driving. Trucking industry employees work in cities and towns of all sizes, and are distributed much the same as the Nation’s population. Occupations in the Industry About three-fourths of all truck ing industry employees have bluecollar jobs, including about 600,000 truckdrivers. Other important bluecollar occupations are material handlers, mechanics, washers and lubricators, and foremen. Most white-collar employees are clerical workers, such as secretaries and rate clerks, and administrative person nel, such as terminal managers and accountants. Men hold 9 out of every 10 jobs in the industry. Nearly all women em ployees are clerical workers. The duties and training require ments of some of the important occupations are described briefly in the following sections. Truckdriving Occupations. More than half of the industry’s em ployees are drivers. Long-distance truck drivers (D.O.T. 904.883) spend nearly all their working hours driving large trucks or tractor trailers between terminals. These long-dis tance drivers transport goods of great value that must be delivered safely and on time. Some drivers load and unload their trucks; usu ally, however, other employees do this work. Local drivers (D.O.T. 906.883) operate trucks over short distances, usually within one city and OCCUPATIONS IN THE TRUCKING INDUSTRY its suburbs. They deliver goods from trucking terminals to wholesalers, re tailers, and other businesses in the area. They also pick up goods for delivery to terminals, where loads are made up for long trips. Clerical Occupations. About 1 out of every 8 of the industry’s employees is a clerical worker. Many have general clerical jobs, such as secretary or clerk-typist, which are common to all industries. Others have special ized jobs. For example, dispatchers (D.O.T. 919.168) coordinate the movement of trucks and freight into and out of terminals; make up loads for specific destinations; assign drivers and develop delivery sched ules; handle customers’ requests for pickup of freight; and provide infor mation on deliveries. Rate clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) calculate shipping charges. Claims clerks (D.O.T. 241.368) handle claims for freight lost or damaged during transit. Manifest clerks (D.O.T. 222.488) prepare forms that list details of freight shipments. Parts-order clerks (D.O.T. 223.387) supply mechanics with replacement parts for trucks; they also take care of most of the clerical duties needed to maintain a truck repair shop. Administrative and Related Oc cupations. More than 1 out of 15 em ployees is an administrator. Top ex ecutives manage companies and make policy decisions. Middle man agers supervise the operation of in dividual departments, terminals, or warehouses. A small number of ac countants and lawyers are employed by these companies. The industry also employs sales representatives to solicit freight business. Material Handling Occupations. About 1 out of 12 employees moves materials into and out of trucks and warehouses. Much of this work is done by material handlers (D.O.T. 909.887) who work in gangs of three or four under the supervision of a dock foreman or gang leader. Mate rial handlers load and unload freight with the aid of handtrucks, con veyors, and other devices. Heavy items are moved by power truck operators (D.O.T. 922.883) and crane operators (D.O.T. 921.280). Gang leaders determine the order in which items will be loaded, so that the cargo is balanced and items to be unloaded First are near the back of the truck. Truckdrivers’ helpers (D.O.T. 905.887) travel with drivers to unload and pick up freight. Oc casionally, helpers may do relief driving. Truck Maintenance Occupations. About 1 out of every 20 employees takes care of the trucks. Truck me chanics (D.O.T. 620.281) keep trucks and trailers in good running condition. Much time is spent in pre ventive maintenance to assure safe operation, to check wear and damage to parts, and to reduce breakdowns. When breakdowns do occur, these workers determine the cause and make the necessary repairs. Truck mechanic helpers (D.O.T. 620.884) and apprentices assist experienced mechancis in in spection and repair work. Lubrica tion men and washers (D.O.T. 915.887 and 919.887) clean, lubricate, and refuel trucks, change tires, and do other routine maintenance. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Workers in blue-collar oc cupations usually are hired at the un skilled level, as material handlers, truck drivers’ helpers, or lubrication men and washers. No formal train ing is required for these jobs, but many employers prefer high school graduates. Applicants must be in 759 good physical condition. New em ployees work under the guidance of experienced workers and foremen while learning their jobs; this usu ally takes no more than a few weeks. As vacancies occur, workers ad vance to higher rated blue-collar jobs, such as power truck operator and truckdriver. Qualifications for promotion are the ability to do the job and length of service with the firm. Material handlers who demonstrate supervisory ability can become gang leaders or dock fore men. Qualifications for truckdriving jobs vary and depend on individual employers, the type of truck, and other factors. Every driver must have a chauffeur’s license, a commercial driving permit obtained from State Motor Vehicle Departments. The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for long distance drivers. They must be at least 21 years old and ablebodied, and have good hearing and vision of at least 20/40 with or with out glasses. They must also be able to read and speak English and have at least 1 year of driving experience and a good driving record. Many firms will not hire long-distance drivers under 25 years of age; they may also specify limitations on height and weight. Young people interested in pro fessional driving should take the driver-training courses offered by many high schools. A course in auto motive mechanics is also helpful be cause it provides knowledge of the mechanical operations of a truck. Private truckdriving training schools offer another opportunity to prepare for a driving job. However, com pletion of such a course does not assure immediate employment as a driver. Graduates frequently must start as material handlers or drivers’ helpers and advance to driving jobs. Prospective students should enroll 760 only in those truckdriving courses offered by schools which have been certified by the State. Most truck mechanics learn their skills informally on the job as help ers to experienced mechanics. Others complete formal apprenticeship pro grams which generally last 4 years and include on-the-job training and related classroom instruction. Un skilled workers, such as lubrication men and washers, frequently are pro moted to jobs as helpers and appren tices. However, many firms will hire inexperienced young people for help er or apprentice jobs, especially those who have completed courses in auto motive mechanics. Com pletion of com mercial courses in high school or business school is usually adequate for entry into general clerical occupations, such as secretary or typist. Addi tional on-the-job training is needed for specialized clerical occupations, such as rate or claims clerk. Generally, no specialized educa tion is needed for dispatcher jobs. Openings are filled by truck drivers, rate clerks, or other workers who know their company’s operations and are familiar with State and Federal driving regulations. Can didates may improve their qualifi cations by taking college or techni cal school courses in transportation. Administrative and sales posi tions frequently are filled by college graduates who have majored in busi ness administration, marketing, ac counting, industrial relations, or transportation. Some companies have management training pro grams for college graduates in which trainees work for brief periods in various departments to get a broad picture of trucking operations before they are assigned to a particular department. High school graduates may be promoted to administrative and sales positions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment in the trucking in dustry is expected to grow rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings created by employment growth, many openings will arise as experienced workers re tire, die, or transfer to other fields. The general economic growth of the Nation is expected to increase the quantity of freight carried by trucks. Trucks carry virtually all freight for local distribution and a great deal of interstate freight. Also many new factories, warehouses, and stores are being located in suburbs or semirural areas where railroad trans portation is not available. Employment, however, will not in crease as fast as the demand for trucking services because techno logical developments and a con tinued trend toward larger, more ef ficient firms will increase output per worker. As a result of these develop ments, rates of growth will vary among occupations. Employment of material handlers, for example, is ex pected to increase slowly because of more efficient freight-handling methods—such as conveyors and draglines to move freight in and out of terminals and warehouses, and cargo cages to combine less-thantruckload shipments. In contrast, employment of truckdrivers is ex pected to increase moderately, al though improved highways and vehicles will result in bigger loads at higher speeds and fewer drivers will be required for each ton of freight. Compared with small organ izations, large companies have higher proportions of accountants, personnel workers, clerks, sales workers, truck mechanics, and fore men. Employment in most of these occupations is expected to increase very rapidly as a result of the trend toward larger trucking companies. On the other hand, terminal managers make up a greater pro portion of employment in small firms, since they perform many of the tasks that are assigned to other workers in large organizations. Thus, the demand for terminal managers will grow slowly as employment be comes more concentrated in large firms. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, nonsupervisory workers in the trucking industry averaged $4.92 an hour, compared with $3.65 an hour for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except far ming. Earnings are relatively high in the trucking industry, because drivers represent a large proportion of employment; many long-distance drivers earn more than $300 a week. Most employees are paid an hour ly rate or a weekly or monthly salary. However, truckdrivers on the longer runs generally are paid on a mileage basis for driving time. For all other work time, they are paid an hourly rate. Most employees receive premium pay for overtime, Sundays, and holidays. Paid vacations are almost uni versal in the trucking industry. Typically, employees receive a 1 week vacation after 1 year of serv ice, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 15 years. Nearly all workers receive paid holidays. Most workers are covered by pension plans and life and health insurance financed at least partially by employers. Working conditions vary greatly among occupations in the industry. Truckdriving is both physically and mentally demanding, but conditions have improved as a result of better highways, more comfortable seat ing, power steering, and airconditioned cabs. Long-distance drivers frequently work at night and OCCUPATIONS IN THE TRUCKING INDUSTRY spend time away from home. Local drivers usually work only during the day. Material handlers and truckdriver’s helpers have strenuous jobs, although conveyor systems and other freight handling equipment have reduced some of the heavier lifting and made the work easier and safer. Truck mechanics and other main tenance personnel may have to work in awkward or cramped positions while servicing vehicles, and fre quently get dirty because of the grease and oil on the trucks. In addi tion, most maintenance shops are hot in summer and drafty in the winter. Mechanics occasionally make re pairs outdoors when a truck breaks down on the road. Many large organizations operate around the clock and require some material handling and maintenance personnel to work evenings and nights. A large number of trucking indus try employees are members of the 761 International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information General information about career opportunities in the trucking indus try is available from: American Trucking Association, 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE Wholesaling and retailing are the final stages in the transfer of goods from producers to consumers. Wholesalers assemble goods in large lots and distribute them to retail stores, industrial firms, and institu tions such as schools and hospitals. Retailers sell goods directly to housewives and other consumers in a variety of ways—in stores, by mail, or through door-to-door selling. A list of the items sold by wholesale and retail businesses would include almost every item produced by Americans—automobiles, clothing, food, furniture, and countless others. In 1972, nearly 16 million people (not counting an estimated 2 million self-employed persons plus unpaid family workers) worked in whole sale and retail trade. Retail trade ac counted for the largest number of workers—11.8 million—or about three-fourths of the employment in the industry group. The majority of these workers held jobs in depart ment stores, food stores, and restau rants and other eating places. About 3.9 million people worked in whole sale trade. Workers with a wide range of education, training, and skills hold jobs in wholesale and retail trade. White-collar workers account for more than 3 out of 5 workers em ployed in this major industry group, as shown in the accompanying table. Sales workers, the largest single group, make up nearly one-fourth of total industry employment. Man agers and proprietors, the second largest group of workers, account for about one-fifth of the industry’s work force. Many managers and proprietors own and operate small wholesale houses or retail busi nesses, such as food stores and gas stations. Clerical workers account for roughly one-sixth of the work force; many hold jobs as cashiers, especially in supermarkets and other food stores. Other important cleri cal occupations in retail trade in clude secretaries, stenographers and typists, office machine operators, and bookkeepers and accounting clerks. Large numbers of shipping and receiving clerks work in both wholesale and retail trade. Blue-collar workers (craftsmen, operatives, and laborers) account for nearly one-fourth of the industry’s job holders. Many work as mechan ics and repairmen, gas station at tendants, drivers and deliverymen, meat cutters, and materials han dlers. Most mechanics work for motor vehicle dealers and gasoline service stations. A large number of meat cutters work in wholesale grocery establishments and in super markets and other food stores. Service workers, employed mostly in retail trade, account for roughly 1 out of 7 workers in the industry group. Food service workers, such as waitresses and cooks, make up by far the largest concentration of service workers. Other large groups of serv ice workers are janitors, charwomen and cleaners, and guards and watchmen. Major occupational group All occupational groups ....................... Estimated employment 1972 (percent distribution) Professional, technical, and kindred workers Managers, officials, and proprietors........ Clerical and kindred workers..................... Sales workers............... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers Operatives and kindred workers . . . . Service workers.......... Laborers............................... 2 19 17 23 7 11 15 6 Employment in wholesale and re tail trade is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s as sales rise in response to growth in population and income. Due to laborsaving innovations, however, employment is not expected to grow as fast as sales. The use of com puters for inventory control and bill ing, for example, may limit the need for additional clerical workers. Im proved methods of handling and storing merchandise will limit the de mand for laborers. Within retail trade, employment should rise most quickly in depart ment stores, drugstores, restaurants, auto dealerships, and service sta tions. Among wholesale establish ments, the rates of employment growth probably will be highest in businesses that distribute auto parts, and in firms selling industrial machinery, equipment, and supplies. The statements that follow dis cuss job opportunities in restaurants and food stores. More detailed infor mation about occupations that cut across many industries appears else where in the Handbook. 100 763 OCCUPATIONS IN THE RESTAURANT INDUSTRY In 1972, the restaurant industry was the fourth largest industry in the country, employing 2.7 million peo ple in establishments ranging from roadside diners to luxurious restau rants. The type of food and service a restaurant offers varies with its size and location, as well as with the kind of customer it seeks to attract. Fastfood restaurants and cafeterias in suburban shopping centers empha size rapid service and inexpensive meals. Steak houses and pizzerias consider the quality of their spe cialty most important. Some restau rants cater to customers who wish to eat a leisurely meal in elegant sur roundings and their menus often in clude unusual dishes or “specialties of the house”. Most restaurants are small and have fewer than 10 paid employees; many of these are operated by their owners, who have either no paid help or only 1 or 2 part-time workers. An increasing proportion of restau rants, however, are part of chain operations. Restaurant jobs can be found almost everywhere. Although employment is concentrated in the States with the largest populations and particularly in large cities, even very small communities have lunch eonettes and roadside diners. Restaurant Workers About three-fourths of all restau rant employees prepare and serve food, and keep cooking and eating areas clean. Waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs make up the two largest groups of workers. Also in 764 cluded are counter attendants, who serve food in cafeterias and fast-food restaurants; bartenders, who mix and serve drinks; busboys and busgirls, who clear tables, carry dirty dishes back to the kitchen, and sometimes set tables; kitchen workers, who wash dishes and prepare vegetables; pantrymen and pantrywomen, who prepare salads and certain other dish es; and janitors and porters, who dispose of trash, sweep and mop floors, and keep the restaurant clean. Some of these workers operate mechanical equipment such as dish washers, floor polishers, and vege table slicers and peelers. (Detailed information on cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, and bar tenders is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Another large group of restaurant workers—about one-sixth of the total—are managers and propri etors. Many are owners and oper ators of small restaurants and, in addition to acting as managers, may cook and do other work. Some are salaried employees who manage restaurants for others. All other restaurant workers com bined account for less than one-tenth of total industry employment. Most are clerical workers—cashiers who receive payments and make change for customers; food checkers who total the cost of items selected by cafeteria customers; and book keepers, typists, and other office workers. A few restaurants employ dietitians to plan menus, supervise food preparation, and enforce sani tary regulations. Restaurant chains and some large restaurants employ mechanics and other maintenance workers, accountants, advertising or public relations directors, personnel workers, and musicians and other entertainers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The skills and experience needed for restaurant work vary from one occupation to another. Many jobs re quire no special training or experi ence, while others require some col lege or managerial experience. Re quirements also vary from one restaurant to another; large or ex pensive restaurants usually have higher standards than diners or luncheonettes. Young people who have less than a high school education and no previ ous experience often can get jobs as kitchen workers, dishwashers, or busboys. Some restaurants hire only experienced waiters and waitresses, cooks, and bartenders. Special train ing or many years of experience or both usually are required for chefs’ positions. Newly hired restaurant workers are generally trained on the job. Kitchen workers, for example, may be taught to operate a lettuceshredder and make salads. Waiters and waitresses are taught to set tables, take orders from customers, and serve food in a courteous and efficient manner. In many restau rants, new employees receive their training under the close supervision of an experienced employee or the manager. Large restaurants and some chain restaurant operations may have more formal programs which often include several days of training sessions for beginners. Many public and private high schools offer courses for persons in terested in restaurant work in their vocational programs. Usually in- 765 OCCUPATIONS IN THE RESTAURANT INDUSTRY When hiring, employers look for applicants who have good health and physical stamina because restaurant workers have to work long hours, often under considerable pressure. Neatness, a pleasant manner, and an even disposition also are important, especially for waiters and waitresses and other employees who deal with the public. Restaurants, particularly large chain operations, promote workers who have initiative and ability. Busboys or dishwashers can advance to better paying jobs such as waiter or cook’s helper and then through addi tional training to cook, chef, baker, or bartender. Experience as maitre d’hotel may lead to a position as director of food and beverage serv ices in a large chain organization. Assistant managers, particularly those with college training, may be promoted to manager, and eventu ally to a top management position. Employment Outlook Food manager and cook discuss the day’s menu. eluded are food preparation and cooking, catering, restaurant man agement, and other related subjects. Similar training programs are avail able for a variety of occupations through restaurant associations and trade unions, technical schools, junior and community colleges, and 4-year colleges. Programs range in length from a few months to 2 years or more. Classroom and on-the-job train ing programs for unemployed and underemployed workers seeking restaurant jobs were in operation in a large number of cities in 1972 under the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA). Training un der the MDTA is provided for cooks and cook apprentices, waiters and waitresses, food service supervisors, and cooks’ helpers. These programs last approximately 12 to 15 weeks. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience in food service work. A number of programs exist to train handicapped workers for restaurant jobs. Among these are projects to train mentally retarded persons for occupations, such as dishwasher and kitchen helper. Employment in the restaurant in dustry is expected to rise rapidly through the mid-1980’s as restau rant business increases. In addition to the jobs from employment growth, thousands of openings will arise each year due to the need to replace ex perienced employees who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Most openings will be for wait resses and kitchen helpers—both be cause of high replacement needs and because these workers make up a very large proportion of all restau rant employees. Employment oppor tunities also are expected to be favorable for skilled cooks and sala ried restaurant managers. The num ber of openings in clerical jobs, such as cashier, will be relatively small. A few openings will occur in special ized positions, such as food manager and dietitian. Population growth, rising in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 766 comes, and more leisure time will contribute to a growing demand for restaurant services. More people will “eat out” as the number of working wives increases and more people travel. Employment, however, will not increase as rapidly as the de mand for restaurant services, be cause worker productivity is rising. Restaurants have become more effi cient as managers have centralized the purchase of food supplies, intro duced self-service, and used precut meats and modern equipment. Many restaurants now use frozen entrees in individual portions which require less time and skill to prepare than fresh foods. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of restaurant workers de pend on the location, size, type, and degree of unionization of the restau rant in which they work. Also, work ers in some occupations receive tips in addition to their wages. In 1972, nonsupervisory workers in the restaurant industry averaged $2.02 an hour (excluding tips). Data from union contracts covering eat ing and drinking places in several large cities indicate the following range of hourly earnings for individ ual occupations: Hourly rate range Waiters and waitresses . . . . $1.11—$2.57 Busboys and busgirls.......... 1.13— 2.96 Dishwashers......................... 1.63- 3.25 Kitchen helpers ................... 1.86— 3.59 Pantry workers............ . . . . Assistant cooks .......... . . . . Porters ......................... . . . . Cashiers ....................... . . . . Checkers....................... . . . . Cooks ........................... . . . . Bartenders ................... . . . . Chefs............................. . . . . 1.891.891.892.002.002.462.502.83- 3.74 4.36 3.25 3.11 3.42 4.63 4.63 5.22 Salaries of managerial workers differ widely because of differences in duties and responsibilities. Many college graduates who have special ized training in restaurant manage ment received starting salaries rang ing from $9,000 to $11,000 annually in 1972. Managerial trainees with out this background often started at lower salaries. Many experienced managers earned between $12,000 and $25,000 a year. In addition to wages, restaurant employees usually get at least one free meal a day, and often are pro vided with uniforms. Waiters, wait resses, and bartenders also receive tips. Paid vacations and holidays are common, and various types of health insurance programs also are avail able. Most full-time restaurant employees work 30 to 48 hours a week; scheduled hours may include evenings, holidays, and weekends. Many work on split shifts, which means they are on duty for several hours during one meal, take some time off, and then return to work for the next busy period. Many restaurants are air-condi tioned, have convenient work areas, and are furnished with the latest equipment and laborsaving devices. Others, particularly small restau rants, offer less desirable working conditions. In all restaurants, work ers may stand much of the time, have to lift heavy trays and pots, or work near hot ovens or steam tables. Work hazards include the possibility of burns; cuts from knives and broken glass or china; and slips and falls on wet floors. The principal union in the restau rant industry is the Hotel & Restau rant Employees and Bartenders International Union (AFL-CIO). The proportion of workers covered by union contracts varies greatly from city to city. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about careers in the restaurant industry may be obtained from: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1522 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on vocational educa tion courses for restaurant work may be obtained from the local Director of Vocational Education, the Super intendent of Schools in the local community, or the State Director of Vocational Education in the Depart ment of Education in the State capital. Occupations In the Industry OCCUPATIONS IN RETAIL FOOD STORES In the United States, grocery stores and supermarkets are as com mon as baseballs in summer, and al most always near at hand. But like the tip of an iceberg, the local food store is merely a small part of a large body known as the retail food store industry. The industry sells over 80 percent of the food eaten by Ameri cans and employs more than 2 mil lion workers. Jobs vary, and workers range in education and training from high school dropouts to college-educated marketing professionals. The work is steady, and is part-time as well as full-time. Students and housewives seeking additional income often take part-time positions. Jobs in food stores are especially attractive in that the employer provides training and opportunities for advancement. Nature of the Industry Though food stores traditionally are classified by the type of food sold, knowing how the food is sold is important in understanding the in dustry. The retail food store indus try pioneered in and is the most ex tensive user of self-service market ing techniques. As a result, there are now only two basic types of stores, supermarkets and specialty stores. A supermarket is simply a big grocery store that sells a large vari ety of meat; canned, frozen, or fresh vegetables; baked goods; and other items. All supermarkets are selfservice; customers select and bring items to check-out counters. Super markets constitute only about 20 percent of all food stores, but they employ about 60 percent of the in dustry’s workers. Because prices are generally lower than at any other type of food store, supermarkets at tract customers who buy in large quantities. When only a loaf of bread or a quart of milk is needed, how ever, the customer may prefer a nearby convenience or drive-up store. Convenience stores specialize in a small variety of food and other items. They open earlier and close later than large supermarkets, and customers can make purchases quickly. Large chains own most of the 15,000 convenience stores. Though growing in number, only 5 percent of the industry’s employees work in convenience stores. Small neighborhood grocery stores are the most numerous of all food stores. Besides a small selec tion of popular food items, they may feature Spanish, Chinese, or other ethnic foods. Usually owners per sonally manage these stores and only employ additional help as needed. Few owners operate more than one store. About 20 percent of the indus try’s employees work in small gro cery stores. The remaining food stores oper ate in much the same manner as small neighborhood grocery stores. However, they feature only one type of food, such as meat, vegetables, or candy. Most are small and are usu ally operated by the owner and a few clerks. Approximately 15 percent of the industry’s employees work in these stores. About 60 percent of food store workers are clerks, cashiers, meat cutters, and meat wrappers. Man agers and owner-managers account for an additional 25 percent of total employment. The remaining 15 per cent are accountants, bookkeepers, truckdrivers, service workers and laborers. Clerks in supermarkets are usu ally called stock or produce clerks. In the grocery department, stock clerks keep shelves filled with merchandise. As part of the job, for example, they count the cans of soup on the shelves and in the stock room before ordering more soup from the warehouse. Since storage space is limited, the order should include only as much as might be sold. Stock clerks frequently restock items to create an attractive display. They locate specific foods for cus tomers and perform general clean up duties. In supermarkets stock clerks may occasionally operate cash regis ters or bag groceries. Produce clerks maintain the sup ply and desirable look of fruits and vegetables. Because fruits and vege tables are perishable, special tech niques are used to keep the stock at tractive. All produce is dated when it arrives at the store so that clerks know which box of fruit or vege tables to display first. Fruits and vegetables must be rotated so that the most recently delivered goods are on the bottom. Lettuce and other greens are moistened and chilled to preserve crispness. In addition, pro duce clerks assist in unloading deliv ery trucks, keep the produce depart ment clean, answer customer ques tions, and weigh and bag produce. If the store is large, clerks may assist customers in the bakery or delicatessen departments. In the meat department, meat cut 767 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 768 ters and wrappers order and prepare meats for sale. Meat is delivered to the store in large pieces. Saws and knives are used to cut it into roasts, steaks, stew meat, and ground beef. After the fat is cut away and bone chips are removed, the meat is pack aged in plastic trays. Meat wrappers use machines to wrap meat in clear plastic. The pack ages are then taken to a second machine to be weighed. The weigh ing machine prints labels identifying the type of meat, the weight, the price per pound, and the total price for each package. At the check-out counter, cash iers ring up the price of each item on the cash register, add sales tax, make change, and bag purchases. Cashiers, who are often the only employees customers meet, must be pleasant, courteous, fast, and accu rate. Experienced cashiers memo rize the prices of hundreds of items, but must detect price changes on cans and boxes. For produce and other items that change price fre quently, price lists are used. When not serving customers, cashiers clean counters and restock small conven ience items, such as razor blades and candy, displayed near the check-out counter. Many supermarkets also employ workers to bag and carry groceries from the check-out counter to cus tomers’ cars. Laborers sometimes polish floors, clean windows, and do other housekeeping. The store man ager observes the activities of each department, corrects problems as they arise, and is responsible for all activities and the store’s success. The central administrative offices of supermarket chains employ ac countants, bookkeepers, personnel specialists, clerks, secretaries, and other office workers. Chain stores employ many truckdrivers, stock clerks, and laborers in warehouses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In a large supermarket, a new em ployee usually begins as a trainee in one of the following occupations: cashier, stock clerk, produce clerk, meat wrapper, or meat cutter. In smaller stores, however, new employees usually are trained as combination cashiers-clerks. When hiring trainees, employers look for high school graduates who are good at arithmetic and make a neat appearance. An outgoing per sonality and the ability to get along with people also are important, par ticularly for cashiers. Applicants who have less than a high school education may be hired if they qual ify in other respects. New workers learn their jobs mostly by helping and observing ex perienced employees. Training time varies by occupation. A few years may be needed to qualify as a skilled meat cutter, but cashiers and pro duce clerks generally can learn their jobs in less than 6 months. Jobs as stock clerks and meat wrappers can be learned in even less time. In large cities, cashier trainees, be fore being assigned to a store, may attend a 5-day school operated by a supermarket chain. These courses, which emphasize rapid and accurate operation of cash registers, also give instruction about customer rela tions, including courteous treatment of customers and handling of com plaints. Trainees who pass the ex amination are assigned to a store to finish their training; those who fail the examination may be hired for other jobs, such as stock or produce clerk. Some stores have meat cutter ap prenticeship programs, which gener ally last 2 to 3 years, and include classroom instruction as well as onthe-job training. Opportunities for promotion are fairly good for supermarket em ployees. Stock clerks frequently move up to better-paying jobs as pro duce clerks or cashiers. A produce clerk can advance to produce depart ment manager. A meat wrapper can learn to be a cutter, and then ad vance to meat department manager. Cashiers and department managers can be promoted to assistant man ager and, eventually, manager of a supermarket. Advancement in small food stores usually is limited, but employees may get all-round experi ence to start their own small businesses. Some supermarket employees and managers advance to administrative jobs in their company’s central of fices. A large number of these jobs, however, are in specialized fields, such as accounting or labor rela tions, which require college training. In cooperation with the National Association of Food Chains, Cornell University offers home study courses in management that are designed specifically for food industry employees who wish to improve their chances for advancement. All employees are eligible to take these courses. Employment Outlook Employment in the food store in dustry is expected to rise moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs from employment growth each year thousands of jobs will become available as employees re tire or stop working for other reasons. Many of these jobs will be parttime. Employment in the industry is not expected to keep up with food con sumption. New mechanized equip ment will result in greater output per worker. For example, supermarkets may replace cash registers with com puterized check-out systems. An OCCUPATIONS IN RETAIL FOOD STORES optical or magnetic scanner would transmit the code number of each purchase to a computer that had been programmed to record the price of the item, add the tax, and print out a receipt. The computer also would keep track of the store’s inventory and place an order with the ware house when stock is needed. This sys tem would limit growth in the employment of cashiers and stock clerks. Nevertheless, more workers would be hired as additional super markets are built to keep up with the expansion of suburbs. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of nonsupervisory work ers in food stores are among the highest in retail trade. In late 1972, they averaged $3.14 an hour, com pared with $2.75 an hour for non supervisory workers in retail stores as a whole. Earnings vary consid erably by occupation. Based on the limited information available, hourly rates ranged from about $1.60 for clerks with little experience to more than $6 for some highly skilled meat cutters. Earnings tend to be highest in large stores in metro politan areas. Most large companies provide full-time employees with a medical, hospitalization and pension plan, life insurance, and sick leave. Paid vaca tions and holidays also are provided. Almost all food store employees must be able to stand for several hours at a time. Stock clerks must be capable of lifting boxes or packages weighing up to fifty pounds. Most food store occupations are not haz ardous, but meat cutters must be careful when handling knives and us ing machinery, such as electric saws. Because they frequently work in refrigerated rooms, meat cutters also must be able to tolerate low tempera tures (35° to 50°F). Many food store employees are union members. Employees in the meat department are represented by 769 the Amalgamated Meat Cutters Union. Other employees in the store belong to the Retail Clerks Inter national Association. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment oppor tunities may be obtained from local food stores and the local office of the State employment service. Specific information on the duties and qualifications of cashiers are available from: National Association of Retail Grocers, 360 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Information on training and other aspects of the meat cutting trade are available from: American Meat Institute, 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60605. Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butchers Workmen of North America, 2800 North Sheridan Road, Chicago, 111. 60657. FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE Nearly every individual and organization uses services that the finance, insurance, and real estate in dustry provides. Financial institu tions—banks, savings and loan com panies, consumer credit organiza tions, and others—offer services ranging from checking and savings accounts to the handling of stock and bond transactions. Insurance Firms provide protection against losses caused by Fire, accident, sickness, and death. Real estate organizations serve as agents in the sale or rental of buildings and property, and often m anage larg e o ffices and apartments. In 1972, nearly 4 million persons worked in the Finance, insurance, and real estate Field. Finance, the largest sector, employed 1.7 million per sons; the next largest, insurance, almost 1.4 million workers. The re mainder—over 800,000—worked in real estate. Finance, insurance, and real estate firms are a major source of job op portunities for women, who make up over half of the industry’s work force. Their proportions range from about 35 percent in real estate, to over 60 percent in banking. As shown in the accompanying tabulation, over 90 percent of the workers in the industry hold white- collar jobs. Clerical workers alone make up 46 percent of the industry’s work force. Many clerical workers have jobs that are unique to particu lar industries, such as bank tellers in financial institutions and claim ad justers in insurance companies. Other large clerical occupations in clude stenographer, typist, secre tary, and office machine oper ator—jobs also found in other indus tries. Sales workers constitute 21 percent of the work force. Most of these are insurance and real estate agents and brokers. A relatively small number of the sales workers sell stocks and bonds. Managers and officials—bank officers, office managers, and others—make up 19 percent of the industry’s work force. Professional and technical workers—such as ac countants, computer specialists, and business research analysts—account for another 5 percent. Major occupational group Estimated employment, 1972 Managers, officials, and proprietors................. 19 Clerical and kindred workers............................. 46 Sales workers....................... 21 Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers............... 2 Operatives and kindred workers............................. (') Service workers................... 5 Laborers............................... 2 1 Less than 0.5 percent N ote: Due to rounding sum of individual items may not equal total. Employment in the Finance, insur ance, and real estate industry is ex pected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s as population grows, business activity increases, and per sonal incomes continue to rise. The growth of individual occupations, however, may differ from that of the industry. For example, the increas ing use of data processing should continue to lessen the demand for workers in routine clerical and recordkeeping functions, while spur ring the demand for workers in specialized computer occupations. (percent distribution) All occupational groups................... 100 Professional, technical and kindred workers . . . . 5 771 tors, marketing and public relations workers, as well as guards, elevator operators, cleaners, and other serv ice workers. Three large occupations unique to OCCUPATIONS IN THE BANKING INDUSTRY banking—clerks, tellers, and of ficers—are described in separate statements elsewhere in the Hand Banks have been described as loan associations, personal credit in book. “department stores of finance” be stitutions, and related institutions. cause they offer a variety of services In 1972, commercial banks proc ranging from individual checking ac essed more than 25 billion checks, Places of Employment counts to letters of credit for financ and handled an enormous amount of ing world trade. Banks safeguard paperwork. Workers who do this job In 1972, there were more than 37,money and valuables; administer account for nearly two-thirds of all 000 commercial banks and their trusts and personal estates; and lend employees. Many are tellers or branches and almost 1,700 mutual money to businesses, educational, clerks who process the thousands of savings banks and branches. Bank religious, and other organizations. deposit slips, checks, and other docu employment is concentrated in a They also lend money for the pur ments which banks handle daily. relatively small number of very large chase of homes, automobiles, and Banks also employ many secre banks. In 1971, for example, over household items, and to cover un taries, stenographers, typists, tele one-half of all commercial bank expected financial needs. Banks con phone operators, and receptionists. employees worked in the Nation’s tinually strive to serve their cus Bank officers fill the second larg 600 largest commercial banks; less tomers’ needs. In recent years, for est occupation in the banking indus than 10 percent were employed by example, they have offered revolv try. Approximately 1 out of 5 the 7,000 smallest commercial ing check credit plans, charge cards, employees is an officer—a presi banks. accounting and billing services, and dent, vice president, treasurer, comp Most bank employees work in troller or other official. Much small heavily populated States, such as money management counseling. er occupations include accountants, New York, California, Illinois, economists, lawyers, personnel direc Pennsylvania, and Texas. New York Banks and Their Workers Banks employed more than a mil lion workers in 1972; about twothirds were women. Most bank employees work in commercial banks, where a wide variety of serv ices are offered. Others work in mutual savings banks, which offer a more limited range of serv ices—mainly savings deposit ac counts, mortgage loans, safe-deposit rentals, trust management, money orders, travelers’ checks, and pass book loans. Still others work in the 12 Federal Reserve Banks (or “bankers’ banks”) and their 24 branches; and in foreign exchange firms, clearing house associations, check cashing agencies and other organizations doing work closely re lated to banking. In addition, many people are employed by savings and 772 OCCUPATIONS IN THE BANKING INDUSTRY O f the Approxim ately 1.1 Million People Employed in Banking, Tw o-thirds Are in Clerical Occupations Clerical Officers Professional Service All others Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 773 28 Most openings will be for clerks. In addition, an increasing number of trainee jobs, which may lead to of ficer positions, will probably be come available for college gradu ates. Many openings for profes sional and specialized personnel such as accountants and auditors, statis ticians, and computer operators also will occur. Bank facilities and employment will expand as population, sales, and incomes increase. Jobs also will be created as banks continue to im prove and expand services such as bank charge cards and the handling of accounts for retail stores. As banks strive to bring these and other services closer to suburban areas, branch banks will grow in number and provide additional employment opportunities. The continued conversion to elec tronic data processing may slow employment growth somewhat, de spite the expected increase in bank services. Electronic data processing is likely to reduce the number of workers in some occupations while increasing employment in computer jobs. The effect of these develop ments will vary from one occupation to another, as indicated in the state ments on specific banking occupa tions elsewhere in the Handbook. Bank employees can anticipate steadier employment than can work ers in many other fields, because they are less likely to be laid off during periods of low business activity. Even when a bank is sold or merged work ers seldom lose their jobs. Bank offi cials usually reduce employment by failing to replace employees who leave their jobs. City, the financial capital of the Na Bank workers also can prepare for tion, has far more bank workers than better jobs by taking courses that the any other city. American Institute of Banking offers in many cities throughout the coun try. The Institute, which has 377 chapters and 200 study groups, also Training offers correspondence study and Professional and managerial bank assists local banks in conducting workers usually have completed col cooperative programs for lege; most clerks have finished high various bank training positions. school; guards and building service Bank employees should enjoy personnel may have less than a high working with numbers. They also school education. must be able to accept the respon Most new employees receive some sibility handling large amounts of form of in-service bank training. money. ofThey should present a good Banks also provide other oppor image to customers. bank offi tunities for workers to broaden their cials are encouraged Often to participate in knowledge and skills. Additional in community activities. formation about the educational re quirements and training for bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers is Employment Outlook given in the statements for these oc cupations elsewhere in the Hand Employment in banks is expected to rise rapidly through the midbook. Many banks encourage employ 1980’s. New jobs resulting from ees to take courses at local colleges employment growth, as well as those and universities. In addition, bank that must be filled as employees re ing associations sponsor a number of tire, die, or stop working for other Earnings and Working Conditions educational programs, sometimes in reasons, are expected to account for cooperation with colleges and uni tens of thousands of openings each Earnings of bank clerks, tellers, versities. Many banks pay all or part year. Still other jobs will arise as and officers are discussed in the of the costs for those who success workers leave their positions to enter statements for these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. In addi different types of employment. fully complete courses. 774 tion to salaries, bank workers gener ally receive liberal fringe benefits. For example, most banks have some type of profit-sharing or bonus plan. In addition, group plans that pro vide life insurance, hospitalization, surgical benefits, and retirement in come are common. Sometimes free checking accounts or safe deposit boxes also are provided. The workweek in banks is gener ally 40 hours or less; in a few local ities, a workweek of 35 hours is com mon. Tellers and some other employ ees work at least one evening a week when banks remain open for busi ness. Certain check processors and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operators of computing equipment National Association of Bank Women, Inc., National Office, 111 E. may work on evening shifts. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. National Bankers Association, 4310 Sources of Additional Georgia Ave. NW., Washington, Information D.C. 20011. Local banks and State bankers’ Information about career oppor associations can furnish specific in tunities a bank examiner can be formation about job opportunities in obtainedasfrom: local banking institutions. General Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora information about banking occupa tion, Director of Personnel, 550 tions, training opportunities, and the 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. banking industry itself is available 20429. from: American Bankers Association, Bank Personnel Division, 1120 Connec ticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. O C C U P A TIO N S IN TH E IN SU R AN CE IN D U STR Y The insurance industry offers many employment opportunities for recent high school and college gradu ates and experienced workers. The 1,800 life and nearly 3,000 property/liability (also called property/casualty) insurance companies do business in home offices and in thousands of sales offices through out the country. Nature of the Business Most life and property liability companies sell accident and health insurance, which helps policyholders pay medical expenses, and may fur nish other benefits for an injury or illness. An increasing number of insur ance policies cover groups ranging from a few individuals to many thou sands. These policies usually are issued to employers for the benefit of their employees. Most common are group life and health plans, al though some automobile or homeowners policies are offered. In 1972, group life insurance protected almost 50 million workers; the number of policies was nearly double the num ber 10 years earlier. The majority were in clerical and sales jobs. (See chart 29.) Over half of all insurance com pany employees work in clerical and related jobs—a much larger propor tion than in most other industries. These workers keep records of pre mium payments, services, and bene fits paid to policyholders. Most are secretaries, stenographers, and typ ists; office machine operators; or general office clerks. They do work similar to their counterparts in other businesses. Other clerical workers have posi tions of greater responsibility that re quire extensive knowledge of some phase of insurance. They include claim adjusters (D.O.T. 241.168) and claim examiners (D.O.T. 249.268) who decide whether claims are cov ered by the policy, see that payment is made, and, when necessary, in vestigate the circumstances sur rounding the claim. (See the state ments on Claim Adjusters and Claim Examiners elsewhere in the Hand book.) About one-third of all insurance employees are sales workers— chief ly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies to individuals and busi ness firms. Agents and brokers There are three major types of in surance: life, property/liability, and health. Some companies specialize in one or more types; a growing num ber offer all kinds of insurance protection. Many life insurance com panies also offer mutual fund shares and variable annuities to their Insurance Workers customers. Life insurance companies sell poli About 1.4 million people worked cies that provide several other kinds in the insurance business in 1972. of protection. Under some, for ex ample, policyholders are to receive an income when they reach retire Approximately 1.4 Million People W ork ment age or if they should become in the Insurance Industry— More Than disabled; other policies may help pay One-half Are Clerical Workers the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or give extra financial protection while the chil dren are young. Life insurance poli cies also are designed to protect busi ness interests and to guarantee em ployee benefits. Property/liability in surance provides protection against loss or damage to policyholders’ property, and protects them from financial responsibility for injuries to others or damage to their property. It covers hazards such as fire, theft, 1.97% All and windstorm, as well as work Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. men’s compensation and other claims. 29 other 775 776 (D.O.T. 250.258) usually find their technical matters. Lawyers interpret own customers or “prospects,” and the regulations that apply to insur see that each policy they sell pro ance company operations and han vides the kind of protection required dle the settlement of some insurance by the policyholder. (See the state claims. Investment analysts evalu ment on Insurance Agents and Brok ate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other securities, ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 1 out of 8 insurance work analyze investments held by their ers has a managerial job. Managers companies, and recommend when to of local sales offices often spend part hold, buy, or sell. As more com of their time selling. Others, who puters are installed to handle office work in home offices, are in charge records, an increasing number of of departments such as actuarial data processing specialists, includ calculations, policy issuance, ac ing programmers and systems ana lysts, are being employed. Many counting, and investments. Professionals, employed mainly at companies also employ editorial, home offices, represent about 1 out public relations, sales promotion, of 24 insurance workers. These and advertising specialists. specialists, who work closely with in Insurance companies require the surance company managers, study same kinds of custodial and mainte insurance risks and coverage prob nance work as other large organiza lems, analyze investment possi tions. About 1 out of 50 workers in bilities, prepare financial reports, the insurance business performs and do other professional work. these duties. Among them is the actuary (D.O.T. Additional information about 020.188) whose job is unique to the many of these clerical, professional, insurance field. Actuaries make and maintenance occupations is con statistical studies of loss experience tained elsewhere in the Handbook. and determine premium rates. (See the statement on Actuaries else Places of Employment where in the Handbook.) Another specialist is the underwriter (D.O.T. Many insurance employees work 169.188) , who evaluates insurance in California, Connecticut, Illinois, applications to determine the risk in Massachusetts, New Jersey, New volved in issuing a policy. Under York, and Texas, where some of the writers decide whether to accept or largest insurance companies have reject the application; they also home offices. Large numbers also determine which premium rate are employed in agencies, brokerage should apply for each policy issued. firms, and other sales offices (See the statement on Underwriters throughout the country. Almost all sales personnel work out of local of elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other professional employees do fices; most professional and clerical essentially the same work in insur workers, however, are employed in ance companies as in other busi company home offices. nesses. Accountants, for example, More than half of all insurance analyze insurance company records employees work in life companies and financial problems relating to and agencies; included in this group premiums, investments, payments to are some very large companies with policyholders, and other aspects of thousands of employees. Prop the business. Engineers work on erty/liability companies, although problems arising from industrial more numerous than life insurance property/liability policies and other companies, generally have fewer OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers. Many local agencies and sales offices also are small, regard less of the type of insurance handled. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Insurance offers job opportunities for people having very different educational backgrounds and talents. Some positions require col lege training while others can be filled by workers with limited aca demic training and few skills. Graduation from high school or business school is enough training for most beginning clerical jobs. Courses in typing and business math are assets; the ability to operate office machines also is helpful. These and other special skills help beginners ad vance to more responsible jobs. Jobs in engineering, accounting, and other professional fields gener ally require the same kinds of col lege training here as in other busi nesses. College-trained people also are preferred for managerial posi tions, many of which are filled by promotion from within. In all work requiring contact with the public, employees should have a pleasant disposition and an out going personality. Those in frequent contact with policyholders should in spire confidence in their ability to protect the customer’s interests. Be cause insurance companies often en courage their managers and adminis trative employees to participate in community organizations, they should enjoy working with others in a social situation. Insurance workers have ample op portunity to continue their educa tion. The Insurance Institute of America, for example, has home study courses for property/liability adjusters, claim examiners, under writers, and salesworkers. The American College of Life Under writers, the National Association of Life Underwriters, and the Life OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE INDUSTRY Underwriter Training Council offer courses that stress the services agents provide to policyholders. Other courses, especially designed to help clerical employees better under stand life insurance, relate to the organization and operation of both home and field offices. These are given by the Life Office Manage ment Association, which also pro vides programs for the development of supervisors and managers. Employment Outlook Employment of insurance work ers is expected to increase moder ately through the mid-1980’s as the insurance industry continues to grow. In addition to new jobs that will become available, thousands of openings will occur as employees die, retire, or leave their jobs to seek other work. The expected increase in employ ment will result mainly from a grow ing volume of insurance business. Rising personal incomes will stimu late the purchase of life insurance, in cluding policies designed to provide retirement income or funds for future educational expenses. Property/liability insurance sales should expand as more workers buy homes, second cars, and other items that re quire insurance protection. More business insurance will be needed as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped throughout the country and the world. Furthermore, as the coverage of State workmen’s com pensation laws is broadened, more employers may need this type of in surance protection. Growth of insurance employ ment, however, is not expected to keep pace with the growth of busi ness volume for several reasons. Salesworkers are expected to be come more productive as more insur ance is sold through group contracts and multiple-line policies (those which cover many different risks for merly covered in separate policies). Although the total number of cleri cal jobs probably will continue to rise, the increasing use of computers to do routine jobs will lessen the de mand for many low-skilled clerical workers. Because the computer also can write simple policies, the under writer occupation may not grow as rapidly as in the past. In addition, State no-fault insurance plans should reduce the number of automobile claims to be adjusted, thus lessening the demand for claim adjusters. Most insurance workers have better prospects of regular employ ment than workers in many other in dustries. Business people usually re gard property/liability insurance as a necessity, both during economic recession and in boom periods; also, private individuals buy insurance to provide as much basic financial protection as possible, even when their incomes decline. Earnings and Working Conditions A 1972 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of insurance companies, banks, and related businesses re vealed a wide range of clerical sala ries. Some clerks in beginning rou tine jobs earned less than $70 a week, while experienced clerical employ ees in more responsible positions earned up to twice that amount. Differences in clerical salaries re flect variations in specific job duties and differences among insurance companies. Salary levels in different parts of the country also vary; earn ings are generally lowest in southern cities and highest in northeastern and western metropolitan areas. (See the chapter on Office Occupations for additional information about earn ings of clerical workers.) Starting salaries for professional 777 workers are generally comparable to those for similar positions in other businesses. According to limited in formation available from private sur veys of life and property/liability in surance companies, 1972 college graduates started at salaries ranging from $7,300 to $10,100 a year. Specialists having several years’ ex perience may receive annual salaries of $10,000 to $15,000. Unlike sala ried professional workers, agents and brokers earn commissions on the policies they sell. (See the statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Annual salaries for supervisors in life and property/liability companies ranged from $11,500 to $20,000, depending upon the type of company operation involved. Except for agents and brokers who sometimes must extend their work ing hours to meet with prospective clients, insurance company employ ees usually work 35 to 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is somewhat greater than in many other industries. Two-week paid vacations generally are granted employees after 1 year of service; in most companies, vacations are ex tended to 3 weeks after 5 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 10 years. Practically all insurance company workers share in group life and health plans, as well as in retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information General information on employ ment opportunities in the insurance business may be obtained from the personnel departments of major in surance companies or from insur ance agencies in local communities. Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. 778 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Area Wage Surveys, Metropolitan Areas, United States and Regional Summaries,(BLS Bulletin 1685-92). Superintendent of Documents, For additional information on the U.S. Government Printing Office, salaries of clerical workers in Finance Washington, D.C. 20402. industries, including insurance, see: American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES An increasing share of our na tional wealth and manpower is being devoted to services, as a result of greater emphasis on amenties such as medical care, education, and recrea tion. In many ways, this trend re flects the country’s goals of a better and fuller life for all its citizens. In today’s job market, the service industries are therefore an impor tant source of employment to workers, new as well as experienced, and offer job opportunities to people with various levels of skills, training, and education. In 1972, about 28 million people worked in service industries. About one-half were wage and salary workers employed by private firms, 11.6 million more were government employees (mainly in educational and medical services), and 2.2 million were self-employed. The re mainder, accounting for 1.6 million, worked in private households. Educational services, including elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education, make up the largest sector of the service industry, and account for nearly one-third of its work force. Hospitals and other establishments that provide health services consti tute the next largest sector, and ac count for one-fifth of the workers. In both these service industries, gov ernment workers (mainly local and State) make up a large share of the work force. Other service in dustries employing many workers are hotels, laundries, and other per sonal services, private households, business and repair services, and entertainment. As shown in the accompanying tabulation, white-collar workers (professional, managerial, clerical, and sales workers) account for nearly three-fifths of the service industry’s employment. The industry employs the highest proportion of profes sional, technical, and kindred workers of any major industry and these workers account for over onethird of the industry’s employment. By far the largest concentration of professional personnel is repre sented by teachers in educational services. Other major employers of professional workers are medical and health services—where doctors, den tists, and nurses constitute a large share of the work force; and many professionals are self-employed. Clerical workers account for 1 out of 6 service industry employees. Most are stenographers, typists, secre taries, and office machine operators. Managers, officials, and proprietors, including hospital administrators, make up a relatively small fraction of the industry’s employment. Service workers represent nearly one-third of the industry’s employ ment. The major service occupa tions are private household worker, practical nurse, hospital attendant, charwoman, jan ito r, w aiter, waitress, cook, and protective serv ice worker. Blue-collar workers, mainly skill ed craftsmen and semiskilled workers (operatives), constitute only one-eighth of the industry’s employ ment. Many of the craftsmen work as mechanics in automobile and other repair service industries, or as maintenance workers in hotels, schools, and other establishments. Operatives work mainly in laun dries, auto repair shops, and other types of repair businesses. Most of the relatively few laborers in this in dustry work in auto repair shops, on golf courses, and in bowling alleys. Major occupational group All occupational groups................... Professional, technical, and kindred workers . . . . Managers, officials, and proprietors ................. Clerical and kindred workers............................. Sales workers....................... Craftsmen, foreman, and kindred workers............... Operatives and kindred workers............................. Service workers ................... Laborers............................... Estimated employment. 1972 (percent distribution) 100 32 7 20 1 5 4 29 2 Employment in the service in dustry is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. The sharp growth in the demand for services is expected to stem from population growth, expanding business activity, and rising personal incomes. The fastest-growing parts of the service industry will be automobile rental services, medical services, and cer tain firms that provide computer services and laboratory research facilities. The need for extensive personal contact in the many service func tions tends to limit the effect of tech nological innovations on employ 779 780 ment requirements. Although com puters may slow the employment growth in some areas—for exam ple, in bookkeeping—technological change is not expected to limit the total demand for workers in the serv ice industry. The statements that follow dis cuss job opportunities in the hotel and laundry and drycleaning in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dustries. More detailed information about services related to occupa tions that cut across many industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Hotels and motels provide travelers with a “home-away-fromhome.” More than 750,000 peo ple—about half of them women— worked in hotels and motels in 1972. The majority were employed in ur ban areas; others worked on the out skirts of large cities, along major highways, and in resort areas. Some hotel occupations can be entered with little or no specialized training. In many kinds of hotel work, however, the demand for per sons with special skills is increasing. Hotels are complex organizations, and need specialized personnel to di rect and coordinate operations which may involve thousands of guests an nually and millions of dollars in property and equipment. This statement deals with jobs in hotels, motels, and tourist courts. Separate statements on Hotel Housekeepers, Managers, Front Of fice Clerks, and Bellmen are found elsewhere in the Handbook. The Hotel Business of the year—for example, during the winter season in Florida—an in creasing number are remaining open the full year. Hotels range in size from those having only a few rooms and em ployees, to some having more than 1,000 rooms and many hundreds of workers. Many of the motor hotels built in recent years have large staffs. Many motels, however, including a sizable number run by the owners, have relatively small staffs. Most hotels have restaurants that range from simple coffee shops to vast dining rooms, with wine cellars and elaborate kitchens. Large hotels and motor hotels also may have ban quet rooms, exhibit halls, and spa cious ballrooms. Many hotels and motels, especially in resort areas, have recreational facilities such as swimming pools, boating facilities, golf courses, and tennis courts. Hotels also may provide informa tion about interesting places to visit, sell tickets to theaters and sporting events, and provide babysitters. Their facilities often include news stands, gift shops, barber and beauty shops, laundry and valet services, and railroad and airline ticket reser vation offices. Although motels and tourist courts usually offer fewer services than hotels, the number with restaurants, swimming pools, and other conveniences for guests is steadily increasing. Hotels are of three general types—commercial, resort, and resi dential. A few, residential hotels, generally accommodate people for long periods. The majority, how ever, are commercial hotels, which cater to travelers seeking a room for a brief stay. Some, resort hotels, pro vide lodging for vacationers. Motor hotels, motels, and tourist courts also cater to those seeking accom Hotel Workers modations for a short time. Although some resort hotels, motor Because of the many services they hotels, and motels are open only part offer, hotels need a variety of workers. Housekeeping is a very im portant part of the hotel business, and many thousands of maids, porters, housemen, linen room at tendants, and laundry room workers are employed to make beds, clean rooms and halls, move furniture, hang draperies, provide guests with fresh linens and towels, operate laun dry equipment, and mark and in spect laundered items. Women usually do the lighter housekeeping tasks, while men have jobs requiring more strenuous physical effort such as washing walls and arranging fur niture. Large hotels and motor hotels usually employ executive house keepers to supervise these workers; some hotels also have a manager in charge of laundry operations. In most hotels, a uniformed staff performs guest services in the lobby. This staff includes bellmen, who carry baggage for guests and escort them to their rooms; doormen; and elevator operators. The front office staff includes room clerks, key clerks, mail clerks, and information clerks. They greet guests, assign rooms, and furnish in formation. More than half of the hotel clerical workers are front office employees. The remainder, mainly women, have clerical jobs such as bookkeeper, cashier, telephone operator, and secretary. These occu pations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Hotel managers and their assist ants have the important job of super vising operations and making them profitable. A general manager directs all hotel operations. Some general managers have assistants in charge of specific operations; for example, food-service managers operate the dining rooms and other eating facilities, and sales managers are responsible for attracting more business to hotels and motels. In addition, hotels employ many other workers who are also found in 781 782 other industries. Among these are accountants, personnel workers, entertainers, recreation workers, waiters, chefs, and bartenders. Maintenance workers, such as car penters, electricians, stationary en gineers, plumbers, and painters, also work for hotels. Still other workers employed in hotels include detec tives, barbers, beauty salon opera tors, valets, seamstresses, and gar deners. Most of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book. jobs to replace workers who are pro moted to managerial posts and to fill jobs in newly built hotels and motels. In addition, there will be openings for other clerical workers, although the increasing use of office machines may reduce clerical employment re quirements in some hotels. Oppor tunities are expected to be favorable for people who acquire the training and experience to qualify as cooks and food managers. Technological change may limit the number of openings in a few occupations. For example, the increased use of auto matic dishwashers, vegetable cutters Employment Outlook and peelers, and other mechanical kitchen equipment is likely to reduce Employment in this industry will the need for kitchen helpers. expand very rapidly through the mid-1980’s as population growth and increased travel spur the de Earnings and Working Conditions mand for lodging. In addition to openings that result from growth, The location, size, and type of thousands of workers will be needed each year to replace those who re hotel affect earnings of hotel tire or die. Other openings will workers. Other significant factors arise as workers transfer to jobs are occupational tipping practices and degree of unionization. About in other industries. Most of the anticipated employ one-half of all hotel workers are ment growth will stem from the need covered by the Fair Labor Stand to staff new hotels, motor hotels, and ards Act, a Federal law which sets motels being built in urban and minimum wages. In 1972, hotel resort areas. Employment is ex workers covered by the law earned at pected to rise rapidly in motels and least $1.60 an hour, with tips repre motor hotels as Federal highway senting as much as half of this. In ad building stimulates automobile dition, more than half the States travel. Limited expansion may take have wage and hour laws that cover place in older hotels, and those un hotel workers. able to modernize are likely to expe Nonsupervisory workers in the rience low occupancy rates that may hotel industry averaged $2.12 an hour force them to reduce costs by excluding tips in 1972, about half as eliminating some services and much as all non supervisory workers workers. Thousands of temporary in private industry, except farming. jobs will continue to be available Wages of these workers vary greatly each year in resort hotels and motels among occupations and parts of the that are open only part of the year. country. For example, workers in the Most of the job openings in hotels Western United States usually have will be for workers who need little higher earnings than those working specialized training, such as maids, in the South. In addition to regular porters, housemen, and some dining earnings, bellmen, maids, and house room employees. Large numbers keepers may receive tips. According also will be needed in front office to limited data available for some OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK metropolitan areas, wages of bell men averaged $1.28 an hour. Prac tically all bellmen surveyed received at least $20 a month in tips. Salaries of hotel employees in managerial positions have an espe cially wide range, mainly because of great differences in duties and re sponsibilities. Hotel manager trainees who are graduates of spe cialized college programs start at yearly salaries ranging from $8,000 to $12,000, and are usually given periodic increases for the first year or two. Experienced managers may earn several times as much as begin ners; a few, in top jobs, earn $50,000 a year or more. In addition to salary, hotels customarily furnish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laun dry, and other services. Since hotels are open round the clock, employees may work on any one of three shifts. Fewer employees work during the night than the day; they usually receive additional com pensation for these shifts. Manager and housekeepers who live in the hotel usually have regular work sch edules, but they may be called on at any time. Waiters and waitresses, cooks, pantry workers, dishwashers, and other kitchen workers commonly re ceive meals; in a few hotels, maids, elevator operators, and room clerks also receive meals. The Hotel and Restaurant Em ployees and Bartenders Internation al Union is the major union in the hotel business. Uniformed person nel, such as bellmen and elevator operators, also may be members of the Building Service Employees’ International Union. Sources off Additional Information Information on careers in hotel work may be obtained from; HOTEL OCCUPATIONS The Educational Institute of the Amer ican Hotel and Motel Association, 77 Kellogg Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. 48823. For additional information on hotel training opportunities and a di 783 rectory of schools and colleges offer Information on housekeeping in ing courses and scholarships in the hotels is available from: hotel field write: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and In stitutional Education, 1522 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. OCCUPATIONS IN LAUNDRY AND DRYCLEANING PLANTS In 1972, approximately 555,000 persons were engaged in laundering and drycleaning garments, house hold furnishings, and institutional linens and uniforms. These workers were located in every State, in every city, and probably in every neighbor hood. About three-fifths of them were women. Drycleaning firms accounted for more than 40 percent of the in dustry’s workers, and laundries (including coin operated laundro mats) accounted for another 35 per cent. Most of the remainder worked for firms that specialized in renting and cleaning uniforms, towels, diapers, and other linens. A small proportion were employed in valet shops. Employment is concentrated in firms that have 20 or more em ployees. Many firms, however, are owner-operated and have only a few employees. In 1972, about oneseventh of the industry’s workers were self-employed. Nature of the Work One way to describe the work done in this industry is to follow an ima ginary bundle of clothes from the time it leaves the customer until the finished work is returned to him. (See chart 30.) The bundle consists of some men’s shirts, a business suit, and bed linens. A route sales man or driver (D.O.T. 292.358) picks up the bundle and, after leaving a receipt, takes the bundle to the plant. The owner of the bundle may in stead leave it at the plant or drive-up store. In this case, a counter clerk (D.O.T. 369.887) makes out a receipt and turns the bundle over to a marker. Either the routeman or the counter clerk sorts the items in the H ow W ork Flows Through a Laundry and Drycleaning Plant 30 Washmen < 1 Tumbler operators 1 Finishers < lerks it Inspectors Seamstresses Drycleaners and spotters i---- 4 I Finishers Tumbler operators Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 784 u Inspectors Routeraen Assemblers and baggers Drycleaner removes clothes from cleaning machine. bundle into laundry and drycleaning. The bundle is turned over to markers (D.O.T. 369.887), who put an identifying symbol on each item so it may be matched with the cus tomer’s receipt at some later time. The markers then send the shirts and sheets to the washroom and the suit to the drycleaning room. A washman (D.O.T. 361.885) puts several hundred pounds of sheets in a huge washing machine. He loads shirts in another washer. These ma chines are controlled automatically, but the washman must understand how to operate the controls—water temperature, suds level, time cycles, and the amount of agitation for dif ferent fabrics. When the washing cy cle is completed, the laundry is trans ferred to an extractor that removes about half the water. This stage is similar to the “spin” cycle on a home washer. Conveyors move the laundry to conditioners, dryers, or tumblers where dry, heated air removes some of the remaining moisture. OCCUPATIONS IN LAUNDRY AND DRYCLEANING PLANTS The sheets go from the drying area to flatw ork finishers (D.O.T. 363.886) who shake out folds and creases, spread the sheets on moving belts, and feed them into large flatwork ironing machines for ironing and partial folding. When the sheets come out of the machine, other fin ishers complete the folding and stacking. Shirts go directly from the extrac tor to shirt finishers (D.O.T. 363.782) who usually work in teams of two or three. One finisher puts the sleeves of the shirt on a “sleever”, which has two armlike forms. A sec ond operator then puts the shirt on a “triple-head” press that irons the collar and two cuffs at the same time. The same finisher then puts the shirt on a “bosom” press that irons the front and back simultaneously. In some plants, the first finisher either folds the shirt or places it on a hanger, whichever the customer has indicated. A third finisher may do the folding. In some laundries, one shirt finisher performs all these operations. Men’s suit finisher sprays steam over jacket on hot air filled body form. The jobs of the drycleaner (D.O.T. 362.782) and washman are similar, but the cleaning solution for drycleaning is a chemical solvent in stead of water, and the machines generally are smaller than laundry washers. The drycleaner sorts the clothes according to color, fiber con tent, and fabric construction and se lects the proper time cycle for each load. The drycleaner may apply spe cial prespotting solutions to spots and stains before placing the gar ments in the drycleaning machine. After cleaning, a certrifuge extrac tor removes the solvent and then the clothes are dried in a tumbler or hot air cabinet. The spotter (D.O.T. 362.381) will use chemical reagents and steam to remove stubborn stains. A men’s suit finisher (D.O.T. 363.782) puts the pants on special “topper” and “legger” presses. The jacket is placed on a body form that may have a second part that comes down to press and shape the shoulders and collar of the jacket while the steam is forced from the in side. Final finishing touches are done on a steam heated pressing head and “buck,” a flat surface covered in fabric. An inspector (D.O.T. 369.687) checks finished items to see that the quality standards of the plant have been maintained. Any item in need of recleaning or refinishing may be returned to the appropriate depart ment; occasionally, the inspector works on them instead. Repair work may be forwarded to a seamstress (D.O.T. 782.884) who sews on but tons, mends tears, and resews seams. Finally, assemblers (D.O.T. 369.687) collect the linens and shirts by matching the sales invoice with the identification marks. Assemblers or baggers (D.O.T. 920.887) may remove tags before putting the items in bags or boxes for storage until called for by the customer or de livered by the routeman. 785 In addition to workers who are unique to laundry and drycleaning plants, many other workers are found in this industry. The manager or proprietor is responsible for see ing that the work of the plant is per formed efficiently. Office workers keep records, handle correspond ence, and prepare bills. Sales per sonnel develop new customers for the plant’s services. Mechanics and repairmen keep equipment and ma chinery operating properly. Some service workers clean, guard, and otherwise maintain the plant; others plan and serve food to plant workers. Laborers lift and carry heavy loads to machines. (Discussion of many of these occupations can be found else where in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many workers in this industry get their first jobs without previous training. Basic laundry and drycleaning skills may be learned on the job in a short time. Some jobs, such as folding towels and feeding pillow cases and sheets into a flatwork ironer, may require 1 or 2 days to learn. Some finishing jobs—pants presser, shirt Finisher—may require less than a week’s training. Other jobs, such as counter clerk, marker, inspector, and assembler, may re quire several weeks to learn. Several months or more are needed to train a drycleaner or ladies’ apparel fin isher. It may take 6 to 12 months to become a spotter because of the variety of Fibers and fabrics, spots and stains, and chemical reagents. Some preemployment training in Finishing, drycleaning, and spotting skills is available in vocational high schools and trade schools. Similar training is available in programs ad ministered by the U.S. Department of Labor under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act as well as in the Job Opportunities in the 786 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. Besides the job open ings that result from employment growth, many openings will occur as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other Fields. The principal reasons for in creases in the demand for laundry and drycleaning services will be ris ing population and incomes. Also, as women increasingly seek careers out side the home, they will have less time to do laundry at home but will have the additional income to afford outside services. Offsetting some of the increased demand for laundry and cleaning services will be the easier care of the new fabrics and finishes. Many persons who have not previously done their laundry at home may consider doing so. How ever, drycleaning in the home prob ably will not be practical for many years. These factors will result in in creased employment in all occupa tions in the laundry and drycleaning industry except route salesmen and spotters. The number of route sales men probably will decrease as more people take their clothes to the neighborhood plant or drive-up store for quicker, more economical serv ice. Employment of spotters may decline over the next decade as tech Employment Outlook nological innovations in Fibers and Employment in this industry is ex Finishes make fabrics less stainable. Business Sector program carried out by the National Alliance of Busi nessmen. Home study courses are available from the International Fabric Care Institute. Employers look for workers who are dependable and who have physi cal stamina, manual dexterity, and keen eyesight. Workers must be able to adjust to the repetitive nature of many laundry and drycleaning jobs. Advancement for most workers in this industry is limited. Many remain permanently in the same job. Never theless, employers occasionally send promising employees to technical or managerial training programs or seminars on topics of general interest given by the International Fabric Care Institute at its facility in Joliet, 111. Some men’s suit finishers become skilled enough on the job to do ladies’ apparel Finishing. Markers and assemblers interested in Finish ing work usually are given an oppor tunity to move up to this job. Fore men and managers frequently are chosen from experienced employees already in the industry. Some drycleaners and spotters establish their own drycleaning plants. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage levels in the laundry and drycleaning industry are not high. In 1972, the hourly average wage for nonsupervisory workers in this in dustry was $2.42 compared to $3.65 for nonsupervisory workers in all in dustries, except farming. Earnings are higher for workers in the more highly skilled occupations such as drycleaner, spotter, and washman. Modern laundry and drycleaning plants are clean and well lighted. Because of the heat, hot air, and steam of the cleaning processes, the plant may be uncomfortably hot dur ing the summer months. However, large modern laundries usually have high ceilings—often three stories high—and numerous windows that may be opened for ventilation. Many new, small drycleaning plants are air-conditioned in the office and cus tomer areas and well ventilated in the machinery areas. In addition, new machinery operates with a mini mum of noise. Sources of Additional Information The local ofFice of the State em ployment service may have addi tional information on training and employment opportunities in this Field. GOVERNMENT Government service, one of the Nation’s largest fields of employ ment, provided jobs for nearly 13.3 million civilian workers in 1972, about 1 out of 6 employed persons in the United States. State or local governments (county, city, town, village, or other local government division) employed nearly four-fifths of these workers. Nearly all of the others worked for the Federal Government in the continental United States. A small number worked for the Federal Government overseas. Government employees represent a significant portion of each State’s work force. They work in large cities, small towns and even in remote and isolated places such as lighthouses and forest ranger stations. Employment in State and local government is expected to grow rapidly through the mid-1980’s, con tinuing the trend begun in the late 1940’s. Federal employment, on the other hand, is expected to grow slow ly as administrative responsibility for some programs is transferred to the States. Many job opportunities will arise at all levels of government from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the government service. Flundreds of thousands of individuals will be needed each year for jobs in a wide variety of oc cupations. GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES AND OCCUPATIONS Two-fifths of all government workers in 1971, or 5.5 million, pro vided educational services, mostly at the State and local levels. Most worked in elementary and second ary schools. Besides teachers, others who worked in educational services included administrative and clerical workers, maintenance workers, librarians, dietitians, nurses, and counselors. About 1.1 million civilian govern ment employees in 1971 worked in activities concerned with national defense and international relations, employed by The U.S. Department of Defense and State and a few smaller Federal agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission. Occu pations in this group include ad ministrative and clerical workers, doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers, scientists, technicians, craftsmen, and other manual workers. They work in offices, research labo ratories, navy yards, arsenals, and missile launching sites and in hos pitals and schools run by the mili tary services. Another 1.3 million workers pro vide health services and staffed hospitals, primarily for State and local governments. Nearly 4.4 million workers were employed in housing and community develop ment, police and Fire protection, social security and public welfare services, transportation and public utilities, financial administration, general administrative functions, and judicial and legislative activities. The majority of these workers were also State and local government em ployees. Most of the 1.1 million government workers in postal serv ices and natural resources, such as those in the National Park and Forest Service, were employed by the Federal Government. Although the many different governmental activities require a diversified work force having many Major Areas of Governm ent Em ployment, 1971 31 E m p l o y m e n t 1971 { i n m ill ion s) 0 Education Health and hospitals National defense and international relations Postal service Highways Police protection General control Natural resources Financial administration Space research and technology _____ _ All other Source: Bureau of the Census 1 2 3 4 5 6 i 787 788 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Percent distribution of employment In government different levels of education, train Table 1. and private Industry by occupation, 1972. ing, and skill, two out of three Occupation government employees are whiteGovernment' Private Industry collar workers. Among the largest T otal................................................................................. 100 100 white-collar occupational groups are White-collar workers.................................................................. 44 67 teachers, administrators, postal 10 Professional and technical.................................................. 35 10 Managers and administrators............................................ 8 clerks, and office workers such as 16 Clerical................................................................................. 23 stenographers, typists, and clerks. 8 S ales..................................................................................... O 14 39 workers.................................................................... Some important service, craft, and Blue-collar 15 Craftsmen and related workers.......................................... 7 manual occupations are aircraft and 4 Transport equipment operatives........................................ 3 Other equipment operatives .............................................. 15 1 automotive mechanics, repairmen, Nonfarm laborers .............................................................. 4 5 policemen, firemen, truckdrivers, Service workers ........................................................................... 19 12 4 skilled maintenance workers (for ex- Farm workers............................................................................... O ample, carpenters, painters, ' Excludes Federal employment overseas. plumbers, and electricians) custodial 2 Less than 0.5 percent. NOTE: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals, workers, and laborers. Because of the special character of SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. many government activities, the occupational distribution of employ The following chapters discuss op- the Armed Forces. A separate ment is very different from that in portunities for civilian employment chapter gives information on post ofprivate industry, as shown in the ac in the major divisions of govern- fice occupations, companying table. ment and in the various branches of _____________________________ FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT The Federal Government is the Nation’s largest employer; it em ployed about 2.6 million civilian workers in 1972. In addition, it em ployed about 60,000 U.S. citizens abroad. Federal employees work in occupations that represent nearly every kind of job in private employ ment, as well as some others unique to the Federal Government, such as postal clerk, border patrolman, regu latory inspector, foreign service of ficer, and Internal Revenue agent. Most Federal employees work for the departments and agencies that comprise the executive branch of the government. Some are employed in the legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch includes the Executive Office of the President, the 11 cabinet departments, and more than 80 independent agencies, com missions, and boards. This branch is responsible for activities such as ad ministering Federal laws, handling international relations, conserving natural resources, treating and rehabilitating disabled veterans, delivering the mail, conducting scien tific research, maintaining the flow of supplies to the Armed Forces, and administering other programs to promote the health and welfare of the people of the United States. The Department of Defense, which includes the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, is the largest agency. It employed about 1 million civilian workers in the United States in 1972. The departments of Agriculture; Health, Education, and Welfare; and Treasury each employed more than 100,000 workers. The largest of the independent agencies were the U.S. Postal Service, which employed about 670,000 workers and the Veterans Administration, which em ployed over 190,000 workers. About 30,000 people worked for the legislative branch of govern ment, which includes the Congress, the Government Printing Office, the General Accounting Office, and the Library of Congress. More than 8,000 people worked for the judicial branch, which includes the Supreme Court and the other U.S. courts. The Federal Government em ploys about 2 million white-collar workers, including postal workers, including postal workers. Entrance requirements for white-collar jobs vary widely. Entrants into profes sional occupations must have highly specialized knowledge in a specified field.Occupations typical of this group are attorney, physicist, and engineer. Entrants into administrative and managerial occupations usually are not required to have knowledge of a specialized field, but rather must indicate that they have potential for future development by graduation from a 4-year college or by responsi ble job experience. The entrant usu ally begins at a trainee level and learns the duties of the job after he is hired. Typical jobs in this group are budget analyst, claims examiner, purchasing officer, administrative assistant, and personnel officer. Technician, clerical, and aidassistant jobs have entry level posi tions that usually are filled by people who have a high school education or the equivalent. For many of these positions, no previous experience or training is required. The entry level position is usually that of trainee. Persons who have junior college or technical school training, or those who have specialized skills may enter these occupations at higher levels. Jobs typical of this group are engi neering technician, supply clerk, clerk-typist, and nursing assistant. Because of its wide range of responsibilities, the Federal Govern ment employs white-collar workers in a great many occupational fields. About 150,000 Federal Employees work in engineering and related fields. Included in this total are about 85,000 engineers, repre senting virtually every branch and specialty of the profession. There also are large numbers of technician positions in areas such as engi neering, electronics, surveying, and drafting. Nearly two-thirds of all engineering positions are in the Department of Defense. Of the 115,000 workers employed in accounting and budgeting work, 34,000 are professional accountants and Internal Revenue agents. Among administrative and mana gerial occupations in this field are tax technician and budget adminis trator. There also are large numbers of clerical positions that involve specialized accounting work. Ac counting workers are employed throughout the Government, par ticularly in the Department of Defense, the Treasury Department, and the General Accounting Office. More than 10,000 Federal em ployees work in hospitals or medical, dental, public health activities. Pro fessional occupations in this field in clude physician, nurse, dietitian, medical technologist, and physical therapist. Among technician and aid jobs are medical technician, medical laboratory aid, and nursing assist ant. Employees in this field work pri marily in the Veterans Administra tion; others are in the Defense 789 790 Department and Health, Education, and Welfare. About 45,000 biological and agricultural science workers were employed. Large numbers work in forestry and soil conservation activi ties. Others administer farm assist ance programs. Technicians and aidassistant occupations include biology technician, forest and range fire con trol technician, soil conservation technician* and forestry technician. Most of these workers are employed by the Departments of Agriculture and Interior. In the physical sciences, the Federal Government employs pro fessional workers such as physicists, chemists, meteorologists, cartog raphers, and geologists. Aids and technicians in this field include physical science technician, meteor ological technician, and cartog raphers technician. Four-fifths of the 42,000 workers in the physical sciences are employed by the Depart ment of Defense; the National Aero nautics and Space Administration; and the Departments of Agricul ture, Commerce, and Health, Edu cation, and Welfare. Within the mathematics field are professional mathematicians and statisticians, and mathematics tech nicians and statistical clerks. There also are a number of administrative positions in the related field of com puter programing. Mathematics workers are employed primarily by the Defense Department, the National Aeronautics and Space Ad ministration, and the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Health, Education and Welfare. Positions in the computer field are found in most Federal agencies. In the field of law there are more than 11,000 employees in pro fessional positions, such as attorney, and others in administrative posi tions such as claims examiner. There also are many clerical positions that OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK involve claims examining work. Workers in the legal field are em ployed throughout the Federal Government. In the social science field there are professional positions for econo mists throughout the government; psychologists and social workers work primarily for the Veterans Ad ministration; and foreign affairs and international relations specialists for the Department of State. Among social science administrative work ers are social insurance adminis trators in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and in telligence specialist for the Depart ment of Defense. The Federal Government employs about 45,000 persons in investiga tion and inspection work. Large numbers of these workers are engag ed in administrative activities, such as criminal investigation and health and regulatory inspection. Most of these jobs are in the Defense, Treasury, Justice, and Agriculture Departments. Jobs concerned with purchasing, cataloging, storing, and distributing supplies for the Federal Govern ment provide employment for about 67,000 workers. This field includes many managerial and administra tive positions such as supply manage ment officer, purchasing officer, and inventory management specialist, as well as large numbers of specialized clerical positions. Most of these jobs are in the Department of Defense. Nearly 465,000 general clerical workers are employed in all depart ments and agencies of the Federal Government. Included in this group are office machine operators, secre taries, stenographers, clerk-typists, mail and file clerks, telephone oper ators, and other related workers. In addition, there are several hundred thousand postal clerks employed by the Federal Government. Blue-collar jobs—service, craft, and manual labor—provided employment for more than 580,000 workers in 1972. Most of these workers were in establishments such as naval shipyards, arsenals, air bases, or army depots; or they work ed on construction, harbor, floodcontrol, irrigation, or reclamation projects. The Department of Defense employed about three-fourths of these workers. Others worked for the Veterans Administration, Postal Service, General Services Adminis tration, Department of the Interior, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Department of Agriculture. The largest single group of bluecollar workers consists of operators and mobile equipment mechanics. These jobs include forklift oper ators, chauffeur, truckdriver, and automobile mechanic. The next largest group of workers are general laborers, who perform a wide variety of manual jobs. The Federal Government employs many workers in machinery oper ation and repair occupations, such as boiler and steam plant operator, machinist, machinery repairman, maintenance electrician, electronics equipment repairman, and aircraft mechanic. Skilled construction workers also are utilized widely throughout the Federal Government. Included in these fields are jobs such as car penter, painter, plumber, steamfitter and pipefitter, and sheetmetal worker. Other important blue-collar occupations include warehouseman, food service worker and printer. Many skilled occupations may be entered through apprenticeship pro grams. Experience normally is not required to qualify but a test may be given to indicate whether an appli cant has an aptitude for the occupa tion. There also are jobs as helpers for skilled workers such as car penter’s helper and machinist’s helper. FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT (Detailed descriptions of the work duties of most white-collar, service, craft, and manual labor jobs men tioned above are provided in other sections of the Handbook.) Federal employees are stationed in all parts of the United States and its territories and in many foreign coun tries. Although the headquarters of most Government department and agencies are in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, only 1 out of 9 (about 320,000) Federal employees worked in that area in 1972. More than 300,000 worked in California, and more than 100,000 each in New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois. The Merit System 791 Atomic Energy Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Civil service competitive ex aminations may be taken by any U.S. citizen or person who owes per manent allegiance to the United States (in the case of residents of American Samoa). To be eligible for appointment, an applicant must meet minimum age, training, and ex perience requirements for the par ticular job. A physical handicap will not in itself bar a person from a posi tion if it does not interfere with his performance of the required duties. Examinations vary according to the types of positions for which they are held. Some examination test the applicant’s ability to do the job ap plied for, or his ability to learn how to do it. Applicants for jobs that do not require a written test are rated on the basis of the experience and train ing described in their applications and any supporting evidence re quired. Applicants are notified as to whether they have achieved eligible or ineligible ratings, and the names of eligible applicants are entered on a list in the order of their test scores. When a Federal agency requests names of eligible applicants for a job vacancy, the area office sends the agency the names at the top of the appropriate list; the agency can select any one of the top three. Names of those not selected are re stored to the list for consideration for other job openings. Appointments to civil service jobs are made without regard to an appli cant’s race, color, religion, national origin, politics, or sex. About 9 out of 10 jobs in the Federal Government in the United States are under the merit system. The Civil Service Act, administered by the U.S. Civil Service Com mission, covers 61 percent of all Federal jobs. This act was passed by the Congress to insure that Federal employees are hired on the basis of individual merit and Fitness. It pro vides for competitive examinations and the selection of new employees from among those who make the highest scores. The commission through its network of 65 Civil Serv ice Commission Area Offices ex amines and rates applicants and sup plies Federal departments and agen cies with names of persons eligible for the jobs to be Filled. Some Federal jobs are exempt from Civil Service requirements, either by law or by action of the Civil Service Commission. However, most of these positions are covered by Employment Trends separate merit systems of other agen and Outlook cies such as the Foreign Service of the Department of State, the Depart Federal employment is expected to ment of Medicine and Surgery of the grow slowly through the mid-1980’s. Veterans Administration, the In addition to new jobs created by Federal Bureau of Investigation, the employment growth, there will be openings due to the need to replace employees who transfer out of the Federal service, retire, or die. Thus many job opportunities will occur in occupations where total employ ment is relatively stable, as well as in those in which it is rising. The proportion of Federal workers employed in professional, technical, and administrative jobs has gradual ly increased in recent years. On the other hand, the proportion em ployed in clerical and blue-collar jobs has fallen. These trends are expected to continue. The manpower require ments of the Federal Government will tend to reflect the increasing de mand for services of a growing pop ulation and the country’s domestic and international programs. These demands are expected to result in ris ing requirements for professional, administrative, and technical workers. Population expansion will create more jobs for social security claims examiners, accounting and budget workers, and business and industry specialists. Laws that provide for new or expanded services to the public should result in increased employment of health inspectors and education personnel. Employment in legal and kindred occupations also may increase because of the ex istence of more laws and regulations to interpret, administer, and en force; and more claims to examine for payment of retirement, dis ability, and death benefits. Federal employment gains in science, engineering, and other Fields will reflect the demands of vigorous national research and development efforts in programs such as urban development, military weapons, nuclear energy, medicine and health, transportation, and natural resource development. The employment of scientists and engineers will grow slowly, as will the employment of engineering and science technicians. 792 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Trends in Federal Government Employment 32 W O R K E R S (in millions) 3--------------------- Employment in many clerical and blue-collar occupations will be limited by the Federal Govern ment’s increasing use of labor-saving electronic data-processing and materials-handling equipment and the in troduction of improved datatransmission and communications systems. Earnings, Advancement, and Working Conditions Nearly all Federal civilian employees are paid according to one of 3 major pay systems; the General Pay Schedule, the wage system, and the Postal Field System. (The Postal Field System is discussed with Post Office Occupations elsewhere in the Handbook). Nearly half of all Federal Workers are paid under the General Sched ule. General Schedule (GS) pay rates are set by Congress and apply na tionwide. They are reviewed an nually to insure that they remain comparable with salaries in private industry. The General Schedule is a pay scale for workers in pro fessional, administrative, technical, and clerical jobs, and for workers such as guards and messengers. General Schedule jobs are classified by the U.S. Civil Service Com mission in one of 18 pay grades, ac cording to the difficulty of duties and responsibilities, and the knowledge, experience, and skills required of the worker. The distribution of Federal white- collar employees by General Sched ule grade, the entrance and maxi mum salaries for each grade, and the amount of each grade’s periodic in creases are listed in the accompany ing table. Appointments usually are made at the minimum rate of the salary range for the appropriate grade. However, appointments in hard-to-fill positions may be at a higher rate. Employees in all grades except the highest, GS-18, receive within-grade pay increases after they have worked the required time periods, if their work is an acceptable level of com petence. Within-grade increases may be given, also, in recognition of highquality service. High school graduates who have no related work experience usually start in GS-2 jobs, but some have special skills begin at grade GS-3. Graduates of 2-year junior colleges and technical schools often can begin at the GS-4 level. Most young people appointed to professional and ad ministrative jobs such as psycholo gist, statistician, economist, writer Table 1. Distribution of all full-time Federal employees under the General Schedule by grade level, March 31, 1972, and salary scale, effective January 7, 1973 Employees Percent General Schedule Number (GS) Grade Total All Grades 1,281,473 100.0 1..................................... 3,158 0.2 2 ..................................... 25,528 2.0 3 ..................................... 101,384 7.9 4 ..................................... 168,477 13.1 5 ..................................... 163,210 12.7 6 ..................................... 82,333 6.4 7 ..................................... 111.197 8.7 8 ..................................... 26,640 2.1 9 ..................................... 139,136 10.9 10..................................... 19,008 1.5 11..................................... 146,401 11.4 12..................................... 127,259 9.9 13..................................... 96.738 7.5 14..................................... 44,239 3.5 15..................................... 22,381 1.7 16..................................... 3,097 .2 17..................................... 959 0.1I 18..................................... 328 1 Less than 0.05 percent Source: U.S. Civil Service Commission Entrance Salaries Periodic Increase Maximum $ 4,798 5,432 6,128 6,882 7,694 8,572 9,520 10,528 11,614 12,775 13,996 16,682 19,700 23,088 26,898 31,203 36,103 41,734 $ 160 181 204 229 257 286 317 351 387 426 466 556 657 770 897 1,040 1,203 S 6,238 7,061 7,964 8,943 10,007 11,146 12,373 13,687 15,097 16,609 18,190 21,686 25,613 30,018 34,971 39,523 40,915 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT and editor, budget analyst, account ant, and physicist, can enter at grades GS-5 or GS-7, depending on their academic record. Those who have a master’s degree, or the equivalent education or experience, can enter at GS-ll level and above. Advancement to higher grades generally depends upon ability, work performance, and openings in jobs with higher grades. About one-quarter of the federal civilian workers are paid according to the coordinated Federal Wage System. Under this system, craft, service, and manual workers are paid hourly rates which are established on the basis of “prevailing” rates paid by private employers for similar work in the same locations. As a result, the Federal Government wage rate paid for an occupation may vary among areas of the United States, as illustrated in the accompanying table. Federal Government employees work a standard 40-hour week. Em ployees who are required to work overtime receive premium rates for the additional time or compensatory time off at a later date. Most em ployees work 8 hours a day and 5 days a week, Monday through Fri day, but in some cases, the nature of the work requires a different workweek. Annual earnings for most full-time Federal workers are not affected by seasonal factors. Federal employees earn 13 days of annual (vacation) leave each year during their First 3 years of service; 20 days each year until the end of 15 years; after 15 years, 26 days each year. Nine paid holidays are observed annually. Workers who are member of military reserve organi zations also are granted up to 15 days of paid military leave a year for training purposes. A Fed eral worker who is laid off is entitled to unemployment compen 793 Table 2. Coordinated Federal Wage System Hourly pay rates for Selected Occupations and location, January 1, 1973 Tool, Die, Electrician and Gauge Location Maker Atlanta, Ga....................................................................... $3.21 $5.06 $5.86 Boston, Mass.................................................................... 3.65 4.65 5.20 3.80 5.33 Chicago, 111....................................................................... 5.96 Denver, Colo..................................................................... 3.65 5.22 4.75 Norfolk-Portsmouth-Newport News-Hampton, Va. . 3.03 4.37 4.95 Houston, Galveston-Texas City, Texas....................... 3.42 4.92 5.57 Los Angeles, Calif............................................................ 3.84 5.21 5.79 New Orleans, La.............................................................. 3.06 4.50 5.17 New York, N.Y............................................................... 3.70 4.96 5.50 Pensacola, Fla.................................................................. 3.11 4.88 5.64 Philadelphia, Pa............................................................... 3.80 4.93 5.41 Seattle-Everett-Tacoma, Wash...................................... 4.05 5.13 5.60 San Francisco, Calif........................................................ 4.10 5.51 6.11 St. Louis, Mo.................................................................... 3.78 5.05 5.60 Washington, D.C............................................................. 4.91 3.46 5.60 Rates are for non-supervisory workers for the second step of a 3-step pay range, Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor (heavy) mission are located in various large cities throughout the country. These offices announce and conduct ex aminations required for various Federal Government jobs. They evaluate qualifications and refer eligible applicants to employing agencies for their geographic areas. They also provide a complete onestop information service on local and nationwide job opportunities in the Federal Government service. The Area Offices also operate a toll-free telephone information service in nearly all States for those unable to visit them. Their telephone numbers are listed in most telephone books Sources of Additional under “U.S. government.” Information For information about jobs in a Information on employment op specific agency, contact the agency portunities in the Federal Govern directly. ment is available from a number of sources. High school students are often able to get information from their high school guidance counselors. A college placement of O C C U P A TIO N S IN fice is often a good source of such in formation for college students. Infor TH E P O S TA L SER VICE mation may be available, also from State employment service offices and Each year the U.S. Postal Service many U.S. post offices. handles more than 80 billion letters Sixty-five Area Offices operated and 2 billion parcels. About 700,000 by the U.S. Civil Service Com workers are required to process and sation similar to that provided for employees in private industry. Other benefits available to most Federal employees include: A con tributory retirement system, optional participation in low-cost group life and health insurance programs part ly supported by the Government, and training programs to develop maxi mum job proficiency and help workers achieve their highest po tential. These training programs may be conducted in Government facilities or in private educational facilities at Government expense. 794 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK deliver this mail. The vast majority of these jobs are open to workers with 4 years of high school or less. The work is steady, and the pay can range beyond $10,000 a year. Some of the jobs, such as mail carrier, offer a good deal of personal freedom. Other jobs, however, are more closely supervised and more routine. Nature and Location of the Industry Most people are familiar with the duties of the mailman and the post office window clerk. Yet few are aware of the many different tasks re quired in processing mail and of the variety of occupations in the Postal Service. At all hours of the day and night, a steady stream of letters, packages, magazines, and papers moves through the typical large post office. Mail carriers have collected some of this mail from neighborhood mail boxes; some has been trucked in from surrounding towns or from the airport. When a truck arrives at the post office, mail handlers unload the mail, dump it onto long tables, and separate the letters, packages, and magazines into groups. Postal clerks then cancel the stamps and sort the mail according to destination. After being sorted, outgoing mail is loaded into trucks for delivery to the airport or nearby towns. Local mail is left for carriers to deliver the next morning. To keep buildings and equipment clean and in good working order, the Postal Service employs a variety of service and maintenance workers. Included are janitors, laborers, truck mechanics, electricians, carpenters, and painters. Some workers special ize in repairing machines that process mail. Postal inspectors see that post of fices are operated efficiently, that funds are spent properly, and that postal laws and regulations are ob served. They also prevent and detect crimes such as theft, forgery, and fraud involving use of the mail. Postmasters and supervisors are responsible for the day-to-day opera tion of the post office, for hiring and promoting employees, and for set ting up work schedules. The Postal Service also contracts with private businesses to transport mail. In 1972, there were about 12,500 of these “Star” route contracts. Most “Star” route carriers use trucks to haul mail, but in some remote areas horses or boats are used instead. In 1972, about 700,000 people, nearly 20 percent of them women, worked for the Postal Service. Almost 85 percent of all postal workers were in jobs directly related to processing and delivering mail. (See accompanying table on occu pations.) This group included postal clerks, mail carriers, mail handlers, and truckdrivers. (Detailed in formation on mail carriers and postal clerks is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Postmasters and super visors, made up nearly 10 percent of total employment, and maintenance workers about 4 percent. The re mainder included such workers as postal inspectors, guards, personnel workers, and secretaries. The Postal Service operates more than 42,000 installations. Most are post offices, but some serve special purposes, such as handling payroll records or supplying equipment. Although every community has at least one post office, employment is concentrated in large metropolitan areas. Post offices in cities such as New York, Chicago, and Los Table 1. Postal Service employment by occupation, 1972 Occupation Total employment....................... Postal clerks.............................................. City carriers.............................................. Rural carriers............................................ Mail handlers............................................ Postal supervisors ................................... Postmasters .............................................. Maintenance service workers................. Motor vehicle operators ......................... Vehicle maintenance workers................. Postal inspectors ..................................... Protection force....................................... Other.......................................................... Number 706,400 286,384 212,561 50,309 43,303 38,102 30,731 23,962 6,466 5,823 1,589 1,919 5,251 NOTE: Because of rounding, the sums of individual items may not add dd to total. Percent 100.0 40.5 30.1 7.1 6.1 5.4 4.4 3.4 .9 .8 .2 .3 .7 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT Angeles employ a great number of workers because they not only process huge amounts of mail for their own populations but also serve as intermediate sorting points for the smaller communities that surround them. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An applicant for a Postal Service job must pass an examination and meet minimum age requirements. Generally, the minimum age is 18, but a high school graduate may begin work at 16 if the job is not haz ardous and does not require use of a motor vehicle. Many Postal Service jobs do not require formal education or special training. Applicants for these jobs are hired on the basis of their examination scores. Applicants should apply at the post office where they wish to work and take the entrance examination for the job they want. Examinations for most jobs include a written test. A physical examination is required, as well. Applicants for jobs that re quire strength and stamina are some times given a special test. For exam ple, mail handlers must be able to lift mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. The names of applicants who pass the examinations are placed on a list in the order of their scores. Separate eligibility lists are maintained for each post office. Five extra points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 extra points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. Dis abled veterans who have a compen sable, service-connected disability of 10 percent or more are placed at the top of the eligibility list. When a job opens, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants. Others are left on the list so that they can be considered for future openings. New employees usually are trained on the job by supervisors and other experienced employees. The time needed for training ranges from a few days to several months, depend ing on the job. For example, mail handlers and mechanics’ helpers can learn their jobs in a relatively short time. Postal inspectors, on the other hand, need months of training. Postal workers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full-time. Casual workers are hired to help handle the large amounts of mail during the Christ mas season. Part-time flexible em ployees do not have a regular work schedule but replace absent workers or help with extra work loads as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule—for example, four hours a day. Carriers, clerks, and mail handlers start as part-time flexible workers and move into full time jobs according to their senior ity as vacancies occur. Advancement opportunites are available for most postal workers because there is a management com mitment to provide career develop ment. Also, employees can get pre ferred assignments, such as the day shift or a more desirable delivery route, as their seniority increases. When an opening occurs, employees may submit written requests, called “bids,” for assignment to the vacan cy. The bidder who meets the qualifications and has the most seniority gets the job. In addition, postal workers can advance to better paying positions by learning new skills. Training pro grams are available for low-skilled workers who wish to become clerks or carriers. The Postal Service also has a special training center for em ployees who wish to become techni cians or mechanics. Applicants for supervisory jobs must pass an examination. Addi tional requirements for promotion 795 may include training or education, satisfactory work record, and per sonal characteristics. If the leading candidates are equally qualified, length of service also is considered. Although opportunities for pro motion to supervisory positions in smaller post offices are limited, workers may apply for vacancies in a larger post office and thus increase their chances for promotion. Employment Outlook Employment in the postal service is expected to grow slowly through the mid-1980’s to handle the in creasing amounts of mail stemming from population and business growth. Employment of mail carriers should grow slowly because mail delivery is difficult to mechanize. Employment of clerks and mail handlers is expected to grow more slowly than mail carriers because modernization of post offices and installation of new equipment will increase the amount of mail these workers can handle. Even so, turn over among clerks and mail handlers will provide many job openings. As the Postal Service continues to improve the mail sorting process by using more sophisticated equip ment, more maintenance workers will be needed to keep the machines in good working order. Although these workers make up a small per centage of total employment, op portunities should be good. Earnings and Working Conditions Postal Service employees are paid under several separate pay schedules depending upon the duties of the job and the knowledge, experience, or skill required. For example, there are separate schedules for production workers, such as clerks and mail 796 handlers; for postmasters and super visors; for rural carriers; and for postal executives. In all pay sched ules, except that of executives, em ployees receive periodic “step” in creases up to a specified maximum, if their job performance is satisfac tory. A distribution of employees in levels 1 through 8, with entrance and maximum salaries, is shown in the accompanying table. Most mail handlers are at level 4, and postmasters and supervisors are in levels 5 through 12. Most postal clerks and mail carriers are at level 5. Full-time employees work an 8hour day, 5 days a week. Both full time and part-time employees who work more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week receive overtime pay of one and one-half times their hourly rate. In 1972, postal employees earned 13 days of annual leave (vacation) during each of their first 3 years of service; 20 days each year for 3 to 15 years of service; and 26 days after 15 years. In addition, they earned 13 days of paid sick leave a year, re gardless of length of service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Table 2. Employment and Salaries In the Postal Service Grade level Total............................................ / ................................................ 2 ................................................ 3 ................................................ 4 ................................................ 5 ................................................ 6 ................................................ 7 ................................................ 8 ................................................ Employment' 455,213 495 3,128 7,495 39,797 362,007 40,539 1,353 399 Salary schedules2 Entrance Maximum $6,178 6,597 7,050 7,540 8,072 8,642 9,262 9,931 $ 8,081 8,654 9,272 9,938 10,657 11,448 12,287 12,911 On June 30, 1972; includes nonsupervisory employees in post offices who are paid annual salaries. Does not include rural carriers or part time and casual employees. 2 In effect in mid-1972; does not include rural carriers. Other benefits include retirement and survivorship annuities and op tional participation in low-cost group life insurance and health insurance programs supported in part by the Postal Service. Most post office buildings are clean and well lighted, but some of the older ones are not. The Postal Service is in the process of replacing and remodeling its outmoded build ings, and conditions are expected to improve. Most postal workers are members of unions and are covered by a na tional agreement between the Postal Service and the unions. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State em ployment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and employment opportunities in the Postal Service. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS State and local governments pro vide a very large and expanding source of job opportunities in a wide variety of occupational fields. In 1972, about 10.6 million people worked for State and local govern ment agencies; nearly three-fourths of these worked in units of local gov ernment, such as counties, munici palities, towns, and school districts. Educational services account for the majority of jobs in State and local government. Nearly 5.6 million employees worked in public schools, colleges, or other educational ser vices. In addition to the nearly 3 million classroom and college teachers they employed, school systems, college, and universities also employed ad ministrative personnel, librarians, guidance counselors, nurses, dieti tians, clerks, and maintnance workers. Three-fourths of these workers were employed in elemen tary and secondary schools, which are administered largely by local governments. State employment in education is concentrated chiefly at the college, university, and technical school levels. The next two largest fields of State and local government employment were health services and highway work. The 1.1 million workers em ployed in health and hospital work included physicians, nurses, medical laboratory technicians, and hospital attendants. More than 600,000 peo ple worked in highway activities such as constructing and maintaining highways, streets, bridges, and tunnels. Highway workers include civil en gineers, surveyors, operators of con struction machinery and equipment, truckdrivers, concrete finishers, car penters, and construction laborers. General governmental control and financial activities accounted for 650,000 additional workers. These included chief executives and their staffs, legislative representatives, and persons employed in the admini stration of justice, tax enforcement and other financial work, and gen eral administrative work. These functions require the services of individuals such as lawyers, judges, and other court officials, city mana gers, property assessors, budget analysts, stenographers, and clerks. Police and fire protection is another large field of employment. Nearly 550,000 persons were en gaged in police work, primarily for local governments. Employment in police work includes administrative, clerical, and custodial personnel, as well as uniformed and plainclothes policemen. Local governments em ployed all the 276,000 firemen, many of whom work only part time. Other State and local government employees work in a wide variety of activities; local utilities (such as water, electricity, transportation, and gas supply system), natural re sources, public welfare, parks and recreation, sanitation, correction, local libraries, sewage disposal, and housing and urban renewal. These activities require workers in diverse occupations such as economist, elec trical engineer, electrician, pipe fitter, clerk, forester, and busdriver. Clerical, administrative, mainte nance, and custodial workers make up a large portion of employment in many areas of government activity. Among the larger occupations en gaged in these groups are clerktypists, stenographers, secretaries, office managers, fiscal and budget administrators, bookkeepers, ac countants, carpenters, painters, plumbers, guards, and janitors. (De tailed discussions of most occupa tions in State and local governments are given elsewhere in the Hand book, in the sections covering the in dividual occupations.) Employment Trends and Outlook The long-range trend in State and local government employment has been steadily upward. (See chart 33.) Much of this growth results from the need to provide additional services as population increases and because of population movements from rural to urban areas. City development has required additional street and high way facilities; police and fire protec tion; and public health, sanitation, welfare, and other services. Popula tion growth and increasing personal income have generated demand for additional and improved education, housing, hospital, and other services. Very rapid growth in State and local government employment is expected through the mid-1980’s. However, employment of elementary and sec ondary school teachers is expected to increase more slowly than in the past, as rapid school enrollment growth shifts to higher education. This shift will create greater needs for college and university teachers and administrators. A large State and local work force will be needed, also to provide im proved public transportation systems, more urban planning and renewal programs, increased police protection, better measures to guard against air and water pollution, ex panded natural resource develop ment programs, and additional 797 798 hospital facilities. In addition, large numbers of workers will be needed to replace employees who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Federal-State programs in educa tion, vocational training, medicine, and other fields will increase the needs of local and State govern ments for professional, administra tive, and technical personnel. These will include engineers, scientists, social workers, counselors, teachers, doctors, and librarians. Most positions in State and local governments are Filled by residents of the State or locality. Often, how ever, it is necessary for State and local governments to recruit outside their areas if shortages of particular skills exist in their areas. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ary information for State and local government employment. Salary in formation also can be obtained from the appropriate State and local gov ernment agencies. A majority of State and local gov ernment positions are filled through some type of formal civil service test, that is, personnel are hired and pro moted on the basis of merit. In some areas, board groups of employees, such as teachers, Firemen, and police men have separate civil service coverage which applies only to their specific groups. Most State and local government employees are covered by retire ment systems or by the Federal Social Security program. They usually work a standard week of 40 Earnings and Working hours or less, with overtime pay or Conditions compensatory time benefits for ad Earnings of State and local gov ditional hours of work. ernment employees vary widely, de Sources of Additional pending upon occupation and local Information ity. Salaries from State to State tend to reflect differences in the general Persons interested in working for wage level in various localities. State or local government agencies Clerical and blue-collar earnings in should contact the appropriate State, State and local governments gen county, or city agencies. Offices of erally are comparable to those of local school boards, city clerks, workers in similar occupations in school and college counselors or private industry. Earnings of admin placement personnel, and local of istrative and professional employees fices of State employment services in many areas tend to be somewhat have additional information. lower than those for similar workers in private industry. The Handbook statement for in dividual occupations often give sal THE ARMED FORCES The Armed Forces offer young men and women opportunities for military careers in many occupa tions. Many of these are compar able to civilian occupations. Jobs range from electronic technician, mechanic, or construction equip ment operator to specialties such as interpreter, nurse, or employment counselor. People who enlist usually are taught the skills needed to per form jobs such as these. Nearly 2.4 million people, 45,000 of them women, served in the Armed Forces in 1972: 726,000 in the Air Force, 811,000 in the Army, 588,000 in the Navy, 198,000 in the Marine Corps, and 38,000 in the Coast Guard. The Armed Forces are main tained through voluntary enlist ments supplemented when needed by a Selective Service System which can draft young men between the ages of 18 1/2 and 26. When drafted they serve for 2 years on active duty fol lowed by 4 years in the reserves. The Armed Forces are now staffed solely through enlistments. A young person may enlist in any one of a variety of programs that involve dif ferent combinations of active and re serve duty. One option allows enlist ment in the reserves for 6 years, at least 4 months of which are to be spent on active duty. Young people also may choose to serve their entire enlistment on active duty for 3 or 4 years. If qualified, they may enter one of several officer training pro grams and serve as commissioned of ficers. They may join the Reserve Of ficers’ Training Corps (ROTC) in college and receive some military training as part of their college in struction. While in college, they are paid $100 a month and agree to serve on active duty as a commissioned of ficer for at least 2 years after they graduate. In addition, about 19,000 ROTC scholarships are awarded each year, which cover the costs of tuition and books and provide $100 a month for subsistence. These enlist ment choices and the draft are sub ject to change by congressional ac tion at any time. Most enlisted jobs in the Armed Forces require special classroom training; on-the-job training is given for the remainder. People who enlist are often able to choose the type of training they receive, those who re enlist are often offered advanced training. It is possible for a young person to be trained in electronics, aircraft maintenance, metalwork ing, or other skilled work. In many instances, the vocational training and experience they receive in the Armed Forces are helpful in obtaining civilian jobs. In addition to on-duty training, a variety of voluntary off-duty academic and technical training pro grams are available to military per sonnel. The U.S. Armed Forces In stitute (USAFI) offers about 235 correspondence courses ranging from the elementary school level to the sec ond year of college. The USAFI also offers about 6,000 courses which are given under contract by colleges and universities. In the Resident Center Program, civilian institu tions offer courses leading to high school diplomas and college degrees; the Prep Program also helps service men and women to get high school diplomas. The Serviceman’s Oppor tunity College enables servicemen to get a junior college or vocational ed ucation. Courses in these programs may be taken at military installa tions or, if available, at local civilian institutions. The Military Extension Correspondence Course Program also offers technical courses in mili tary specialties that are designed to advance career capabilities. The Armed Forces also offer training to many servicemen during their final 6 months of service to prepare them for civilian jobs. This Transition Program provides coun seling, training, education, and placement services to the combatdisabled, those who have no civilian work experience or skills, and those who may need to earn high school equivalency diplomas. Earnings in 1973 for ranks or pay grades which persons might achieve during their first enlistment in the Armed Forces as commissioned of ficers or enlisted members are shown in the accompanying table. Table 1. Regular Military Compensation in 1973 for Members of the Armed Forces Who are Single and Have Less than 2 Years of Serves Regular military Pay grade compensation, total Enlisted members: E -l............................... $5,310 E-2............................... 5,798 6,085 E-3............................... E-4............................... 6,400 Commissioned officers: 0-l ............................... 9,194 0 -2 ............................... 10,671 0 -3 ............................... 12,108 SOURCE: Department of Defense. Basic pay Quarters allowance $3,687 4,108 4,270 4,439 6,793 7,826 8,978 ,$720 , 767 , 868 , 979 1,306 1,663 1,902 Tax Subsistence allowance advantage $602 602 602 602 575 575 575 $301 321 345 380 520 607 653 799 800 Almost all who enlist are pro moted to pay grade E-3 within their first 6 months of service. Further ad vancement to higher pay grades depends upon individual merit, but pay increases within a grade are possible on the basis of length of service. Enlisted members are usual ly furnished quarters and meals but those who live off base receive al lowances for quarters and sub sistence. These allowances are not taxed, providing an advantage over civilian workers who must earn a higher gross income to have the same take-home pay. Servicemen with de pendents are paid proportionately higher allowances. Many members of the Armed Forces also earn additional “Special Pay.” Doctors, dentists, optome trists, and veterinarians earn from $1,200 to $4,200 extra each year de pending on their length of service. People who perform work con sidered hazardous, such as those on flight crews or submarines, receive “Incentive Pay” ranging from $600 to $1,260 annually if they are en listed members, and from $1,200 to $2,940 if they are officers. Many en listed members of the Armed Forces also receive extra pay ranging from $600 to $1,800, because they have skills which are in short supply. En listed men and women who choose to enlist for another tour of active duty receive a bonus of from $2,000 to $10,000, depending on the skills they possess. Members of the Armed Forces enjoy many fringe benefits. They re ceive free medical and dental care and 30 days of paid leave annually. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK They pay reduced prices for travel and for entertainment and pur chases on military installations. They have access to athletic and recrea tion facilities. The military retire ment system also provides many benefits and services to persons who are disabled in the line of duty or who retire after at least 20 years of service. Each of the military services pub lishes handbooks and pamphlets that describe entrance requirements, training and advancement opportu nities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are avail able at all recruiting stations, most State employment service offices, high schools, colleges, and public libraries. TECHNICAL APPENDIX This appendix is designed for read ers who wish to know more about procedures followed in developing employment outlook than is pre sented in preceding reports. Employment Outlook Conclusions The employment outlook in the occupational reports is based on ex tensive economic and statistical anal yses and information from many sources. Although sources and anal yses among occupations and indus tries differed, the same general pattern was followed. To insure con sistency of individual occupations and industries, the economy, based on an assumption of relatively full employment, was analyzed. Projec tions were made of the population, labor force, gross national product, average weekly hours, employment in major industries, and related eco nomic measures and the individual reports were tied to these projec tions. Many studies were based heavily on an analysis of past and prospec tive population trends, including ex pected changes in school and college enrollment, employment of women, and urban and suburban population. Population influences employment requirements in fields such as teach ing and health and is of great im portance in many industries—for ex ample, residential construction, bak ing, telephone communication, and retail trade. Many factors besides population size and composition affect employ ment in business and industry. Con sumer purchasing patterns change as income levels shift and new products are developed. Technology brings changes in raw materials and equip ment needed in production and influ ences the size, occupation, and skill of the work force. Research and development and government poli cies, such as defense and space pro grams, also bring about changes in occupations. Each industry was analyzed and demands for its products or services were projected. These projections then were translated into estimates of numbers and kinds of workers needed to produce services and prod ucts. Taken into account were employment trends of total employ ment, different occupations, produc tivity trends, and possible further reductions in the workweek. Population and labor force trends are from the decennial Censuses of Population and the monthly labor force surveys conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Data also were drawn from the Censuses of Manu factures and Business conducted by the Census Bureau. Information also was utilized from a variety of sources. Among the ma jor sources were licensing agencies, labor unions, professional and trade associations, and special surveys. Statistics on employment in nonagricultural establishments pro vided monthly data on employment, hours of work, earnings, and labor turnover, based on reports for the past quarter-century or more* from *See Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. a sample of industrial, commercial, and governmental establishments. Also contributing to the analysis of future trends was the Bureau’s ser ies of studies of productivity and technological development, informa tion obtained in cooperation with the National Science Foundation about employment of scientists and engi neers in research and other activ ities, and the Occupational Industry Matrix. The matrix consists of a set of tables for 116 industries, each showing a percentage distribution of employment among 160 of the most important occupations. The matrix was valuable in appraising the ef fects of changing employment levels in different industries, in specific oc cupations, and in each occupation. Conclusions based on an analysis of these various sources generally show increased employment, but these expected gains do not indicate the number of job openings. In most occupations, more workers are need ed yearly to replace those who re tire, die, or leave the occupation than are needed for growth. Conse quently, even declining occupations may offer employment oppor tunities to many young people. To estimate the number of possible openings in an occupation, the Bureau has developed tables, similar to the actuarial tables of life insur ance companies, to assess future rates of replacement from deaths and retirement. In occupations in which men are predominant, the rate of replacement for death and retire ment is generally lower than that for women because so many women leave paid employment for marriage 801 802 or family responsibilities. The auto mobile mechanics rate, for example, is about 1.5 percent each year, while that for stenographers, in which women predominate, is 6.8. Information so far in this section relates to the demand for workers. To appraise prospective employ ment opportunities in an occupa tion, information on probable future supply of personnel is important. Statistics on high school and college enrollments and graduation, com piled by the U.S. Office of Educa tion, are the chief sources of infor mation on the potential supply of personnel in professions and other occupations requiring extensive for mal education. Data on numbers of apprentices from the U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training provide some information on new entrants into skilled trades. Many of the sources and ap proaches referred to earlier have OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK been developed in recent years. Eco nomic forecasting is still in the developmental stage and at best is difficult and uncertain. Basic assumptions and underlying projec tions (enumerated in the section on Tomorrow’s Jobs in the front of the Handbook) should be kept in mind. Within the framework of assump tions, basic employment trends can be discerned with sufficient accu racy to meet the needs of young peo ple preparing for careers. Index to Occupations and Industries Able seamen, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... Accelerator operators, atomic energy............. Account executives, advertising....................... Account executives, see: Securities salesworkers Accountants...................................................... See also: Insurance industry..................... Accounting clerks, see: Bank clerks................................................ Bookkeeping workers ............................... Acidizers, petroleum and natural gas............... Acquisition librarians ....................................... Actors and actresses ......................................... Actuaries .......................................................... See also: Insurance industry..................... Actuary clerks, see: Statistical clerks............... Adding machine operators ............................... Adjuster, claim, insurance ............................... Administrative and related occupations .......... Administrators, hospital................................... Administrators, medical record....................... Admissions counselors, see: College student per sonnel workers ........................................... Adult services librarians................................... Advertising artists and layout men................... Advertising copywriters ................................... Advertising managers....................................... Advertising production managers ................... Advertising workers ......................................... Advisors, student.............................................. Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engi neers .......................................................... Aeronautical technicians................................... Aerospace engineers ......................................... Agency cashiers................................................ Agents, see: Insurance agents and brokers................... Real estate salesworkers and brokers........ Agricultural economists ................................... Agricultural engineers....................................... 743 301 655 130 239 128 776 115 87 637 213 576 119 776 100 93 121 128 519 521 135 213 131 131 130 131 130 135 342 392 342 89 226 233 624 343 See also: Agriculture................................. Agricultural quarantine inspectors................... Agriculture........................................................ Agriculture, occupations related to ................ Agriculture teachers, vocational....................... Agronomists...................................................... See also: Agriculture................................. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanic .. See also: Electronics manufacturing ................ Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians ................................................ Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating me chanics .......................................................... Air traffic controllers ....................................... Air transportation occupations......................... Aircraft mechanics ........................................... Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing, occupations in ............................................... Airline dispatchers............................................. Airline traffic agents and clerks....................... Airplane mechanics, aircraft mechanics .......... Airplane pilots ................................................... Airport traffic controllers................................. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors........ Aluminum industry........................................... Ampoule examiners, drug industry .................. Ampoule fillers, drug industry ......................... Analysts, systems.............................................. Anatomists........................................................ Animal husbandry specialists, life scientists ... Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen, see: Agriculture ......................................... Annealers, see: Aluminum industry................................... Foundries.................................................. Announcers, radio and television..................... Anode men, aluminum industry....................... Anodizers, electronics manufacturing.............. 624 190 619 624 625 365 624 411 681 713 392 411 286 286 287 643 289 297 287 294 286 192 676 676 676 Ill 366 624 624 651 685 611 649 681 803 804 Anthropologists................................................ Apparel industry, occupations in th e ............... Appliance servicemen....................................... Arc cutters, see: Welders................................... Archeologists, see: Anthropologists.................... Architects............................................................. Architects, landscape....................................... Archivists, see: Historians.................................... Armament assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft...................................................... Armed Forces ..................................................... Art directors, see: Commercial artists................ Art, design, and communications related occu pations ...................................................... Artists, see: Advertising workers ................................. Commercial artists ................................... Artists and letterers, printing and publishing .. Asbestos and insulating workers ..................... Assemblers........................................................ See also: Apparel industry ............................... Electronics manufacturing................ Laundry and dry cleaning plants ___ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Assemblers, bench............................................ Assemblers, floor.............................................. Assembly inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft.................................................. Assignment clerks, see: Statistical clerks.......... Associate directors, radio and television.......... Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engi neers .......................................................... Astronomers .................................................... Astrophysicists, see: Astronomers................... Atomic energy field, occupations in the............ Attendants, gasoline service station................. Attendants, parking........................................... Attorneys.......................................................... Audio-control technicians, broadcast techni cians .............................................................. Audiologists...................................................... Auger operators, coal mining........................... Automatic pinsetting machine mechanics........ Automatic transmission specialists, see: Auto mobile mechanics....................................... Automobile air-conditioning specialist, see: Automobile mechanics ................................. Automobile body repairmen............................. Automobile-glass mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics...................................................... Automobile manufacturing occupations, see: 652 654 413 81 529 586 599 534 646 799 589 575 131 589 726 248 50 656 680 785 707 50 50 646 100 748 377 342 377 660 224 324 141 387 514 631 422 417 417 415 418 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing Automobile mechanics ..................................... Automobile painters ......................................... Automobile parts countermen ......................... Automobile-radiator mechanics, see: Automo bile mechanics ........................................... Automobile salesworkers ................................. Automobile service advisors............................. Automobile trimmers and installation men___ Automobile upholsterers................................... Auxiliary equipment operators, electric power . Auxiliary nursing workers, see: Nursing aides . Aviation maintenance inspectors..................... Aviation operations inspectors......................... Aviation safety officers..................................... Babysitters, see: Private household workers ... Backtenders, paper and allied products............ Bacteriologists, see: Drug industry................... Baggers, laundry and dry cleaning................... Bakers, all-round.............................................. Bakery routemen.............................................. Baking industry................................................ Ballet dancers.................................................... Bank clerks........................................................ Bank officers .................................................... Bank tellers ...................................................... Banking industry.............................................. Banking occupations......................................... Bankmen, printing and publishing................... Bar boys, see: Bartenders ................................. Barbers.............................................................. Barker operators, paper and allied products ... Barkermen, lumber mills ................................. Bartender helpers.............................................. Bartenders ........................................................ Beater engineers, paper and allied products ... Beauticians........................................................ Beauty operators.............................................. Bell captains...................................................... Bellboys ............................................................ Bellmen and bell captains................................. Bench assemblers.............................................. Bench coremakers, foundry ............................. Bench hands, baking......................................... Bench molders, foundry occupations................ Benchmen, optical mechanics........................... Bill clerks, see: Merchant marine industry .... Billing machine operators................................. Biochemists ...................................................... See also: Life scientists ............................. Biological aides, see: Engineering and science technicians.......... 704 417 51 219 418 220 222 53 53 736 505 191 191 191 176 717 675 685 670 237 669 578 114 116 117 772 114 726 161 169 716 701 161 161 717 171 171 170 170 170 50 29 669 28 431 744 92 363 366 391 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Food processing technicians..................... Biological scientists........................................... Biological oceanographers, see: Life scientists............................................ Oceanographers........................................ Biological technicians....................................... Biologists, see: Drug industry............................................ Life scientists............................................ Biomedical engineers........................................ Blacksmiths...................................................... See also: Railroad shop trades................. Blocksetters, lumber mills....................... Blowers, iron and steel....................................... Boat motor mechanics....................................... Boatswains, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... Body repairmen, automobile ........................... Boiler operators, electric power....................... Boilermakers.................................................... See also: Industrial chemicals ......................... Iron and steel industry....................... Railroad shop trades......................... Boilmaking occupations................................... Bookbinders and related workers..................... Bookkeepers...................................................... See also: Bank clerks................................. Bookkeeping machine operators, see: Bank clerks................................................ Office machine operators ......................... Bookkeeping workers ....................................... Bookmobile librarians....................................... Bosuns, see: Merchant seamen......................... Botanists............................................................ See also: Drug industry..................................... Life scientists..................................... Bowling-pin-machine mechanics ..................... Box office cashiers............................................ Brake mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics . Brakemen, railroad.......................................... Brattice men, see: Coal mining......................... Bricklayers........................................................ See also: Aluminum industry........................... Iron and steel industry....................... Bricklayers’ tenders.......................................... Brickmasons...................................................... Bridge and building workers, railroad............. Broadcast technicians, radio and television___ Brokers, insurance............................................ 396 675 366 360 391 675 365 343 55 310 701 693 420 743 302 415 736 57 688 696 310 56 40 87 114 114 92 87 213 302 365 676 365 422 88 417 305 631 250 652 696 256 250 306 387 226 805 Brokers, real estate ........................................... Buckers, logging .............................................. Building custodians........................................... Building inspectors ........................................... Building laborers............................................... Building trades.................................................. Bull-chain operators, lumber mills................... Bundlers, apparel.............................................. Bus boys and girls, waiters and waitresses........ Bus mechanics.................................................. Busdrivers, intercity........................................... Busdrivers, local transit..................................... Bushelmen, apparel........................................... Business machine operators ............................. Business machine servicemen........................... Butlers, see: Private household workers............ 232 701 155 196 256 245 701 655 167 454 315 317 656 92 423 176 Cabdrivers ........................................................ Cable splicers, see: Electric power industry............................. Telephone industry ................................... Calculating machine operators......................... Cameramen, printing, see: Lithographers............................................. Printing and publishing............................. Captain, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine officers......................... Pilots and copilots..................................... Car checkers, statistical clerks......................... Card-to-tape converter operators, see: Elec tronics computer operating personnel .......... Career planning counselors, college, see: College career planning and placement counselors.............................................. College student personnel workers............ Caretakers, see: Private household workers ... Carmen, railroad shop....................................... Carpenters ........................................................ See also: Coal mining ............................... Carpet craftsmen, see: Floor covering installers Carriers, mail.................................................... Cartographers, see: Geographers..................... Casework aides, see: Social service aides.......... Caseworkers, social........................................... Cashiers ............................................................ Cashiers, retail food stores............................... Cashier checkers .............................................. Casting inspectors, foundries ........................... Casting operators, see: Aluminum industry .. . Catalogers, see: Librarians............................... Catholic priests ................................................ Cement finishers .............................................. 325 740 407 93 726 726 743 298 294 99 107 550 135 176 310 252 631 262 199 536 568 571 88 768 89 685 650 213 556 254 806 Cement masons................................................ Cementers, petroleum and natural gas................ Central office craftsmen, telephone................. Central office repairmen, telephone................. Ceramic engineers............................................... Certified public accountants................................ Chainmen, see: Surveyors.................................... Check encoders, see: Bank clerks........................ Check inscribers, see: Bank clerks...................... Check-out clerks, see: Cashiers ....................... Checkers, apparel industry............................... Checkers, see: Baking industry......................................... Cashiers .................................................... Checkers, see: Draftsmen................................. Checkers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................... Chefs, see: Cooks and chefs ................................ Chemical analysts, see: Aluminum industry ... Chemical engineers............................................. See also: Aluminum industry........................... Drug industry..................................... Industrial chemical industry................ Paper and allied products industry ... Petroleum refining................................ Chemical mixers, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Chemical oceanographers.................................... Chemical operators............................................. Chemical technicians........................................... Chemists............................................................... See also: Atomic energy field.............................. Drug industry....................................... Electronics manufacturing.................. Industrial chemical industry................ Iron and steel industry.......................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................... Paper and allied products.................... Petroleum refining................................ Chief cooks, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine seamen......................... Chief drillers, petroleum and natural gas.......... Chief engineers, see: Merchant marine officers . Chief engineers, radio and television .................. Chief mates, see: Merchant marine officers ... Chief stewards, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine seamen......................... OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 254 637 405 405 344 128 399 115 115 89 656 670 89 390 707 163 652 345 652 676 687 719 723 71 360 688 392 379 665 675 679 687 697 712 718 723 744 302 636 298 749 298 744 302 Child welfare workers, see: Social workers .. Children’s librarians ......................................... Chippers, foundries........................................... Chippermen, paper and allied products............ Chiropractors.................................................... Chockermen, logging ....................................... Choreographers, see: Dancers ......................... Christmas Club tellers, see: Bank tellers.......... Cindermen, iron and steel................................. City managers .................................................. Civil aviation occupations................................. Civil engineering technicians ........................... Civil engineers .................................................. See also: Iron and steel industry................ Civil service workers, Federal Government.... Civilian government, Federal........................... Claim adjusters, see: Insurance industry..................................... Insurance occupations.................................. Claim examiners, insurance ............................. See also: Insurance industry..................... Claim representatives, insurance..................... Claim reviewers, insurance............................... Claim workers, insurance................................. Claims clerks, see: Trucking industry .............. Classification clerks, statistical clerks.............. Cleaners, see: Building custodians................... Cleaning and related occupations..................... Clergymen ........................................................ Clerical occupations ......................................... Clerk-typists...................................................... Clerks, see: Account clerks, bank clerks ..................... Accounting clerks, bookkeeping workers . Actuary clerks, statistical clerks................ Airline traffic agents and clerks................ Assignment clerks, statistical clerks.......... Bank clerks................................................ Billing clerks, merchant marine industry .. Check-out clerks, cashiers......................... Claim clerks, trucking industry ................ Classification clerks, statistical clerks .... Clerk-typists............................................... Coding clerks, statistical clerks ................ Control clerks, bank clerks....................... Counter clerks, laundry and drycleaning .. County collection clerks, bank clerks........ Demurrage clerks, statistical clerks.......... Distribution clerks, postal clerks .............. Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerks ............... Interest clerks, bank clerks.......................... Inventory clerks, stock clerks...................... 571 213 685 716 473 701 579 117 694 132 731 392 345 697 691 789 775 121 123 775 124 124 124 759 99 155 155 553 86 105 114 87 100 297 100 114 745 89 759 99 105 99 115 784 115 100 94 115 115 101 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Law clerks, lawyers............................. 143 Mail clerks........................................... 94 Manifest clerks, merchant marine industry 745 Manifest clerks, trucking industry........... 759 Medical record clerks ............................... 492 Mortgage clerks, bank clerks................... 115 Mortgage clerks, typists........................... 105 Parts-order clerks, trucking industry........ 759 Personnel clerks, statistical clerks............ 99 Postal clerks......................................... 94 Posting clerks, statistical clerks.......... 99 Procurement clerks, stock clerks........ 101 Railroad clerks..................................... 307 Rate clerks, trucking industry ................. 759 Receipt clerks, merchant marine industry . 745 Receiving clerks, shipping and receiving clerks...................................................... 97 Report clerks, merchant marine industry . 745 Reservation agents and clerks, airline .... 297 Reservation clerks, hotel........................... 91 Room and desk clerks, hotel..................... 91 Sales clerks, retail trade ........................... 235 Shipping and receiving clerks.............. 97 Stock clerks............................................... 101 Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing................................. 707 Traffic agents and clerks........................... 297 Transit clerks, bank clerks ....................... 115 Waybill clerks, typists............................... 105 Window clerks, postal clerks ................... 94 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists................. Clinical dietitians.............................................. Clinical laboratory workers ............................. Clinical psychologists ....................................... Clothing industry occupations, see: Apparel in dustry ............................................................ Coal loading machine operators....................... Coal mining...................................................... Coding clerks, statistical clerks ....................... Coil winders, electronics manufacturing.......... Coiler operators, aluminum industry............... College and university teachers ....................... College career planning and placement coun selors .............................................................. College librarians.............................................. College placement officers, see: College career planning and placement counselors.............................................. College student personnel workers............ College student personnel workers................... College union staff members............................. 357 517 489 564 654 631 630 99 681 651 208 550 213 550 135 134 135 Color technicians, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Commercial account underwriters................... Commercial artists ........................................... Commercial photographers ............................. Commercial tellers, banking............................. Communications and related occupations........ Community planners......................................... Companions, see: Private household workers .. Composing room occupations, printing............ Composition roofers......................................... Compositors, printing, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing............................. Compounders, see: Drug industry ................... Compressors, see: Drug industry ..................... Computer and related occupations................... Computer manufacturing................................. Computer operating personnel......................... Computer operators, see: Computer operating personnel ...................................................... Computer programmers, see: Paper and allied products industry........................................... Computer salesmen, office machine and com puter manufacturing ..................................... Computer service technicians........................... Computers, prospecting, petroleum and natural gas.................................................................. Concrete finishers ............................................. Conductors, railroad......................................... Conservation occupations................................. Conservationists, range, see: Range managers . Conservationists, soil......................................... Console operators, see: Computer operating personnel ...................................................... Construction .................................................... Construction electricians................................... Construction inspector (government)............... Construction laborers....................................... Construction machinery operators, see: Opera ting engineers................................................ Construction occupations................................. Continuity directors, radio and television........ Continuity writers, radio and television............ Continuous mining machine operators ............ Control clerks, see: Bank clerks....................... Control room operators, electric power............ Conveyor men, coal mining ............................. Cooks, see: Private household workers............ Cooks and chefs................................................. Cooks’ helpers, see: Private household workers Cooperative extension service workers ............ 807 71 126 589 602 117 606 604 176 40 277 40 550 676 676 107 711 107 107 719 712 426 635 254 307 332 335 337 107 629 258 195 256 269 245 748 748 631 115 736 631 176 163 176 559 808 See also: Home economists.......................... Copilots ............................................................ Core assemblers, foundries............................... Core-oven assemblers, foundries ........................ Coremakers, see: Foundries..................................................... Foundry occupations................................. Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing .......................................................... Coresetters, foundries......................................... Corn and wheat farmers ................................... Correspondent bank officers................................ Cosmetologists..................................................... Construction inspectors (government)................ Cotton farmers..................................................... Counseling occupations........................................ Counseling psychologists, see: Psychologists .. Counselors, see: College student personnel workers............ Employment counselers ........................... Rehabilitation counselers............................ School counselers......................................... Counter clerks, laundry and drycleaning.......... Counters, paper and allied products.................... Country collection clerks, see: Bank clerks .... County extension workers.................................... Court reporters ................................................... Crane operators, see: Foundries..................................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ............................................................. Operating engineers................................... Trucking industry ..................................... Cranemen, see: Forge shop occupations .......... Credit managers................................................... Credit officials..................................................... Crew chiefs, aircraft, missile, and space craft .. Crew schedulers, statistical clerks ...................... Crop specialty farmers ....................................... Crystal finishers, electronics manufacturing ... Crystal grinders, electronics manufacturing ... Cushion builders, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing................................................. Custodians, building ........................................... Customer engineers, computer service techni cians .............................................................. Customer service occupations, electric power .. Customers brokers, see: Securities salesworkers Customs inspectors............................................. Cutters, apparel................................................... Cutters, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing ............................................................... 561 294 485 685 685 29 706 685 622 116 171 195 623 554 564 135 546 548 544 784 718 115 559 103 685 707 269 759 62 137 137 646 100 623 681 681 707 155 426 741 426 191 655 707 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Cutting machine operators.............................. 631 Dairy farmers.................................................... Dampproof workers, see: Roofers................... Dancers.............................................................. Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic lab oratory occupations....................................... Data typists, see: Computer operating person nel .................................................................. Day workers, see: Private household workers .. Dean of students, see: College student personnel workers.......................................................... Deck-engine mechanics, see: Merchant seamen Deck officers, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine officers......................... Deck utilitymen, see: Merchant seamen .......... Deckmen, lumber mills..................................... Decontamination men, atomic energy.............. Decorators, interior........................................... Dehydration-plant operators, petroleum and natural gas .................................................... Deliverymen, see: Routemen ........................... Demurrage clerks, statistical clerks................. Dental assistants ............................................... Dental hygienists............................................... Dental laboratory technicians........................... Dental occupations ........................................... Dentists.............................................................. Derrickmen, petroleum and natural gas .......... Derrickmen, see: Stonemasons......................... Design occupations ........................................... Designers, apparel............................................. Designers, floral................................................ Designers, industrial ......................................... Designers, interior............................................. Designers, scenic, interior designers and deco rators ............................................................ Detailers, see: Draftsmen ................................. Detectives.......................................................... Developers, see: Photographic laboratory occu pations .......................................................... Development engineers, radio and television ... Die makers, see: Aluminum industry................................... Electronics manufacturing ....................... Machining occupations............................. Office machine and computer manufac turing .................................................... Die makers, tool-and......................................... See also listing under Tool-and-die makers. Die sinkers, forge shop ..................................... 621 277 578 70 107 176 135 302 743 298 302 701 666 597 636 237 100 467 469 471 465 465 635 281 586 654 593 595 597 748 389 185 71 749 652 681 38 713 38 63 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Diesel mechanics................................................. 428 Dietetic educators ............................................... 517 Dietitians ............................................................. 517 Digester operators, paper and allied products .. 717 Directors, program, radio and television.......... 748 Directory assistance operators............................ 200 Dispatchers, see: Airline dispatchers........................................ 289 Trucking industry ....................................... 759 Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics ... 716 See also: Optometrists.................................. 475 Displaymen (retail trade) .................................... 591 Distribution clerks, postal clerks ......................... 94 District representatives, electric power .............. 741 Dividermen, baking industry .............................. 669 Doctors, medical ................................................. 479 Dough molders, baking....................................... 669 Draftsmen ........................................................... 389 See also: Aluminum industry.............................. 652 Electronics manufacturing.................. 680 Industrial chemicals ............................ 688 Iron and steel industry.......................... 697 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... 706 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................... 712 Petroleum and natural gas production and processing .................................. 635 Petroleum refining................................ 723 Dragline operators, coal mining.......................... 631 Dressmakers, apparel ......................................... 656 Drilling machine operators................................ 631 Driver-salesmen, see: Baking industry......................................... 670 Routemen..................................................... 237 Drivers, intercity buses........................................ 315 Drivers, local transit buses .................................. 317 Drivers, local trucks ........................................... 319 Drivers, ta x i......................................................... 325 Driving occupations............................................. 315 Drug industry, occupations in the........................ 674 Druggists ............................................................. 523 Drycleaners, laundry and drycleaning................ 785 Drycleaning plants............................................... 784 Drycleaning routemen......................................... 237 Dry-kiln operators, lumber mills ........................ 702 Duplicating machine operators............................. 93 Earth-boring machine operators, see: Operating engineers........................................................... 269 Ecologists, see: Life scientists.............................. 366 Ecologists, range, see: Range managers .......... Economic geographers ..................................... Economic geologists ......................................... Economists........................................................ See also: Statisticians ............................... Economists, agricultural................................... Edgermen, lumber mills ................................... Editors, film, television..................................... Education and related occupations................... EEG technicians ............................................... Egg products inspectors ................................... EKG technicians ............................................... Electric power linemen ..................................... Electric power industry, occupations in the .... Electric sign servicemen ................................... Electrical appliance servicemen....................... Electrical engineers........................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Industrial chemical industry.............. Iron and steel industry....................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Electrical inspectors ......................................... Electrical repairmen, maintenance electricians . Electrical repairmen, see: Iron and steel indus try .................................................................. Electrical workers, see: Shop trades, railroads . Electricians, construction................................. Electricians, maintenance................................. See also listing under Maintenance elec tricians. Electricians, merchant marine industry............ Electrocardiograph technicians ....................... Electroencephalographic technicians............... Electronic assembly inspector, jee: Electronics manufacturing ....................... Office machine and computer manufac turing .................................................... Electronic computer programmers ................. Electronic organ technicians............................. Electronic reader-sorter operators, see: Bank clerks.............................................................. Electronic specialists, see: Oceanographers .... Electronics checkout men, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Electronics engineers, see: Electronics manu facturing ........................................................ Electronics manufacturing ............................... Electronics mechanics, aluminum ................... 809 335 536 352 532 374 324 701 749 203 485 190 485 739 734 433 413 346 652 675 687 697 706 434 196 444 696 310 258 444 744 485 486 681 713 109 449 115 360 646 679 679 651 810 Electronics repairmen, iron and steel............... Electronics subassembly inspectors, see: Office machine and computer manufacturing ... Electronics technicians ....................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing .................. Engineering and science technicians .. Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................... Electroplaters.................................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing .................. Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Electrotypers and stereotypers, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing................................ Elementary school teachers ................................ Elevator constructors ......................................... Elevator mechanics............................................. Embalmers........................................................... Embossing machine operators ......................... Embryologists ..................................................... Employment aides, see: Social service aides ... Employment counselors ..................................... Encoders, bank clerks......................................... Engine mechanics, aircraft, missile, and space craft .................................................................. Engineering aides, see: Electronics manufacturing .......................... Office machine and computer manufactur ing ............................................................. Engineering and science technicians.................... Engineering geologists......................................... Engineering technicians....................................... Engineers ............................................................. See also: Aeronautical engineers........................ Aerospace engineers ............................ Agricultural engineers.......................... Astronautical engineers........................ Biomedical engineers............................ Ceramic engineers................................ Chemical engineers .............................. Civil engineers ..................................... Electrical engineers.............................. Electronics engineers............................ Industrial engineers.............................. Mechanical engineers .......................... Metallurgical engineers........................ Mining engineers.................................. Oceanographic engineers .................... 696 713 392 680 392 713 58 681 707 43 726 204 260 260 173 93 366 569 546 115 646 680 712 391 352 652 339 342 342 343 342 343 344 345 345 346 679 347 348 349 350 360 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Petroleum engineers, petroleum and natural gas ....................................... Safety engineers.................................... Engineers, development, radio and television .. Engineers, flight................................................... Engineers, foundries ........................................... Engineers, insurance........................................... Engineers, locomotive......................................... Engineers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................... Engineers, petroleum........................................... Engineers, stationary......................................... Enginemen, petroleum and natural g a s............ Entomologists, agriculture.................................. Envelope-machine operators, paper and allied products ........................................................... Environmental health technicians ...................... Environmental sciences........................................ Environmentalists............................................... Etching equipment operators, electronics manu facturing ........................................................... Ethnologists, see: Anthropologists...................... Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerks ................... Exhaust operators, electronics manufacturing . Experimental machinists, see: Instrument mak ers (mechanical)............................................. Exploration geophysicists.................................... Extension service workers.................................... Exterminators ..................................................... Extras, see: Actors and actresses ........................ Extrusion press operators, aluminum industry . 635 635 749 292 685 776 308 706 635 75 635 625 718 525 352 525 681 529 115 681 33 355 559 156 576 651 Fabrication inspectors, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Face boss, see: Coal mining ............................. Fallers, logging ................................................. Family service workers, see: Social workers ... Farm equipment mechanics ............................. Farm managers ................................................. Farm service jobs............................................... Farmers, see: Agriculture................................. Fashion models ................................................. FBI special agents............................................. Federal civilian government............................. Federal Government occupations..................... Field engineers, see: Computer service techni cians .............................................................. Field technicians, radio and television.............. File clerks.......................................................... Film editors, television ..................................... Film librarians, television................................. 646 631 701 571 435 625 627 619 228 175 789 789 426 387 90 749 749 811 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Film numberers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians.................................................... Film strippers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians .................................................... Final assemblers, aircraft, missile, and space craft ................................................................ Finance, insurance, and real estate................... Finishers, flatwork, laundry and drycleaning .. Finishers, men’s suit, laundry and drycleaning . Finishers, optical mechanics............................. Finishers, shirt, laundry and drycleaning.......... Fire boss, see: Coal mining............................... Firefighters........................................................ Firemen, see: Firefighters................................. Firemen, locomotive......................................... Firemen, stationary (boiler) ............................. Firemen/watertenders, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... First assistant engineers, merchant marine of ficers .............................................................. First mates, merchant marine officers.............. Fitters, apparel.................................................. Fitters, see: Coal mining................................... Fitup men, boilermaking occupations............. Flatwork finishers, laundry and drycleaning ... Flight attendants............................................... Flight engineers................................................ Flight service station specialists....................... Flight superintendents, .see: Airline dispatchers Floor assemblers .............................................. Floor coremakers, foundry............................... Floor covering installers ................................... Floor covering mechanics................................. Floor layers, see: Floor covering installers .... Floor molders, foundry occupations ............... Floormen, television ......................................... Food and drug inspectors ................................. Floral designers................................................ Food processing technicians............................. Food scientists.................................................. Food service occupations ................................. Food technologists............................................. Foremen............................................................ Foresters............................................................ See also: Agriculture......................................... Logging and lumber mills................. Paper and allied products................. Forestry aides and technicians ......................... Forestry technicians, see: Forestry aides and technicians.................................................... Forge shop occupations..................................... 71 71 645 771 785 785 431 785 631 181 181 309 77 744 302 299 298 655 631 577 785 290 292 293 289 50 29 261 261 261 28 748 189 593 396 381 161 381 60 332 625 701 719 334 334 61 Forklift truck operators, see: Electronics manufacturing ....................... Power truck operators............................... Foundries.......................................................... Foundry occupations......................................... Framemen, telephone central office craftsmen . Free-lance models ............................................. Free-lance photgraphers................................... Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile me chanics .......................................................... Front-office cashiers......................................... Front-office clerks, hotel................................... Funeral directors and embalmers..................... Fur cutters, apparel........................................... Fur finishers, apparel......................................... Fur machine operators, apparel....................... Fur nailers, apparel........................................... Furnace installers, heating mechanics.............. Furnace operators, foundries ........................... Furniture upholsterers....................................... 681 73 684 26 405 228 602 417 89 91 173 656 657 657 657 411 685 64 Gagers, petroleum and natural gas................... Garage mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics Gas appliance servicemen................................. Gas burner mechanics....................................... Gas dispatchers ................................................. Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters.......... Gas welders ...................................................... Gas-compressor operators, petroleum and nat ural g as.......................................................... Gasoline-plant operators, petroleum and natural gas.................................................................. Gasoline service station attendants .................. Gasoline station salesmen................................. Gasoline station servicemen............................. General boardmen, see: Commercial artists ... General bookkeepers......................................... General maids, see: Private household workers Geneticists, agriculture..................................... Geochemists, see: Geologists ........................... Geochronologist, see: Geologists..................... Geodesists, see: Geophysicists ......................... Geographers...................................................... Geological oceanographers............................... See also: Oceanographers......................... Geologists.......................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ......................... Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists............... Geophysicists.................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ......................... 636 417 411 411 100 275 81 636 636 224 224 224 770 87 176 625 352 353 355 535 353 360 352 635 355 354 635 812 Glass blowers, electronics manufacturing........ Glass lathe operators, electronics manufactur ing .................................................................. Glaziers.............................................................. Governesses, see: Private household workers .. Government...................................................... Government occupations, Federal................... See also: Postal service............................. Government occupations, State and local........ Graders, lumber m ills....................................... Grain farmers, see: Corn and wheat farmers ... Granulator-machine operators, see: Drug in dustry ............................................................ Gravure photoengravers, printing and publish ing .................................................................. Grid lathe operators, electronics manufacturing Grinders, see: Forge shops .............................................. Foundries.................................................. Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers ........................... Ground radio operators and teletypists............ Groundmen, electric power............................... Guards and watchmen....................................... Guidance counselors......................................... 681 681 264 176 787 9 793 797 702 622 676 726 681 63 685 89 293 740 183 544 Hairdressers...................................................... Hairstylists,see: Barbers................................... Hammermen, see: Forge shop................................................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... Hammersmiths, forge shop............................... Hand assemblers, office machine and computer manufacturing.............................................. Hand compositors, printing ............................. Hand icers, baking............................................ Hand molders, foundries................................... Hand sewers, apparel ....................................... Hand spreaders, apparel................................... Handymen, see: Private household workers ... Head sawyers, lumber mills ............................. Health and regulatory inspectors (government) Health insurance agents ................................... Health physicists, atomic energy ..................... Health physics technicians, atomic energy .... Health occupations ........................................... Heat treaters, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing .................................................... Forge shop................................................ Foundries.................................................. 171 169 62 706 62 713 40 670 685 656 655 176 609 189 226 665 665 461 645 63 685 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Heaters, see: Forge shop................................................ Iron and steel industry.................................. Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... Heating mechanics ............................................. Helpers, baking................................................ Helpers, iron and steel....................................... High school teachers......................................... High speed printer operators, see: Computer operating personnel.......................................... Highway patrolmen, see: State police officers .. Historians............................................................. Hod carriers...................................................... See also: Bricklayers......................................... Plasterers........................................... Home economists ............................................... Home health aides, see: Nursing aides................ Home housekeepers, see: Private household workers.......................................................... Homemaker aides, see: Social service aides ... Horticulturists..................................................... Hospital administrators ...................................... Hospital attendants............................................. Hospital nurses ................................................... Hostess-cashiers................................................ Hot-cell technicians, atomic energy................. Hot metal cranemen, see: Aluminum industry . Hotel front-office clerks ................................... Hotel housekeepers and assistants...................... Hotel managers and assistants............................ Hotels................................................................... Household workers, see: Private household workers............................................................. Housekeepers, see: Private household workers . Housekeepers and assistants, hotel .................... Housemen, see: Private household workers .... Human nutritionists, see: Agriculture................ Hydrogen furnace operators, electronics manu facturing ........................................................... Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists ........................ Hygienists, dental ............................................. Icing mixers, baking ......................................... Illustrators, see: Commercial artists ................ Information science specialists librarians .......... Immigration inspectors........................................ Industrial chemical industry, occupations in the Industrial designers............................................. See also: Electronics manufacturing .......... Industrial engineers............................................. 63 695 706 411 670 694 206 107 187 534 257 250 274 560 505 176 568 365 519 505 501 89 666 650 91 159 139 781 176 177 159 176 625 681 355 469 670 589 213 191 687 595 680 347 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES See also: Aluminum industry........................... Apparel industry ............................... Drug industry..................................... Electronics manufacturing................ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Industrial machinery repairmen....................... Industrial meteorologists ................................. Industrial nurses ............................................... Industrial photographers................................... Industrial production and related occupations . Industrial technicians ....................................... Industrial traffic managers............................... Infants’ nurses, see: Private household workers Informal models ............................................... Information science specialists......................... Infrared oven operators, electronics manufac turing ............................................................ Ingot strippers, iron and steel........................... Inhalation therapists......................................... Inside adjusters, claim examiners..................... Inspectors, construction ................................... Inspectors, laundry and drycleaning ................ Inspectors, (manufacturing)............................. See also: Apparel industry ............................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Forge shop ......................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Inspectors, quarantine....................................... Installation men, see: Automobile trimmers (automobile upholsterers)............................. Instrument makers (mechanical)..................... Instrument repairmen....................................... See also: Drug industry..................................... Industrial chemical industry.............. Paper and allied products industry ... Petroleum and natural gas production and processing ............................... Instrument technicians, see: Engineering and science technicians.......... Mechanical technicians............................. Instrumentmen, see: Surveyors ....................... Insulating workers............................................. Insurance agents and brokers........................... Insurance industry............................................. Insurance occupations....................................... 652 657 676 679 706 712 437 357 502 602 25 393 140 176 228 213 681 694 499 124 195 785 66 656 689 63 707 190 54 33 438 676 688 718 636 393 393 399 248 226 775 119 Insurance salespeople, underwriters................. Intercity busdrivers........................................... Interest clerks, see: Bank clerks....................... Interior decorators............................................. Interior designers............................................... International officers, banking......................... Interpreters ...................................................... Intertype machine operators, printing.............. Inventory clerks, see: Stock clerks................... Investigators, FBI ............................................. Investment analysts, see: Insurance industry .. . Iron and steel industry, occupations in the .... Iron workers, building trades........................... Janitors, see: Building custodians..................... Jewelers ............................................................ Jig and fixture builders, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Junior typists .................................................... Keepers, iron and steel ..................................... Keypunch operators ......................................... Kindergarten teachers....................................... Laboratory assurance technicians, see: Food processing technicians................................... Laboratory analysts, see: Food processing tech nicians ............................................................ See also: Aluminum industry........................... Drug industry..................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Industrial chemical industry.............. Iron and steel industry....................... Petroleum refining............................. Laboratory technicians, dental......................... Laborers, construction, building trades............ Ladle cranemen, iron and steel......................... Landmen, petroleum and natural gas................ Landscape architects......................................... Larrymen, iron and steel................................... Lathe operators, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing............................................... Lathers.............................................................. Laundresses, see: Private household workers .. Laundry and drycleaning plants....................... Law clerks, see: Lawyers................................... Lawyers ............................................................ See also: Insurance industry..................... Layout artists, see: Commercial artists............ Layout men, boilermaking occupations............ Layout workers, advertising............................. 813 125 315 115 597 597 116 606 40 101 175 776 692 282 155 440 645 105 697 107 204 396 396 652 676 680 688 697 723 471 256 694 635 595 693 706 265 176 784 143 141 776 589 56 131 814 Leasemen, petroleum and natural g a s.............. Legal secretaries .............................................. Lens grinder, see: Optical mechanics............... Letterers, see: Commercial artists................... Librarians.......................................................... Librarians, acquisition ..................................... Librarians, adult services ................................. Librarians, children’s ....................................... Librarians, medical record ............................... Librarians, university ....................................... Library occupations........................................... Library technical assistants............................... Licensed practical nurses ................................. Licensed vocational nurses............................... Life insurance agents................, ....................... Life science occupations ................................... Life scientist...................................................... Lighting technicians, television......................... Linemen, see: Electric power industry ........................... ........................... Telephone industry Linemen and cable splicers, telephone............. Linotype operators, printing............................. Lithographic artists, printing........................... Lithographic occupations, printing ................. Lithographic pressmen, printing ..................... Livestock farmers ............................................ Load dispatchers, electric power ..................... Loader engineers, logging................................. Loading machine operators, see: Coal mining . Loan officers, see: Bank officers ............................................ Credit officials........................................... Local government occupations......................... Local transit busdrivers..................................... Local truckdrivers, see: Driving occupations................................... Trucking industry ..................................... Locksmiths........................................................ Locomotive engineers, railroad ....................... See also: Iron and steel industry............... Locomotive firemen, railroad........................... Loggers.............................................................. Logging and lumber m ills................................. Long-distance truckdrivers............................... Longshoremen.................................................. Longwall machine operators, see: Coal Mining Lubrication men, see: Trucking industry.......... Lumbermen ...................................................... 635 103 431 589 212 213 213 213 521 213 212 215 504 504 226 363 365 387 739 407 407 40 45 45 45 621 739 701 631 116 137 797 317 319 758 442 308 696 309 700 700 321 744 631 759 700 Machine coremakers, foundry occupations .... 29 Machine designers, see: Mechanical technicians 393 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Machine icers, baking....................................... Machine modlers, see: Foundries.................................................. Foundry occupations................................. Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing .......................................................... Machine movers, see: Riggers and movers .... Machine spreaders, apparel ............................. Machine tool operators..................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ......................................... Electronics manufacturing ............... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Machined parts inspectors, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing .................................................... Office machine and computer manufac turing .................................................... Machinery repairmen, industrial ..................... Machining occupations..................................... Machinists, all-round ....................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ......................................... Drug industry..................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Instrument makers (mechanical) .... Railroad shop trades......................... Mail carriers...................................................... Mail clerks........................................................ Mail handlers.................................................... Mail preparing and mail handling machine op erators, office machine operators................. Mailmen, mail carriers..................................... Maintenance electricians................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Coalmining....................................... Drug industry..................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Industrial chemicals industry............ Iron and steel industry....................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Petroleum and natural gas production and processing............................... Maintenance machinists, see: Aluminum industry................................... Electronics manufacturing ....................... 70 685 28 706 282 655 35 645 681 706 646 713 437 31 31 645 676 681 33 310 199 94 94 93 199 444 652 631 676 681 688 696 713 718 636 652 681 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Paper and allied products industry............ Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial ma chinery repairmen ......................................... Maintenance technicians, radio and television . Maintenance welders......................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Makeup artists, television................................. Makeup men, printing and publishing.............. Managers, city.................................................. Managers, industrial traffic ............................. Managers, range ............................................... Managers and assistants, hotel......................... Manifest clerks, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Trucking industry ..................................... Manipulator operators, iron and steel.............. Manufacturers’ salesworkers ........................... Manufacturing.................................................. Marble setters, tilesetters, and terrazzo workers Marine bilogists, see: Oceanographers ............ Marine engineers.............................................. Marine geologists, see: Oceanographers.......... Markers, apparel............................................... Markers, laundry and drycleaning................... Marketing research workers............................. Masons, brick .................................................. Masons, cement and concrete........................... Masons, stone .................................................. Masters, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine officers......................... Material handlers, apparel ............................... Material handlers, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... Trucking industry ..................................... Mates, see: Merchant marine officers.............. Mathematical assistants, electronics manufac turing ............................................................ Mathematical statisticians ............................... Mathematicians................................................ See also: Electronics manufacturing ............... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Mathematics occupations................................. Meat and poultry inspectors............................. Meat cutters...................................................... 718 437 387 81 652 681 748 726 132 140 335 139 745 759 695 230 641 266 360 744 360 655 784 144 250 255 280 743 298 655 707 759 298 680 371 371 679 706 712 371 190 165 See also: Retail food stores....................... Meat wrappers, see: Retail food stores ............ Mechanical artists, commercial artists ............ Mechanical engineers ....................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Atomic energy field........................... Coal mining....................................... Drug industry..................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Industrial chemical industry.............. Iron and steel industry....................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Mechanical inspectors....................................... Mechanical technicians..................................... Mechanic-attendants, see: Gasoline service sta tion attendants............................................... Mechanics, see: Air-conditioning mechanics ........................ Aircraft mechanics ................................... Automobile mechanics ................................ Boat motor mechanics.................................. Bowling-pin-machine mechanics ................ Bus mechanics............................................. Diesel mechanics......................................... Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics Farm equipment mechanics ..................... Gas burner mechanics............................... Heating mechanics ...................................... Motorcycle mechanics.................................. Oil burner mechanics.................................... Refrigeration mechanics.............................. Truck mechanics......................................... Vending machine mechanics........................ Mechanics and repairmen.................................... Media directors, advertising............................. Medical assistants............................................. Medical laboratory assistants........................... Medical laboratory technicians....................... Medical laboratory workers............................. Medical microbiologists................................... Medical practitioners ....................................... Medical record administrators......................... Medical record librarians................................. Medical record technicians and clerks.............. Medical sales representatives, see: Pharmacists Medical secretaries ........................................... Medical social workers..................................... 815 768 768 589 348 642 662 632 676 679 687 696 706 712 719 196 393 224 411 287 417 420 422 454 428 431 435 510 510 446 411 411 454 457 403 131 488 489 489 489 366 473 521 521 492 523 106 571 816 Medical technicians, technologists, and assis tant occupations............................................. Medical technologists....................................... Medical X-ray technicians ............................... Melters, see: Iron and steel industry............................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing .......................................................... Men’s suit finishers, laundryand drycleaning .. Merchant marine industry ............................... Merchant marine occupations ......................... Merchant marine officers................................. Merchant seamen ............................................ Messmen, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... Metal finishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.............................................. Metal patternmakers, foundry occupations ... Metal roofers.................................................... Metallurgical engineers..................................... See also: Iron and steel industry................ Metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry................................... Electronics manufacturing....................... Foundries.................................................. Iron and steel industry............................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing .......................................................... Meteorological instrumentation specialists .... Meteorologists.................................................. Meter installers, electric power......................... Meter readers, electric power........................... Meter repairmen, electric power ..................... Meter testers, electric power............................. Metermen, electric power................................. Microbiologists, see: Agriculture................................................ Drug industry............................................ Life sciences.............................................. Millwrights........................................................ See also: Aluminum industry........................... Iron and steel industry....................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Mine inspectors................................................ Mineralogists, see: Geologists.................................................. Petroleum and natural gas ....................... Mining and petroleum industry ....................... OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 485 489 497 694 706 785 743 298 298 301 744 302 707 26 27 349 697 652 679 685 696 706 357 357 741 741 741 741 741 625 675 366 67 652 696 708 718 192 352 635 629 Mining engineers............................................... See also: Coal mining ............................... Ministers, Protestant........................................... Missile assembly mechanics, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ................................................. Missile manufacturing occupations.................... Mixers, baking.................................................. Models ................................................................. Modelmakers, see: Instrument makers (mechanical)................. Motoring vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... Molders, jee: Foundry occupations..................... Molders’ helpers, foundries.................................. Molding machine operators, baking industry .. Monitors, radiation, atomic energy.................... Monotype caster operators, printing................... Monotype keyboard operators, printing.......... Mortgage clerks, see: Bank clerks................................................... Typists ......................................................... Mothers’ helpers, see: Private household workers Motion picture projectionists........................... Motorcycle mechanics....................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing occupations .................................................. Motor vehicle body repairmen......................... Music directors, radio and television.................. Music librarians, radio and television ................ Musicians............................................................. 350 632 553 645 643 669 228 33 704 28 685 669 665 41 41 115 105 176 69 446 704 415 748 748 581 Natural gas production and processing.............. Neighborhood workers, see: Social service aides Neon sign servicemen ....................................... News directors, radio and television.................... Newscasters, radio and television........................ Newspaper reporters........................................... Newswriters, radio and television........................ Note tellers, banking........................................... Nuclear reactor operators, atomic energy........ Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses ............ Nursemaids, see: Private household workers .. Nurses, industrial................................................. Nurses, licensed practical................................. Nurses, licensed vocational............................... Nurses, occupational health................................ Nurses, office....................................................... Nurses, private duty ......................................... Nurses, public health......................................... Nurses, registered ............................................. Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants.......... Nursing assistants, see: Nursing aides.............. 635 569 433 748 748 609 748 117 665 502 176 502 504 504 502 502 502 502 501 505 505 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Nursing occupations......................................... Nutritionists...................................................... See also: Dietitians ............................................... Home economists ................................. 501 366 517 561 Observers, petroleum and natural g a s.............. Occupational health nurses............................... Occupational therapists..................................... Occupational therapy assistants....................... Oceanographers................................................ Oceanographic engineers, see: Oceanographers Odd-job men, see: Private household workers .. Office machine and computer manufacturing .. Office machine operators ................................. Office machine servicemen............................... Office nurses...................................................... Office occupations............................................. Oil burner mechanics......................................... Oilers, see: Merchant marine industry ................. Merchant seamen ..................................... Operating engineers, construction machinery .. Operating room technicians............................. Operatings agents, airline................................. Operations officers, banking............................. Operators, resistance welding........................... Operators, telephone......................................... Opthalmologists................................................ Optical laboratory technicians......................... Optical mechanics............................................. Opticians, dispensing......................................... Optometric assistants ....................................... Optometrists .................................................... Oral surgeons, see: Dentists ............................. Orderlies, see: Nursing aides............................. Ordinary seamen, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen..................................... Organ servicemen ............................................. Ornamental-iron workers, building trades .... Orthodontists, see: Dentists ............................. Osteopathic physicians ..................................... Outside production inspectors, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ............................................... Ovenmen, baking.............................................. Overburden stripping operators, see: Coal min ing .................................................................. Oxygen cutters.................................................. Oxygen furnace operators, iron and steel.......... 635 502 508 510 359 360 176 711 92 423 502 85 411 744 302 269 494 297 116 81 200 475 431 431 431 496 475 465 505 743 301 448 282 465 476 646 669 631 81 694 Packaging engineers, paper andallied products 719 817 Packers, baking industry................................... 670 Painters, automobile......................................... 51 Painters, production ......................................... 74 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing....................................... 645 Painters and paperhangers ............................... 271 Paleomagneticians see: Geophysicists.............. 355 Paleontologists, see: Geologists.................................................. 352 Petroleum and natural gas ....................... 635 Paper and allied products industries................. 716 Paper chemists, paper and allied products........ 719 Paper machine operators, paper and allied products ........................................................ 717 Paper sorters and counters, paper and allied products ........................................................ 718 Paperhangers.................................................... 271 Parking attendants ........................................... 324 Parole officers, see: Social workers .................. 571 Parts countermen, automobile......................... 219 Parts-order clerks, see: Trucking industry........ 759 Party chiefs, surveyors ..................................... 399 Paste-up men, see: Commercial artists ................................... 589 Printing occupations................................. 41 Pathologists...................................................... 366 See also: Drug industry......................................... 676 Medical laboratory workers.................. 489 Pathologists, speech........................................... 514 Patrolmen, see: Police officers............................................. 185 State police officers................................... 187 Pattern graders, apparel ................................... 655 Patternmakers, apparel..................................... 655 Patternmakers, see: Foundries.................................................. 685 Foundry occupations................................. 26 Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing .......................................................... 706 PBX installers and repairmen, telephone.......... 409 PBX operators, see: Telephone operators........ 201 PBX repairmen ................................................ 410 Peanut farmers.................................................. 623 Perforator operators, petroleum andnatural gas 637 Performing a rts ................................................ 576 Personal maids, see: Private household workers 176 Personal service occupations ........................... 169 Personnel clerks................................................ 99 Personnel workers............................................. 146 Petroleum and natural gas production and proc essing ............................................................ 634 818 Petroleum engineers, see: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing ........................ 636 Petroleum geologists........................................... 352 See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ............................ 635 Petroleum refining............................................... 722 Petrologists, petroleum and natural gas produc tion and processing ......................................... 635 Pharmacists......................................................... 523 See also: Drug industry................................ 676 Pharmaceutical detailmen, see: Drug industry 676 Pharmaceutical operators, see: Drug industry . 676 Pharmacologists, see: Drug industry.......................................... 675 Life scientists............................................... 366 Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Photo graphic laboratory occupations ....................... 71 Photoengravers, printing, see: Printing occupations................................. 46 Printing and publishing................................ 726 Photogeologists, see: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing ........................ 635 Photographers..................................................... 602 Photographic laboratory occupations ............. 70 Photographic models, see: Models...................... 228 Photographic technicians ................................... 712 Phototypesetting machine operators, printing 41 Physical distribution managers, see: Industrial traffic managers............................................... 140 Physical geographers........................................... 536 Physical meteorologists....................................... 357 Physical oceanographers..................................... 360 Physical scientists ............................................... 377 Physical-science aides, see: Food processing technicians....................................................... 396 Physical therapists............................................... 511 Physical therapy assistants and aides.................. 512 Physicians............................................................ 479 Physicists ............................................................ 383 See also: Electronics manufacturing .................. 679 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................... 712 Physicists, health, atomic energy........................ 665 Physiologists, see: Drug industry........................ 675 Piano and organ servicemen............................... 448 Piano technicians................................................. 448 Piano tuners......................................................... 448 Picklers, forge shop.......................................... 63 Piercer machine operators, iron and steel .......... 695 Pill and tablet coaters, drug industry.................. 676 Pilots and copilots............................................... 294 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pinsetting machine mechanics, see: Bowlingpin-machine mechanics................................. Pipefitters.......................................................... See also: Drug industry..................................... Industrial chemical industry.............. Iron and steel industry....................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Pipe-organ technicians ............................... Placement counselers, college........................... Plainclothesmen, see: Police officers............... Planer mill operators, lumber m ill................... Planer operators, lumber mill........................... Planetologists, see. Geophysicists ................... Planners, urban ................................................ Planning counselors, college............................. Plant facilities technicians, see: Food processing technicians.................................................... Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspec tors, see: Agriculture..................................... Plant scientists, see: Agriculture....................... Plasterers.......................................................... Platemakers, printing, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing............................. Platers, electroplaters....................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing....................................... Plumbers and pipefitters................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Podiatrists ........................................................ Police officers.................................................... Policemen, see: Police officers............................................. State police officers................................... Policewomen .................................................... Policy checkers, see: Statistical clerks.............. Policy writers, see: Typists ............................... Polishers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................ Political geographers......................................... Political scientists ............................................. Pondmen, lumber mills..................................... Portrait photographers..................................... Postal clerks...................................................... See also: Postal service occupations.......... Postal inspectors ............................................... 422 275 676 688 696 708 718 449 550 185 702 702 355 604 550 387 625 625 273 45 726 58 645 275 652 708 481 185 185 187 185 100 105 707 536 538 701 602 94 785 785 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Postal service occupations................................. Posting clerks, see: Statistical clerks................ Postmasters ...................................................... Pot liners, see: Aluminum industry ................. Potmen, see: Aluminum industry..................... Poultry farmers................................................ Pourers, see: Foundries.................................................. Iron and steel industry............................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing Power dispatchers, electric power ................... Power hammer operators, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Power linemen, electric power ......................... Power shear operators, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Power truck operators....................................... See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Trucking industry ............................. Powerplant occupations, electric power............ Practical nurses ................................................ Precision assemblers, electronics..................... Preparation plant central control operators, see: Coal mining............................................ Press operators, forge shop............................... Press photographers ......................................... Pressers, apparel .............................................. Pressmen, printing, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing............................. Priests, Roman Catholic................................... Print developers, machine, see: Photographic laboratory occupations................................. Printer operators, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Printer-slotter operators, paper and allied products ........................................................ Printers, see: Photographic laboratory occupa tions .............................................................. Printing and publish ing..................................... Printing occupations......................................... Printing pressmen and assistants, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing............................. Private duty nurses ........................................... Private household service occupations.............. Private outdoor recreation farmers ................. Probation and parole officers, see: Social workers Process engineers, paper and allied products ... Process metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry . Producers, assistants, radio and television........ 793 99 785 649 649 622 685 695 706 739 643 739 644 73 707 759 736 504 680 631 62 602 656 48 726 556 71 71 718 71 725 40 48 726 502 176 624 571 719 652 748 Procurement clerks, see: Stock clerks.............. Produce clerks, see: Retail food stores.............. Producer-directors, program, radio and television Production managers, advertising ................... Production managers, apparel ......................... Production painters........................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing....................................... Production planners, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft...................................................... Production technicians, see: Engineering and science technicians.......... Industrial engineering............................... Printing and publishing............................. Professional modelers, see: Industrial designers Program assistants, radio and television.......... Program directors, radio and television............ Programmers, electronic computer.................. See also: Office machine and computer manufacturing....................................... Proof machine operators, see: Bank clerks .... Proofreaders, printing and publishing.............. Property and liability insurance agents and brokers.......................................................... Protective and related service occupations .... Protestant ministers........................................... Psychiatric aides, see: Nursing aides ................ Psychiatric social workers................................. Psychologists.................................................... Public health nurses........................................... Public health sanitarians, see: Sanitarians........ Public librarians................................................ Public relations workers ................................... Public works inspectors..................................... Pumpers, petroleum and natural g a s................ Pumpmen, petroleum refining ......................... Punch press operators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ................................................. Electronics manufacturing ....................... Purchasing agents ............................................. Pursers, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant officers ..................................... 819 101 767 748 131 657 74 645 644 393 393 726 595 748 748 109 712 114 726 226 175 553 505 571 563 502 525 212 147 196 441 723 643 681 150 744 299 Quality assurance technicians, see: Food proc essing technicians........................................... 396 Quaratine inspectors, foreign........................... 190 Rabbis................................................................ 555 Rack clerks, hotel ............................................. 91 Radiation monitors, atomic energy................. 665 Radiation physicists, atomic energy................. 665 820 Radio and television announcers ..................... Radio and television broadcasting occupations . Radio officers, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant marine officers......................... Radio operators, ground................................... Radio service technicians ................................. Radiographers, see: Aluminum industry................................... Atomic energy........................................... Radioisotope-production operators, atomic en ergy ................................................................ Radiologic (X-ray) technologists..................... Radiological physicists, atomic energy ............ Railroad bridge and building workers.............. Railroad clerks.................................................. Railroad conductors ......................................... Railroad industry.............................................. Railroad occupations ....................................... Ranchers............................................................ Range conservationists, see: Range managers . Range ecologists, see: Range managers........... Range managers ........... Range scientists, see: Range managers ............ Rate clerks, see: Trucking industry ................. Real estate agents ............................................ Real estate salesworkers and brokers............... Realtors ............................................................ Receipt clerks, merchant marine industry........ Receiving clerks, see: Baking industry......................................... Shipping and receiving clerks................... Receptionists.............................. Record keepers, see: Statistical clerks............. Recording technicians, radio and television ... Recreation workers.......................................... Reference librarians ......................................... Refinery mechanics, petroleum refining .......... Refrigeration engineers, see: Merchant seamen Refrigeration mechanics................................... Regional geographers....................................... Regional planners ............................................. Registered nurses.............................................. Registered representatives, see: Securities sales workers .......................................................... Rehabilitation counselors................................. Rehabilitation workers, see: Social workers ... Reinforcing-iron workers, building trades........ Remelt operators, see: Aluminum industry .... Renderers, see: Commercial artists................. Repairmen, see: Aircraft mechanics ................................... 611 748 744 299 293 452 651 666 666 497 665 306 307 307 752 305 621 335 335 335 335 759 232 232 232 745 670 97 96 99 387 566 213 723 302 411 536 604 501 239 548 571 282 650 589 287 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Automobile body repairmen..................... 415 Central office repairmen, telephone.......... 406 Industrial machinery repairmen............... 437 Instrument repairmen............................... 438 Jewelry repairmen..................................... 440 Locksmiths................................................ 442 Shoe repairmen ......................................... 451 Telephone and PBX repairmen ............... 409 Television and radio service technicians .. 452 Vending machine operators ..................... 457 Watch repairmen....................................... 459 See also listings under Mechanics and under Servicemen. Report clerks, merchant marine industry .......... 745 Reporters, newspaper ......................................... 609 Research and development technicians, see: Food processing technicians............................ 396 Research assistants, lawyers................................ 143 Research dietitians ............................................. 517 Research directors, advertising............................ 131 Research workers, marketing.............................. 144 Reservation agents and clerks,airline............... 297 Reservation clerks, hotel................................... 91 Reservation control agents............................... 297 Residential carriers, mail carriers ................... 199 Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering in stallers ............................................................... 262 Respiratory therapists....................................... 499 Resistance-welding operators............................... 81 Restaurant industry............................................. 764 Retail food stores................................................. 767 Retail trade salesworkers .................................... 235 Retouchers, photographic laboratory occupa tions .................................................................. 71 Rewrite men, see: Newspaper reporters............ 609 Rig builders, petroleum and natural gas ............ 635 Riggers and machine movers, building trades .. 282 Riveters, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft........ 645 Rock-dust machine operators, see: Coal mining . 641 Rocket assembly mechanics, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ................................................. 645 Rodmen, see: Reinforcing-iron workers ............ 282 Rodmen, see: Surveyors ...................................... 399 Roll turners, iron and steel .................................. 696 Rollers, iron and steel ......................................... 695 Rolling mill operators, see: Aluminum industry 650 Roman Catholic Priests ...................................... 556 Roof bolters, see: Coal mining............................ 631 Roofers................................................................. 277 Room and desk clerks, hotel............................. 91 Rotary drillers, petroleum and natural gas .... 635 Roustabouts, petroleum and natural g as.......... 635 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Route salesmen, see: Routemen....................... Route salesmen and drivers, laundry and drycleaning .......................................................... Route supervisors, baking................................. Routemen.......................................................... See also: Baking industry ......................... Rural carriers, mail carriers............................. Rural sociologists, agriculture ......................... Safety engineers, see: Coal mining................... Sales clerks, retail trade ................................... Sales managers, see: Radio and television broadcasting.................................................. Sales occupations.............................................. Salesworkers, see: Automobile parts countermen ................. Automobile salesworkers ......................... Automobile service advisors..................... Computer salesmen................................... Insurance agents and brokers................... Manufacturers’ salesworkers................... Real estate saleworkers and brokers ........ Retail trade salesworkers ......................... Securities salesworkers............................. Wholesale trade salesworkers................... Sample makers, apparel ................................... Sample-taker operators, petroleum and natural gas.................................................................. Sand mixers, foundries ..................................... Sandblasters, forge shop................................... Sanitarians........................................................ Scalemen, see: Aluminum industry ................. Scalers, lumber mills......................................... Scalper operators, see: Aluminum industry .... Scenic designers, television............................... School counselors ............................................. School media specialists, see: Librarians.......... School social workers ....................................... School teachers, see: Agriculture..................... School teachers, see: Teachers......................... Science technicians ........................................... Scientific and technical occupations................. Scientists, environmental ................................. Scientists, life.................................................... Scientists, physical............................................. Scientists, range................................................ Scientists, soil.................................................... Sealers, electronics manufacturing................... Seamen; see: Merchant seamen ....................... Seamstresses, laundry and drycleaning............ Seat-cover installers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men ..................................... 637 784 671 237 670 199 625 632 235 749 218 219 220 222 712 226 230 232 235 239 242 655 637 685 63 525 650 701 650 748 544 213 569 625 208 391 329 352 365 377 335 369 681 301 785 54 Second assistant engineers, see: Merchant ma rine officers.................................................... Second loaders, logging..................................... Second mates, see: Merchant marine officers . . Secondary school teachers ............................... See also: Home economists....................... Secretaries ........................................................ Securities, salesworkers ................................... Seismologists, see: Geophysicists..................... Senior typists.................................................... Separation tenders, see: Coal mining............... Service advisors, see: Automobile service ad visors .............................................................. Service and miscellaneous................................. Service occupations........................................... Service salesmen, see: Automobile service ad visors .............................................................. Service station attendants, see: Gasoline service station attendants ......................................... Service station mechanic-attendants ............... Service technicians, computer ......................... Service writers, see: Automobile service ad visors .............................................................. Servicemen, see: Appliance servicemen ............................... Business machine servicemen................... Electric sign servicemen ........................... Gas appliance servicemen......................... Neon sign servicemen ............................... Piano and organ servicemen..................... Telephone and PBX servicemen................ Television and radio service technicians .. Setup men (machine tools)............................... Sewage plant operators..................................... Sewing machine operators, see: Apparel industry ....................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing Shakeout men, see: Foundries ......................... Shearmen, iron and steel................................... Sheet-metal workers......................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ......................................... Railroad shop trades......................... Shipping checkers, see: Statistical clerks.......... Shipping and receiving clerks........................... Ship’s carpenters, see: Merchant seamen ........ Ship’s electricians, see: Merchant seamen........ Shirt finishers, laundry and drycleaning .......... Shoe repairmen ................................................ Shooters, petroleum and natural g a s ............... Shop trades, railroad......................................... 821 299 701 298 206 560 102 239 355 105 632 222 779 153 222 224 224 426 222 413 423 433 411 433 448 409 452 37 79 656 707 685 695 279 643 310 99 97 302 302 785 451 635 310 822 Shorthand reporters ........................................... Shot firers, see: Coal mining................................ Shotblasterers, see: Forge shop................................................ Foundries..................................................... Shothole drillers, helpers, petroleum and natu ral g as.............................................................. Shothole drillers, petroleum and natural gas ... Shuttle car operators, see: Coal mining............ Signal department workers, railroad.................. Signal maintainers, railroad................................ Signalmen, railroad............................................. Silk screen printers, electronics manufacturing Singers ................................................................. Skipmen, iron and steel..................................... Slaggers, iron and steel..................................... Slate roofers, building trades ........................... Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators, baking . Slide mounters, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Soaking pit cranemen, iron and steel.................. Soaking pit operators, aluminum........................ Social scientists ................................................... Social secretaries................................................. Social service aides ........................................... Social service occupations................................. Social welfare aides............................................. Social workers..................................................... Sociologists ......................................................... Soil conservationists ........................................... Soil scientists....................................................... Sorters, see: Bank clerks................................... Sorters, lumber mills........................................... Sorters, see: Paper and allied products indus tries .................................................................. Sound effects technicians, radio and television . Space buyers, see: Advertising workers.............. Spacecraft manufacturing occupations............ Special agents, see: FBI Special Agents............ Special librarians................................................. Speech pathologists............................................. Spotters, laundry and drycleaning...................... Sprayers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................... Sprinkler Fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters . Staff officers, see: Merchant marine officers ... Stage managers, radio and television.................. State and local government occupations.......... State highway patrolmen .................................... State police officers.......................................... Station agents, air traffic ................................... Station agents, railroad..................................... Station installers, telephone................................ 103 631 63 685 635 635 631 311 311 311 681 583 693 694 277 670 71 695 650 529 103 568 543 568 570 539 337 369 114 702 718 749 131 643 175 213 514 785 707 275 299 748 797 187 187 297 312 409 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Stationary engineers ......................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Paper and allied products.................. Stationary firemen (boiler)............................... Statistical assistants ......................................... Statistical clerks................................................ Statisticians ...................................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing ............... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters .... Steel industry occupations ............................... Steel pourers, iron and steel ............................. Stenographers and secretaries ............................ Stereotypers, printing, see: Printing occupations................................. Printing and publishing............................. Stewardesses .................................................... Stewards............................................................ Stillmen, petroleum refining............................. Stock chasers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.............................................. Stock clerks...................................................... See also: Baking industry................................. Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Retail food store ............................... Stock house larrymen, iron and steel................ Stock house men, iron and steel....................... Stonemasons .................................................... Stove tenders, iron and steel............................. Stratigraphers, see: Geologists......................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ......................... Stretcher-leveler-operators, aluminum industry Strippers, printing ............................................. Structural-iron workers, building trades ....... Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron workers, riggers, and machine movers.......... Student activities personnel, college student personnel workers ......................................... Student financial aid personnel, college student personnel workers ......................................... Student housing officers, college student per sonnel workers ............................................... Studio supervisors, radio and television............ Stylists, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing ............................................................ 75 652 718 77 100 99 374 679 706 712 275 692 694 102 43 726 290 290 722 707 101 670 707 767 693 692 280 693 353 635 651 45 282 282 135 135 135 748 704 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Substation operators, electric power ............... Supercalendar operators, paper and allied prod ucts ................................................................ Surfacers, optical mechanics ........................... Surgical technicians........................................... Surveyors.......................................................... See also: Coal mining....................................... Petroleum and natural gas production and processing............................... Switchboard operators, electric power.............. Switchers, petroleum and natural gas .............. Switchmen, railroad ......................................... Switchmen, telephone....................................... Synoptic meteorologists ................................... Systems analysts .............................................. See also: Office machine and computer manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry ... Systems operators, electric power ................... Tablet coaters, drug industry ........................... Tablet testers, drug industry............................. Tabulating machine operators......................... Tailors, apparel ................................................ Talleymen, see; Statistical clerks..................... Tape librarians, see: Computer operating per sonnel ............................................................ Tape-to-card converter operators, see: Com puter operating personnel ............................. Tappers, see: Aluminum industry..................... Taxi drivers ...................................................... Teachers, college and university....................... Teachers, dancing ............................................ Teachers, high school ....................................... Teachers, home economists ............................. Teachers, kindergarten and elementary school . Teachers, music................................................ Teachers, secondary school............................... See also: Home economists....................... Teachers, singing.............................................. Teachers, vocational, agriculture..................... Teaching occupations ....................................... Technical illustrators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing .................................................... Electronics manufacturing ....................... Technical secretaries......................................... Technical stenographers................................... Technical writers.............................................. See also: Electronics manufacturing ........ Technician occupations..................................... 739 718 431 494 399 632 635 736 636 305 405 357 Ill 712 719 739 676 676 93 656 99 107 107 649 325 208 579 206 560 204 581 206 560 583 625 204 643 680 103 103 613 680 391 Technicians, broadcasting, radio and television Technicians, dental laboratory......................... Technicians, drug industry ............................... Technicians, engineering and science............... Technicians, food processing ........................... Technicians, foundries....................................... Technicians, forestry, see: Forestry aides and technicians.................................................... Technicians, medical record............................. Technicians, medical X-ray............................. Technicians, television and radio service.......... Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen, rail road ................................................................ Telephone crafts occupation............................. Telephone industry ........................................... Telephone installers........................................... Telephone linemen and cable splicers................ Telephone operators ......................................... Telephone repairmen......................................... Telephone servicemen....................................... Telephoners, railroad ....................................... Teletypists ........................................................ Television and radio service technicians .......... Television announcers....................................... Television broadcasting occupations................ Tellers, banking................................................ Terrazzo workers, building trades ................... Testboardmen, telephone................................. Testing technicians, paper and allied products . Therapeutic dietitians....................................... Therapists, inhalation....................................... Therapists, occupations..................................... Therapists, physical........................................... Therapy and rehabilitation occupations .......... Therapy assistants, occupational..................... Third assistant engineers, see: Merchant marine officers .......................................................... Third mates, see: Merchant marine officers ... Thread trimmers and cleaners, apparel............ Ticket agents, airline......................................... Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers............................... Tile roofers, building trades ............................. Tilesetters, building trades ............................... Timber cruisers, logging................................... Time buyers, see: Advertising workers ............ Time salesmen, radio and television................. Tinners, electronics manufacturing ................. Tobacco farmers ............................................... Tool-and-die makers......................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ....................................... Electronics manufacturing ............... 823 387 471 676 391 396 685 334 392 497 452 313 405 755 409 406 200 409 409 313 293 452 611 748 117 266 405 719 517 499 508 511 508 510 299 298 656 297 88 277 266 701 131 749 681 623 38 645 681 824 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Tool designers, see: Mechanical technicians ... Tool pushers, see: Office machine and com putermanufacturing ..................................... Toolmakers, electronics manufacturing .......... Towermen, railroad........................................... Toxicologists, drug industry............................. Tracers, see: Draftsmen ................................... Tractor operators, see: Coal mining................. Track workers, railroad ................................... Trackmen, railroad........................................... Traffic agents and clerks, airline ..................... Traffic controllers, air-route............................. Traffic controllers, airport ............................... Traffic managers, industrial............................. Traffic managers, radio and television............. Traffic representatives, airline ......................... Trainmen, see: Brakemen, railroad................. Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists .. Transit clerks, see: Bank clerks ....................... Transmission and distribution occupations, electric power................................................ Transmitter technicians, radio and television .. Transportation activities................................... Transportation, communication, and public utilities .......................................................... Treaters, see: Petroleum and natural gas ....................... Petroleum refining..................................... Treatment plant operators, wastewater............ Trimmer saw operators, lumber m ills.............. Trimmers, forge shop ....................................... Trimmers, hand, apparel................................... Troopers, see: State police officers................... Troublemen, electric power ............................. Truck mechanic helpers, see: Trucking industry Truck mechanics.............................................. See also: Trucking industry....................... Truckdriver helpers........................................... Truckdrivers, see: Baking industry......................................... Drug industry............................................ Electronics manufacturing ....................... Foundries.................................................. Office machine and computer manu facturing ................................................ Trucking.................................................... Truckdrivers, local............................................ Truckdrivers, long-distance ............................. Trucking industry ............................................. Tube benders, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft . Tumbler operators, foundries........................... OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 713 393 713 681 313 676 390 631 313 313 297 286 286 140 748 297 305 105 115 739 387 285 729 636 723 79 756 63 656 187 739 759 454 759 759 671 676 681 685 714 759 319 321 758 645 685 Tune-up men, see: Automobile mechanics .... Turbine operators, electric power..................... Type inspectors, office machine and computer manufacturing............................................... Typesetters, hard, printing, see: Composing room occupations ................. Printing and publishing............................. Typesetting machine operators, printing.......... Typists .............................................................. Underwriters, insurance................................... See also: Insurance industry..................... University librarians......................................... University teachers ........................................... Upholsterers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men Furniture upholsterers............................... Upsetters, forge shop......................................... Urban geographers ........................................... Urban planners ................................................ Utility men, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... Valets, see: Private household workers............ Varitypists ........................................................ Vending machine mechanics............................. Vending machine routemen, see: Routemen ... Veterinarians.................................................... See also: Agriculture......................................... Life scientists..................................... Video-control technicians, television................ Video recording technicians, television ............ Virologists, see: Drug industry......................... Vocational agriculture teachers, see: Agri culture ............................................................ Vocational counselors, see: Employment counselors...................................................... Vocational nurses, licensed............................... Volcanologists, see: Geologists......................... Wage-hour compliance officers ....................... Waiters and waitresses ..................................... Wash box attendants, see: Coal mining............ Washers, see: Trucking industry....................... Washmen, laundry and drycleaners.................. Waste disposal men, atomic energy................. Waste treatment engineers and technicians, see: Petroleum refining................................. Waste-treatment operators, atomic energy .... Wastewater treatment plant operators ............ Watch engineers, electric power....................... Watch repairmen.............................................. 417 736 713 40 726 40 105 125 776 213 208 53 64 63 536 604 744 302 176 105 457 237 483 624 366 387 387 676 625 546 504 352 192 167 632 759 784 666 666 723 79 737 459 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Watchmakers.................................................... Watchmen ........................................................ Waterproof workers, see: Roofers................... Waybill clerks, see: Typists............................... Welders,gas...................................................... Welders, petroleum and natural gas................. Welders and flame cutters................................. See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing............................... Electronics manufacturing ............... Natural gas processing ..................... Welding operators, resistance........................... Well pullers, petroleum and natural gas .......... Wheat farmers.................................................. Wholesale and retail trade ............................... Wholesale trade salesworkers........................... Window clerks, postal clerks ........................... 459 183 277 105 81 636 81 645 681 636 81 637 622 763 641 94 Wipers, see: Merchant marine industry ....................... Merchant seamen ..................................... Wire draw operators, aluminum....................... Wire drawers, iron and steel............................. Wood patternmakers, foundry occupations ... Working housekeepers, see: Private household workers.......................................................... Writers, technical............................................... X-ray technicians, medical............................... Yard brakemen, railroad ................................. Yarder engineers, logging................................. Young adult services librarian ......................... Zoologists, see: Drug industry............................................. Life scientists............................................. 825 744 302 651 695 26 177 613 497 305 701 213 675 366 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index D.O.T. No. 001.081 001.281 002. 002.081 002.281 003. 003.081 003.151 003.187 003.281 005. 005.081 005.281 006. 006.081 007. 007.081 007.151 007.168 007.181 007.187 007.281 008. 008.081 010. 010.081 010.168 010.187 010.281 010.288 011. 011.081 012. Architect........................................... Architect, marine............................. Draftsman, architectural................ Aeronautical engineering occupations ............................................. Aeronautical engineer.................... Draftsman, aeronautical................ Electrical engineering occupations . Electrical engineer.......................... Industrial-power engineer.............. Electrical engineer, power.............. Systems engineer............................. Draftsman, electrical...................... Draftsman, electronic.................... Estimator and draftsman .............. Civil engineering occupations........ Civil engineer................................... Draftsman, civil............................... Draftsman, structural .................... Ceramic engineering occupations.. Ceramic engineer............................. Mechanical engineering occupations ......................................... Air-conditioning engineer.............. Mechanical engineer....................... Refrigeration engineer.................... Heating engineer............................. Chief engineer ................................. Mechanical-engineering technician ........................................... Engineering assistant mechanical equipment..................................... Plant engineer ................................. Draftsman, mechanical.................. Lay-out man and checker.............. Chemical engineering occupations . Chemical engineer........................... Mining and petroleum engineering occupations ................................. Mining engineer............................... Observer........................................... Mining investigator......................... Draftsman, geological.................... Draftsman, mine ............................. Prospecting computer.................... Metallurgy and metallurgical engineering occupations ................ Foundry metallurgist....................... Metallurgist, extractive.................. Industrial engineering occupations. 826 Page 586 745 389 391 342 389 391 346 346 346 111 389 389 389 391 345 389 389 391 344 391 676 348,676 676 348, 676 348 348,676 676 348,676 389 389 391 345,676 D O T. No. 012.081 012.168 012.187 012.188 012.281 013. 013.081 014. 014.281 015. 017. 017.281 018. 018.188 019. 019.081 019.187 019.281 020. 020.081 020.088 020.188 391 350, 632 635 350, 632 389 389,635 635 021. 021.088 022. 022.081 391 348 349 391 022.168 022.181 022.281 Page Safety engineer................................. Director, quality control................ Methods engineer, chief ................ Systems analyst, business electronic data processing................ Manufacturing engineer ................ Efficiency engineer ......................... Factory-lay-out m an....................... Fire-protection engineer ................ Industrial engineer........................... Industrial-health engineer.............. Production engineer......................... Production planner ......................... Quality-control engineer................ Time study engineer......................... Air analyst....................................... Agricultural engineering occupations ............................................. Agricultural engineer....................... Marine engineering occupations ... Draftsman, marine ......................... Nuclear engineering occupations .. Draftsmen and related work.......... Technical illustrator ....................... Surveying and related work .......... Surveyor ........................................... Architecture and engineering, n.e.c................................................ Landscape architect......................... Drainage-design coordinator ........ Quality-control technician ............ Occupations in mathematics.......... Applications engineer ..................... Mathematician................................. Statistician, mathematical ............ Actuary ........................................... Programmer, business..................... Programmer, engineering and scientific ........................................... Statistician, applied......................... Occupations in astronomy ............ Astronomer ..................................... Occupations in chemistry .............. Chemist, analytical ......................... Chemist, food................................... Chemist, inorganic........................... Chemist, organic ............................. Chemical-laboratory chief ............ Perfumer........................................... Chemist, water purification .......... 347,676 676 347,676 111 676 676 676 676 347, 676 676 676 644,676 676 676 676 391 343, 624 391 389 389,391 389, 391 644 391 399,632, 635 391 599 348 726 391 111 371 111 119,776 109 109 374 391 377 391 379,381,675 379, 381 379, 381,675 379, 381,675 379 379 379 DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D O T.) INDEX DOT. No. Page Malt-specification-control assistant . 396 023. Occupations in physics ................... 391 023.081 Physicist........................................... 383 Physicist, light ................................. 383 023.088 Physicist, theoretical....................... 383 024. Occupations in geology................... 391 024.081 Geologist ......................................... 352,635 Geophysicist..................................... 354, 635 Minerologist..................................... 635 Oceanographer................................. 359 Paleontologist ................................. 635 Petrologist ....................................... 635 Photogeologist................................. 635 Stratigrapher................................... 635 025. Occupations in meteorology.......... 391 025.088 Meteorologist................................... 357 029. Occupations in mathematics and physical sciences, n.e.c.................. 391 029.088 Geographer ..................................... 535 029.381 Bottle-house quality-control tech nician ........................................... 396 Laboratory tester............................. 396 040. Occupations in agricultural sci ences ............................................. 365 040.081 Agronomist ..................................... 624 Animal husbandman....................... 624 Food technologist ........................... 381 Forester ........................................... 332,625,701 Range manager ............................... 335 Soil conservationist......................... 337 Soil scientist..................................... 369 041.081 Anatomist......................................... 365 Biochemist....................................... 363,381,675 Biologist........................................... 675 Botanist ........................................... 675 Entomologist................................... 625 Geneticist......................................... 625 Microbiologist................................. 625,675 Oceanographer................................. 359 Pharmacologist ............................... 675 675 Physiologist ..................................... Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspector ......................... 625 Plant scientist................................... 625 041.168 Fish culturist ..................................... 365 041.181 Histopathologist ............................... 365,675 041.281 Public-health bacteriologist ............ 365 045.088 Psychologist, developmental.......... 563 Psychologist, educational.............. 563 Psychologist, engineering............... 563 Psychologist, experimental............ 563 Psychologist, social......................... 563 045.108 Counselor........................................... 134,546 Director of guidance ....................... 548 Psychologist, clinical ....................... 563 Psychologist, counseling................ 563 Psychologist, school ....................... 544 Residence counselor ....................... 134 050.088 Economist ....................................... 532,624 Market research analyst................. 130,144 827 DOT. No. 051.088 052.088 054.088 055.088 059.088 070.101 070.108 071.108 072.108 073.081 073.108 073.181 073.281 073.381 074.181 075. 077.081 077.128 077.168 078.128 078.168 078.281 078.381 078.368 078.687 079.108 079.118 079.128 079.368 079.378 090.118 090.168 Political scientist............................. Historian ......................................... Sociologist ....................................... Anthropologist................................. Economic geographer..................... Surgeon ............................................ General practitioner ....................... Osteopathic physician..................... Dentist ............................................. Veterinarian laboratory animal care............................................... Veterinarian..................................... Veterinary livestock-inspector . . . . Veterinary virus-serum inspector .. Laboratory technician, veterinary . Pharmacist....................................... Registered nurses.............................. Research nutritionist....................... Dietitian, teaching........................... Dietitian, therapeutic....................... Nutritionist ..................................... Dietitian........................................... Dietitian, administrative................. Medical technologist, teaching supervisor..................................... Medical technologist, chief............ Radiologic technologist, chief........ Biochemistry technologist............... Medical technologist ..................... Microbiology technologist ............ Medical-laboratory assistant........ Tissue technologist ......................... Dental hygienist............................... Electrocardiograph technician . . . . Electroencephalograph technician . Radiologic technologist................... Laboratory assistant, plasma drawing-off................................... Audiologist....................................... Chiropractor ................................... Optometrist ..................................... Podiatrist ......................................... Speech pathologist........................... Sanitarian......................................... Occupational therapist ................... Recreational therapist..................... Corrective therapist......................... Inhalation therapist......................... Medical assistant............................. Occupational therapist aid ............. Dental assistant................................. Nurse, licensed practical................. Surgical technician ......................... Dean of students ............................. Financial-aids officer....................... Department head, college or uni versity ........................................... Director of admissions ................... Director of student affairs............... Director of summer sessions.......... Page 538 534 539,625 529 535 478 478 476 465 483, 624 483 483 483 676 523 501 517 517 517 517,625 517 517 489, 676 489, 497, 676 489,497 676 489 676 489,676 676 469 485 486 497 676 514 473 475 481 514 525 508 566 511 499 488 510 467 504 494 134 134 208 134 134 134 828 DOT. No. 090.228 090.999 091.228 092.228 096.128 099.228 100. 100.388 110.108 110.118 119.168 120.108 129.108 132.088 132.268 132.388 137.268 139.288 141.031 141.081 141.168 142.051 142.081 143.062 143.282 143.382 150.028 150.048 151.028 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Discipline counselor......................... Registrar, college or university . .. . Faculty member, college or university........................................... Graduate assistant........................... Teacher, agriculture ....................... Teacher, secondary school ............ Teacher, elementary school .......... Teacher, kindergarten.................... Extension service specialist............ Home economist ............................. Home economist, consumer service ............................................... Governess......................................... Librarians......................................... Medical-record librarian................ Lawyer............................................. Lawyer, admiralty........................... Lawyer, corporation ....................... Lawyer, criminal............................. Lawyer, patent................................. Lawyer, probate............................... Lawyer, real estate........................... Title supervisor ............................... Clergyman ....................................... Director of religious activities........ Copy writer ..................................... Reporter........................................... Editor, index..................................... Interpreter ....................................... Technical writer............................... Director, a rt..................................... Advertising lay-out man ................ Art lay-out m an............................... Cartoonist, motion pictures .......... Color advisor................................... Cover designer................................. Illustrator......................................... Lay-out man..................................... Medical illustrator........................... Miniature-set constructor.............. Stipple artist..................................... Production manager, advertising .. Interior designer and decorator ... Designer........................................... Floral designer................................. Industrial designer........................... Photographer apprentice, commercial................................................. Photographer apprentice, portrait . Photographer, commercial............ Photographer, news......................... Photographer, portrait ................... Photographer, scientific ................ Biological photographer................ Photographer, aerial....................... Dramatic coach ............................... Teacher, drama ............................... Actor................................................. Instructor, dancing ......................... Page 134 208 DO T . No. 151.048 152.028 208 208 625 206 204 204 559 560 152.048 560 176 212 521 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 553,555,556 134 130 609 90 606 613 589 130 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 130 597 654 593 595 159.228 160.188 161.118 162.158 163.118 164. 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 576 576 576 478 159.148 165.068 166. 166.168 166.268 168.168 168.268 168.287 168.288 169.188 180.188 182.168 182.287 184.168 186.118 186.138 186.168 186.288 187.118 187.168 188.118 189.118 189.168 191.118 191.268 Dancer ............................................. Teacher, music................................. Concert singer ................................. Musical entertainer......................... Musician, instrumental................... Orchestra leader............................... Popular singer ................................. Announcer....................................... Announcer, international broadcast ................................................ Disc jockey....................................... Sports announcer............................. Counselor, camp ............................. Accountant....................................... Treasurer ......................................... Purchasing agent............................. Hotel manager................................. Advertising management occupations ............................................. Public-relations m an....................... Personnel and training administration occupations........................... Director of placement..................... Placement officer............................. Building inspector ........................... Customs inspector........................... Health officer, field......................... Immigration inspector..................... Manager, credit and collection . . . . Operations inspector....................... Safety-and-sanitary inspector........ Check viewer ................................... Food and drug inspector................. Inspector, weights and measures .. Plant-quarantine inspector............ Poultry grader ................................. Sanitary inspector........................... Claim examiner............................... Underwriter..................................... Field m an......................................... Track worker................................... Construction inspector ................... Manager, traffic............................... Manager, financial institution . . . . Manager, safe deposits ................... Operations officer ........................... Loan officer..................................... Manager, hotel................................. Scout, professional sports.............. Superintendent, institution............ Superintendent, recreation............ Director, funeral ............................. Manager, front office ..................... Superintendent, building................ Manager, city................................... President........................................... Junior executive............................... Leaseman......................................... Right-of-way agent ......................... Claim adjuster................................. Page 478 581,583 583 583 583 581 583 611 611 611 611 566 128 116 130, 150 139 130 147 146 134 550 195 189 189 189 137 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 123 125,776 150 313 195 140 116 116 116 116,137 139 566 519 566 173 139 139, 155 132 116 116 150,635 150 121 DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D.O.T.) INDEX DOT. Page No. DO T . No. 193.168 193.282 286 293 299, 744 387 387 387 387 570 209.138 209.382 209.388 570 570 570 209.688 210.368 210.388 570 570 570 570 566 566 570 570 566 294 294 294 294 298 298 299 299 298 743 744 298 298 298,743 298, 743 299,744 307 604 651 103 103 102 102 105 105 105 105 293 90, 99 90 90 99 210.488 210.588 211. 211.468 212.368 213.138 194.281 194.282 194.782 195.108 195.118 195.168 195.208 195.228 196.168 196.228 196.268 196.283 197.130 197.133 197.136 197.168 198.168 199.168 199.381 201.268 201.368 202.388 203. 203.582 203.588 205.368 206.388 206.588 207.782 207.884 207.885 208.588 208.782 Air-traffic controller....................... Ground radio operator ................... Radio officer ................................... Sound-effects m an........................... Sound m an....................................... Sound mixer..................................... Recording-machine operator........ Caseworker ..................................... Community-relations and services advisor, public housing .............. Group worker................................... Social group worker ....................... Social worker, delinquency prevention ............................................... Administrator, social welfare........ Director, welfare ............................. Casework supervisor....................... Director, camp................................. Director, recreation center............ Case aid ........................................... Program aid, group work .............. Program leader ............................... Chief pilot......................................... Instructor, p ilot............................... Check pilot....................................... Airplane pilot................................... Chief engineer ................................. First assistant engineer .................. Second assistant engineer .............. Third assistant engineer ................ Chief mate ....................................... Deck officer ..................................... Marine engineer............................... Second mate..................................... Third m ate....................................... Captain............................................. Master ............................................. Purser............................................... Conductor ....................................... Urban planner ................................. Radiographer................................... Social secretary ............................... Secretary ......................................... Court reporter ................................. Stenographer ................................... Typists ............................................. Varitypists ....................................... Mortgage clerk ............................... Policy writer..................................... Telegraphic-typewriter operator .. Personnel clerk................................. File clerk I ....................................... File clerk II (classification clerk) .. Record keeper ................................. Duplicating machine operator II and III ......................................... Duplicating machine operator I ... Duplicating machine operator IV .. Transcribing-machine operator ... Embossing-machine operator........ 93 93 93 105, 726 93 209.488 209.584 209.587 209.588 213.382 213.582 213.588 213.782 213.885 214.488 215.388 216.388 216.488 217.388 219.388 219.488 219.588 222.138 222.368 222.387 222.388 222.478 222.488 222.587 829 Page Stenographic-pool supervisor........ Justowriter operator ....................... Clerk-typist ..................................... Mortgage clerk ............................... Circulation clerk ............................. Morticer........................................... Sampleman, paper........................... Car checker ..................................... Waybill clerk ................................... Checker II ....................................... Account-information clerk............ Bookkeeper (clerical) I ................... Bookkeeper (clerical) II ................. Dividend-deposit-voucher quoter .. Insurance clerk................................. Cashiers ........................................... Station agent II ............................... Teller................................................. Supervisor, computer operations .. Supervisor, machine-records unit . . Card-to-tape converter operator .. Console operator............................. High-speed printer operator.......... Tape-to-card converter operator .. Key-punch operator......................... Data typist ....................................... Tabulating-machine operator........ Sorting-machine operator.............. Billing-machine operator .............. Bookkeeping-machine operator I .. Bookkeeping-machine operator II . Adding-machine operator.............. Calculating-machine operator . . . . Proof-machine operator ................ Transit clerk..................................... Actuarial clerk................................. Billing clerk ..................................... Checker ........................................... Coding clerk..................................... Country-collection clerk................. Crew scheduler................................. Demurrage clerk ............................. Exchange clerk................................. Interest clerk ................................... Manifest clerk ................................. Rate clerk......................................... Sorter ............................................... Statistical clerk ............................... Accounting clerk ............................. Insurance clerk................................. Kardex clerk..................................... Posting clerk ................................... Shipping clerk ................................. Expediter ......................................... Freight-receiving clerk ................... Container coordinator..................... Retail-receiving clerk ..................... Manifest clerk ................................. Receipt clerk ................................... Shipping clerk ................................. 102 105 105 115 105 105 105 99 105 97, 726 87 87 115 87 87 88 312 117 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 93 107 92 92, 114 87 93 93 114 115 100 87,97, 745 87 99 115 100 100 115 115 745 759 114 100 87,99, 115 100 90 99 97 97 97 97 97 759 97 97 830 D O T. No. 222.588 222.687 223.138 223.368 223.387 223.388 223.588 223.687 231.688 232.138 232.368 233.138 233.388 234.582 234.885 235.862 236.588 237.368 239.588 241.168 241.368 242.368 249.268 249.368 249.388 250.258 250.358 251.258 252.358 \ 26 27 \ 28 ‘ 266.158 280.358 289.358 290. 292.358 292.887 297.868 298.081 299.468 299.884 301.887 303.138 303.878 304.887 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Traffic clerk..................................... Shipping checker............................. Supervisor, stock............................. Procurement clerk........................... Checker ........................................... Linen-room attendant.................... Magazine keeper............................. Material clerk ................................. Parts clerk ....................................... Stock clerk....................................... Storekeeper ..................................... Tape librarian ................................. Tool clerk......................................... Inventory clerk................................. Swatch clerk..................................... Talley man ....................................... Checker I ......................................... Distribution clerk............................. Foreman, mails ............................... Post-office clerk............................... Foreman, carriers ........................... Mail carrier ..................................... Mail preparing and mail handling . Mail preparing and mail handling . Information operator ..................... Telephone operator......................... Telegrapher and telephoner .......... Receptionist..................................... Meter reader ................................... Router............................................... Claim adjuster................................. Claims clerk..................................... Front office clerk............................. Claim examiner............................... Library assistant ............................. Medical record clerk....................... Life underwriter............................... Salesman, insurance ....................... Salesman, real estate....................... Salesman, securities......................... Leaseman......................................... Salesmen and salespersons, com modities ....................................... Pharmaceutical detail m an............ Salesman, automobile.................... Salesperson, parts ........................... Sales checkers ................................. Driver salesman............................... Routeman......................................... Salesman-driver helper.................. M odel............................................... Display m an..................................... Cashier-checker............................... Optician, dispensing ...................... Day worker....................................... Housekeeper, hom e......................... Farm housekeeper ........................... Farm housemaid ............................. Man-of-all-work ............................. Page 97 97,99 101 101 101 101 101 101 101,759 97 101 107 101 101 101 101 101 94 94 94 199 199 93 93 96 200 313 96 741 97 121,775 758 91 123,775 215 492 226 776 232 239 150 230, 235, 241 676 220 219 235 670 238,784 237 228 591 88 431 176 176 176 176 176 D O T. No. 305.281 306.878 307.878 309. 309.138 309.878 309.999 311. 312.878 313. 314. 315. 316. 318.887 321.138 324. 330.371 331.878 332.271 332.381 338.381 339.371 350.138 350.878 352.878 355.687 355.878 355.887 356.381 361.885 362.381 362.782 363.782 363.884 363.885 363.886 365.381 369.687 369.887 Yardman ......................................... C ook................................................. Maid, general................................... Mother’s helper............................... Nursemaid ....................................... Domestic service occupations, n.e.c................................................ Butler ............................................... Companion....................................... Personal maid ................................. V alet................................................. Domestic couple............................... Waiters, waitresses, and related food servicing occupations................... Bar attendant................................... Bartender......................................... Chefs and cooks, large hotels and restaurants................................... Chefs and cooks, small hotels and restaurants................................... Miscellaneous cooks, except dom estic........................................... Meatcutters, except in slaughtering and packing houses ..................... Utility man....................................... Housekeeper ................................... Inspectress ....................................... Bellmen and related occupations .. Barber............................................... Barber apprentice ........................... Manicurist ....................................... Cosmetologist ................................. Wig dresser....................................... Embalmer......................................... Electrologist..................................... Scalp-treatment operator.............. Chief steward................................... Messman ......................................... Stewardess....................................... Clothes-room worker ..................... Attendant, physical therapy.......... Emergency-entrance attendant. . . . Hospital guide ................................. Nurse aid ......................................... Orderly............................................. Psychiatric a id ................................. Tray-line worker ............................. Morgue man..................................... Horseshoer....................................... Washman......................................... Spotter ............................................. Drycleaner....................................... Presser, machine ............................. Presser, hand ................................... Presser, form ................................... Flat work finisher ........................... Shoe repairman ............................... Assembler......................................... Inspector........................................... Counter clerk................................... Page 176 176 176 176 176 176 176 176 176 176 176 166 161 161 163 163 163,302, 744 165 302 159 159 170 169 169 171 171 171 173 171 171 302,744 302, 744 290 505 512 505 505 505 505 505 505 505 55 784 785 785 313, 656, 785 656 656 785 451 785 785 784 DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D.O.T.) INDEX DO T . No. Page 372.868 373. 375.1 18 375.138 375.168 375.228 375.268 375.388 375.588 375.868 377.868 381.137 381.887 382. 389.781 389.884 441.137 441.168 441.384 441.687 441.887 449.287 500.380 500.782 500.884 500.885 Marker............................................. Guard ............................................... Watchman ....................................... Firemen, fire department .............. Police C h ief..................................... Desk officer ..................................... Desk officer, ch ief........................... Secretary of police........................... Commanding officer, harborpolice............................................. Commanding officer, homicide squad ............................................. Commanding officer, investigation division......................................... Commanding officer, motorcycle squad ............................................. Commanding officer, motor equipment ............................................. Detective ch ief................................. Harbor master................................. Matron, head................................... Pilot, highway patrol....................... Police captain, precinct.................. Police lieutenant, precinct.............. Police sergeant, precinct................ Special agent, F B I........................... Traffic lieutenant............................. Traffic sergeant............................... Police-academy instructor ............ Detective........................................... Fingerprint classifier....................... Parking enforcement officer.......... Border patrolman ........................... Matron............................................. Bailiff............................................... Sheriff, deputy................................. Charwoman, head ........................... Porter, head..................................... Charwoman ..................................... Cleaner, laboratory equipment___ Porter I ............................................. Porter I I ........................................... Janitors............................................. Termite treater................................. Exterminator................................... Suppression-crew leader................ Fire lookout..................................... Fire warden ..................................... Forestry aid ...................................... Fire patrolman................................. Forest-fire fighter ........................... Sprayer............................................. Tree pruner....................................... Tree planter ..................................... Cruiser ............................................. Plater ............................................... Plater, apprentice............................. Plater, barrel ................................... Matrix-plater................................... Plater, production ........................... 784 183 183 181 185,187 185 187 187 185 185 185 185 185 185 v 185 185 187 185 185 185 179 185 185 185,187 185, 187 185,187 185 185 185 185 185 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 156 156 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 701 58, 645 58 58 58 58, 707 D.O.T. No. 500.886 501.782 501.885 502.884 502.887 503.885 503.887 504.782 512.132 512.782 512.885 514.687 514.782 514.884 514.887 518.381 518.782 518.884 518.885 518.887 519.132 519.884 519.887 520.884 520.885 521.885 524.884 525.885 526.781 526.782 526.885 526.886 530.782 532.782 532.885 533.782 534.782 539.782 831 Page Laborer, electroplating.................. 58 Anodizer........................................... 681 Plater, hot dip ................................. 681 Blast furnace keeper ....................... 694 Second helper................................... 694 Scaleman ......................................... 650 Pickier ............................................. 63 Sandblaster and shotblaster .......... 63, 685 Heat treater ..................................... 63,645, 651,685 Melter foreman ............................... 694 First helper....................................... 694 Furnace operator............................. 685 Oxygen furnace operator................. 694 Stove tender..................................... 693 Potman............................................. 649 Remelt operator............................... 650 Casting inspector............................. 685 Casting operator ............................. 650 Pourer, m etal................................... 685, 694 Tapper ............................................. 649 Tapper, helper ................................. 649 Coremaker....................................... 29 Floor coremaker ............................. 29,685 Hand molder ................................... 685 Machine molder............................... 28, 685 Coresetter......................................... 685 Pourer............................................... 685 Coremaker, machine....................... 29 Core-oven tender............................. 685 Core assembler................................. 685 Foreman, blast furnace................... 693 Pot liner ........................................... 649 Foundry worker, general................. 685, 694 Molder, helper................................. 685,694 Third helper..................................... 694 Bench hand....................................... 669 Batter mixer..................................... 669 Blender ............................................. 669 Dividing-machine operator............ 669 Dough-brake-machine operator ... 669 Icing mixer....................................... 670 Mixer ............................................... 669 Molding machine operator............ 669 Pretzel-twisting-machine operator . 669 Sweet-goods-machine operator ... 669 Slicing-and-wrapping machine operator ........................................... 670 Hand icer ........................................ 670 Machine icer..................................... 670 All-round baker............................... 670 Dividerman ..................................... 669 Ovenman ......................................... 669 All-round baker helper .................. 670 Beater engineer ............................... 717 Digester operator............................. 717 Backtender ........................................ 717 Barker operator............................... 701,716 Power-barker operator ................... 701 Supercalendar operator................... 718 Paper machine operator ................. 717 D O T. No. 541.782 542.280 542.782 549.138 549.782 549.884 550.885 554.782 556.782 558.885 559.687 559.782 559.885 563.381 579.782 590.885 599.885 600.280 600.281 600.380 600.381 601.280 601.281 601.381 602. 603. 604. 605. 605.782 606. 609.381 609.885 610.381 610.782 611.782 611.885 612.281 612.381 613.780 613.782 613.885 614.782 Page Coal washer..................................... Crude oil treater............................... Stillman ........................................... Pumper............................................. Pumpman......................................... Preparation plant foreman............ Pumpman......................................... Treater ............................................. Pumpman......................................... Compounder ................................... Pill and tablet coater...................... Compressor ..................................... Chemical operator........................... Ampoule examiner ......................... Tablet tester. ............................. Chemical operator........................... Granulator machine operator........ Pharmaceutical operator................ Ampoule filler ................................. Kiln operator................................... Sand mixer....................................... Etcher, printed circuits .................. Firer ................................................. Tumbler operator ........................... Instrument maker ........................... Machinist......................................... Maintenance machinist.................. Metal patternmaker ....................... Machine builder............................... Job setter ......................................... Lay-out man..................................... Die sinker......................................... Tool-and-die maker........................ Die maker, bench............................. Tool maker, bench........................... Plastic tool m aker........................... Gear machining occupations.......... Abrading occupations.................... Turning occupations ....................... Milling and planing occupations .. Scalper operator ............................. Boring occupations ......................... Inspector, floor ............................... Production-machine operator........ Blacksmith....................................... Drop-hammer operator.................. Forging- press operator.................. Upsetter........................................... Press operator ................................. Inspector........................................... Hammersmith ................................. Roll-tube setter ............................... Heater............................................... Manipulator operator.................... R oller............................................... Rolling mill operator...................... Soaking pit operator....................... Coder operator................................. Piercer-machine operator.............. Extrusion press operator................ 631 636 722 723 723 631 723 723 723 676 676 676 688 676 676 688 676 676 676 702 685 681 681 685 33 31,310,645 645 26,685 31,645 37 31 63 38, 63, 645 38 38 38 35 35 35 35 650 35 646,713 645 55,310 62 62 63 62 63 62 696 695 695 695 650 650 651 603 651 D.O.T. No. 615.782 615.885 617.782 617.885 619.782 619.886 620.131 620.138 620.281 620.381 620.384 620.782 620.884 620.885 621.281 622.381 623.281 623.381 624.281 625.281 626. 627. 628. 629. 630. 630.381 630.884 631. 633.281 637.281 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Wire drawer..................................... Power shear operator ..................... Punch press operator....................... Shearman......................................... Power shear operator ..................... Power hammer operator................. Trimmer........................................... Punch-press operator....................... Heater............................................... Stretcher-leveler-operator.............. Stretcher-leveler-operator helper .. Automobile mechanic, ch ief........ Automobile-test-shop ..................... Automobile mechanic..................... Automobile-repair-service salesm an............................................... Motorcycle repairman..................... Truck mechanic............................... Automobile-service mechanic........ Motorcycle-tester ........................... Brake-drum-lathe-operator .......... Truck mechanic helper ................... Bonder, automobile brakes............ Aircraft mechanic ........................... Flight engineer................................. Carman............................................. Motorboat mechanic....................... Gear man ......................................... Farm-equipment mechanic............ Diesel mechanic............................... Missile assembly mechanic............ Outboard motor tester..................... Rocket assembly mechanic............ Metalworking machinery mechanics ......................................... Printing and publishing mechanics and repairmen ............................. Textile machinery and equipment mechanics and repairmen.......... Special industry machinery mechanics ......................................... General industry mechanics and repairmen..................................... Conveyor-maintenance m an.......... Anode man....................................... Powerplant mechanics and repairmen......................................... Assembly technician ....................... Cash register serviceman................ Dictating-transcribing-machine serviceman ................................... Machine analyst............................... Mail-processing-equipment mechanic........................................... Office-machine serviceman Office-machine-serviceman, apprentice......................................... Statistical-machine serviceman ... Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanic....................................... 651,695 644 644 695 644 644 63 681 63 651 651 417 417 417 222 446 454, 759 417 446 417 759 417 287 292 310 420 101 435 428 645 420 645 437 437 437 437 437 631 649 437 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 411,413 DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D.O.T.) INDEX DOT. No. Page 637.381 638.281 639.381 641.885 649.687 650.582 651.782 651.885 651.886 654.782 661.281 665.782 667.782 667.885 667.887 669.587 674.782 668.885 692.782 692.885 693.280 699.887 700.281 700.381 705.884 706.687 706.884 709.281 709.884 710.131 710.281 712.381 713.251 713.381 713.884 Gas burner mechanic...................... Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanic............................... Millwright ....................................... Pinsetter adjuster, automatic ........ Vending machine repairman.......... Envelope machine operator .......... Paper sorter and counter................ Linotype (or intertype) machine operator ....................................... Monotype keyboard operator........ Phototypesetting machine operator Lithographic pressman .................. Printing-press operator.................. Printer-slotter operator.................. Offset press operator I I .................. Cylinder-press feeder....................... Monotype caster operator.............. Wood patternmaker ....................... Timber-sizer operator..................... Cut-off-saw operator....................... Edger man ....................................... Head-saw operator ......................... Block setter ..................................... Deckman ......................................... Grader ............................................. Glass lathe operator......................... Chipperman..................................... Sealing machine operator.............. Sealing machine operator.............. Form builder ................................... Wiper ............................................... Brooch maker ................................. Jeweler ............................................. Chain maker..................................... Fancy-wire drawer........................... Goldbeater....................................... Lay-out man..................................... Locket maker................................... Mold maker..................................... Ring maker ..................................... Stone setter....................................... Grinder............................................. Metal Finisher................................... Polisher............................................. Type inspector ................................. Assembler......................................... Locksmith ....................................... Locksmith apprentice.................... Tube bender..................................... Instrument-repairman foreman ... Instrument-repairmen I ................ Dental-laboratory technician........ Optician, dispensing ....................... Optician ........................................... Optician apprentice......................... Assembler, gold frame .................. Assembler, molded frames............ Contact-lens-curve grinder............ Contact-lens-edge buffer................ 833 DO T . No. 411,413 411 67 422 457 718 718 41 41 42 45 48, 726 718 48,726 48,726 42 26 702 701 701 701 701 701 702 681 716 713 681 645 302, 744 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 63 707 707 707,713 713 442 442 645 438 438 471 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 715.281 720.281 720.884 721.281 721.381 722.281 723.381 724.781 724.884 725.884 726.384 726.781 726.884 726.887 729.281 729.381 729.884 730.281 730.381 741.887 780.381 780.884 781.381 781.484 781.687 Page Contact-lens-polisher ..................... Countersink grinder......................... Embosser and trimmer .................. Eyeglass-lens cutter......................... Frame carver, spindle ..................... Groover ........................................... Heating-fixture tender.................... Lens assembler................................. Lens blank marker........................... Lens generator................................. Mounter and repairer ..................... Plastic-frame insert m an................ Polisher............................................. Spectacles truer............................... Trim mounter................................... Repairman....................................... Radio repairman ............................. Television service and repairman . . . . Aliner............................................... Cabinet mounter ............................. Electric-motor analyst..................... Electric-motor assembler and tester ............................................. Electric-motor repairman.............. Propulsion-motor-and-generatorrepairman..................................... Electric-motor fitter ....................... Inspector, systems........................... Electrical appliance repairman . . . . Coil winder....................................... Coil winder, hand............................. Exhaust lathe operator ................... Grid lathe operator ......................... Inspector, subassemblies................ Electronics assembler ..................... Cable maker..................................... Capacitor assembler ....................... Capacitor winder............................. Condenser aliner ............................. Crystal finisher................................. Crystal lapper................................... Silk-screen printer........................... Electrical-instrument repairman___ Meter tester ..................................... Meterman......................................... Production repairman.................... Chassis assembler ........................... Piano technician............................... Pipe-organ technician ..................... Sprayer ............................................. Automobile upholsterer ................ Furniture upholsterer ..................... Automobile-seat-cover-and-convertible-top-installer .................. Cushion builder ............................... Stuffing machine operator ............ Pattern grader ................................. Patternmaker................................... Marker............................................. Assembler......................................... 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 459 452 452 680 680 417 417 417 417 310 681,713 413 681 681 681 681 713 680,713 680 680,713 680 680 680, 681 680 681 437 741 741 681 680 449 448 707 53 64 54 707 707 655 655 655 655 834 DO T . No. 781.884 781.887 782.884 783.381 783.781 783.884 785.261 785.281 785.361 785.381 787.782 789.687 800.884 801.281 801.381 801.781 801.884 804.281 804.884 805.281 806.281 806 283 806.381 806.382 806.387 806.684 806.687 806.781 806.887 807.381 809.381 809.781 809.884 809.887 810. 810.782 810.884 811. 811.782 811.884 812. 812.884 813. 814. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 655 Bundler or fitter............................... 655,707 Cutter............................................... 655 Machine spreader ........................... Hand spreader................................. 655 656 Trimmer, hand................................. 656 Hand sewer....................................... 784 Seamstress....................................... 657 Fur finisher....................................... 656 Fur cutter......................................... 657 Fur nailer ......................................... 656 Tailor ............................................... 656 Bushelman ....................................... Dressmaker ..................................... 656 Sample stitcher ............................... 655 656 Tailor ............................................... 657 Fur machine operator .................... 656,707 Sewing machine operator .............. 656 Inspector or checker ...................... 645 Riveter ............................................. 282,631 Fitter I ............................................. Armament assembler .................... 646 282 Fitter................................................. Structural-steel-worker.................. 282 Structural-steel-worker apprentice 282 282 Reinforcing ironworker.................. Sheet-metal worker......................... 277, 279,310,644 279 Assembler, unk ............................... 57,310 Boilermaker..................................... Dynamometer tester, m otor.......... 707 707 Test driver Final inspector, truck trailer.......... 707 Inspector, assemblies and in646 stallations..................................... Hypoid-gear tester........................... 707 707 Inspector, returned materials........ Transmission tester......................... 707 707 Final inspector................................. 645 Final assembler ............................... Assembler......................................... 706 Automobile body repairman.......... 415 Fabrication inspector .................... 646 Layout man I ................................... 56 Ornamental-ironworker ................ 282 Structural-ironworker.................... 282 Lay-out man II ............................... 56,282 Assembler, production line............ 282 Grinder-chipper............................... 685 Laborer, steel handling .................. 256 Ornamental-iron-worker helper . ... 256 Arc welders....................................... 81 Welder ............................................. 645 Welder ............................................. 645 Gas welders ..................................... 81 Welder ............................................. 645 Welder, gas....................................... 645 Combination arc welders and gas welders ......................................... 81 Welder, production line.................. 645 Resistance welders........................... 81,645 Brazing, braze-wdding, and soldering occupations ................ 81 DO T . No. 815. 816. 819. 819.781 821.281 821.381 821.887 822.281 822.381 822.884 823.281 824.281 825.281 825.381 827.281 828.281 829.281 829.381 840.381 840.781 840.884 841.781 842 381 842.781 842.887 843.884 844.884 844.887 845.781 850.782 850.833 Page Lead-burning occupations.............. Flame cutters and arc cutters........ Welders, flame cutters, and related occupations, n.e.c................ Fit-up man ....................................... Troubleman ..................................... Cable man ....................................... Lineman........................................... Meter installer I ............................... Groundman ..................................... Central office repairman................ PBX repairman ............................... Signal department worker.............. Telephone repairman....................... Testboardman ................................. Lineman........................................... PBX installer................................... Tdephone installer ......................... Frameman ....................................... Signal department worker.............. Meteorological-equipment repairer ........................................... Electrician ....................................... Neon-sign serviceman..................... Electrician ....................................... Electrician, automotive................... Elevator constructor ....................... Electrical-appliance serviceman . . . . Data-processing equipment serviceman ......................................... Radioactivity-instrument- maintenance technician....................... Electrical repairman ....................... Elevator repairman and apprentice Pinsetter mechanic, automatic . . . . Cable splicer..................................... Electronic organ technician .......... Painter, stage settings .................... Painter ............................................. Painter, rough ................................. Paperhanger ..................................... Lather............................................... Plasterer ........................................... Plasterer helper............................... Waterproofer................................... Cement gun nozzleman................... Cement mason and apprentice___ Concrete rubber............................... Concrete-wall-grinder operator ... Cement-gun-nozzleman helper . . . . Cement mason helper .................... Concrete-vibrator-operator helper . Grouter helper................................. Painter, aircraft............................... Painter, automobile......................... Horizontal-earth-boring-machine operator ....................................... Shield runner ................................... Bulldozer operator........................... Dredge leverman ............................. 81 81 81 57 739 258 739 741 740 405 410 311 409 405 407 409 409 405 311 437 258 433 302,444, 744 417 260 413 426 438 258,444 260 422 258, 408, 740 449 271 271 271 271 273 273 273 256 277 254 254 254 254 256 256 256 256 645 51 269 269 269 269 DICTIONARY O f OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D.O.T.) INDEX DOT. Page No. 269 Dredge operator............................... 269 Loek tender ..................................... 269 Mucking machine operator............ 269 Power-shovel operator .................. 269 Rock-drill operator......................... 269 Scraper operator ............................. 269 Tower-excavator operator ............ 269 Trench-digging machine operator ... 269 Bell m an........................................... 850.884 269 Dredge-dipper tender....................... 269 Sewer-bottom man ......................... 269 Stripping-shovel oiler ..................... 256 Laborer, pile driving, ground work .. 850.887 256 Laborer, road................................... 256 Laborer, shore dredging ................ 256 Miner helper II ............................... 256 Mucker, cofferdam ......................... 256 Sheeting puller................................. 256 Sheet-pile-hammer-operator helper 269 Blade-grader operator.................... 851.883 269 Elevating-grader operator.............. 269 Motor-grader operator.................. 269 Subgrader operator......................... 269 Utility-tractor operator.................. 256 Ditch digger..................................... 851.887 256 Dump grader ................................... 256 Form-stripper helper....................... 256 Form tamper I ................................. 256 Grader I ........................................... 256 Grade tamper................................... 256 Pipe-layer helper ............................. 269 Concrete-paver operator................. 852.883 269 Concrete-paving-machine operator 269 Form-grader operator..................... 254 Cement mason, highways and streets 852.884 254 Form setter, metal/road forms . . . . 256 Joint filler......................................... 852.887 256 Laborer, concrete paving .............. 256 Mud-jack nozzleman....................... 269 Asphalt-planer operator ................ 853.782 269 Asphalt-plant operator .................. 269 Asphalt-paving-machine operator ... 853.883 269 Stone-spreader operator................ 256 Cold-patch m an............................... 853.887 256 Laborer, bituminous paving.......... 256 Squeegee man ................................. 269 Driller, water well ........................... 859.782 269 Earth-boring-machine operator ... 269 Foundation drill operator.............. 269 Pile-driver operator......................... 269 Well-driller operator, cable tool ... 269 Well-drill operator, rotary drill ... 269 Well-reactivator operator.............. Ballast-cleaning-machine operator 313 859.883 269,631 Dragline operator ........................... 269 Operating engineer ......................... 269 Operating engineer apprentice----269 Road-mixer operator....................... 269 Road-roller operator....................... 269 Sweeper operator............................. 835 DO T . No. 859.887 860.281 860.381 860.781 860.887 861.381 861.781 861.884 861.887 862.281 862.381 862.887 863.381 863.781 863.884 864.781 865.781 865.887 Page Tamping-machine operator .......... Air-hammer operator ..................... Curb-setter helper ........................... Laborer, stone-block ramming----Mucker............................................. Paving rammer ............................... Puddler, pile driving ...................... Well-digger helper........................... Carpenter inspector......................... Carpenter, maintenance ................ Ship’s carpenter............................... Carpenter and carpenter apprentice Form builder ................................... Shipwright ....................................... Tank builder and erector................. Billboard erector-and-repairman----Carpenter, rough............................. Carpenter helper, maintenance . . . . Laborer, carpentry........................... Laborer, carpentry, dock .............. Laborer, shaft sinking..................... Shipwright helper............................. Bricklayer and apprentice.............. Bricklayer, firebrick ....................... Marble setter................................... Stonemason and apprentice .......... Terrazzo worker and apprentice ... Tilesetter and tilesetter apprentice Tuck pointer..................................... Brick cleaner ................................... Bricklayer helper............................. Bricklayer helper, refractory brick .. Stonemason helper ......................... Oil burner mechanic ....................... Furnace installer ............................. Gas-main fitter................................. Pipe fitter I ....................................... Pipe-fitter apprentice..................... Pipe-fitter apprentice, sprinkler system........................................... Pipe-fitter, welding ......................... Plumber ........................................... Plumber apprentice......................... Back-up man ................................... Clampman....................................... Connection man............................... Crankman ....................................... Laborer, pipe line............................. Laborer, plumbing........................... Pipe coverer and insulator.............. Cork insulator, interior surface ... Composition-weatherboard apptier............................................... Insulation hoseman......................... Insulation installer........................... Insulation worker ........................... Insulation worker apprentice........ Floor layer....................................... Glazier ............................................. Glazier helper................................... 269,313 256 256 256 256 256 256 256 252 25.2 302 252 252 252 252 252 252 256 256 256 256 256 250 250 266 280 266 250 250 256 256 256 256 411 275,411 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 256 256 256 256 256 256 248 248 248 248 248 248 248 261 264 256 836 D.O.T. No. 866.381 866.887 869.281 869.883 869.884 869.887 891.138 900.883 902.883 903.883 904.883 905.883 905.887 906.883 909.883 909.887 910.138 910.364 910.368 910.383 910.388 910.782 910.884 911.131 911.368 911.388 911.883 911.884 911.887 912.168 912.368 913.363 913.368 913.463 914.132 914.381 914.782 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Roofer............................................... Roofer helper................................... Furnace installer ............................. Rigger and machine mover............ Brattice man..................................... Rig builder....................................... Roustabout....................................... Concrete-pump-operator helper ... Construction worker I I .................. Form-setter helper........................... Form stripper................................... Hod carrier....................................... Laborer, cement-gun placing ........ Laborer, wrecking and salvaging .. Loftsman, pile-driving.................... Mixer, hand, cement gun................ Reinforcing-iron-worker helper ... Rig-builder helper ........................... Track worker ................................... Trashman.....................................