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27 Occupational Outlook Handbook,1976-77 Edition JO isJ J POINTERS ON USING THE HANDBOOK To learn about this Handbook, see How to Use the Handbook, page 3. To locate an occupation or industry, see: Table of Contents, page ix. Dictionary of Occupational Titles Index, page 745. Alphabetical Index, page 756. Job titles which connote sex stereotypes have been changed. A number of job titles have been revised in this edition of the Handbook in order to eliminate connotations of sex stereotyping. The new titles are consistent with changes in the occupational classification system used by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, and with considerably more numerous changes in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. For a general view of work and jobs in the United States, read the chapter on Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 13. Forecasts of the future are precarious! Keep in mind the explanation on page 5 of what the employment outlook information in the Handbook really means. Read the section on Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing the Employment Projections, page 11. The job picture is constantly changing. To find out how you can keep your information up to date, see the section on Where to Go for More Information, page 9. You may need local information, too. The Handbook gives facts about each occupation for the United States as a whole. See page 9 for sources of job information in your hometown. Reprints from the Handbook provide an inexpensive way to get occupational outlook information about particular fields. For instructions on how to order one or more of 155 reprints, see page 776. SUBSCRIBE TO THE OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY, AN ESSENTIAL COMPANION TO YOUR HANDBOOK It keeps you up to date on fast-changing employment trends. It reports promptly on new occupational research results It analyzes legislative, educational, and training developments that affect career planning Order form on back cover Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1976-77 Edition U.S. Department of Labor W. J. Usery, Jr., Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Julius Shiskin, Commissioner 1976 Bulletin 1875 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, GPO Bookstores, or BLS Regional Offices listed on page 783. Price $7. Make checks payable to Superintendent of Documents. Stock Number 02 9 -0 0 1 -0 1 406-6/Catalog Number L 2.3:1875 Foreword The difficulties young people experience when making the transition from school to work has been recognized by leaders in government and education as a serious national problem. One way to help ease this transition is to provide young people with accurate and comprehensive career guidance information. By acquiring specific knowledge of the various occupations in our economy, they can become aware of the opportunities and alternatives that are available to them, and can plan for careers suited to their abilities and aspirations. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a major source of vocational guidance information for hundreds of occupations. For each occupation, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, the training or education needed, and most importantly, some idea of the availability of jobs in the years ahead. Although its main purpose is providing information to young people, the Handbook is also a useful resource for persons entering or reentering the work force at later stages in their lives. Our hope in the Department of Labor is that this publication will continue to offer valuable assistance to all persons seeking satisfying and productive employment. W. J. Usery, Jr., Secretary o f Labor / Prefatory Note In our constantly changing economy, information on future career opportunities and educational requirements is necessary if young people are to be prepared for tomorrow’s jobs. For more than 30 years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has conducted research on occupations and industries for the pur pose of providing this information for use in vocational guidance. The major product of this research is the Occupational Outlook Handbook, which contains infor mation on job duties, educational requirements, employment outlook, and earnings for more than 850 occupations and 30 industries. The Handbook information is based on data received from a variety of sources, including business firms, trade associations, labor unions, professional societies, educational institutions, and government agencies, and represents the most current and comprehensive informa tion available. As part of the Bureau’s continuing effort to increase the usefulness of the Handbook, the new edi tion has been substantially revised. The format has been simplified, and a number of statements in clude information on the effect of fluctuations in the business cycle as well as long-run expectations. The new Handbook uses the revised non-sexist job titles developed for the Dictionary o f Occupational Titles, and includes expanded information on high school courses that are useful in preparing for each occupation. Finally, this edition contains new guides on using the Handbook for both students and counselors. Julius Shiskin, Commissioner, Bureau o f Labor Statistics Letter of Endorsement Work can be one of life’s most rewarding experiences. A job can offer pride in achievement and an opportunity for personal growth, as well as the security of an adequate income. But finding work that is satisfying seldom is easy. Career planning with the advice of trained counselors can help a great deal. To assist individuals with their educational and vocational choices, counselors must have occupa tional information that is current, accurate, and comprehensive. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a primary source of the information needed for sound career planning. For more than 850 occupa tions and 30 major industries, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, the training and education required, advancement possibilities, employment outlook, and earnings and working condi tions. Most statements also list professional societies, trade associations, unions, and other organiza tions that can supply additional career information. Counselors in all work settings will find the new edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook an invaluable tool for helping clients plan a satisfying future in the working world. Thelma Daley, President American Personnel and Guidance Association Richard L. Roudebush Administrator Veterans Administration William B. Lewis Associate Administrator U.S. Employment Service U.S. Department of Labor T. H. Bell Commissioner of Education Office of Education U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Thomas W. Carr Director, Defense Education U.S. Department of Defense John A. Svahn, Acting Administrator Social and Rehabiliation Service U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Contributors The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Occupational Outlook, under the supervision of Russell B. Flanders and Neal H. Rosenthal. General direction was provided by Dudley E. Young, Assistant Commissioner for Employment Structure and Trends. The planning and coordination of the Handbook was done by Michael J. Pilot. Max L. Carey, Con stance B. DiCesare, Daniel E. Hecker, and Anne Kahl supervised the research and preparation of in dividual Handbook sections. Members of the Division’s staff who contributed sections were Vance Anthony, Harold Blitz, Douglas J. Braddock, Charles A. Byrne III, Donald E. Clark, C. Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., Alan Eck, John K. Franklin, Susan C. Gentz, Stephen W. Ginther, Stephen C. Hough, H. Philip Howard, H. Van Z. Lawrence, Chester Curtis Levine, Dana Pescosolido, James V. Petrone, John Reiber, Philip L. Rones, Joan M. Slowitsky, D. Patrick Wash, and Elliot Werner. Coordination of the gathering and editing of photographs and preparation of the D.O.T. index was done by Donald Dillon. Jean F. Whetzel prepared the Index to Occupations and Industries. Olive B. Clay provided statistical assistance. Word processing was handled by Linda Kellner, Maria Kline, Sheila Spofford, and Beverly Wil liams. The statements dealing with agriculture were prepared in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Agriculture with the assistance of Melvin Janssen, Economic Research Service and Carroll V. Hess, Dean, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University. Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to the U.S. Department of Labor photographers for this edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Auto Dealers; National Pest Control Association; Na tional Committee on Household Developments; Na Federal. Department of Agriculture; Department of the tional Education Association; Public Relations Society Air Force; Department of the Army; Department of of America, Inc.; Society of American Florists and Or Health, Education, and Welfare; Department of Interi namental Horticulturists; and United Auto Workers. or; Department of Justice; Department of Labor; De partment of Transportation; ERDA; Forest Service; Industry and Business. Aerospace Corp.; Air Reduction General Services Administration; Government Printing Co., Inc.; American Telephone and Telegraph; ARA Office; National Aeronautics and Space Administra Services; Bausch and Lomb; Brunswick Corp.; Canteen tion; National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Ad Corp.; Chase Manhattan Bank; The C&O/B&O Rail ministration; National Institutes of Health; Department roads; Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Co.; of the Navy; U.S. Postal Service; and Smithsonian In Chrysler Corp.; Clairol; Clark Equipment Corp.; Con rad Hilton Hotels; Consolidated Edison Company of stitution. New York; Continental Trailways Co.; Delta Airlines; State and Local. City of Cincinnati, City of Denver; Dis Doggett Enterprises; Dow Chemical Corp.; Drexel Fur trict of Columbia; City of Houston; Ohio—State Police; niture Co.; Eastman Kodak Co.; Eli Lilly Corp.; Ford Motor Co.; General Dynamics Corp.; General Electric and Prince Georges County (Maryland). Corp.; General Foods Corp.; Georgia-Pacific Co.; Gil pin Wholesale Druggist Co.; Girard Bank and Trust Private Sources Co.; Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.; GEICO; Grand Membership Groups. Aluminum Association; American Union Stores; Grumman Aerospace Corp.; Gulf Oil Corp.; Harley-Davidson Motorcycles; Harshe-Rotman, Bankers Association; American Chemical Society; and Drucke, Inc.; Irving Cloud Publishing Co.; Inland American Chiropractors Association; American Dental Steel Co.; Louisiana-Pacific Corp.; Marine Midland; Assistants Association; American Dentists Association; Marriott; Merkle Press; Mutual of Omaha; National American Home Economic Association; American Cash Register Co.; Neiman Marcus; Oster Corp.; Phil Hotel and Motel Association; American Institute of lips Petroleum Co.; PPG Industries; Price Waterhouse; Architects; American Iron and Steel Institute; Amer RCA; Santa Fe Railroad; Schlage Locke Co.; Sears ican Optometric Association; American Podiatry As Roebuck Co.; Snelling and Snelling; Southern Railroad sociation; American Society of Planning Officials; System; Stacy Adams; Steelcase; Sun Oil Co.; Texaco; American Trucking Association; Associated General Texas Instruments; Thompson and Litton, Inc.; Unilux, Contractors of America; Association of America Rail Inc.; Union Carbide; Weyerhauser Co.; Winchester— roads; Aviation Maintenance Foundation; Forging In Western; and Woodward and Lothrop. dustries Association; Gypsum Drywall Contractors In ternational; International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Publications. The Catholic Standard; Contractor Employers and Moving Picture Machine Operators of magazine; Farm and Power Magazine; Jeweler's Topics; the United States and Canada; International Brother Jobber Topics; New York Daily News; Snips Magazine; hood of Electrical Workers; International Ladies’ Gar Washington Star Newspaper; and Women's Wear Daily. ment Workers Union; International Taxicab Associa tion; Marble Institute of America; Motor Vehicle Schools. Cape Fear Technical Institutes; George Manufacturer’s Association; National Association of Washington University; Johns Hopkins University; Na Government Sources tional Radio Astronomy Observatory; University of Delaware; and University of Maryland. Other. Children’s Hospital of Chicago; Children’s Hospital of the District of Columbia; Fletcher Drake; Holy Cross Hospital; Lutheran Theological Seminary; Metropolitan Opera; Mobile General Hospital; Na tional Ballet; United Nations; and WRC-TV (Washington, D.C.). Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and industrial organizations are able to provide career information that is valuable to counselors and job seekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of the statements on individual occupa tions and industries. Although these references were assembled carefully, the BLS has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations listed. Also, because the Bureau does not preview all the infor mation or publications that may be sent in response to a request, it cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing o f an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recom mendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department o f Labor, either o f the organization and its activities or o f the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite descrip tion of jobs and industries and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or lo calities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right o f a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evalua tion systems. Contents Page Page Guide to the Handbook HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK........... 3 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION 9 ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING THE EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS................................................ 11 TOMORROW S JOBS............................................. 13 The Outlook for Occupations INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS............................................... Foundry occupations............................................ \ Patternmakers................................................... Molders.............................................................. Coremakers....................................................... Machining occupations........................................ All-round machinists........................................ Instrument makers (mechanical)................... Machine tool operators................................... Set-up workers (machine tools)..................... Tool-and-die makers......................................... Printing occupations............................................ Bookbinders and related workers................... Composing room occupations......................... Electrotypers and stereotypers........................ Lithographic occupations................................ Photoengravers................................................. Printing press operators and assistants........... Other industrial production and related occupations................................................... Assemblers......................................................... Automobile painters......................................... Blacksmiths........................................................ Blue-collar worker supervisors........................ Boilermaking occupations............................... Boiler tenders................................................... Electroplaters................................................... Forge shop occupations................................... Furniture upholsterers..................................... Inspectors (manufacturing)............................. Millwrights......................................................... Motion picture projectionists.......................... Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............. 23 24 24 26 27 29 29 31 33 34 35 38 38 39 41 42 44 45 48 48 49 51 52 54 55 57 58 61 62 64 65 67 Photographic laboratory occupations........... Power truck operators..................................... Production painters.......................................... Stationary engineers......................................... Waste water treatment plant operators.......... Welders.............................................................. OFFICE OCCUPATIONS........................... Clerical occupations................................. Bookkeeping workers........................... Cashiers................................................. Collection workers............................... File clerks.............................................. Hotel front office clerks...................... Office machine operators.................... Postal clerks..... .................................... Receptionists........................................ Secretaries and stenographers............. Shipping and receiving clerks.............. Statistical clerks.................................... Stock clerks../....................................... Typists................................................... Computer and related occupations........ Computer operating personnel............ Programmers........................................ Systems analysts................................... Banking occupations................................ Bank clerks............................................ Bank officers........................................ Bank tellers............................................ Insurance occupations.............................. Actuaries............................................... Claim representatives........................... Underwriters.......................................... Administrative and related occupations . Accountants........................................... Advertising workers.............................. Buyers.................................................... City managers....................................... College student personnel workers.... Credit managers................................... Hotel managers and assistants............. Industrial traffic managers................... Lawyers................................................. Marketing research workers................ Personnel and labor relations workers Public relations workers...................... 68 71 72 73 75 77 80 81 82 84 85 87 89 90 91 93 94 100 101 104 104 106 108 110 110 111 113 115 115 117 120 123 123 126 128 130 132 134 136 137 139 141 143 147 Purchasing agents..................................... Urban planners.......................................... SERVICE OCCUPATIONS............................. Cleaning and related occupations............... Building custodians................................... Hotel housekeepers and assistants.......... Pest controllers.......................................... Food service occupations............................. Bartenders................................................. Cooks and chefs........................................ Dining room attendants and dishwashers Food counter workers.............................. Meatcutters................................................ Waiters and waitresses............................. Personal service occupations...................... Barbers....................................................... Bellhops and bell captains........................ Cosmetologists........................................... Funeral directors and embalmers............ Private household service occupations...... Private household workers...................... Protective and related service occupations FBI special agents..................................... Firefighters................................................ G uards........................................................ Police officers............................................ State police officers.................................. Construction inspectors (Government)... Health and regulatory inspectors (Government)........................................ Occupational safety and health workers. Other service occupations............................ Mail carriers.............................................. Telephone operators................................. EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS........................................ Teaching occupations.................................. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers.................................................. Secondary school teachers...................... College and university teachers............... Library occupations..................................... Librarians.................................................. Library technicians and assistants........... SALES OCCUPATIONS................................. Automobile parts counter workers......... Automobile salesworkers......................... Automobile service advisors.................... Gasoline service station attendants........ Insurance agents and brokers.................. Manufacturers’ salesworkers................... Models....................................................... Real estate salesworkers and brokers..... Retail trade salesworkers......................... Page Page 149 151 154 156 156 157 158 162 162 164 166 167 168 170 172 172 174 174 177 179 179 182 182 184 186 187 190 192 Route drivers...................................................... 236 Securities salesworkers......................................238 Wholesale trade salesworkers........................... 240 CONSTRUCTION OCCUPATIONS....................... 243 Asbestos and insulation workers......................246 Bricklayers and stonemasons............................ 247 Carpenters.......................................................... 249 Cement masons (cement and concrete finishers)........................................................ 251 Construction laborers........................................ 253 Drywall installers and finishers........................ 254 Electricians (construction)................................256 Elevator constructors........................................ 257 Floor covering installers.................................. 259 Glaziers..............................................................261 Lathers.................................................................262 Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers.......................................................... 263 Operating engineers (construction machinery operators)..................................... 265 Painters and paperhangers................................267 Plasterers.............................................................269 Plumbers and pipefitters....................................270 Roofers................................................................272 Sheet-metal workers.......................................... 273 Structural, ornamental, and reinforcing iron workers; riggers; and machine movers...... 275 194 197 201 201 202 205 206 206 208 210 213 213 216 219 220 221 223 225 226 228 230 232 234 OCCUPATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES....................................................... 278 Air transportation occupations............................ 279 Air traffic controllers...................................... 279 Airplane mechanics.......................................... 280 Airplane pilots.................................................. 283 Flight attendants.................................................285 Reservation, ticket, and passenger agents..... 287 Merchant marine occupations............................ 289 Merchant marine officers.................. 289 Merchant marine sailors....................................292 Railroad occupations............................................ 296 Brake operators..................................................296 Conductors.............................................. 298 Locomotive engineers....................................... 299 Shop trades........................................................ 300 Signal department workers.............................. 301 Station agents................................................... 302 Telegraphers, telephoners, and tower operators.................................. ,................... 303 Track workers....................................................304 Driving occupations................... 306 Intercity busdrivers........................................... 306 Local transit busdrivers................................... 308 Local truckdrivers............................................ 310 Long distance truckdrivers.............................. 311 Parking attendants............................................ 313 Page Taxicab drivers................................................. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS............................................... Conservation occupations................................... Foresters............................................................ Forestry technicians......................................... Range managers............................................... Soil conservationists......................................... Engineers............................................................... Aerospace.......................................................... Agricultural....................................................... Biomedical......................................................... Ceramic............................................................. Chemical............................................................ Civil................................................................... Electrical........................................................... Industrial............................................................ Mechanical........................................................ Metallurgical...................................................... Mining............................................................... Petroleum.......................................................... Environmental scientists..................................... Geologists.......................................................... Geophysicists.................................................... Meteorologists.................................................. Oceanographers................................................ Life science occupations..................................... Biochemists........................................................ Life scientists.................................................... Soil scientists.................................................... Mathematics occupations.................................... Mathematicians................................................ Statisticians........................................................ Physical scientists................................................. Astronomers..................................................... Chemists............................................................ Food scientists.................................................. Physicists........................................................... Other scientific and technical occupations....... Broadcast technicians...................................... Drafters..............................................,.............. Engineering and science technicians.............. Surveyors........................................................... MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS.......................... Telephone craft occupations............................... Central office craft occupations.................. Central office equipment installers................ Line installers and cable splicers.................... Telephone and PBX installers and repairers.. Other mechanics and repairers........................... Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics..................................................... Appliance repairers................................ ......... Automobile body repairers.............................. 315 317 320 320 322 323 325 327 329 330 330 331 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 339 341 343 346 349 349 351 354 356 356 358 361 361 363 365 367 370 370 371 373 378 381 383 383 384 385 386 389 389 391 392 Automobile mechanics................. 394 Boat-motor mechanics..................................... 397 Bowling-pin-machine mechanics.................... 399 Business machine repairers.............................. 400 Computer service technicians.......................... 402 Diesel mechanics................................................405 Electric sign repairers........................................ 407 Farm equipment mechanics............................. 409 Industrial machinery repairers.......................... 410 Instrument repairers.......................................... 412 Jewelers.............................................................. 414 Locksmiths......................................................... 416 Maintenance electricians...................................417 Motorcycle mechanics.......................................419 Piano and organ tuners and repairers............. 421 Shoe repairers.....................................................424 Television and radio service technicians....... 425 Truck mechanics andbus mechanics................ 427 Vending machine mechanics............................ 429 Watch repairers................................................. 432 HEALTH OCCUPATIONS......................................434 Dental occupations............................................... 435 Dentists............................................................... 435 Dental assistants............................................... 437 Dental hygienists............................................... 439 Dental laboratory technicians.......................... 441 Medical practitioners............................................ 443 Chiropractors...................................................... 443 Optometrists....................................................... 444 Osteopathic physicians......................................446 Physicians........................................................... 448 Podiatrists.......................................................... 451 Veterinarians...................................................... 452 Medical technologist, technician, and assistant occupations................................................... 454 Electrocardiograph technicians........................ 454 Electroencephalographic technicians............. 455 Medical assistants............................................. 457 Medical laboratory workers............................ 458 Medical record technicians and clerks............ 461 Operating room technicians............................. 463 Optometric assistants......................................... 464 Radiologic (X-ray) technologists.....................466 Respiratory therapy workers........................... 467 Nursing occupations.............................................. 470 Registered nurses............................................... 470 Licensed practical nurses..................................472 Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants....... 474 Therapy and rehabilitation occupations............. 476 Occupational therapists.....................................476 Occupational therapy assistants.......................477 Physical therapists............................................. 479 Physical therapist assistants and aides............. 480 Speech pathologists and audiologists.............. 482 Other health occupations......................................485 Page Page Dietitians.................................................... Dispensing opticians.................................. Health services administrators.................. Medical record administrators................. Pharmacists................................................. 485 487 488 491 493 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS...................................... Anthropologists.......................................... Economists................................................. Geographers............................................... Historians.................................................... Political scientists....................................... Psychologists............................................... Sociologists................................................. 496 496 498 500 502 503 505 507 SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS.............. Counseling occupations................................ School counselors....................................... Employment counselors............................ Rehabilitation counselors.......................... College career planning and placement counselors............................................... Clergy.............................................................. Protestant ministers................................... Rabbis............................................. ............ Roman Catholic priests............................. Other social service occupations................. Cooperative extension service workers.... Home economists...................................... Recreation workers................................... Social service aides.................................... Social workers............................................ 510 511 511 513 515 ART, DESIGN, AND COMMUNICATIONSRELATED OCCUPATIONS.................... Performing artists........................................... Actors and actresses.................................. Dancers....................................................... Musicians.................................................... Singers........................................................ Design occupations....................................... Architects................................................... Commercial artists..................................... Display workers.......................................... Floral designers......................................... Industrial designers.................................... Interior designers....................................... Landscape architects................................ Photographers............................................. Communications-related occupations.......... Interpreters................................................. Newspaper reporters................................ . Radio and television announcers............. Technical writers...................................... 517 520 520 522 523 526 526 527 529 532 534 538 539 539 541 543 545 548 548 550 553 554 556 558 560 562 565 565 567 569 571 The Outlook for Industries AGRICULTURE..................................................... 575 MINING AND PETROLEUM.................................583 Coal mining........................................................ 584 Petroleum and natural gas production and gas processing............................................... 589 CONSTRUCTION................................................... 594 MANUFACTURING.............. 595 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft..................... 596 Aluminum........................................................... 602 Apparel.............................................................. 607 Atomic energy field........................................... 613 Baking..................................................................621 Drug.....................................................................625 Electronics.......................................................... 630 Foundries............................................................ 635 Industrial chemical............................................ 638 Iron and steel...................................................... 642 Logging and lumber mills..................................650 Motor vehicle and equipment.......................... 654 Office machine and computer.......................... 659 Paper and allied products..................................664 Petroleum refining............................................. 669 Printing and publishing......................................672 TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND PUBLIC UTILITIES............................... 676 Civil aviation...................................................... 678 Electric power....................................................681 Merchant marine.............................................. 690 Radio and TV broadcasting............................. 694 Railroads............................................................. 699 Telephone......................................................... 701 Trucking............................................................. 704 WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE..................708 Restaurants......................................................... 709 Retail food stores.............................................. 712 FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE 715 Banking............................................................... 716 Insurance............................................................ 718 SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES................................................... 722 Hotels..................................................................724 Laundry and drycleaning...................................726 GOVERNMENT........................................................ 729 Federal civilian employment................................ 731 Postal Service.....................................................735 State and local governments.................................738 Armed Forces........................................................ 740 xiii CONTENTS Page Page DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D.O.T.) INDEX.............................................. 745 ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES.......................................... 756 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK REPRINTS........................................................ 776 BLS PUBLICATIONS USEFUL TO HANDBOOK READERS................................ 782 GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK WHAT'S IN THE HANDBOOK? • Introductory sections which tell how to use the Handbook, where to go for more career information, how employment projections are made, and where tomorrow's jobs will be. • 300 occupational briefs, grouped into 13 clusters of related jobs • 35 industry briefs • Index of job titles by Dictionary of Occupational Titles code • Instructions for ordering Handbook reprints, the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, and other BLS publications which will keep you informed about the economy and the job market. HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK How many kinds of jobs are there? More than 850 occupations are described in the Handbook. Although this is a large number, the total number of occupations in the U.S. economy may be counted in the thousands. Jobs in the Hand book generally are those which young people are most interested in learning about. Most occupations requiring long periods of education or training are discussed, as are a number of small but growing fields of employment. Altogether, the oc cupations in the Handbook account for about 95 percent of all salesworkers; about 90 percent of professional, craft, and service workers; 80 percent of clerical workers; 50 percent of all operatives; and smaller proportions of managerial workers and laborers. The main types of farming occupations are described in the Handbook. The long term job outlook for the Nation as a whole is discussed, too. Where should I look first? Start with jobs you know something about or are interested in. If an important industry is located in your hometown, for ex ample, you may find it useful to read the Handbook industry state ment to find out about the many different kinds of jobs in that indus try and their differing training requirements and earnings poten tial. There are 35 industry state ments in the Handbook, grouped ac cording to major divisions in the economy: Agriculture, mining, and petroleum; construction; manufac turing; transportation, communica tions, and public utilities; wholesale and retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; services; and government. You may wish to talk with your parents or your counselor about current job prospects in your own area. You may be interested in a cer tain field—sales work or repair work, for example. To find out what kinds of jobs there are in that field, consult the Handbook's Table of Contents for the appropriate career “cluster.” All of the occupational briefs in the Handbook are arranged in “clusters” of related jobs. There are 13 clusters altogether: Industri al production, office, service, edu cation, sales, construction, trans portation, scientific and technical, mechanics and repair, health, social science, social service, and art, design, and communications occu pations. Most career clusters in the Handbook describe a variety of jobs in a single field. Training and skill requirements within a particular cluster often vary a great deal. If you are thinking about a future in the health field, for example, you will find that a few jobs in this field require only a high school diploma; others require a degree from a 2year community college or junior college; still others require a bachelor’s degree; and a few require 4 years or more of formal training following college gradua tion. You may already have a specific job in mind. To find out where it is described, turn to the Index of Oc cupations and Industries at the back of the book. What will I learn? Once you have chosen a place to begin—an occupation or industry you’d like to learn more about— you can use the Handbook to find out what the job is like, what educa tion and training is necessary, and what the advancement possibilities, earnings, and employment outlook are likely to be. Each section of the Handbook follows a standard for mat, making it easier to compare different jobs with one another. It is important to bear in mind that the information in the Hand book is designed for career guidance purposes. In the effort to present a meaningful overview of each of several hundred jobs, details are omitted, and some distinctions are glossed over. Moreover, each statement has its own limitations, mostly because of imperfect data sources and limits on length. What follows is a description of the type of informa tion presented in each Handbook statement, with a few words of ex planation. The numbers in parentheses which appear just below the title of most Handbook statements are D.O.T. code numbers. D.O.T. stands for Dictionary o f Occupational Ti tles, now in its third edition, a U.S. Department of Labor publication which “defines” each of about 35,000 jobs according to a system which uses code numbers to classify each job in terms of the type of work performed, training required, physical demands, and working conditions. Revision of the D.O.T. is underway, and the fourth edition is scheduled to appear in 1976. It will include, thousands of new jobs which have emerged as a result of technological and other changes in the past 10 years. An index listing Handbook occupations by D.O.T. number precedes the alphabetical Index of Industries and Occupa tions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by public employment service agencies for classifying ap plicants and job openings, and for reporting and other operating pur poses. They are included in the Handbook since career information centers and libraries frequently use them for filing occupational infor mation. The Nature of the Work section describes the major duties of work ers in the occupation. It tells what workers do on the job and how they do it. Although each job description is typical of the occupation, duties are likely to vary by employer and size of employing organization, geo graphic location, and other factors. In some occupations, individual workers specialize in certain tasks. In others they perform the entire range of work in the occupation. Of course, job duties continually change as technology advances, new industrial processes are developed, and products or services change. In preparing the Handbook, every effort is made to include the most recent information available, but because of the rapid rate of change in some fields, this is not al ways possible. The Places of Employment sec tion provides information on the number of workers in an occupa tion and tells whether they are con centrated in certain industries or geographic areas. Whether an oc cupation is large or small is impor tant to a jobseeker because large occupations, even those growing slowly, offer more openings than small ones because of the many workers who retire or die each year. Some occupations are concen trated in particular industries. Most cooks and chefs, for example, are employed in restaurants and hotels while secretaries are employed in almost every industry. If an occupa tion is found primarily in certain in dustries, this section lists them. A few occupations are concen trated in certain parts of the country. Actors and actresses, for example, usually work in California and New York. This information is included for the benefit o'f people who have strong preferences about where they live—because they do not wish to be separated from their families and friends, for example. For most occupations, however, employment is widely scattered and generally follows the same pattern as the distribution of the popula tion. In addition, the proportion of women employed is mentioned in a number of Handbook statements. Information on part-time employ ment is included because it is im portant to students, homemakers, retired persons, and others who may want to work part time. Know ing which occupations offer good opportunities for part-time work can be a valuable lead. The Training, Other Qualifica tions, and Advancement section should be read carefully because it often is necessary to start planning toward your career goal early in high school. It’s a good idea to look closely at the list of high school and college courses regarded as useful preparation for the career you have in mind. Nearly all Handbook state ments list such courses. Workers can qualify for jobs in a variety of ways, including college study leading to a certificate or as sociate degree; programs offered by post-secondary vocational schools, both public and private; home study courses; government training pro grams; experience or training ob tained in the Armed Forces; ap prenticeship and other formal train ing offered on-the-job or in the classroom by employers; and high school courses. For each occupa tion, the Handbook identifies which of these routes of entry is preferred. In many cases, alternative ways of attaining training are listed as well. It is worth remembering that the level at which you enter an occupa tion and the speed with which you advance often are determined by the amount of training you have. In an effort to protect the public, all States have certification or licensing requirements for some oc cupations to assure that workers are properly qualified. Physicians and nurses, elementary and secondary schoolteachers, barbers and cosmetologists, electricians and plumbers are examples of occupa tions that are licensed. If you are considering occupations that require State licensing, be sure to check the requirements in the State in which you plan to work. An important factor in career choice is the extent to which a par ticular job suits your personality. Although it is often difficult for people to assess themselves, your counselor undoubtedly is familiar with tests that can help. Each state ment in the Handbook provides in formation which allows you to match your own unique personal characteristics—your likes and dislikes—with the characteristics of the job. For a particular job, you may need the ability to: make responsible decisions, motivate others, direct and supervise others, work under close supervision, work in a highly competitive at mosphere. enjoy working with ideas and solving problems. enjoy working with people, enjoy working with things—good coordination and manual dexterity are necessary. work independently^initiative and self-discipline are necessary, work as part of a team, enjoy working with detail, either numbers or technical written material. enjoy helping people, use creative talents and ideas and enjoy having an opportunity for self-expression. derive satisfaction from seeing the physical results of your work, work in a confined area. perform repetitious work. enjoy working outside, regardless of the weather. The Employment Outlook section discusses prospective job opportu nities. Knowing whether or not the job market is likely to be favorable is quite important in deciding whether to pursue a specific career. While your interests, your abilities, and your career goals are extremely important, you also need to know something about the availability of jobs in the fields that interest you most. The employment outlook section of most Handbook statements begins with a sentence about an ticipated employment growth through 1985. The occupation is described as likely to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions; faster than the average; or slower than the average (Figure I). Job opportunities in a particular oc cupation usually are favorable if em ployment increases at least as rapidly as the economy as a whole. Occupa tions in which employment stays about the same or declines generally offer less favorable job prospects than growing occupations, because the only openings are those due to turnover. Some Handbook statements take note of the effect of fluctuations in the business cycle. This information is valuable to people looking into long-range career possibilities at a time when the economy is in a recession. Young people un derstandably wonder: What will the economy be like when I enter the labor market? Will it be harder to find a job 5 or 10 years from now than it is today? The Handbook gives information, wherever feasi ble, on occupations and industries whose levels of employment fluctu ates in response to shifts in the economic climate. It helps to bear in mind that employment in many— but not all—occupations and indus tries is directly affected by an economic downturn. A sharp im provement in the outlook for these Figure I Projected 1974-85 change in employment requirements Description Much faster than the average for all occupations............. Faster than the average for all occupations....................... About as fast as the average for all occupations 1............ Slower than the average for all occupations....................... Little change is expected...................................................... Expected to decline................................................................ 50.0 percent or greater 25.0 to 49.9 percent 15.0 to 24.9 percent 4.0 to 14.9 percent 3.9 to —3.9 percent —4.0 percent or greater 'T he average increase projected for all occupations for the 1974-85 period is 20.3 percent. occupations and industries is likely as the economy picks up. However, other occupations and industries are less vulnerable to changes in the business cycle. Other factors in fluence their well-being. These mat ters are explored in a number of Handbook statements. For some occupations, it is possi ble to observe trends in the number of people pursuing relevant types of education or training and sub sequently entering the profession. When supply as well as demand in formation is available, the Hand book describes prospective job op portunities in terms of the an ticipated demand-supply relation ship. The prospective job situation is termed “ excellent” when demand is likely to greatly exceed supply; “ keenly competitive” when supply is likely to exceed demand. Other terms used in Handbook statements are shown in Figure II. The information in this section should be used carefully, however. The prospect of relatively few openings, or of strong competition, in a field that interests you should make you take a second look at your career choice. But this infor mation alone should not prevent you from pursuing a particular career if you feel that your ap titudes and interests justify your goal. Getting a job may be difficult if the field is so small that openings are few (actuaries and blacksmiths are examples) or so popular that it attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs (radio and television broadcasting, journalism, the per forming arts, and modeling). Getting a job also can be difficult in occupations and industries in which employment is declining (merchant sailors, photoengravers, typeset ters), although this is not always the case. Remember, even occupations which are small or overcrowded provide some jobs. So do occupa tions in which employment is grow ing very slowly or even declining, for there always is a need to replace workers who leave the occupation. If the occupation is large, the number of job openings due to turnover can be quite substantial. Bookkeepers, telephone operators, and machinists are examples of large occupations which provide a significant number of job openings each year because of turnover. On the average, openings resulting from replacement needs are ex pected to account for 70 percent of all job openings. In other words, don't rule out a Figure II Job opportunities Excellent Very good Good or favorable May face competition K°en competition Prospective demand-supply relationship Demand much greater than supply Demand greater than supply Rough balance between demand and supply Likelihood of more supply than demand Supply greater than demand potentially rewarding career simply because the prospective outlook in an occupation is not favorable. Do discuss your abilities and aptitudes with your counselor. Checking further is a good idea, too. Sug gestions for additional information on the job market are given in the following section, Where to Go for More Information. How reliable is the information on the outlook for employment over the next 10 years? No one can predict future labor market condi tions with perfect accuracy. In every occupation and industry, the number of jobseekers and the number of job openings constantly changes. A rise or fall in the de mand for a product or service af fects the number of workers needed to produce it. New inventions and technological innovations create some jobs and eliminate others. Changes in the size or age distribu tion of the population, work at titudes, training opportunities, or retirement programs determine the number of workers available. As these forces interact in the labor market, some occupations ex perience a shortage, some a surplus, some a balance between jobseekers and openings. Methods used by economists to develop information on future occupational prospects differ, and judgments which go into any assessment of the future also differ. Therefore, it is important to understand what underlies each statement on outlook. For every occupation and indus try covered in the Handbook, an estimate of future employment needs is developed. These estimates are consistent with a set of assump tions about the future of the econo my and the country. For more detail, see the section entitled, As sumptions and Methods Used In Preparing the Employment Projec tions. Finally, you should remember that job prospects in your commu nity or State may not correspond to the description of employment out look in the Handbook. For the par ticular job you are interested in, the outlook in your area may be better, or worse. The Handbook does not discuss the outlook in local areas because the analysis is far too much for a centralized staff to handle. Such information has been developed, however, by many States and localities. The local of fice of your State Employment Ser vice is the best place to ask about local-area employment projections. Be sure to check with your parents and counselors, too. The Earnings section helps answer many of the questions that you may ask when choosing a career. Will the income be high enough to maintain the standard of living I want and justify my training costs? How much will my earnings increase as I gain experience? Do some areas of the country or some industries offer better pay than others for the same type of work? Like most people, you probably think of earnings as money. But money is only one type of financial reward for work. Paid vacations, health insurance, uniforms, and discounts on clothing or other merchandise also are part of the total earnings package. About 9 out of 10 workers receive money income in the form of a wage or salary. A wage usually is an hourly or daily rate of pay, while a salary is a weekly, monthly, or yearly rate. Most craft workers, operatives, and laborers are wage earners, while most professional, technical, and clerical workers are salary earners. In addition to their regular pay, wage and salary workers may receive extra money for working overtime, more than their usual number of hours, or on a night shift or irregular schedule. In some occu pations, workers also may receive tips or be paid a commission based on the amount of sales or services they provide to customers. Factory workers are sometimes paid a piece rate which is an extra payment for each item they produce. For many workers, these types of pay amount to a large part of their total earnings. The remaining 10 percent of all workers are in business for them selves and earn self-employment in come instead of wages or salaries. This group includes workers in a wide variety of occupations: Physi cians, shopkeepers, barbers, writers, photographers, and farmers are examples of workers who frequently are self-employed. Workers in some occupations earn self-employment income in ad dition to their wages or salaries. For example, electricians and carpen ters often do small repair or remodeling jobs during evenings or weekends, and college professors frequently are paid for publishing articles based on independent research. Besides money income, most wage and salary workers receive a variety of fringe benefits as part of their earnings on the job. Several are required by Federal and State law, including Social Security, Worker’s Compensation, and Unemployment Insurance. These benefits provide income to persons who are not working because of old age, work-related injury or disabili ty, or lack of suitable jobs. Among the most common fringe benefits are paid vacations, holidays, and sick leave. In addi tion, many workers are covered by life, health, and accident insurance; participate in retirement plans; and are entitled to supplemental unem ployment benefits. All of these benefits are provided—in part or in full—through their employers. Some employers also offer stock options and profit-sharing plans, savings plans, and bonuses. Workers in many occupations receive part of their earnings in the form of goods and services, or pay ments in kind. Sales workers in de partment stores, for example, often receive discounts on merchandise. Workers in other jobs may receive free meals, housing, business ex pense accounts, or free transporta tion on company-owned planes. Which jobs pay the most? This is a difficult question to answer because good information is availa ble for only one type of earnings— wages and salaries—and for some occupations even this is unavaila ble. Nevertheless, the Handbook does include some comparisons of earnings among occupations. Most statements indicate whether earnings in an occupation are greater than or less than the average earnings of workers who are not supervisors and work in private industry, but not in farming. This group represented more than 80 percent of all workers in 1974 and had the most reliable earnings data currently available for com parison purposes. Comparisons also are made among earnings for similar occupa tions. For example, hourly earnings of construction occupations can be compared to determine whether bricklayers earn more than carpen ters, or electricians more than plumbers. Besides differences among occu pations, many levels of pay exist within each occupation. Beginning workers almost always earn less than those who have been on the job for some time because pay rates increase as workers gain experience or do more responsible work. Earnings in an occupation also Table 2. 1974 Average annual salaries of chemists, with Ph.D. degrees, by type of work, Type of work $27,000 23,000 21,500 16,800 20,300 SOURCE: American Chemical Society. vary by geographic location. The average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, for example, vary considerably from city to city. (See table 1.) The highest earnings of the 10 cities listed, occurred in Detroit, Mich, and the lowest in Little Rock, Ark. Although it is generally true that earnings are higher in the North Central and Northeast regions than in the West and South, there are ex ceptions. You should also re member that those cities which offer the highest earnings are often those in which it is most expensive to live. In addition, workers in the same occupation may have different earnings depending on the industry in which they work. For example, senior accounting clerks in 1973-74 averaged $183 a week in public utilities, $163.50 a week in manu facturing, $ 156 a week in wholesale trade, and $149.50 a week in serv ices, but only $137.50 in retail ail trade and $138.50 in finance, in surance, and real estate. Table 1. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1973-74, by selected city City Average weekly earnings D etroit................................................................................. Atlanta.................................................................................................. Cleveland.............................................................................................. N ew ark................................................................................................. Seattle................................................................................................... Washington, D .C ................................................................................. $212.00 202 50 198 00 190.00 184.00 179.00 169.50 164.50 147.00 129.50 Milwaukee........................................................................................... Chattanooga ...................................................................................... Little Rock........................................................................................... SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Annual salaries Salaries also vary by the type of work a person performs. The sala-. ries of Ph. D. chemists, for example, vary considerably depending on the specific nature of the job, as shown in table 2. In 1974, chemists in management jobs earned $4,000 a year more than those in marketing and production. Chemists in research and development, how ever, earned $ 1,500 less than those in marketing and production, but $4,700 more than chemistry profes sors. Because of these variations in earnings, you should check with your counselor or with local em ployers if you are interested in specific earnings information for occupations in your area. The Working Conditions section provides information that can affect job satisfaction because preferences for working conditions vary considerably among in dividuals. Some people, for exam ple, prefer outdoor work while others prefer working in an office. Some people like the variety of shift work, and others want the steadi ness of a 9-to-5 job. Following is a list of several different types of working conditions that apply to some of the occupations in the Handbook. Overtime work. When overtime is required on a job, employees must give up some of their free time and need to be flexible in their personal lives. Overtime, however, does pro vide the opportunity to increase earning power. Shift work. Evening or night work is part of the reqular work schedule in some jobs. Employees who work on these shifts usually are working while most other people are off. Some persons prefer shift work, however, because they can pursue certain daytime activities, such as hunting, fishing, or gardening. Environment. Work settings vary from clean, air-conditioned offices to places that are dirty, greasy, or poorly ventilated. By knowing the setting of jobs you find interesting, you can avoid an environment that you may find particularly un pleasant. Outdoor work. Persons who work outdoors are exposed to all types of weather. This may be preferred to indoor work, however, by those who consider outdoor work more healthful. Harzards. In some jobs employees are subject to possible bums, cuts, falls, and other injuries and must be careful to follow safety precautions. Physical demands. Some jobs require standing, stooping, or heavy lifting. You should be sure that you have the physical strength and stamina required before seeking one of these jobs. Considering working conditions when you make up your mind about a career can help you choose a job that brings you satisfaction and en joyment. WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION By now, you may have some ideas about jobs that interest you and that seem to suit you. If so, you probably have located appropriate Handbook statements and given some' thought to the information they contain—either on your own or with the help of your counselor. If you want more information on the job itself, on places in your own locality to look for this kind of work, or on schools which offer ap propriate training—or, if instead, you simply want to explore the file a little more—you’re ready to go beyond the Handbook. A great deal of career informa tion is available in the form of books, pamphlets and brochures, magazine articles, filmstrips, tapes, and cassettes. Computer-assisted occupational information systems have been installed in some schools and career information centers. Most occupational reports in the Handbook suggest organizations you can write to for additional career information. This is a good way to begin. Then investigate other sources of information, many of which you’ll find close to home: schools, libraries, business establishments, trade unions, em ployer associations, professional societies, private employment agen cies, and State Employment Services. School libraries and guidance of fices usually have extensive collec tions of career information. In addi tion, counselors and teachers generally know of any special infor mation assembled on job opportu nities in your locality. Teachers of special subjects such as music, printing, and shorthand often can give information about occupations related to the subjects they teach. Public libraries have books, pamphlets, and magazine articles with occupational information. The librarian can help you a great deal in directing you to the information best suited to your needs. Business establishments are often willing to supply information about the work they perform, the types of jobs they have available, and the qualifications needed. The names of local firms can be found in the classified section of your telephone directory or can be obtained from your local chamber of commerce. If the firm is a large one, it’s a good idea to contact the director of per sonnel. Trade unions, employers* associa tions, and professional societies frequently have local branches. Often, staff members can supply career information for the occupa tions or industries with which they are concerned. Private employment agencies can provide a great deal of information and assistance to jobseekers. These agencies, which ordinarily charge a fee for their services, employ coun selors to assist clients with their career planning and placement. Because they are located in cities and towns throughout the country, private employment agencies can be an excellent source of informa tion about job opportunities in local areas. They are listed in local telephone directories, and advertise in newspapers and magazines. State Employment Service offices are in a particularly good position to provide information about jobs, hiring standards, and wages in your locality. Public Employment Ser vice agencies in each State are af filiated with the U.S. Employment Service of the U.S. Department of Labor, and provide their services without charge. Operating through a network of local offices, State agencies help jobseekers find em ployment and help employers find qualified workers. Whether you are looking for a job right now, or exploring career possibilities for the future, your local Employment Service office can be a help. Depending on your particular needs, you can obtain in formation on jobs in your local area, employment counseling, referral to training programs, and placement services, as follows: Information on local job opportu nities can be obtained from the Job Information Service (JIS). These special units have been set up in many local offices of the Employ ment Service. They permit job seekers to select jobs from a com puterized listing of opportunities in the area. These listings, which are updated daily, provide information from employers on specific openings. The JIS also furnishes general information on occupa tional trends, industrial develop ments, job opportunities in State and Federal Government, and promotional materials from as sociations and unions. Information on jobs in other parts of the country is available as well. Employment counseling is availa ble from trained Employment Ser vice counselors to assist young peo ple starting their careers, as well as experienced workers interested in changing jobs. Counselors help people determine their actual and potential abilities, interests, and personal traits, to help them make the best use of their capacities in the light of available jobs. Most counselors in Employment Service offices make use of USES aptitude tests when appraising an in dividual's aptitudes, interests, and clerical and literary skills. Referral to training programs is another service. When individuals seek work for which they are not qualified, the Employment Service may suggest programs that provide training in basic education or a specific skill. Placement services also are available. Placing workers in jobs is a primary objective of the public Employment Service, and reg istered applicants are directed to employers who have vacancies to fill. Requests are received from em ployers for many different kinds of workers. As a result, registered ap plicants have access to knowledge of a variety of vacancies, just as the employer has access to many appli cants. Certain groups of jobseekers are given special consideration by public employment offices. These include veterans legally entitled to priority in all services, with preferential treatment for disabled veterans over others. In addition, the Vietnam Era Veterans Read justment Assistance Act requires that some specific form of assistance, designed to enhance em ployment prospects, be given to each veteran who applies to the Employment Service. Each local of fice has a veterans’ employment representative assigned the respon sibility of seeing that these priority services are provided by all local of fice staff. The Employment Service also maintains a year-round program of services for youth, including coun seling, job development, place ment, training, and referral to other agencies. Special efforts include the Summer Employment Program, in which the Employment Service tries to develop as many jobs as possible for disadvantaged youth. Another special program provides placement services to graduating seniors, school dropouts, and potential dropouts who want to work. Other groups facing special dif ficulties in obtaining suitable em ployment are given special con sideration by the Employment Serv ice, too. This may include referral for supportive services, such as provision of child care to enable the parent to work, or health examina tions or referral to training which will help develop the jobseeker’s employability. For individuals with mental or physical disabilities, assistance in making realistic job choices and overcoming problems related to getting and holding jobs is available. For middle-aged and older workers placement efforts which take into account their par ticular problems have been developed. Similar attention is given to the unique employment problems of minority group mem bers, and to the difficulties encoun tered by disadvantaged job seekers. ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS Although the discussions of fu ture job prospects contained in the Handbook are written in qualitative terms, the analyses upon which they are based begin with quantitative estimates of projected employment, replacement openings, and—in a few cases—supply. These projections were de veloped using data on popula tion, industry and occupational em ployment, productivity, consumer expenditures, technological innova tion, and other factors expected to affect employment growth. The Bu reau’s other research programs pro vided much of this data, but many other agencies of the Federal Government were important con tributors, including the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training and the U.S. Employment Service, Manpower Administration, Depart ment of Labor; the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce; the Office of Education and the Rehabilitation Services Administra tion, Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare; the Veterans Ad ministration; the Civil Service Com mission; the Interstate Commerce Commission; the Civil Aeronautics Board; the Federal Communica tions Commission; the Department of Transportation; and the National Science Foundation. In addition, experts in industry, unions, professional societies, and trade associations furnished data and supplied information through interviews. Many of these in dividuals also reviewed preliminary drafts of the statements. The infor mation presented in each statement thus reflects the knowledge and judgment not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff, but also of leaders in the fields discussed, although the Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility. After the information from these sources was compiled, it was analyzed in conjunction with the Bureau’s model of the economy in 1985. Like other models used in economic forecasting, it encom passes the major facets of the economy and represents a com prehensive view of its projected structure. The bureau’s model is comprised of internally consistent projections of gross national product (GNP) and its com ponents—consumer expenditures, investment, government expendi tures, and net exports; industrial output and productivity; labor force; average weekly hours of work; and employment for detailed industry groups and occupations. The methods used to develop the employment projections in this edi tion of the Handbook are the same as those used in other Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of the economy. A detailed description of these methods appears in The U.S. Economy in 1985, BLS Bulletin 1809. Assumptions. The Bureau’s pro jections to 1985 are based on the following general assumptions: The institutional framework of the U.S. economy will not change radically. Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. The economy will gradually recover from the high unemploy ment levels of the mid-1970’s and reach full employment (defined as 4 percent unemployment) in the mid-1980’s. No major event such as widespread or long-lasting energy shortages or war will significantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. Trends in the occupational struc ture of industries will not be altered radically by changes in relative wages, technological changes, or other factors. Methods. Beginning with popula tion projections by age, sex, and race developed by the Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using ex pected labor force participation rates for each of these groups. In developing the participation rates, the Bureau takes into account a variety of factors that affect a per son’s decision to enter the labor market, such as school attendance, retirement practices, and family responsibilities. The labor force projection is then translated into the level of GNP that would be produced by a fully employed labor force. Unemployed persons are subtracted from the labor force estimate and the result is multiplied by a projection of out put per worker. The estimates of fu ture output per worker are based on analysis of trends in productivity growth among industries and changes in the average weekly hours of work. Next, the projection of GNP is di vided among its major components: Consumer expenditures, business just the projections accordingly. Occupational employment projec investment, government expendi tures—Federal, State, and local— tions. Projections of industry em and net exports. Each of these com ployment are translated into occu ponents is broken down by produc pational employment projections an industry-occupation ing industry. Thus, consumer ex using penditures, for example, is divided matrix. This matrix, which is di among industries producing goods vided into 200 industry sectors and and services such as housing, food, 400 occupation sectors, describes automobiles, medical care, and the current and expected occupa education. tional structure of each industry. By Once estimates are developed for applying the projected patterns of these products and services, they occupational structure for each in are translated into detailed projec dustry to the industry employment tions of industry output, not only projection and aggregating the for the industries producing the resulting estimates, employment final product, but also for the inter projections for each of the 400 oc mediate and basic industries which cupations contained in the matrix provide the raw materials, electric can be obtained. power, transportation, and other in In some cases employment is re puts required in the production lated directly to one of the com process. To facilitate this transla ponents of the Bureau’s model—for tion, the Department of Commerce example, the number of cosmetolo has developed input-output tables gists is related to consumer expen which indicate the amount of out ditures for beauty shop services. In put produced by each industry— others, employment is related to an steel, glass, plastics, etc.—that is independent variable not explicitly required to produce a final product, projected in the model, but be automobiles for example. lieved to be a primary determinant By using estimates of future out of employment in that occupation. put per man-hour based on studies The projection of automobile of productivity and technological mechanics, for example, is based on trends for each industry, it is possi the expected stock of motor vehi ble to derive industry employment cles. Projections that are developed projections from the output esti independently are compared with mates. those in the matrix and revised, if These projections are then com necessary, to assure consistency. pared with employment projections Replacement needs. In addition to derived using regression analysis. developing an estimate of projected This analysis develops equations employment for each occupation, a that relate employment by industry projection is made of the number of to combinations of economic varia workers who will be needed as bles, such as population and in replacements. Separations con come, that are considered determi stitute a significant source of nants of long-run changes in em openings. In most occupations, ployment. By comparing projec more workers are needed to replace tions resulting from input-output those who retire, die, or leave the and regression analysis, it is possi occupation than are needed to fill ble to identify areas where one jobs created by growth. Con method produces a projection in sequently, even declining occupa consistent with past trends or the tions offer employment opportuni Bureau’s economic model, and ad ties. To estimate replacement open ings, the Bureau has developed tables of working life based on ac tuarial experience for deaths and on decennial census data on general patterns of labor force participation by age and sex. Withdrawals from each occupation are calculated separately for men and women by age group and used to compute an overall separation rate for the occu pation. These rates are used to esti mate average annual replacement needs for each occupation over the projection period. The effects of interoccupational transfers are not taken into account when calculating replacement needs because little information is as yet available on this type of separation. Supply. Supply estimates used in analysis of certain Handbook occu pations represent the numbers of workers who are likely to enter a particular occupation if past trends of entry to the occupation continue. These estimates are developed in dependently of the demand esti mates. Thus, supply and demand are not discussed in the usual economic sense in which wages play a major role in equating supply and demand. Statistics on college enrollments and graduations by field are the chief sources of infor mation on the potential supply of personnel in professional, techni cal, and other occupations requir ing extensive formal education. Data on persons completing ap prenticeship programs provide some information on new entrants into skilled trades. The Bureau recently issued Occupational Supply: Concepts and Sources o f Data for Manpower Analysis (BLS Bulletin 1816, 1974). This bulletin explores several aspects of occupa tional supply. TOMORROW S JOBS Young people face the difficult task of choosing sound career plans from among thousands of alterna tives. As the economy continues to expand, creating many new kinds of jobs, this planning becomes even more difficult. This Handbook pro vides occupational information in tended to aid students, counselors, parents, and teachers in examining the large number of options open to tomorrow’s worker. Many questions are important to young persons as they attempt to match their abilities and interests with the variety of occupational choices. What fields look promising for employment opportunities? What education and training are required to enter particular jobs? How do earnings in certain occupa tions compare with earnings in others requiring similar training? What types of employers provide which kinds of jobs? Does employ ment in a particular job mean steady, year-round work or is the job seasonal or affected by minor swings in economic activity? The answers to these questions change as our economy grows. New goods, services, and improved methods of production, as well as changes in living standards, life styles, and government policy con stantly alter the types of jobs that become available. This section ex plores how changes in our industrial and economic framework affect the outlook for employment in specific occupations. It also discusses the implications of these changes for career education and vocational training. No one can forecast the future with certainty. Nevertheless, by using the wealth of information available, and economic and statistical analysis, the work future can be broadly sketched. Of course, some aspects of the future can be predicted more accurately than others. For example, the population in 1985 can be estimated with a high degree of accuracy because changes in the rate of population growth occur very slowly. On the other hand, forecasting employ ment in a specific occupation is quite difficult. The demand for scientists, for example, would change quite rapidly if a major research and development program were initiated. But before projecting the de mand for workers in the economy, a number of basic assumptions must be made about broad national pol icy and social, technological, and business conditions. The employ ment outlook pictured in the Hand book is drawn within the following fundamental assumptions. The institutional framework of the U.S. economy will not change radically. Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. The economy will gradually recover from the high unemploy ment levels of the mid-1970’s and reach full employment, (4 percent unemployment) in the mid-1980’s. No major event such as widespread or long-lasting energy shortages or war will significantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. Trends in the occupational struc ture of industries will not be altered radically by changes in relative wages, technological changes, or other factors. The Handbook's assessment of in dustrial and occupational outlook begins with a projection of the total labor force. By 1985, approximate ly 109.7 million persons will be in the labor force, according to projec tions developed by the Bureau of La bor Statistics in January 1975. About 2.1 million will be members of the Armed Forces; the remainder makes up the civilian labor force— 107.7 mil lion. This represents an 18-percent increase over 1974. The growth of individual indus tries and occupations will differ, however, from that of the total labor force. The following sections discuss the projected growth of in dustries and occupations, and describe the effect of this growth on tomorrow’s jobs. Industrial Profile To help understand the Nation’s industrial composition, industries may be viewed as either goodsproducing or service-producing. They may further be grouped into nine major divisions according to product or service. (See chart 1.) Most of the Nation’s workers are in industries that produce services, in activities such as education, health care, trade, repair and main tenance, government, transporta tion, banking, and insurance. The production of goods—raising food crops, building, extracting minerals, and manufacturing—requires only about one-third of the country’s work force. (See chart 2.) In Where People Work1 1 EJWPLOYMENT, 1974 (in millions) c_____________ ) 51_____________1!____ 0 Manufacturing Durable Trade Retail Government State and local 15 20 Nondurable i f l Wholesale Federal Services Transportation and public utilities Finance, insurance, and real estate Contract construction Agriculture M ining 1 Wage and salary workers except Agriculture which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. general, job growth through the mid-1980’s is expected to continue to be faster in the service-producing industries than in the goodsproducing industries. However, among industry divisions within both the goods-producing and ser vice-producing sectors, the growth pattern will continue to vary. (See chart 3.) Service-producing industries. In 1974, about 53.7 million workers were on the payroll of serviceproducing industries—trade; government; services and miscel laneous; transportation and other utilities; and finance, insurance, and real estate—about 19.8 million more than the number employed in 1960. The major factors underlying this rapid growth were (1) popula tion growth; (2) increasing ur banization with its accompanying need for more city services; and (3) rising incomes and living standards accompanying a demand for im proved services, such as health and education. These factors are ex pected to continue to result in rapid growth of service industries as a group, and they are expected to em ploy 71.5 million by 1985, an in Industries Providing Services Offer More Jobs Than Those Providing Goods________________ W O RKERS (in m illions)1 6 0 — ------- --------------- Service Producing Goods Producing Manufacturing Contract construction M ining Agriculture Service Producing Transportation and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance and real estate Services Governm ent 20 Goods Producing 10 0L 1945 1950 1955 I9 6 0 1965 1970 1975 1Wage ond salary workers, except Agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. S o u rc e : B ure a u o f L a b o r S ta tis tic s crease of about 33 percent over the 1974 level. Trade, the largest division within the service-producing industries, has expanded sharply since 1960. Wholesale and retail outlets have multiplied in large and small cities to satisfy the need of our highly urban society. Employment in trade was about 17 million in 1974, about 49 percent above the 1960 level. Employment in trade is expected to grow by about 22 percent between 1974 and 1985. Although an ever-increasing volume of merchandise will be distributed as a result of increases in population and consumer expenditures, the rate of increase in manpower needs will be slowed by laborsaving technology such as the greater use of electronic data processing equip ment and automated warehousing equipment, and by growth in the number of self-service stores, and vending machines. Government employment has grown faster than any other indus try division, and increased by about 70 percent, from 8.4 million to 14.5 million, between 1960 and 1974. Growth has been mostly at the State and local levels, which together ex panded by 90 percent. Employment growth has been greatest in agen cies providing education, health, sanitation, welfare, and protective services. Federal Government em ployment increased about 20 per cent between 1960 and 1974. Government will continue to be a major source of new jobs through the mid-1980’s Employment in government will grow faster than the average for other industries, ris ing about 35 percent over the 1974 total. Most of the growth will occur in State and local agencies; while at the Federal level, employment will grow more slowly than the average. Service and miscellaneous indus tries have increased rapidly as a result of the growing need for health services, maintenance and repair, advertising, and domestic help. From 1960 to 1974, total em- Through the Mid-1980's Employment Growth Will Vary Widely, by Industry -85 PROJECTED Contract construction Trade Mining Manufacturing Transportation and public utilities Agricultu re S o u rc e B ure a u o f L ab or S ta tis tic s ployment in this industry division rose by over 80 percent, from 7.4 million to about 13.S million. Service and miscellaneous indus tries will continue to be among the fastest-growing industries through the mid-1980’s. More than half again as many workers are expected to be employed in this industry divi sion in 1985 as in 1974. Manpower requirements in health services are expected to grow rapidly due to population growth and the increas ing ability of persons to pay for health care. Business services, including accounting, data proc essing, and maintenance, also are expected to grow rapidly. Transportation and public utility employment in 1974, at 4.7 million, was about 17 percent higher than in 1960. Different parts of this indus try, however, have experienced dif ferent growth trends. For example, employment increased rapidly in air transportation, but declined in the railroad industry. The number of jobs in transporta tion and public utilities as a whole is expected to increase by 11 percent to 1985, less than the average for other industries. Widely differing employment trends will continue to be experienced among individual industries within the division. A continued increase in employment is expected in air transportation, and a decline is expected to con tinue in railroad employment. A slight decline is expected in water transportation. Finance, insurance, and real estate, the smallest of the serviceproducing industry divisions, grew by about 56 percent from 1960, to more than 4.1 million in 1974. Em ployment has grown especially rapidly in banks; in credit agencies; and among security and commodity brokers, dealers, exchanges, and services. Job growth in finance, insurance, and real estate will outpace the overall increases in nonfarm em ployment through the mid-1980’s. 1985 employment will be about 35 percent higher than in 1974. Goods-Producing Industries. Em ployment in the goods-producing industries—agriculture, manufac turing, construction, and mining— at more than 28.1 million in 1974 has increased slowly in recent years. Significant gains in produc tivity resulting from automation and other technological develop ments as well as the growing skills of the work force have permitted large increases in output without corresponding increases in employ ment. Overall, employment in goods-producing industries is ex pected to increase more slowly than the average for other industries. However, widely different patterns of employment changes have oc curred and will continue among the industry divisions in the goodsproducing sector. Agriculture, which until the late 1800’s employed more than half of all workers in the economy, em ployed about 4 percent, or 3.5 mil lion workers, in 1974. Increases in the average size of farms, rapid mechanization, and improved fertil izers, feeds, and pesticides have created large increases in output even though employment has fallen sharply. The worldwide demand for food is increasing rapidly. Although farm employment in 1985 will be below the 1974 level, the rate of decline will be slower than during the 1960’s. Mining employment, at about 672,000 workers in 1974, has declined nearly 6 percent since 1960, primarily because of laborsaving technological changes. The overall trend is expected to change, and mining employment in 1985 should be about 17 percent higher than in 1974. Coal mining will be a major source of new jobs as the cost of other fuels continues to rise and efficient ways are found to minimize the environmental impact of mining. Contract construction employ ment, about 4 million in 1974, has increased about 38 percent since 1960 as a result of the Nation’s growing need for homes, apart ments, offices, stores, highways, and other physical facilities. Between 1974 and 1985, employ ment in contract construction is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for other industries rising by 26 percent. Manufacturing, the largest divi sion within the goods-producing sector, had about 20 million wor kers in 1974, an increase of about 19 percent over 1960. New products for industrial and con sumer markets and the rapid growth of government expenditures for defense and space programs spearheaded growth during the 1960’s. Manufacturing employment is expected to increase more slowly than the average for other indus tries through the mid-1980’s and to reach about 22.2 million in 1985. Employment in durable goods manufacturing is projected to in crease at a slightly faster rate than total manufacturing, and nondura ble goods, somewhat more slowly; however, the rate of growth will vary among the individual manufac turing industries. Occupational Profile As industries continue to grow, changes will take place in the Na tion’s occupational structure. Jobs will become more complex and spe cialized offering an even greater number of occupational choices to persons planning a career. By first studying the outlook for broad oc cupational groups, the task can be made more manageable. (See chart 4.) Employment Has Shifted Toward White-Collar Occupations WORKERS (in millions) 45 1945 Source: 1950 1955 1960 Among the broad occupational groups, white-collar jobs have grown most rapidly. In 1974, whitecollar workers—professional, man agerial, clerical, and sales—outnum bered blue-collar workers—craftworkers, operatives, and laborers by almost 12 million. (See chart 5.) Through the mid-1980’s, we can expect a continuation of the rapid growth of white-collar and service occupations, a slower-than-average growth of blue-collar occupations, and a further decline of farm workers. The rapid growth ex WORKERS, 1974 (in millions) ’ 2 4 Clerical Professional and technical Craft Service Operatives, except transport M anagers and administrators, except Sales Nonfarm laborers Transport equipment operatives Farm workers ’ includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. Source Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 1970 1975 Bureau of Labor Statistics Employment in Major Occupational Groups, by Sex 0 1965 8 16 pected for white-collar and service workers reflects continuous ex pansion of the service-producing industries, which employ a rela tively large proportion of these workers. The growing demand for workers to perform research and development, to provide education and health services, and to process the increasing amount of paper work throughout all types of enter prises, also will be significant in the growth of white-collar jobs. The slower-than-average growth of blue-collar and farm workers reflects the expanding use of laborsaving equipment in our Nation’s industries and the relatively slow growth of the goods-producing industries that employ large pro portions of blue-collar workers. (See chart 6.) The following sections describe in greater detail the changes that are expected to occur among the broad occupational groups through the mid-1980’s. Professional and technical work ers , the third largest occupational group in 1974, at 12.3 million, in clude such highly trained personnel as teachers, dentists, accountants, and clergy. Professional occupations will grow by about 30 percent between 1974 and 1985—second only to clerical occupations in terms of growth rate. (See chart 7.) Profes sional workers in this area will be in great demand as the Nation makes greater efforts in transporta tion, energy production, rebuilding the cities, and enhancing the beauty of the land. The quest for scientific and technical knowledge is bound to grow, raising the demand for workers in scientific and technical specialties. The late 1970’s and early 1980’s will see a continuing emphasis on the social sciences and medical services. Managers and administrators totaled about 8.9 million in 1974. As in the past, requirements for salaried managers are likely to con tinue to increase rapidly because of the growing dependence of business organizations and government agencies on management spe cialists. On the other hand, the number of self-employed managers is expected to continue to decline as the trend toward larger busi nesses continues to restrict growth of the total number of firms, and as supermarkets continue to replace small groceries and general stores. Overall, the number of managers will increase about as fast as the average for other occupations. Clerical workers, numbering 15 million made up the largest group of workers in 1974. They are ex pected to be the fastest growing group during the 1974-85 period — increasing about one-third. In cluded in this category are workers who operate computers and office machines, keep records, take dicta tion, and type. Many new clerical made up the largest group of wor kers in 1974. Many new clerical positions are expected to open up as industries employing large num bers of clerical workers continue to expand. The demand will be strong for those qualified to handled jobs created by electronic data processing operations. Sales workers, accounting for about 5.4 million workers in 1974, are found primarily in retail stores, manufacturing and wholesale firms, insurance companies, real estate agencies, as well as offering goods door-to-door. Salesworkers are ex pected to increase about 16 per cent between 1974 and 1985. Salesworker employment will grow as population growth and business expansion increase the demand for a wide range of goods and services. Craft workers, numbering about 11.5 million in 1974, include a wide variety of occupations such as car penters, tool and diemakers, instru ment makers, all-round machinists, electricians, and typesetters. Indus trial growth and increasing business activity will spur the growth of craft occupations through the mid1980’s. However, technological developments will tend to limit the expansion of this group. Employ ment craft workers is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations, rising to nearly 20 percent by 1985. Operatives made up the second largest major occupational group in Through the Mid-1980's Employment Growth Will Vary Widely among Occupations PERCENT CH A N G E IN EMPLOYMENT, 1974-85 -40 -30 I Clerical Professional and technical Service M an agers and administrators except farm__________________ Craft and kindred Sales Operatives Nonfarm laborers Farm Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics -2 0 I -10 I 7 1974, with about 13.9 million work ers engaged in such activities as assembling goods in factories; driv ing trucks, buses, and taxis and operating machinery. Employment of operatives is ex pected to increase about 9 percent by 1985, more slowly than the average for other occupations. Technological advances will reduce employment for some types of semiskilled occupations. Increases in production, as well as the trend toward motor truck transpor tation of freight, are expected to be major factors contributing to the overall employment increase. (excluding those in farming and mining), numbered nearly 4.4 million workers in 1974. They move, lift, and carry materials and tools in the Nation’s work places. Employment of laborers is expected to increase only about 9 percent between 1974 and 1985 in spite of the rises in manufacturing and construction, where most are employed. Increased demand is ex pected to be offset by rising produc tivity resulting from continued sub stitution of mechanical equipment for manual labor. Service workers, including men and women who maintain law and order, assist professional nurses in hospitals, give haircuts and beauty treatments, serve food, and clean and care for our homes, totaled about 11.4 million in 1974. This diverse group is expected to in crease 28 percent between 1974 and 1985. Some of the main factors that are expected to increase re quirements for these occupations are the rising demand for hospital and other medical care; the greater need for protective services as urbanization continues and cities become more crowded; and the more frequent use of restaurants, beauty salons, and other services as income levels rise and an in creasing number of housewives take jobs outside the home. The employment of private household Laborers workers, however, will continue to fall despite a rise in demand for their services. Fewer persons will accept household employment be cause of low wages and the strenuous nature of the work. Farm workers —including farm ers, farm managers, laborers, and supervisors—numbered nearly 3.1 million in 1974. The demand for food products, both at home and for export, will continue to grow rapidly. Farm employment, how ever, will decline through the mid1980’s as farm technology con tinues to improve. Job Openings In considering careers, young people should not eliminate an oc cupation just because it will not be among the fastest growing. Although growth is an indicator of future job outlook, it is not the only factor. More jobs will be created between 1974 and 1985 from deaths, retirements, and other labor force separations than from em ployment growth. (See chart 8.) Replacement needs will be particu larly significant in occupations which have a large proportion of older workers. Furthermore, an oc cupation with many workers, even though it may have little prospects for growth, may offer more openings than a fast-growing, small one. For example, among the major occupational groups, openings for operatives resulting from growth and replacements combined will be greater than for craftsmen, although the rate of growth in the employment of craftsmen will be considerably more rapid than the rate of growth for operatives. Outlook and Education Numerous opportunities for em ployment will be available for skilled jobseekers during the years ahead. Employers are seeking peo ple who have higher levels of edu cation because many jobs are more complex and require greater skill. Furthermore, employment growth generally will be faster in those oc cupations requiring the most educa tion and training. For example, em ployment in clerical and profes sional and technical jobs will grow faster than in all other occu pational groups. A high school education has become standard for American Training Needs Are Determined by Replacement Plus Growth W ORKERS NEEDED - 1974-85 (in millions) Clericol workers Service workers Professional and technical workers Operatives M anagers and administrators Craft and kindred workers Salesworkers Nonfarm laborers Farm workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 8 workers. Thus, a high school gradu ate is in a better competitive posi tion in the job market than a non graduate. Although training beyond high school has been the standard for some time for many professional occupations, other areas of work also require more than a high school diploma. As new, automated equipment is introduced on a wider scale in offices, banks, insurance companies, and government opera tions, skill requirements are rising for clerical and other jobs. Em ployers increasingly are demanding better trained workers to operate complicated machinery. In many areas of sales work, developments in machine design, use of new materials, and the complexity of equipment are making greater technical knowledge a requirement. Because many occupations are becoming increasingly complex and technical, specific occupational training such as that obtained through apprenticeship, junior and community colleges, and post-high school vocational education cour ses is becoming more and more im portant to young people preparing for successful careers. Young persons who do not get Estimated Lifetime Earnings for M en Tend to Rise w ith Years of School Completed_______ EST IM A T ED E A R N IN G S - 1972 TO DEATH (in th o u s a n d s of dollars) 1,000 800 600 400 200 Elementary School Source good preparation for work will find the going more difficult in the years ahead. Employers will be more like ly to hire workers who have at least a high school diploma. Further more, present experience shows that the less education and training a worker has, the less chance he has for a steady job. (See chart 9.) In addition to its importance in competing for jobs, education U N E M P L O Y M E N T RATE, (March 1974) 20 8 or less YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED High School Bureau of Labor Statistics YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED High School College All Levels Bureau of the Census Unemploym ent Rates Are Highest for Young W orkers______________ Source 10 College makes a difference in lifetime in come. According to the most recently available data, men who had college degrees could expect to earn about $760,000 in their life times, or nearly two and three quar ters times the $280,000 likely to be earned by workers who had less than 8 years of schooling, nearly twice the amount earned by work ers who had 1 to 3 years of high school, and more than 1 1/2 times as much as high school graduates. Clearly the completion of high school pays a dividend. A worker who had only 1 to 3 years of high school could expect to earn only about $45,000 more than workers who had an elementary school edu cation, but a high school graduate could look forward to a $135,000 lifetime income advantage over an individual completing elementary school. (See chart 10.) In summary, young people who have acquired skills and a good basic education will have a better chance for interesting work, good wages, and steady employment. Getting as much education and training as one’s abilities and cir cumstances permit should therefore be a top priority for today’s youth. THE OUTLOOK FOR OCCUPATIONS INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Millions of people who work in industrial production help to ensure the continued growth of our econo my and its smooth operation. These skilled and semiskilled blue-collar workers are involved in almost every production process. Workers in this group are em ployed mostly in factories. Machin ists and machine tool operators shape metal to precise sizes. Assem blers put together automobiles, television sets, and hundreds of other products. Inspectors examine and test products to assure quality. Printing craft workers operate the various types of machinery used to print newspapers, books, and other publications. Some factory workers are not directly involved in the production process, but support it in some way. Stationary engineers, for example, operate boilers and other equipment. Millwrights move and install heavy industrial machin ery. Power truck operators move materials about the plant. Industrial workers also are em ployed outside of manufacturing in a variety of activities. Automobile painters, for example, restore the finish on old and damaged cars. Photographic laboratory workers develop film and make prints and slides. Semiskilled workers, such as as semblers and power truck opera tors, ordinarily need only brief onthe-job training. Skilled workers, such as stationary engineers and machinists, require considerable training to qualify for their jobs. Many learn their trades on the job, but training authorities generally recommend completion of a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn a skilled trade. Most jobs in industrial produc tion do not require a high school diploma. However, many em ployers prefer high school or voca tional school graduates who have taken courses such as blueprint reading and machine shop. Growth rates for individual occu pations in industrial production will differ greatly. Employment of weld ers, for example, is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations in the Nation’s work force as a result of growth in the metalworking industries and the wider use of welding. Employment of assemblers is expected to grow about the same as the average, despite the continued automation of assembly processes. Employment in some printing crafts, on the other hand, is expected to decline as a result of more efficient printing methods. Even in most declining occupations, however, some job openings are expected as ex perienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields. This chapter includes statements on 21 industrial production and re lated occupations. Many other wor kers who are involved in industrial production are described elsewhere in the Handbook because of their close association with particular oc cupational groups. For example, engineers are included in the chapter on Scientific and Technical Occupations. make the patterns used in making molds for metal castings. Most of the workers in the occupation are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280) ; a smaller number are wood patternmakers (D.O.T. 661.281) . Some patternmakers FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS work with both metal and wood as well as plaster and plastics. Patternmakers work from Foundry workers produce metal replace experienced workers who blueprints prepared by engineers. castings for numerous industrial die, retire, or transfer to other oc They make a precise pattern for the and household products that range cupations will provide some job product, carefully checking each from machine tools to bathtubs. openings. The number of openings dimension with instruments such as Casting is a method of forming may fluctuate from year to year micrometers and calipers. Precision metal into intricate shapes. Molten because foundry employment is is important because any imperfec metal is poured into carefully sensitive to ups and downs in the tions in the pattern will be prepared molds and allowed to economy. reproduced in the castings made solidify. Patternmakers, molders, and from it. The patternmaker, the molder, coremakers are discussed in detail Wood patternmakers select the and the coremaker each play an im in the following statements. (For a woodstock, lay out the pattern, and portant part in the process. The pat general description of many other saw each piece of wood to size. ternmaker makes a wood or metal jobs involved in metal casting, see They then shape the rough pieces model of the casting. A molder the statement on Foundries else into final form with various wood places it in a box and packs sand where in the Handbook.) working machines, such as lathes around the model to form a mold. If and sanders, as well as many small the casting is to have a hollow sec handtools. Finally, they assemble Sources of Additional tion, a coremaker makes a core of the pattern segments by hand, using Information packed and hardened sand that is glue, screws, and nails. For details about training oppor positioned in the mold before the Metal patternmakers prepare tunities for patternmakers, molders, patterns from metal stock or from molten metal is poured in. In 1974, about 21,000 pattern and coremakers, contact local rough castings made from a wood makers, 60,000 molders, and foundries, the local office of the pattern. To shape and finish the 25,000 coremakers worked in the State employment service, the patterns, they use many metalwork foundry industry. About three- nearest office of the State ap ing machines, including lathes, drill fourths of them worked in shops prenticeship agency, or the Bureau presses, shapers, milling machines, that make and sell castings. The of Apprenticeship and Training, power hacksaws, and grinders. remainder worked in plants that U.S. Department of Labor. Infor They also use small handtools. make and use castings in their final mation also is available from the products, such as plants operated following organizations: by manufacturers of automobiles or American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Training, Other Qualifications, Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, III. 60016. machinery. and Advancement A high school education is the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincin Apprenticeship is the best means minimum requirement for an ap nati, Ohio 45206. of qualifying as an experienced pat prentice in patternmaking and for more skilled molding and coremak Cast Metals Federation, Cast Metals Federa ternmaker. Because of the high tion Building, 20611 Center Ridge Rd., degree of skill and the wide range of ing jobs. An eighth grade educa Rocky River, Ohio 44116, knowledge needed for patternmak tion, however, may be enough for ing, it is difficult to learn the trade entry into many molding and on the job. In some instances, coremaking jobs. skilled machinists have been able to Employment in these trades is ex PATTERNMAKERS transfer to metal patternmaking pected to show little or no change with additional on-the-job training through the mid-1980’s because of Nature of the Work or experience. Trade school cours automation and other laborsaving Foundry patternmakers are es in patternmaking provide useful improvements in production methods. Nevertheless, the need to highly skilled craft workers who preparation for the prospective ap- the number of patterns that have to be made. Although employment is not ex pected to grow significantly, some job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced pattermakers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Most of these openings will be for metal patternmakers. The number of openings may fluctuate from year to year since the demand for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or wood working they are prepared for jobs in related fields when patternmak ing employment is not available. Wood patternmakers can qualify for woodworking jobs such as cabinetmakers, and metal pattern makers can transfer their skills to metalworking jobs such as machin ists. Patternmaker checks dimensions of wooden pattern. prentice, and may be credited toward completion of the ap prenticeship. The usual apprenticeship period for patternmaking is 5 years. Each year at least 144 hours of classroom instruction usually are provided. Apprenticeship programs for wood and metal pattemmaking are separate. Employers generally require apprentices to have a high school education. Apprentices begin by helping ex perienced patternmakers in routine duties. They make simple patterns under close supervision; as they progress, the work becomes in creasingly complex and the supervi sion more general. Patternmakers earn higher pay as their skill in creases, and some become super visors. Patternmaking, although not Earnings and Working Conditions Patternmakers generally have higher earnings than other produc strenuous, requires considerable tion workers in manufacturing. In standing and moving about. Manual January 1975, average straight-time dexterity is especially important hourly earnings of wood pattern because of the precise nature of the makers ranged from $5.25 in gray work. The ability to visualize ob iron and malleable iron foundries, jects in three dimensions is also im to $5.55 in nonferrous foundries, portant. according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Association. Metal patternmakers’ earnings generally were higher. In com parison, all production workers in Employment Outlook manufacturing averaged $4.65 an Employment of foundry pattern hour. makers is expected to show little or Patternmakers work indoors in no change through the mid-1980’s well-lighted, well-ventilated areas. despite the anticipated increases in The rooms in which they work are foundry production. The increased generally separated from the areas use of metal patterns and other where the casting takes place, so technical improvements in pattern they are not exposed to the heat making will prevent any significant and noise of the foundry floor. employment growth. Metal pat For sources of additional infor terns, unlike wooden ones, can be mation, see the introductory sec used again and again, thus reducing tion of this chapter. identical sand molds. Machine mol Training, Other Qualifications, ders assemble the flask and pattern and Advancement Nature of the Work on the machine table, fill the flask Completion of a 4-year ap The molder prepares a mold with prepared sand, and operate the which contains a hollow space in machine with levers and pedals. prentice program, or equivalent ex the shape of the item to be made. Many of these workers set up and perience, is needed to become a skilled hand molder. Workers with The mold is made by packing and adjust their own machines. ramming specially prepared sand Hand molders use primarily this training also are preferred for around a pattern—a model of the manual methods to construct the some kinds of machine molding but object to be duplicated—in a box sand molds. Power tools, such as in general a shorter training period called a flask. A flask is usually pneumatic rammers, and handtools, is required in order to become a made in two parts which can be such as trowels and mallets, are qualified machine molder. Some separated to remove the pattern used to smooth the sand. Molds for people learn molding skills infor without damaging the mold cavity. small castings are usually made on mally on the job, but this way of When molten metal is poured into the workbench by bench molders learning the trade takes longer and the cavity, it soldifies and forms the (D.O.T. 518.381); those for large is less reliable than apprenticeship. An eighth grade education and bulky castings are made on the casting. Most of the workers in this occu foundry floor by floor molders usually is the minimum requirement pation are machine molders; the (D.O.T. 518.381). An all-round for apprenticeship. Many em rest are hand molders. Machine hand molder makes many different ployers, however, prefer high molders (D.O.T. 518.782) operate types of molds. A less-skilled school school graduates. Apprentices, under close supervi machines that simplify and speed molder specializes in a few simple sion by skilled molders, begin with the making of large quantities of types. simple jobs, such as shoveling sand, and gradually take on more difficult and responsible work, such as ramming molds, withdrawing pat terns, and setting cores. They also learn to operate the various types of molding machines. Beginning with simple shapes and advancing to more complex work, they make complete molds as training progresses. In addition, the ap prentice may work in other foundry departments to develop all-round knowledge of foundry methods and practices. The apprentice usually receives at least 144 hours of class room instruction each year in sub jects such as shop arithmetic, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Hand molders who do highly repetitive work usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. Trainees work with a molder to make a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months, the trainee usually is capable of making a similar mold. Most machine mold ing jobs can be learned in 2 to 3 months on the job. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. Hand molders stand at their work, move about a great deal, and frequently must lift Molders pour liquified metal Into molds. MOLDERS heavy objects. They need good vi sion and a high degree of manual dexterity. Molders may advance to a specialized molding job or even tually to a supervisory position. Employment Outlook Employment of molders is ex pected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. The trend to more machine molding, such as the sand slinging process, and other laborsaving innovations will limit employment growth. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced molders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations will provide some job openings. The number of openings, however, may fluctuate from year to year because the de mand for foundry products is sensi tive to changes in the economy. Earnings and Working Conditions In January 1975, floor molders averaged $4.75 an hour and bench molders averaged $4.55, according to a wage survey made by the Na tional Foundry Association. Mol ders who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings. By comparison, production workers in all manufacturing industries averaged $4.65 an hour. Working conditions vary con siderably from one foundry to another. Heat and fumes have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of improved ventila tion systems and air- conditioning. For sources of additional infor mation, see the introductory sec tion of this chapter. The poured metal solidifies around the core, so that when the core is removed the desired cavity or con tour remains. A core may be made either by hand or machine. In both instances, sand is packed into a block of wood or metal in which a space of the desired size and shape has been hol lowed out. After the core is removed from this box it is hardened by baking or by another drying method. When hand methods are used, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack sand into the core box. Small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381) and large ones are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381). Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.885) operate machines that make sand cores by forcing sand into a core box. Some machine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their machines and do finishing operations on the cores. Others are primarily machine ten ders. They are closely supervised and their machines are adjusted for them. (To see how the coremaker’s job is a basic step in the casting process, read the description of sand casting given in the statement on Foundries elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year ap prentice training program or the equivalent experience is needed to become a skilled hand coremaker. Apprenticeships also are sometimes required for the more difficult machine coremaking jobs. Ap prenticeship training in coremaking and molding often are combined. Experienced coremakers teach apprentices how to make cores and operate ovens. Classroom instruc tion covering subjects such as arithmetic and the properties of metals generally supplements onthe-job training. Coremakers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some become supervisors. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirement for coremaking apprentices; some COREMAKERS Nature of the Work Coremakers prepare the “cores” that are placed in molds to form the hollow sections in metal castings. Coremaker operates machine that produces cores for automobile engine heads. employers require graduation from high school. Some types of hand coremaking require a high degree of manual dexterity. tions. The number of openings may fluctuate from year to year since the demand for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the econo my. Employment Outlook Employment of coremakers is ex pected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. Growth in this occupation will be limited as more cores are made by machine instead of by hand. Nevertheless, some job openings will arise because of the need to replace ex perienced coremakers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa Earnings and Working Conditions In January 1975, the average hourly earnings of floor coremakers were $4.65; bench coremakers, $4.35; and machine coremakers, $4.05, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry As sociation. Coremakers who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings. By com parison, production workers in all manufacturing industries averaged $4.65 an hour. Working conditions vary con siderably from one foundry to another. Heat and fumes have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of improved ventila tion systems and air-conditioning. Although the injury rate in foun dries is higher than the average for manufacturing, coremaking is one of the least hazardous foundry jobs. For sources of additional infor mation, see the introductory sec tion of this chapter. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS Nearly every product made by American industry contains metal parts or is manufactured by machines made of metal parts. In 1974, over 1.1 million machinists, machine tool operators, tool and diemakers, and setup workers used a wide variety of machine and handtools to shape these metal parts. A machine tool is a stationary, power-driven device that brings together the cutting instrument (tool) and the metal to be cut, hold ing them. Some of the most com mon machine tools are lathes and machines that drill, bore, mill, and grind. Metal can be shaped also by using chemicals, electricity, mag netism, sound, light, and liquids under controlled conditions. All-round machinists can operate most types of machine tools, whereas machine tool operators generally work with one kind only. Tool and diemakers make dies (metal forms) for presses and diecasting machines, devices to guide drills into metal, and special gauges to determine whether the work meets specified tolerances. In strument makers use machine tools to produce highly accurate instru ment parts from metal and other materials. Setup workers adjust tools for semiskilled machine tool operators to run. (Detailed discus sions of work performed, training, and earnings of these occupations are presented in the chapters that follow.) ALL-ROUND MACHINISTS (D.O.T. 600.280, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work All-round machinists, who can set up and operate most types of machine tools, use these tools to make metal parts. Because they plan and carry through all opera tions, they may switch from one product to another and give variety to their work. Their knowledge of metals and machine tools enables them to turn a block of metal into an intricate part of precise specifi cations. They select tools and materials for each job and plan the cutting and finishing operations from a blueprint or written specifi cations. They make standard shop computations relating to dimen sions of work and machining specifications. They often use Machinist adjusts high-speed machine tool. precision measuring instruments, such as micrometers, to measure the accuracy of their work to thousandths or even millionths of an inch. After completing machin ing operations, they may use hand files and scrapers before assembling the finished parts with wrenches and screwdrivers. Machinists who make and repair metal parts in maintenance depart ments must have a broad knowledge of the way machines work to adjust and test parts. In plants that produce large numbers of metal products, highly skilled machinists specialize in layout work and mark specifications on metal for machine tool operators who do the machining operations. Places of Employment An estimated 335,000 machinists were employed in 1974. Almost every factory using substantial amounts of machinery employed all-round machinists to maintain its mechanical equipment. Some all round machinists made large quan tities of identical parts in produc tion departments of metalworking factories; others made limited num bers of varied products in machine shops. Most all-round machinists worked in the following industries: machinery, including electrical; transportation equipment; fabri cated metal products; and pri mary metals. Other industries em ploying substantial numbers of these workers were the railroad, chemical, food processing, and tex tile industries. The Federal Govern ment also employed all-round machinists in Navy yards and other installations. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many facto ries are located. Among the leading areas of employment are Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, San Fran cisco, and Houston. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement vance into other technical jobs in machine programming and tooling. A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade, but some companies have training programs for single-pur pose machines that require less than 4 years. Many machinists, however, learn on the job. Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined and temperamentally suited to do highly accurate work that requires concentration as well as physical effort. Prospective machinists should be able to work independently. Although the work is sometimes tedious and repeti tious, all-round machinists fre quently have the satisfaction of seeing the final results of their work. A high school or vocational school education, including mathe matics, physics, or machine shop training, is desirable. Some compa nies require experienced machinists to take additional courses in mathe matics and electronics at company expense so that they can service and operate numerically controlled machine tools. In addition, equip ment builders generally provide training in the electrical, hydraulic, and mechanical aspects of machine-and-control systems. Typical machinist apprentice programs consist of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training and about 570 hours of related class room instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn chipping, filing, hand tapping, dowel fitting, rivet ing, and the operation of various machine tools. In the classroom, they study blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, shop mathe matics, and shop practices. All-round machinists have nu merous opportunities for advance ment. Many advance to supervisory jobs. Some take additional training and become tool and die or instru ment makers. Skilled machinists may open their own shops or ad Employment Outlook rates in 14 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompany ing tabulation. The number of all-round machin Area Hourly rate ists is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all San Francisco —Oakland............... $6.48 6.46 occupations through the mid- D etroit.......................... 6.13 1980’s. Expansion of metalworking New York......................................... 6.04 activities will cause most of the in Chicago................................. Minneapolis —St. Paul.................... 5.99 crease. In addition to openings Portland, Oreg................................. 5.85 created by growth in this large oc Buffalo............................................... 5.79 cupation, many openings will arise Louisville........................................... 5.66 from the need to replace ex Los Angeles—Long Beach............ 5.64 perienced machinists who retire, H ouston............................................ 5.59 die, or transfer to other fields of Cleveland........................................... 5.49 work. Denver.............................................. 5.25 As population and income rise, Boston................................................ 5.02 so will the demand for machined Greenville, S.C................................. 4.04 goods, such as automobiles, Machinists must follow strict household appliances, and industri al products. However, technologi safety regulations when working cal developments which increase around high-speed machine tools. the productivity of machinists are Short-sleeved shirts, safety glasses, expected to keep employment from and other protective devices are rising as fast as the demand for required to reduce accidents. Most machined goods. shops are clean and workplaces are Chief among these technological well-lighted. innovations is the expanding use of Many machinists are members of numerically controlled machine unions including the International tools. These machines, which trans Association of Machinists and late numbers into a series of mo Aerospace Workers; the Interna tions or processes, significantly tional Union, United Automobile, reduce the time required to per Aerospace, and Agricultural Imple form machining operations. ment Workers of America; the In Much of the employment growth ternational Union of Electrical, will occur in maintenance shops, as Radio and Machine Workers; the industries continue to use a greater International Brotherhood of Elec volume of complex machinery and trical Workers; and the United equipment. Skilled maintenance Steelworkers of America. machinists are needed to prevent costly breakdowns in highly Sources of Additional mechanized plants. In such plants, a Information breakdown of one machine may stop many other machines. The National Machine Tool Builders Association, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 — Earnings and Working whose members build a large per Conditions centage of all machine tools used The earnings of machinists com in this country—will supply, on pare favorably with those of other request, information on career skilled workers. Machinists opportunities in the machine tool averaged $5.56 an hour in 1973-74, industry. according to a survey of The National Tool, Die and metropolitan areas. Average hourly Precision Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Oxon Hill, Md. 20022, offers information on apprenticeship training, including Recommended Apprenticeship Standards for Tool and Die Makers certified by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068—a trade association—offers information on apprenticeship training in the Chicago area. Many local offices of State em ployment services provide free ap titude testing to persons interested in becoming all-round machinists or tool and diemakers. In addition, the State employment service refers ap plicants for apprentice programs to employers. In many communities, applications for apprenticeship also are received by labor-management apprenticeship committees. Apprenticeship information also may be obtained from the following unions (which have local offices in many cities): mental models, special laboratory equipment, and custom instru ments. Experimental devices con structed by these craft workers are used, for example, to regulate heat, measure distance, record earthquakes, and control industrial processes. The parts and models may range from simple gears to in tricate parts of navigation systems for guided missiles. Instrument makers also modify existing instru ments for special purposes. Instrument makers fabricate metal parts using machine tools such as lathes and milling machines, and handtools such as files and chisels. Because accuracy is impor tant, they measure finished parts with a wide variety of precision measuring equipment, including micrometers, verniers, calipers, and dial indicators, as well as standard optical measuring instruments. Using considerable imagination and ingenuity, they work from rough sketches, verbal instructions, or ideas, as well as from detailed blueprints. Sometimes specifica tions must not vary more than 10 millionths of an inch. To meet these standards, they use special equip ment or precision devices, that other machining workers seldom use, such as the electronic height gauge. They also work with a variety of materials, including plastics and rare metals such as titanium and rhodium. Instrument makers may con struct, assemble, and then test all parts of an instrument in small shops. When working with electri cal and electronic components that are to be incorporated into an in strument, however, they frequently work with other instrument makers or electronic specialists. International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, Skilled Trades De partment, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washing ton, D .C .20005. INSTRUMENT MAKERS (MECHANICAL) (D.O.T. 600.280) Nature of the Work Instrument makers (also called experimental machinists and modelmakers) work closely with engineers and scientists in translat ing designs and ideas into experi Instrument makers work closely with engineer and scientists. Places of Employment Many of the approximately 5,500 instrument makers employed in 1974 worked for firms that manu factured instruments. Others were in research and development laboratories that make special devices for scientific research. The Federal Government employed many instrument makers. The main centers of instrument making are located in and around a few large cities, particularly New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, Detroit, Buffalo, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some instrument makers ad vance from the ranks of machinists or skilled machine tool operators. These craft workers begin by doing the simpler jobs under close super vision. Usually 1 to 2 years or more of instrument shop experience are needed to qualify as instrument makers. Other instrument makers learn their trade through apprenticeships that generally last 4 years. A typical 4-year program includes 8,000 hours of shop training and 576 hours of related classroom instruc tion. Shop training emphasizes the use of machine tools, handtools, and measuring instruments, and the working properties of various materials. Classroom instruction covers related technical subjects such as mathematics, physics, blueprint reading, chemistry, metal lurgy, electronics, and fundamental instrument design. Apprentices must learn enough shop mathe matics to plan their work and to use formulas. A basic knowledge of mechanical principles is needed in solving gear and linkage problems. For apprenticeship programs, employers generally prefer high school graduates who have taken algebra, geometry, trigonometry, science, and machine shopwork. Further technical schooling in elec tricity, physics, machine design, and electronics is often desirable, and may make possible future promotions to technician jobs. Persons interested in becoming instrument makers should be those having a strong interest in mechani cal subjects and better-than average ability to work with their hands. They must have initiative and resourcefulness because instrument makers often work alone under minimum supervision or none. Since instrument makers often face new problems, they must be able to develop original solutions. Frequently, they must visualize the relationship between individual parts and the complete instrument, and must understand the principles of the instrument’s operation. Because of the nature of their jobs, instrument makers have to be very conscientious and take considera ble pride in creative work. As instrument makers’ skills and knowledge improve, they may ad vance to more responsible posi tions. For example, they may plan and estimate time and material requirements for the manufacture of instruments or provide special ized support to professional person nel. Others may become super visors and train less skilled instru ment makers. Employment Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be relatively scarce in the years ahead. Some workers will be needed to replace experienced in strument makers who retire, die, or find other jobs, but replacement needs will be small because so few people are employed in this field. Employment growth will create a small number of additional job openings. Employment of instrument makers is expected to increase at a slower rate than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Some additional workers will be needed to make models of new instruments for mass produc tion and also to make custom or special instruments, particularly in the expanding field of industrial au tomation. Also, more versatile and sensitive precision instruments can be expected to emerge from current research and development pro grams. Laborsaving technological innovations, however, will limit em ployment growth. Numerically con trolled machine tools, for example, reduce the amount of labor required in machining operations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of instrument makers compare favorably with those of other highly skilled metalworkers. In 1973-74, instrument makers generally earned between $5 and $7 an hour. Instrument shops usually are clean and well-lighted, with tem peratures strictly controlled. Instru ment assembly rooms are some times known as “white rooms,” for almost sterile conditions are main tained. Serious work accidents are not common, but machine tools and fly ing particles may cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. Safety rules generally require the wearing of special glasses, aprons, tightly fitted clothes, and short-sleeved shirts. Many instrument makers are union members. Among the unions representing them are the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Work ers of America. Sources of Additional Information See list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Hand book. MACHINE TOOL OPERATORS (D.O.T. 602., 603., 604., 605., and 606.) Nature of the Work Many machine tool operators do simple, repetitive jobs that can be learned quickly on one or two types of machine tools. Other more skilled workers do complex and varied machining operations on several different machine tools. Typically, semiskilled operators place rough metal stock in a machine tool on which the speeds and operation sequence already have been set. By using special, easy-to-use gauges they watch the machine and make minor adjust ments. However, they depend on skilled machining workers for major adjustments when their machine is not working properly. Skilled machine tool operators plan and set up the correct sequence of machining operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper cutting instru ments or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other precision measuring instru ments, they check the completed work with the tolerance limits given in the specifications. They also may select cutting and lubricating oils to cool metal and tools during machin ing operations. Operators use lathes, drill presses, and automatic screw machines. They also use boring, grinding, and milling machines. Both skilled and semiskilled opera tors have job titles related to the kind of machine they operate, such as engine lathe operator, milling machine operator, and drill press operator. Places of Employment About 600,000 machine tool operators were employed in 1974, Operator adjusts machine that drills and reams rifle parts. mainly in factories that produce fabricated metal products, trans portation equipment, and machin ery in large quantities. Skilled machine tool operators worked in production departments, main tenance departments, and tool rooms. Machine tool operators work in every State and in almost every city in the United States. However, they are concentrated in major industrial areas such as the Great Lakes Re gion: About one-fourth of all machine tool operators work in the Great Lakes cities of Detroit, Flint, Chicago, Cleveland, and Milwau kee. Among the other areas that have large numbers of these work ers are Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Indianapolis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most machine tool operators learn their skills on the job. Begin ners usually start by observing skilled operators at work. When trainees first operate a machine, they are supervised closely by more experienced workers. Beginners learn how to use measuring instru ments and to make elementary computations needed in shopwork. They gradually acquire experience and learn to operate a machine tool, read blueprints, and plan the sequence of machining work. Individual ability and effort large ly determine the time required to become a machine tool operator. Most semiskilled operators learn their jobs in a few months, but a skilled operator often requires 1to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new em ployees. Although no special education is required for semiskilled jobs, per sons seeking such work can im prove their opportunities by completing courses in mathematics and blueprint reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons with mechanical aptitude and some experience working with machinery. Physical stamina is im portant since much time will be spent standing. Applicants should be able to work independently within a relatively small work area. Although much of the work is tedi ous, many machine tool operators derive satisfaction from seeing the results of their work. Skilled machine tool operators may become all-round machinists, tool and diemakers, or advance to jobs in machine programming and maintenance. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for machine tool operators should be fairly plen tiful in the years ahead. Because this is a large occupation, many openings arise due to the need to replace operators who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some openings also will result from employment growth, although em ployment of machine tool operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. More machine tool operators will be needed as metalworking indus tries expand their output. However, the use of faster and more versatile automatic machine tools and nu merically controlled machine tools will result in greater output per worker and tend to limit employ ment growth. Other factors that may slow the growth in this occupa tion are the increasingly important new processes in metal removal, such as electrical discharge and ul trasonic machining, and the use of powdered metals that reduce the machining necessary for a final product. Workers with thorough back grounds in machining operations, mathematics, blueprint reading, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals will be better able to adjust to the changing job requirements that will result from technological advances. long to unions, including the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electri cal, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of Additional Information Earnings and Working Conditions See the list under this same head ing in the statement on All-round Machine tool operators are paid Machinists elsewhere in the Hand according to hourly or incentive book. rates, or on the basis of a combina tion of both methods. Skilled opera tors averaged $5.67 an hour in SETUP WORKERS 1973-74, according to a survey of (M ACHINE TOOLS) metropolitan areas. By comparison, nonsupervisory workers in private (D.O.T. 600.380) industry, except farming, averaged $4.05. Average hourly rates in 14 of Nature of the Work the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates of machine Setup workers, often called tool operators differ in various parts machine tool job setters, are skilled of the country, appear in the ac specialists employed in plants and companying tabulation. machine shops that do machining in large volume. Their main job is to Area Hourly rate prepare machine tools for use (setup), and to explain to $6.56 Detroit............................................... semiskilled workers the operations San Francisco-Oakland................. 6.32 Chicago.............................................. 5.96 to be performed and ways to check Cincinnati.......................................... 5.53 the accuracy of the work. Usually Los Angeles-Long Beach.............. 5.35 setup workers are assigned a Portland. Oreg.................................. 5.24 number of machine tools that are of Denver............................................... 5.19 one type, such as turret lathes. Minneapolis-St. Paul...................... 5.17 However, they may set up several Baltimore........................................... 5.09 different kinds. Working from Boston................................................ 4.93 drawings, blueprints, written Houston............................................. 4.93 specifications, or job layouts, they Waterbury. Conn............................. 4.60 determine the rate at which the Worcester. Mass.............................. 4.57 material is to be fed into the Tampa-St. Petersburg.................... 4.02 machines, operating speeds, tool Most shops are clean and work ing, and operation sequence. They places are well-lighted. Machine then select and install the proper tool operators must use protective cutting or other tools and adjust glasses and may not wear loose- guides, stops, and other controls. fitting garments when working They may make trial runs and ad around high-speed machine tools. just the machine and tools until the Most machine tool operators be parts produced conform to specifi- cations. The machine is then turned over to a semiskilled operator. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 50,000 setup workers in 1974 were em ployed in factories that manufac tured fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, and machinery. These workers usually were employed by large companies that employed many semiskilled machine tool operators. They are not usually employed in main tenance shops or in small jobbing shops. Setup workers are found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in major industrial areas such as Los Angeles, Philadel phia, New York, Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Setup workers must qualify as all round machinists. They must be able to operate one or more kinds of machine tools and select the sequence of operations so that metal parts will be made according to specifications. The ability to communicate clearly is important in explaining the machining opera tions to semiskilled workers. Setup workers may advance within a shop or transfer into other jobs, such as parts programmer. Employment Outlook Employment of setup workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Although consumer and industrial demand for machined goods will grow, partly offsetting this will be greater productivity of setup workers due to the increasing use of numerically controlled machined tools. Most job opportunities will arise from the need to replace experienced work ers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Set-up worker prepares machine for operation. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information The earnings of setup workers compare favorably with those of other skilled machining workers. In 1973-74, setup workers generally earned between $5 and $6 an hour. Good safety habits are important since setup workers are exposed to high-speed machine tools that have sharp cutting edges. Many setup workers are mem bers of unions, including the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. See list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Hand book. TOOL-AND-DIE MAKERS (D.O.T. 601.280, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work Tool-and-die makers are highly skilled, creative workers whose products—tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices—are used to mass-produce metal parts. Toolmakers produce jigs and fix tures (devices that hold metal while it is shaved, stamped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other measuring devices for manufactur ing precision metal parts. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics. Tool-anddie makers repair worn or damaged dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and design tools and dies. Compared with most other machining workers, tool-anddie makers have a broader knowledge of machining opera tions, mathematics, and blueprint reading, and do precise handwork. Tool-and-die makers use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instrument. They work and are familiar with the machining properties of metals and alloys commonly used in manufac turing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool-and-die making skills can be obtained through formal ap prenticeship or equivalent on-thejob training. Applicants should have a good working knowledge of mathematics and physics, as well as considerable mechanical ability, finger dexterity, and an aptitude for precise work. In selecting apprentices, most employers prefer persons with a high school or trade school educa tion. Some employers test ap prentice applicants to determine their mechanical aptitudes and their abilities in mathematics. Most of the 4 years of a tool and die apprenticeship are spent in practical shop training. Apprentices learn to operate the drill press, milling machine, lathe, grinder, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other mechanical equipment, and study heat treating and other metalwork ing processes. Classroom training consists of shop mathematics, shop theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint reading. Several years of experience after apprenticeship are often necessary to qualify for more difficult tooland-die work. Some companies have separate apprenticeship pro grams for toolmaking and die making. Some machining workers be come tool-and-die makers without completing formal apprenticeships. After years of experience as skilled machine tool operators or machin ists, plus additional classroom train- Places of Employment In 1974, about 170,000 tool-anddie makers were employed, primar ily in plants that produce manufac turing, construction, and farm machinery. Others worked in au tomobile, aircraft, and other trans portation equipment industries; small tool-and-die shops; and elec trical machinery and fabricated metal industries. Although tool-and-die makers are situated throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many large factories are located. About one-fifth of all tooland-die makers work in the Detroit and Flint, Chicago, and Los An geles areas, which are major manu facturing centers for automobiles, machinery, and aircraft, respective ly. Among the other areas that have large numbers of these workers are Cleveland, New York, Newark, Dayton, and Buffalo. Tool and die maker must have a broad knowledge of machining operations. ing, they develop into all-round workers who can skillfully perform tool-and-die making. Tool-and-die makers may be come tool designers or advance to supervisory positions. Some open their own tool-and-die shops. Employment Outlook Employment of tool-and-die makers is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Besides the job openings from employment growth, many openings will arise as experienced tool-and-die makers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The long-range expansion in metalworking industries will result in a continued need for tools and dies. The growth of this occupation may be limited, however, by the use of electrical-discharge machines and numerically controlled machines that have significantly changed toolmaking processes. Nu merically controlled machining operations require fewer of the spe cial tools and jigs and fixtures, and could increase the output of each tool-and-die maker. As a group, tool-and-die makers have a long working life, because their extensive skills and knowledge can be acquired only after many years of experience. Tool-anddie makers also have greater occu pational mobility than other less skilled workers, and can transfer to other machining occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Tool-and-die makers are among the highest paid machining work ers. Tool-and-die makers averaged $5.98 an hour in 1973-74, accord ing to a survey of metropolitan areas. This was almost one and onehalf times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average hourly rates in 14 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die makers differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accom panying tabulation. As with other machining work ers, tool-and-die makers wear pro tective glasses when working around metal cutting machines. Tool-and-die shops are usually Area Hourly rate San Francisco-Oakland................. Detroit............................................... Chicago.............................................. Buffalo............................................... Cincinnati.......................................... Baltimore........................................... Atlanta............................................... Denver............................................... New York......................................... Los Angeles-Long Beach.............. Dallas................................................. Houston............................................. Salt Lake City.................................. Worcester. Mass.............................. Chattanooga...................................... $7.27 6.69 6.67 6.21 5.93 5.84 5.79 5.70 5.56 5.56 5.28 5.26 4.81 4.51 4.36 safer than similar operations in production plants. Many tool-and-die makers are members of unions, including the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace, and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; and the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of Additional Information See list under this same heading in the statement on All-round Machinists elsewhere in the Hand book. PRINTING OCCUPATIONS In 1974, almost 400,000 printing craft workers were employed to produce newspapers, magazines, business forms, and hundreds of other printed materials. Although most worked for publishers and commercial printing shops, many had jobs in insurance companies, paper mills, government agencies, and many other organizations that do their own printing. Printing craft workers usually specialize in one area of printing operations: Type composition, platemaking, presswork, or binding. The most common way to learn the skills needed in most of these fields is through apprenticeship, which generally lasts from 4 to 6 years. Apprenticeship applicants usually must be high school graduates who are at least 18 years of age, but requirements vary among em ployers. Most printing craft workers who are covered by union contracts work fewer than 40 hours a week. Some contracts specify a standard workweek of less than 35 hours, but most fall within a 35- to 37-1/2hour range. Through the mid-1980’s, oppor tunities to enter printing crafts will stem mainly from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Employment growth also will provide job openings in some crafts, but laborsaving technological developments will restrict growth in others. The statements that follow deal with employment opportunities for the major groups of printing work ers: Composing room occupations, photoengravers, electrotypers and stereotypers, printing press opera tors and assistants, lithographic occupations, and bookbinders. In many binding shops much of the work is done by bindery work ers who are trained in only one operation or in a small number of relatively simple tasks. For exam ple, bindery workers perform such tasks as fastening sheets or signa tures together using a machine sta pler and feeding signatures into various machines for stitching, fold ing, or gluing operations. Places of Employment BOOKBINDERS AND RELATED WORKERS Nature of the Work About 35,000 bookbinders were employed in 1974. Many work in shops that specialize in bookbind ing; others work in the bindery de partments of book publishing firms, commercial printing plants, and large libraries. Some bookbinders work for the Federal Government Although bookbinders work in all parts of the country, employment is concentrated in large printing cen ters such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C. Many printed items, such as books and magazines, must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 977.781). Edition-binding—making books in quantity from big, flat printed sheets of paper—is the most com Training and Other plicated kind of binding. Bookbind Qualifications ers first fold the printed sheets into one unit or more, known as a A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship, “signature,” so that the pages will which includes on-the-job training be in the right order. They then in as well as related classroom instruc sert any illustrations that have been tion, generally is required to qualify printed separately, gather and as as a skilled bookbinder. Ap semble signatures in proper order, prenticeship applicants usually and sew them together. They shape must have a high school education, the book bodies with presses and mechanical aptitude, and be at least trimming machines and reinforce 18 years of age. During the ap them with glued fabric strips. prenticeship, trainees learn to asCovers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of finishing operations and frequently are wrapped in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Skilled bookbinders seldom per form all the different binding tasks, but many have had training in all of them. In large shops, skilled book binders may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated machines, such as rounding and cutting machines. semble signatures; to renovate old, worn bindings; and to use various binding machines, such as puncher and folders. Most unskilled bindery hands learn their tasks through informal on-the-job training which may last from several months to 2 years. A few learn through formal ap prenticeship programs that include classroom instruction as well as onthe-job training. hourly rate for bindery workers was $4.17. Bookbinding shops tend to be noisy when machinery is operating. Bookbinders have some variety in their jobs, but the jobs of bindery workers tend to be monotonous. Most bindery workers are mem bers of The Graphic Arts Interna tional Union. Employment Outlook Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Arts Union, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on book binding occupations, write to: Employment of bookbinders and bindery workers is expected to in crease slower than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Most job openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. Despite the anticipated growth in the amount of bound printed materials, employment growth will be limited by the increasing mechanization of bindery opera tions. For example, the use of in tegral folders which automatically fold pages as they come off the press eliminates the need for bind ery workers to do the folding by hand. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for skilled bookbind ers tend to be below the average for other printing crafts. A survey of union wage rates in 69 large cit ies showed that the minimum wage rates for bookbinders in publishing firms and bookbinding shops averaged about $6.63 an hour in 1974. This rate was about half above the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private indus tries, except farming. The wage rates for bindery work ers are considerably lower than the rates for bookbinders, and are among the lowest for printing in dustry workers. A survey of union wages in 69 large cities shows that in 1974 the average minimum Sources of Additional Information American Newspaper Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. The Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries o f America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. COMPOSING ROOM OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 650.582, 654.782, and 973.381) Nature of the Work The printing process begins in a composing room when manuscript copy is set in type, proofed, and checked for errors. Machine and handset type and other materials such as pasteups and photoen gravings are assembled and prepared for the pressroom. Hand compositors ( typesetters) (D.O.T. 973,381) make up the old est composing-room occupation. Today most type that is set by hand is for work that requires special composition—usually larger size type for advertising copy—and for small jobs in which the setting of type by machine would be impracti cal. To set type, the compositor reads from the manuscript copy and sets each line of type in a “composing stick” (a device that holds type in place) letter by letter and line by line. When this stick is full, the compositor slides the completed lines onto a shallow metal tray called a “galley.” Typesetting machine operators are craft workers who operate semi-au tomatic machines which set type much more rapidly than hand methods. Many of these workers specialize in operating linotype, keyboard, casting, or photo typesetting machines. Linotype (or intertype) machine operators (D.O.T. 650.582), read ing from the copy clipped to the machine’s copy board, select letters and other characters by operating a keyboard which has 90 keys. As they press the keys, the letters, in forms of metal molds, are assem bled into lines of words. As they complete each line, the operators touch a lever and the machine auto matically casts the line of type into a solid metal strip called a “ slug.” The slugs are assembled into the type forms from which either the printing impressions or printing plates are made. Nearly all newspaper plants, large commercial shops, and typographic composi tion firms use these machines to set type. In small plants, operators also may maintain and repair typesetting machines. Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 650.582) operate keyboards which are similar to typewriters, but which have about four times as many keys. The keyboard machine produces a per forated paper tape that later is fed into the casting machine by mono type caster operators (D.O.T. 654.782). The machine reads the tape and automatically selects the metal molds for each letter. Molten metal is forced into molds to form Linotype operators set type. the type. Caster operators insert the tape, adjust and tend the machine while it is operating, and do minor maintenance and repair work. Phototypesetting machine opera tors (D.O.T. 650.582) operate high speed typesetting machines. In phototypesetting, a photographic process replaces the function of the hot metal, and the final product is a film or photographic print of the type rather than a metal slug. In a common kind of phototypesetting, perforated paper tape or a magnetic tape is fed into a machine which reads the tape and photographs the individual characters indicated on the tape. In a more advanced type of phototypesetting, a cathode-ray tube operator controls a machine which generates characters from in formation stored in a computer and displays them on a screen that is similar to a TV picture tube. The characters, as they appear on the face of the screen, are picked up by the lens and exposed onto photo graphic film or paper. These machines can turn out several thousand characters a second and compose entire pages instead of a line at a time. In addition to machine operation, phototypesetters must be familiar with the fundamentals of photog raphy, including darkroom procedures, to develop the film. They also make minor repairs on the phototypesetting machine. Much of this equipment has elec tronic controls and operators need a basic knowledge of the principles of electronics. Typesetting machine operators also use machines similar to typewriters to set “coldtype” on paper. “ Coldtype” composition may be set directly on a paper or metal sheet from which the plate is to be made, or the cold type images may be cut from paper and pasted on layout sheets. The process of as sembling and pasting this type on layout sheets is called paste makeup, and is somewhat similar to hand composition. Coldtype com position frequently is used by newspapers for display advertising, and to set regular text copy. Places of Employment About 165,000 workers were em ployed in composing room occupa tions in 1974. About one-third work for newspaper plants. Many others work for commercial print ing plants, book and magazine print ers, and Federal, State, and local governments. Some work for banks, insurance companies, advertising agencies, manufacturers, and other firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are located in almost every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Most compositors get their skills through apprenticeship training. Others learn while working as shop helpers for several years, or through a combination of trade school and helper experience. Generally, apprenticeship covers a 6-year period of progressively ad vanced training, supplemented by classroom instruction or correspon dence courses. However, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2-1/2 years for ap prentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. After basic training as a hand compositor, the apprentice receives intensive training in one specialized field or more, such as in the opera tion of typesetting machines, in cluding phototypesetting and tele typesetting machines, as well as in specialized work in hand composi tion and photocomposition. Applicants for apprenticeship generally must be high school grad uates and in good physical condi tion. They usually are given ap titude tests. Important qualifica tions include training in mathe matics and English, especially spelling. Printing and typing cours es in vocational or high schools are good preparation for apprentice ship applicants, and a general background in electronics and photography is becoming increas ingly useful. Artistic ability is an asset for a compositor in layout work. Tape-perforating machine opera tors must be expert typists. Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer courses in print ing technology, which provide a valuable background for people who are interested in becoming compositors. They generally learn to type in commercial courses in high school or in business school. These operators do not need to be trained as skilled compositors but they must be familiar with printing terms and measurements. The training period for tape perforating machine operators is about a year. Employment Outlook Employment in composing-room occupations is expected to decline through the mid-1980’s. Neverthe less, a few thousand job openings are expected each year as ex perienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. In spite of the anticipated expan sion in the volume of printing, em ployment in composing room occu pations is expected to decline because of the trend to high-speed phototypesetting and typesetting computers. These high speed machines require fewer operators than the traditional hot metal method of typesetting. For the jobs that do become available, opportunities should be best for persons who have completed post high school pro grams in printing technology, such as those offered by technical in stitutes and junior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these pro grams because the comprehensive training that they receive helps them Jearn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and techniques more rapidly. Although most job opportunities will continue to be in the printing industry, a growing number will be found in other industries, such as paper and textile mills, which are doing their own typesetting instead of contracting it to printing firms. Earnings and Working Conditions Union compositors on the day shift in newspaper plants had an estimated average minimum rate of $6.86 an hour in 1974, according to a survey of 69 large cities. This rate was about one-half more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Working conditions for composi tors vary from plant to plant. Some heat and noise are made by typesetting machines. In general, the new plants are well-lighted and clean, and many are air-condi tioned. Hand compositors have to stand for long periods and do some heavy lifting. People with some types of physical handicaps, such as or stereotyping from flat type forms. Electrotypers make a wax or plastic mold of the metal type form Sources of Additional which is coated with chemical solu Information tions before being placed in an elec Details about apprenticeship and trolytic bath containing metal. This other training opportunities may be leaves a metallic shell on the coated obtained from local employers, mold. The shell is stripped from the such as newspapers and printing mold, backed with metal or plastic, shops, the local office of the Inter and carefully finished. national Typographical Union, or The stereotyping process is sim the local office of the State employ pler, quicker, and less expensive ment service. than electrotyping, but it does not For general information on com yield as durable or as fine a plate. posing room occupations, write to: Stereotypers make molds or mats of American Newspaper Publishers Associa papermache instead of wax or tion, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, plastic. The mat is placed on the Va. 20041. type form and covered with a cork Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 blanket and a sheet of fiberboard. Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. The covered form is run under International Typographic Composition As heavy steel rollers to impress the sociation, Inc., 2233 Wisconsin Ave. type and photoengravings on the NW„ Washington, D.C. 20007. mat. Then the mat is placed in a Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. stereotype casting machine which Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, automatic machines cast stereotype plates. Some electrotypers and stereo ELECTROTYPERS AND typers do only one phase of the STEREOTYPERS work, such as casting, molding, or finishing. Others handle many Nature of the Work tasks. Electrotypers (D.O.T. 974.381) Places of Employment and stereotypers (D.O.T. 975.782) make duplicate press plates of About 4,000 electrotypers and metal, rubber, and plastic for letterpress printing. These plates are stereotypers were employed in made from the metal type forms 1974. Many electrotypers work in prepared in the composing room. large plants that print books and Electrotypes are used mainly in magazines. Most stereotypers work book and magazine work. Stereo for newspaper plants, but some types, which are less durable, are work in large commercial printing used chiefly for newspapers. Elec plants. Electrotypers and stereotypers also are employed in service trotyping and stereotyping are shops which do this work for print necessary because most volume ing firms. printing requires the use of Jobs in these trades can be found duplicate plates. When a large edi throughout the country, but em tion of a magazine or newspaper is ployment is concentrated in large printed, several plates must be used cities. to replace those which become too worn to make clear impressions. Training and Other Furthermore, many big plants use Qualifications rotary presses which require curved plates made by either electrotyping Nearly all electrotypers and deafness, have been able to work in the trade. stereotypers learn their trades through 5- to 6-year apprentice ships. Electrotyping and stereotyp ing are separate crafts and relative ly few transfers take place between the two. The apprenticeship pro gram of each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always in cludes classes in related technical subjects as well as training on the job. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and, in most instances, must have a high school education or its equivalent. If possible, this education should in clude courses in chemistry and machine shop. Physical examina tions and aptitude tests usually are given to prospective apprentices. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for electro typers and stereotypers are ex pected to be scarce through the mid-1980’s. Despite the anticipated increase in the volume of printing, employment of electrotypers and stereotypers is expected to decline because of labor saving develop ments. For example, automatic plate casting eliminates many steps in platemaking. The use of plastic printing plates also requires less labor because such plates are more durable and reduce the demand for duplicate plates. Furthermore, the greater use of offset printing reduces the need for electrotype and stereotype plates, which are not needed in offset printing. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, union minimum wage rates in 69 large cities averaged $6.22 an hour for electrotypers and $6.69 an hour for stereotypers in book and commercial printing shops. Both averages were con siderably higher than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Much of the work in these trades requires little physical effort since the preparation of duplicate print ing plates is highly mechanized. However, some lifting of relatively heavy press plates occasionally is required. Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers are members of the In ternational Printing and Graphic Communication’s Union. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the Inter national Printing and Graphic Com munications Union, or the local of fice of the State employment ser vice. For general information on elec trotypers and stereotypers, write to: organizations: American Newspaper Publishers Associa tion, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Commu nications Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. LITHOGRAPHIC OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work operators, artists, and letterers, strippers, platemakers, and press operators. Camera operators (D.O.T. 972.382) start the process of mak ing a lithographic plate by photographing and developing negatives of the copy. They generally are classified as line camera operators, halftone opera tors, or color separation photog raphers. Negatives may need retouching to lighten or darken cer tain parts. Lithographic artists (D.O.T. 972.281) make these cor rections by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Like camera operators, they are assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. Strippers (D.O.T. 971.281) ar range and paste film or prints of type and artwork on the layout sheets from which photographic im pressions are made for the pressplates. Platemakers (D.O.T. 972.781) cover the surface of the plates with a coating of photosensi tive chemicals, or the plate may come with the coating already ap plied. After exposing the sensitized plate to the negative, they chemi cally treat the plate to bring out the photographic image. Lithographic press operators (D.O.T. 651.782) tend lithographic (offset) printing presses. They in stall plates on the presses and adjust the pressure and water and ink roll ers for correct operation. Basically, the duties of these workers are similar to those of letterpress and gravurepress operators. Lithography, also called offset printing, is one of the most rapidly growing methods of printing. It is a process of photographing the matter to be printed, making a printing plate from the photograph, Places of Employment and pressing the inked plate against a rubber plate which in turn presses Nearly 85,000 skilled litho it onto the paper. graphic workers were employed in Several operations are involved 1974. Many work for commercial in lithography, and each is per printing plants, newspapers, and formed by a specialized group of book and magazine printers. Some workers. The main group of litho work for the U.S. Government graphic workers includes camera Printing Office. response to the continued growth of offset printing. Commercial print ing firms and newspaper publishers increasingly are using offset presses in place of letterpresses. Employ ment growth also will be stimulated by the greater use of photographs and drawings in printed matter, and by the more widespread use of color in many printed products. Employment opportunities should be best for people who have completed post high school pro grams in printing technology, such as those offered by technical in stitutes and junior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these pro grams because the comprehensive training that they receive helps them learn lithographic trades and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings and Working Conditions Although lithographic workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program usually is required in order to become a well-rounded litho graphic craft worker. These pro grams may emphasize a specific craft, such as platemaker or press operator, although an attempt is made to make the apprentice familiar with all lithographic opera tions. Usually, apprenticeship appli cants must be in good physical con dition, high school graduates, and at least 18 years of age. Aptitude tests usually are given to prospec tive apprentices to determine if they are suited for the work. Many technical institutes, junior colleges and colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology, which provide a valuable back ground for persons who are in terested in learning lithographic crafts. High school and vocational school training in printing, photog raphy, mathematics, chemistry, physics, and art also are helpful. Employment Outlook A survey of union wages in 69 large cities shows that in 1974 the average minimum wages for litho graphic artists was about $7.90; for platemakers $7.59; and for press operators $7.81. These rates were higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustries, except farming. Lithographic workers are on their feet much of the time, but the work is not strenuous. They are sometimes under pressure to meet publication deadlines. Most lithographic workers are members of the Graphic Arts Inter national Union. A large number of offset press operators are members of the International Printing and Graphic Communications’ Union of North America. Employment of skilled litho graphic workers is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to the job openings resulting from employ Sources of Additional ment growth, the need to replace Information workers who retire, die, or change occupations will provide some Details on apprenticeship and openings. other training opportunities in Employment of lithographic lithographic occupations are availa workers is expected to increase in ble from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the union previously mentioned, or the local office of the State employment service. For in formation on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. For general information on litho graphic occupations, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Associa tion, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Printing and Graphic Commu nications’ Union North America, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D .C .20036. National Association of Printers and Lithog raphers, 570 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10018. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. PHOTOENGRAVERS (D.O.T. 971.281 and .382) Nature of the Work Photoengravers make metal print ing plates of pictures and other copy that cannot be set up in type. In letterpress photoengraving, ink is rolled over the printed surface which stands higher than the rest of the plate. When paper is pressed against the raised surface, the print or image is picked up. Similarly, gravure photoengravers make gravure cylinders on which the image is etched below the surface of the cylinder. Ink is placed in the etched or sunken areas, and when paper is pressed against the surface the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. In the making of a photoengrav ing plate for the letterpress process, the entire job may be done either by one worker or by several, each doing a particular operation, such as camera work, printing, and etching. In large shops, however, from touching the inking rollers the work usually is divided among a during printing. number of these specialists. Gravure photoengraving is like Photoengravers first photograph letterpress photoengraving, except the material to be reproduced. that in gravure the image areas After developing the negative, they rather than the background are print the image on a metal plate by etched away. coating the plate with a solution sensitive to light and then exposing Places of Employment it to the negative. When the plate is placed in an acid bath, the An estimated 17,000 skilled nonimage areas are etched away photoengravers were employed in and the image areas stand out. 1974. More than half work in com The number of photoengraving mercial shops that make photoen operations performed depends on gravings for other printing firms. the quality of the printing required. Newspapers and photogravure Photoengravings for very high shops employ several thousand quality books or periodicals, for ex photoengravers. Book and mag ample, require more careful finish azine printers and the Federal ing than those for newspapers. Government also employ these Photoengravers use handtools to in workers. Many photoengravers spect and touch up the plates. They have their own shops. Although photoengravers are cut away metal from the nonprint ing part of the plate to prevent it located in all parts of the country, ■■ employment is concentrated in large printing centers, such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. Training and Other Qualifications Most photoengravers learn their trade through a 5-year apprentice ship program which includes at least 800 hours of classroom in struction. Apprenticeship appli cants must be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school or vocational school educa tion or its equivalent, preferably with courses in printing, chemistry, and physics. Many employers require a physical examination for prospective photoengravers. Good eyesight is particularly important because of the close work and color discrimination involved. Also, most apprenticeship candidates have to take an aptitude test to determine if they have the potential to do the work. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for photoengravers are expected to be scarce in the years ahead. Despite the growing use of photographs and other illustrations in publications, employment of photoengravers will decline as many firms switch from letterpress to offset printing, which requires no photoengraving. Also, new technological advances such as color scanners and color enlargers plus the trend toward automated platemaking should reduce the need for these workers. However, a few hundred job openings are ex pected each year as experienced photoengravers retire, die, or change occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Union photoengravers on the day shift in newspaper plants had an average minimum rate of $7.27 an hour in 1974, according to a survey of 69 large cities. This average was about two-thirds more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Photoengravers stand up much of the time, but the work is not strenu ous. Work areas usually are air-con ditioned and well-lighted. Most photoengravers are members of the Graphic Arts International Union. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the union mentioned above, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on photoengravers, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Associa tion, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. American Photoplatemakers Association, 166 W. Van Buren St., Chicago, III. 60604. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. PRINTING PRESS OPERATORS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 651.782, .885. and .886) Nature of the Work Printing operations are per formed in a pressroom. Printing press operators prepare type forms and press plates for final printing and tend the presses. The object of preparation work is to insure printing impressions that are distinct and uniform. This operation may be performed by placing pieces of paper exactly the right thickness underneath low areas of the press plates to level them. Press operators also* adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs. Press opera tors who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Press operator’s jobs may differ from one shop to another, mainly because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Press operators in small commercial shops generally operate relatively simple manual presses. On the other hand, a crew of several operators and less skilled workers run giant presses used by the large newspaper, magazine, and book printers. These presses are fed paper in big rolls called “ webs” up to 50 inches or more in width. They print the paper on both sides; cut, assemble, and fold the pages; and count the finished newspaper sections as they come off the press. Places of Employment About 140,000 press operators and assistants were employed in 1974. More than half work for com mercial printing shops and book and magazine publishers. Many others have jobs in newspapers plants. Some press operators and assistants work for banks, insurance companies, manufacturers, and other organizations that do their own printing, such as Federal, State, and local goverments. Press operators and assistants can find jobs throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Most press operators learn their trade through apprenticeship, but some workers learn as helpers or press assistants. Others obtain their skills through a combination of expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Despite the increased use of faster and more efficient presses, more press opera tors will be needed because of the growth in the amount of printed materials. In addition to the jobs from em ployment growth, a few thousand openings will arise each year as ex perienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. Since more firms are using web-offset presses, the outlook for web-press operators will be particularly good. Although most job opportunities will continue to be in the printing industry, a growing number of openings will be found in other in dustries, such as papermills, which are doing more of their own presswork instead of contracting it to printing firms. Earnings and Working Conditions A survey of union wages in 69 large cities, shows that in 1974 the average minimum hourly rate for color is essential for work on color newspaper press operators-inpresses. Physical strength and en charge was $7.33; for newspaper durance are needed for work on press operators, $6.74; for book some kinds of presses, where opera and job cylinder press operators, tors lift heavy plates and stand for $6.73; and for book and job press long periods. assistants and feeders, $6.63. These Since there are generally long rates were higher than the average waiting lists for apprenticeship pro for all nonsupervisory workers in grams, it is very difficult for a high private industries, except farming. school graduate to obtain an ap Many press operators work night prenticeship right out of school. shifts and receive extra pay. Most people have to take a job as a Pressrooms are noisy, and work press assistant or an an unskilled ers in certain areas frequently laborer before being selected for an wear ear protectors. Press opera apprenticeship. It is not uncommon tors are subject to hazards when for a person to work 2 or 3 years be working near machinery. At times, fore beginning apprenticeship train they work under pressure to meet ing. deadlines. Most pressroom workers are covered by union agreements. The principal union in this field is the In Employment Outlook ternational Printing and Graphic Employment of press operators is Communications’s Union. Press operators cleaning and oiling presses. work experience and vocational or technical school training. The length of apprenticeship and the content of training depend large ly on the kind of press used in the plant. The apprenticeship period in commercial shops is 2 years for press assistants, and 4 to 5 years for press operators. In addition to onthe-job instruction, the apprentice ship includes related classroom or correspondence school courses. A high school or vocational school education or its equivalent generally is required for apprentice ship. Courses in printing provide a good background. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry and physics also are help ful. Mechanical aptitude is impor tant in making press adjustments and repairs. An ability to visualize Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the union mentioned above, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about press operators and assistants, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Associa tion, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Commu nications Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW„ Washington, D C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ASSEMBLERS Nature of the Work Television sets, automobiles, and refrigerators are typical of the manufactured products that un dergo many assembly operations. Assemblers put together the parts for these and thousands of other products. Many assemblers work on items that move automatically past their work stations on conveyors. In the automobile industry one assembler may start nuts on bolts, and the next worker may tighten the nuts with power-driven tools. These assem blers must complete their job within the time it takes the part or product to pass their work station. Others, known as bench assemblers, put together small parts to make subas semblies or small complete units. In a rifle manufacturing plant a gun as sembler builds an entire rifle from a collection of parts and subassem blies, and tests the moving parts to make sure they function correctly. Some assemblers, known as floor assemblers, put together large, heavy machinery or equipment on shop floors, often fastening parts with bolts, screws, or rivets. Assemblers use many different tools depending on the product and the work they are doing. Pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, power drills, and wrenches are among the common tools used. Skilled assemblers work on the more complex parts of subassem blies with little or no supervision, and are responsible for the final as sembly of complicated jobs. Some work with engineers and techni cians, assembling products that these people have just designed. These workers must know how to read blueprints and other engineer ing specifications and use a variety of tools and precision measuring in struments. Places of Employment About 1,140,000 assemblers worked in manufacturing plants in 1974. Almost two-thirds were in plants that made machinery and motor vehicles. More than half of all assemblers were employed in the heavily industrialized States of California, New York, Michigan, Il linois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inexperienced people can be trained to do assembly work in a few days or weeks. New workers may have their job duties explained to them by the supervisor and then be placed under the direction of ex perienced employees. When new workers have developed sufficient speed and skill, they are placed ‘on their own” and are responsible for the work they do. Employers seek applicants who are physically fit and who can do routine work at a fast pace. A high school diploma usually is not required. For some types of assembly jobs, applicants may have to meet special requirements. Some employers look for applicants with mechanical aptitude and prefer those who have taken vocational school courses such as machine shop. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be required if the assemblers work with small parts. In plants that make electrical • *and electronic # products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color blindness. As assemblers become more ex perienced they may progress to as sembly jobs that require more skill. A few advance to skilled assembly jobs. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly opera tions and thus understand the con struction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles which inspec tors have ruled defective. Assem blers may also advance to inspector and a few are promoted to super visor. Some assemblers become trainees in skilled trades jobs such as machinist. T W Employment Outlook Employment of assemblers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s, with thousands of openings each year. Many job openings will also result as workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Manufacturing plants will need more assemblers to produce goods for the Nations’s growing economy. Growth in population and personal income will increase the demand for consumer products such as au tomobiles and household ap pliances while business expansion will increase the demand for indus trial machinery and equipment. Most assemblers work in plants that produce durable goods, such as automobiles and aircraft, which are particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions and national defense needs. Therefore, even though employment is expected to grow, jobseekers may find opportu nities scarce in some years. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for assemblers ranged from about $2 to $6 an hour in 1974, according to information from a limited number of union contracts. Most assemblers covered by these contracts made between $3 and $5.50 an hour. Some assem blers are paid incentive or piecework rates and are en couraged to work more rapidly by the prospect of higher earnings. The working conditions of assem blers differ, depending on the par ticular job performed. Assemblers of electronic equipment may put together small components at a bench in a room that is clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of industrial machinery, on the other hand, may install and assemble heavy parts and be ex posed to contact with oil and grease. Workers on assembly lines may be under pressure to keep up with the speed of the lines. Since most assemblers only perform a few steps in the assembly operation, as sembly jobs tend to be more monotonous than other blue-collar jobs. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These include the In ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; and the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Source of Additional Information Additional information about employment opportunities for as semblers may be available from local offices of the State employ ment service. AUTOMOBILE PAINTERS (D.O.T. 845.781) Nature of the Work Some assemblers do delicate work. Automobile painters make old and damaged motor vehicles “ look like new.” These skilled workers repaint vehicles that have lost the luster of their original paint, and the repaired portions of damaged vehi cles. (Production painters who work for motor vehicle manufac turers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) To prepare an automobile for painting, painters or their helpers rough-sand it to remove original paint and rust. Painters then use a spray gun to apply primer coats to the automobile surface. After the primer dries, they sand the surface until it is smooth. For roughsanding, they usually use a pneumatic or electric sander and a coarse grade of sandpaper; final sanding may be done by hand, using a fine grade of sandpaper. Small nicks and scratches that cannot be removed by sanding are filled with automo bile body putty. Masking tape and paper are used to cover areas not to be painted. Before painting repaired portions of an automobile, painters may mix paints to match the color of the car. Auto painter prepares car for spray painting. Before applying paint, they adjust the nozzle of the spray gun accord ing to the kind of lacquer or enamel being used and, if necessary, adjust the air-pressure regulator to obtain the correct pressure. To speed dry ing, they may place the freshly painted automobile under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. Painters or their helpers may polish the newly painted surface. Places of Employment About 25,000 persons worked as automobile painters in 1974. Al most two-thirds worked in shops that specialize in automobile repairs. Most others worked for au tomobile and truck dealers. Some painters worked for organizations that maintained and repaired their own fleets of motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and buslines. Painters are employed through out the county and are concen trated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile painters begin their careers as helpers, and acquire their skills informally by working with experienced painters. Usually, helpers remove automobile trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, and polish newly painted surfaces. As helpers gain ex perience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as using spray guns to apply primer coats and paint small areas. To become a fully qualified painter, 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training usually are required. A small number of automobile painters learn through apprentice ship. Apprenticeship programs, which generally last 3 years, consist of on-the-job training supple mented by classroom instruction. Young persons considering this work as a career should have good health, keen eyesight, and a good color sense. Courses in automobilebody repair offered by high schools and vocational schools provide helpful experience. Completion of high school is generally not a requirement but may be an ad vantage, because to many em ployers high school graduation in dicates that a young person can complete a job. An experienced automobile painter with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Many experienced painters with the necessary funds open their own shops. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile paint ers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s. In ad dition to jobs created by growth, several hundred openings are ex pected each year because of the need to replace experienced paint ers who retire or die. Openings also will occur as some painters transfer to other occupations. Employment of automobile paint ers is expected to increase primari ly because more motor vehicles will be damaged in traffic accidents as the number of vehicles grows. Ac cident losses will grow, even though better highways, lower speed limits, driver training courses, and im proved bumpers and other safety features on new vehicles may slow the rate of growth. Most persons who enter the oc cupation can expect steady work as the automobile repair business is not very vulnerable to changes in economic conditions. Job opportunities will be best in metropolitan areas. Many shops in small cities do not have enough business to hire trainees. Earnings and Working Conditions Painters employed by automobile dealers in 34 large cities had esti mated average hourly earnings of $7.60 in 1974, compared with $4.05, the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Skilled painters usually earn between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers and trainees. Many painters employed by au tomobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work and how fast the painter completes it. Employers frequently guarantee their commis sioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually are paid an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a commission basis. Painters em ployed by trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that repair their own vehicles usually receive an hourly rate. Most painters work 40 to 48 hours a week. Automobile painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paintmix ing ingredients. However, in most shops, the painting is done in spe cial ventilated booths that protect the painters. Masks covering the nose and mouth are used, also. Painters must be agile because they often bend and stoop while work ing. Many automobile painters be long to unions, including the Inter- national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Interna tional Association; and the Interna tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most painters who are union members work for the larger automobile dealers, trucking companies, and buslines. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work op portunities, contact local em ployers, such as automobile-body repair shops and automobile dealers; locals of the unions previ ously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about apprenticeship and other programs that provide training op portunities. For general information about the work of automobile painters, write: Automotive Service Industry Association, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Automotive Service Councils of America, Inc., 4001 Warren Blvd., Hillside, 111. 60162. BLACKSMITHS (D.O.T. 356.381 and 610.381) Nature of the Work Years ago the village blacksmith was as vital as the country doctor. No one else could repair a broken wagon wheel, shoe a horse, or forge a tool to suit a farmer’s needs. Power hammers and ready-made horseshoes have made work easier, but the blacksmith’s job has remained basically the same. To make or repair metal parts, blacksmiths first heat the metal in a forge to soften it. When the metal begins to glow, they pick it up with tongs, place it on the anvil, and shape it with presses and power hammers. Broken parts are rejoined by hammering them together. The blacksmith uses handtools such as hammers and chisels to finish the part, often reheating it in the forge to keep it soft and workable. To harden a finished part, blacksmiths heat it to a high tem perature in the forge and then plunge it into a water or oil bath. To temper the part—make it less brit tle—they heat the metal to a lower temperature for some time, and then allow it to cool at room tem perature. Industrial occupations which are similar to blacksmith include forge and hammer operator, welder, and boilermaker. (These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Blacksmiths who specialize in shoeing horses are called farriers. After removing the old shoe with nail snippers and pincers, farriers examine the horse’s hoof for bruises and clean, trim, and shape the hoof. When the hoof is ready they posi tion and nail a shoe on the hoof and trim the hoof flush to the new shoe. Today most farriers use ready-made horseshoes, but they may have to make or adjust shoes for a proper fit. Places of Employment Of the nearly 9,000 blacksmiths employed in 1974, almost twothirds worked in factories, rail roads, and mines. The remainder worked in small shops, and most were self-employed. Blacksmiths work in all parts of the country—in rural communities as well as in large industrial centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many beginners enter the occu pation by working as helpers in blacksmith shops or large industrial firms which employ blacksmiths. Others enter through formal ap prenticeship programs and from re lated occupations such as forge operator or hammer operator. Ap prenticeship programs usually last 3 or 4 years. The programs teach blueprint reading, proper use of tools and equipment, heat-treat ment of metal, and forging methods. Most apprentices are found in large industrial firms rather than in small repair shops. Vocational school or high school courses in metalworking, and blueprint reading are helpful to young people interested in becom ing blacksmiths. Courses in horseshoeing are available at several schools. The Cornell University School of Veterinary Medicine in Ithaca, N.Y., offers a 16-week (640-hour) course, and shorter courses are of fered by Pennsylvania State Univer sity at State College, the University of Maine at Orono, and Oklahoma Horseshoeing School at Stillwater. Blacksmiths must be in good physical condition. Pounding metal and handling heavy tools and parts require considerable strength and stamina. Opportunities for advancement are limited, especially for black smiths who work in small re pair shops. However, blacksmiths may advance to be supervisors or inspectors in factories, or to open their own repair shops. Blacksmiths also may be able to transfer to re lated occupations such as forge, hammer, and press operator. Employment Outlook Employment of blacksmiths is ex pected to decline through the mid1980’s. Forge shops are using machines to produce many of the metal articles that were formerly handmade by blacksmiths. In addi tion, welders are doing much of the metal repair work once done by blacksmiths. Nevertheless, some job openings will occur as ex perienced blacksmiths retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment of farriers may in crease slightly due to the growing popularity of horses for recreation. Since this is a small occupation, however, relatively few job openings will become available. tunities in this trade, contact local blacksmith shops and local offices of the State employment service. BLUE-COLLAR WORKER SUPERVISORS Nature of the Work In any organization, someone has to be boss. For the millions of workers who assemble television sets, service automobiles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thousands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervisors direct the activities of other employees and frequently are responsible for see Earnings and Working ing that millions of dollars worth of Conditions equipment and materials are used In union contracts covering a efficiently. While blue-collar number of blacksmiths in steel worker supervisors are most com plants, railroad shops, and in the monly known as foremen or shipbuilding and petroleum indus forewomen, they also have many tries, hourly pay ranged from $4 to other titles. In the textile industry $7.50 in 1974. they are referred to as second Blacksmith shops tend to be hot hands; on ships they are known as and noisy, but conditions have im boatswains; and in the construction proved in recent years because of industry they are often called over large ventilating fans and less vibra seers, straw bosses, or gang leaders. tion from new machines. Although their titles differ Blacksmiths are subject to burns between industries, the job of all from forges and heated metals and blue-collar worker supervisors is cuts and bruises from handling similar. They tell other employees tools. Safety glasses, metal-tip what jobs are to be done and make shoes, face shields, and other pro sure the jobs are done correctly. tective devices have helped to For example, loading supervisors at reduce injuries. truck terminals assign workers to Many blacksmiths are members load trucks and check that the of the International Brotherhood of material is loaded correctly. In Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, some cases, supervisors also do the Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. same work as other employees. This Other unions representing is especially true in the construction blacksmiths include the United industry where, for example, Steelworkers of America, the In bricklayer supervisors also lay dustrial Union of Marine and Ship brick. building Workers of America, and Because they are responsible for the International Union of Jour the output of other workers, super neymen Horseshoers. visors make work schedules and keep production and employee Sources of Additional records. They use considerable Information judgment in planning and must For details about training oppor allow for unforeseen problems such ment is distributed in much the same way as population, jobs are located in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Blue-collar worker supervisor checks production records. as absent workers and machine breakdowns. Teaching employees safe work habits and enforcing safety rules and regulations are other supervisory responsibilities. They also may train new em ployees. In addition to their other duties, blue-collar worker supervisors tell their subordinates about company plans and policies, reward good workers by making recommenda tions for wage increases, awards, or promotions, and deal with poor workers by issuing warnings or recommending that they be fired or laid off without pay for a day or more. In companies where em ployees belong to labor unions, su pervisors may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems and grievances. They must know the provisions of labormanagement contracts and run their operations according to these agreements. Places of Employment About 1,460,000 blue-collar worker supervisors were employed in 1974. Although they work for al most all businesses and government agencies, over half work in manu facturing, supervising the produc tion of cars, washing machines, or any of thousands of other products. Most of the rest work in the con struction industry and in wholesale and retail trade. Because employ When choosing superyisors, em ployers generally look for ex perience, skill, and leadership qualities. Employers place special emphasis on the ability to motivate employees, command respect, and get along with people. Completion of high school is often the minimum educational requirement, and 1 or 2 years of college or technical school can be very helpful to workers who want to become supervisors. Most supervisors rise through the ranks—that is, they are promoted from jobs where they operated a machine, or worked on an assembly line, or at a construction craft. This work experience gives them the ad vantage of knowing how jobs should be done and what problems may arise. It also provides them with insight into management poli cies and employee attitudes towards these policies. Supervisors are sometimes former union representatives who are familiar with grievance procedures and union contracts. To supplement this work experience, larger companies usually have training programs to help supervisors make management decisions. Smaller companies often use independent training organiza tions or written training materials. Although fewer than one-tenth of all blue-collar worker supervisors are college graduates, a growing number of employers are hiring trainees with a college or technical school background. This practice is most prevalent in industries with highly technical production processes, such as the chemical, oil, and electronics industries. Em ployers generally prefer backgrounds in business adminis tration, industrial relations, mathe matics, engineering, or science. The trainees undergo on-the-job train ing until they are able to accept su pervisory responsibilities. Supervisors with outstanding ability, particularly those with col lege education, may move up to higher management positions. In manufacturing, for example, they may advance to jobs such as depart ment head and plant manager. Some supervisors, particularly in the construction industry, use the experience and skills they gain to go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addi tion, many job openings will arise as experienced supervisors retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Population growth and rising in comes will stimulate demand for goods such as houses, air condi tioners, TV sets, and cars. As a result, more blue-collar workers will be needed to produce and sell these items, and more supervisors will be needed to direct their activi ties. Although most of these super visors will continue to work in manufacturing, a large part of the increase in jobs will be due to the expansion of nonmanufacturing in dustries, especially in the trade and service sectors. There is usually keen competi tion for supervisory jobs. Com petent workers who possess leader ship ability and have a few years of college are the most likely to be selected. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974 average earnings of bluecollar worker supervisors who worked full time were $13,249, compared with $10,975 for workers in all occupations. Supervisors usually are salaried and are not paid for overtime. Their salaries generally are determined by the wage rates of the highest paid wor kers they supervise. Some compa nies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordinates. Since supervisors are responsible for the work of other employees, they generally work more than 40 hours a week and are expected to be on the job before other workers arrive and after they leave. They sometimes do paperwork at home and may find themselves worrying about job-related problems after work. Working conditions vary from in dustry to industry. In factories, su pervisors may get dirty around machinery and materials and have to put up with noisy factory opera tions. Some supervisors who have limited authority may feel isolated, neither a member of the work force nor an important part of manage ment. On the other hand, super visors have more challenging and prestigious jobs than most blue-col lar workers. workers and fitters help make the parts for these vessels, and boiler makers assemble them. Layout workers (D.O.T. 809.381 and .781) follow blueprints in marking off lines on metal plates and tubes. These lines serve as guides to other workers in the shop who cut and shape the metal. Layout workers use compasses, scales, gauges, and other devices to make measurements. Their mea surements must be precise because errors may be difficult or impossi ble to correct once the metal is cut. Before the boiler parts are assem bled, fitters (D.O.T. 819.781) see that they fit together properly. These workers bolt or tackweld the parts into place temporarily and alter those that do not line up ac cording to blueprints. To make al terations, they use drills, grinders, welding machines, cutting torches, and other tools. Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.281) assemble and erect large boilers in shops and at the construction sites where these vessels will be used. They lift heavy metal parts into place with rigging equipment such as hoists and jacks, and weld or Sources of Additional rivet the parts together. After a Information boiler is completed, they test it for A bibliography of career litera leaks and other defects. ture on management occupations is Boilermakers also do repair jobs. available from: After finding the cause of the trou ble, they may dismantle the boiler, American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections with new parts, or strengthen joints. Installa tion and repair work often must meet State and local safety stand BOILERMAKING ards. OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work Places of Employment Boilers, vats, and other large ves sels that hold liquids and gases are essential to many industries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam that drives the huge turbines in electric utility plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, and hun dreds of other products. Layout About 45,000 boilermakers, layout workers, and fitters were em ployed in 1974. Of these, several thousand boilermakers worked in the construction industry, mainly to assemble and erect boilers and other pressure vessels. Boiler makers also were employed in the maintenance and repair depart ments of iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, railroads, shipyards, and electric powerplants. Large numbers worked in Federal Government installations, prin cipally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Layout work ers and fitters worked mainly in plants that make fire-tube and water-tube boilers, heat exchan gers, heavy tanks, and similar products. Boilermaking workers are em ployed throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in highly industrialized areas, such as: New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Houston, San Fran cisco, and Los Angeles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people have become boilermakers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boilermakers, but most training authorities agree that a formal ap prenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. Apprenticeship pro grams usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by about 150 hours of classroom in struction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, shop mathe matics, and welding. Most layout workers and fitters are hired as helpers and learn the craft by working with experienced employees. It generally takes at least 2 years to qualify as an ex perienced layout worker or fitter. When hiring apprentices or help ers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and metalworking provide a useful background for all boilermaking jobs. Most firms require applicants to pass a physical examination because good health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these jobs. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity also are important qualifications. Layout workers and fitters may become boilermakers or advance to shop supervisors. Boilermakers may become supervisors for boiler in stallation contractors; a few may go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook hourly rates ranging from about $4.50 to $10. Generally, layout workers earned more than boiler makers, and boilermakers earned more than fitters. When assembling boilers or mak ing repairs, boilermakers often work in cramped quarters or at great heights. Some work also must be done in damp, poorly ventilated places. Boilermaking is more hazardous than many other metal working occupations. Employers and unions attempt to eliminate in juries by promoting safety training and the use of protective equip ment, such as safety glasses and metal helmets. Most boilermaking workers be long to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brother hood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Some workers are mem bers of the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America; the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Employment in boilermaking oc cupations is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings result ing from employment growth, many openings will arise each year as ex perienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The construction of many new electric powerplants, especially nuclear plants, will create a need for additional boilers and will cause employment of boilermakers, layout workers, and fitters to in crease. The expansion of other industries which use boiler products, such as the chemical, petroleum, steel, and shipbuilding industries, will further increase the demand for these workers. Many of the industries which Sources of Additional purchase boilers are sensitive to Information economic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns some For further information regard boilermakers, fitters, and layout ing boilermaking apprenticeships or workers may be laid off. other training opportunities, con tact local offices of the unions Earnings and Working previously mentioned, local con Conditions struction companies and boiler According to a national survey of manufacturers, or the local office of workers in the construction indus the State employment service. try, union wage rates for boiler makers averaged $8.60 an hour in 1974, compared with $8.16 for all building trades. BOILER TENDERS Comparable wage data were not available for boilermakers em (D.O.T. 951.885) ployed in industrial plants. How ever, wage rates were available Nature of the Work from union contracts that cover Boiler tenders operate and main many boilermakers, layout workers, and fitters employed in fabricated tain the steam boilers that power in plate work and the petroleum and dustrial machinery and heat facto shipbuilding industries in 1974. ries, offices, and other buildings. Most of these contracts called for Qualified tenders may be responsi- Boiler tenders check meters and gages to determine if boilers are functioning properly. ble for inspecting boiler equipment, lighting boilers, and maintaining steam pressure. In most plants, boiler tenders operate mechanical devices that control the flow of air, gas, oil, or coal into fireboxes. They read me ters and other instruments to deter mine if boilers are functioning safe ly. They sometimes make minor repairs, and test and treat boiler water with chemicals. They also may operate waste heat boilers which burn trash and other solid waste. Boiler tenders often are super vised by stationary engineers who operate and maintain a variety of equipment, including boilers, diesel and steam engines, and refrigera tion and air-conditioning systems. (Additional information on sta tionary engineers appears else where in the Handbook .) Places of Employment About one-half of the 90,000 boiler tenders employed in 1974 worked in factories. Plants that manufacture lumber, iron and steel, paper, chemicals, and stone, clay, and glass products are among the leading employers of boiler tenders. Public utilities also employ many of these workers. Many others were employed by hospitals, schools, and Federal, State, and local govern ments. Although boiler tenders are em ployed in all parts of the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large manu facturing plants are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some large cities and a few States require boiler tenders to be licensed. An applicant can obtain the knowledge and experience to pass the license examination by first working as a helper in a boiler room. Applicants for helper jobs should be in good physical condi tion and have mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. High school courses in mathematics, motor mechanics, chemistry, and blue print reading are also helpful to persons interested in becoming boiler tenders. There are two types of boiler tenders’ licenses—for low and high pressure boilers. Low pressure ten ders operate boilers generally used for heating buildings. High pressure tenders operate the more powerful boilers and auxiliary boiler equip ment used to power machinery in factories as well as heat large buildings. Both high and low pres sure tenders, however, may operate equipment of any pressure if a sta tionary engineer is on duty. Due to regional differences in licensing requirements, a boiler tender who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power En gineers is currently assisting many State licensing agencies in adopting uniform licensing requirements that would eliminate this problem by establishing reciprocity of licenses. Boiler tenders may advance to stationary engineers. To help them advance, they sometimes supple ment their on-the-job training by taking courses in chemistry, physics, blueprint reading, electrici ty, and air-conditioning and refrigeration. Boiler tenders also may become maintenance mechanics. Employment Outlook Employment of boiler tenders is expected to decline through the mid-1980’s as more and more new boilers are equipped with automatic controls. Nevertheless, a few thousand openings will result each year from the need to replace ex perienced tenders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Boiler tenders had average hourly earnings of $4.63, according to a survey of metropolitan areas in 1973-74. This was the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for tenders in in dividual areas ranged from $3 in Greenville, S.C., to $6.31 in Detroit, Mich. Modern boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. However, boiler tenders occasionally may have to work in awkward positions and be exposed to noise, heat, grease, fumes, and smoke. They also are subject to burns, falls, and injury from moving machinery. De fective boilers and auxiliary equip ment may be dangerous to tenders and other persons. Modern equip ment and safety procedures, how ever, have reduced accidents. The principal unions organizing boiler tenders are the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities in this trade is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Brotherhood of Fire men and Oilers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the na ture of the occupation, training, and employment opportunities may be referred to: International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, 200 Maryland Ave. NE., Washington, D.C. 20002. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC. 20036. Electroplater prepares to immerse helicopter parts in nickel solution. For information concerning reciprocity of boiler tenders’ licen ses among various cities and States, contact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 176 West Adam St., Suite 1911, Chicago, 111. 60603. ELECTROPLATERS (D.O.T. 500.380 and .781 through .886) Nature of the Work Electroplaters use plating solu tions and electric current (electrolysis) to coat metal and plastic articles with chromium, nickel, silver, or other metal to give the articles a protective surface or an attractive appearance. Products that are electroplated include items as widely different as automobile bumpers, silverware, costume jewelry, electronic components, and jet engine parts. Electroplaters also make items such as spray paint masks, turbine blades, and pen caps through a process known as elec troforming. Skill requirements and work per formed vary by type of shop. All round platers in small shops analyze solutions, do a great variety of plat ing, calculate the time and current needed for various types of plating, and perform other technical duties. They also may order chemicals and other supplies for their work. Platers in larger shops usually carry out more specialized assign ments that require less extensive knowledge. In preparing an article for elec troplating, platers may first cover parts of it with lacquer, rubber, or tape to keep these parts from being exposed to the plating solution. They then either scour the article or dip it into a cleaning bath to remove dirt and grease before putting it in the solution. They may remove the article from the solution from time to time to make sure that work is progressing satisfactorily. Electroplaters must visually in spect their work for defects such as minute pits and rodules. To deter mine the quality of the work, they use micrometers, calipers, and elec tronic devices. Places of Employment In 1974 about 34,000 people worked as electroplaters. About half of them worked in shops that specialized in metal plating and polishing for manufacturing firms and for other customers. The remaining platers worked in plants that manufactured plumbing fix tures, cooking utensils, household appliances, electronic components, motor vehicles, and other metal products. Also the U.S. government employs platers in a number of mili tary and civilian installations for maintenance purposes. Electroplaters work in almost every part of the country, although most work in the Northeast and Midwest near the centers of the metalworking industry. Large num bers of electroplaters work in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Providence, and Newark, N.J. courses in electroplating. Young persons who wish to become elec troplaters will find high school or vocational school courses in chemistry, electricity, physics, mathematics, and blueprint reading helpful. Employment Outlook Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union. Other platers have been organized by the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, and the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Sources of Additional Employment of electroplaters is Information expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations For additional information about through the mid-1980’s. In addi job opportunities and training, tion, many openings will result from the need to replace experienced write to: workers who retire, die, or transfer American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 56 Melmore Gardens, East Orange, N.J. to other occupations. 07017. Expansion of metalworking in National Association of Metal Finishers, 248 Training, Other Qualifications, dustries and the electroplating of a Lorraine Ave., Upper Montclair, N.J. and Advancement broadening group of metals and 07043. Most electroplaters learn the plastics are expected to increase the trade on the job by helping ex need for electroplaters. However, perienced platers. It usually takes at employment growth will be FORGE SHOP least 3 years to become an all-round somewhat restricted by mechaniza plater. Platers in large shops usually tion and the use of more efficient OCCUPATIONS are not required to have an all plating methods. Forging is one of the oldest round knowledge of plating, and methods of working and shaping can learn their jobs in much less metals. The simplest way is the Earnings and Working time. hand forging done by a blacksmith. Conditions A small percentage of elec Modern forge shops substitute troplaters receive all-round training Hourly wage rates for elec heavy power equipment and dies by working 3 or 4 years as an ap troplaters ranged from $2.50 to (tools that shape metal) for the prentice. Apprenticeship programs $5.25 in 1974, according to the blacksmith’s hammer and anvil. combine on-the-job training and re limited information available. Dur Five employees operating a large lated classroom instruction in the ing apprenticeship or on-the-job forging machine can turn out more properties of metals, chemistry, and training, a worker’s wage rate starts forgings in 1 hour than five electricity as applied to plating. Ap at about 60 to 70 percent of an ex blacksmiths can make in a year. prentices do progressively more dif perienced worker’s rate and Forged metal is exceptionally ficult work as their skill and progresses to the full rate by the strong and is used for many knowledge increase. By the third or end of the training period. products that must withstand heavy fourth year, they determine clean Plating work involves some wear. Examples include automobile ing methods, do plating without su hazards because acid, alkaline, and crankshafts, gears, wrenches, and pervision, make solutions, examine poisonous solutions are used. Hu many aerospace equipment parts. plating results, and direct helpers. midity and odor also are problems Most forgings are steel; but alu Qualified platers may become su in electroplating plants. However, minum, copper, brass, bronze, and pervisors. Some electroplaters most plants have ventilation other metals are forged also. become sales representatives for systems and other safety devices Forgings vary in weight from metal products wholesalers or that have reduced occupational ounces to many tons. manufacturers. hazards. Protective clothing and A few people take a 1- or 2-year boots provide additional protec Nature of the Work electroplating course in a junior tion. Generally, mechanical devices college, technical institute, or voca are used for lifting, but at times the Before metal can be shaped, it tional high school. In addition, worker must lift and carry objects must be heated in intensely hot fur many branches of the American weighing up to 100 pounds. naces (forges). Then workers Electroplaters Society give basic Some platers are members of the manipulate the glowing metal between two metal dies that are at tached to power presses or ham mers. With tremendous force, the hammers or presses pound or squeeze the metal into the desired shape. To finish the forging, other workers remove rough edges and excess metal and perform other finishing operations such as heat treating and polishing. Two kinds of dies are used. The open die, which is flat and similar to the blacksmith’s hammer, is used when only a limited quantity of forgings or large-size forgings are needed. The impression, or closed die, which has a cavity shaped to the form of the metal part, is used to produce large quantities of identical forgings. Basic forge-shop equipment con sists of various types of power ham mers, power presses, dies, and fur naces. Forge-shop workers also use handtools, such as hammers and tongs, and measuring devices, such as rules, scales, and calipers. Descriptions of some major forge-shop production occupations follow. Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 612.381) direct the operation of open die power hammers. They interpret blueprints, drawings, and sketches so that the part being forged will meet specifications. They decide the amount of hammer force and if and when the metal needs addi tional heating. Hammersmiths determine how to work the metal under the hammer and which tools are needed to produce desired an gles and curves. Hammersmiths head crews of four or more workers. A hammer driver or hammer runner regulates the force of the forging blow. A crane operator transfers the metal from the furnace to the hammer and manipulates it under the hammer. A heater controls the fur nace that brings the metal to cor rect temperatures. One or more helpers assist the crew as needed. The duties of hammer operators (D.O.T. 610.782), who operate im Hammer operator shapes metal parts with large power hammer. pression die power hammers, are similar to those of hammersmiths at open die power hammers. Generally, the bigger the hammer and the larger or more intricate the shape to be formed, the greater the skill required of the operator. With the assistance of helpers and heaters, hammer operators set and align dies in the hammers. They control the force of the forging blow, manipulate the metal under the hammer, and determine if and when the metal needs additional heating. Press operators (D.O.T. 611.782 and .885) control huge presses equipped with either impression or open dies that press and squeeze hot metal rather than hammer or pound it. They regulate machine pressure and move the hot metal between the dies. They also may control the metal heating opera tions. Some operators set up the dies in the presses. Their skills are very similar to those of hammer smiths or hammer operators. With the help of heaters and several helpers, upsetters (D.O.T. 611.782) operate machines that shape hot metal by applying horizontal pressure. The heads of nails and bolts, for example, are made by upset forging. Heaters (D.O.T. 619.782) con trol furnace temperatures. They determine when the correct tem perature has been reached by ob serving the metal’s color and the furnace’s temperature gauge. Using tongs or mechanical equipment, they transfer the hot metal from the furnace to hammers or presses. Some heaters clean furnaces. Inspectors (D.O.T. 612.281) ex amine forged pieces for accuracy, size, and quality. They use gauges, micrometers, and calipers to mea sure forgings. Machines that test strength and hardness and elec tronic testing devices also may be used. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 601.280) make the impression dies for the forging hammers and presses. Working from a blueprint, drawing, or template, these skilled workers make an outline of the object to be forged on two matching steel blocks. They form the object’s shape in the blocks by using milling machines and other machine tools such as EDM (electrical discharge machinery) and ECM (electrical chemical machinery). Using scrapers, grinders, and other handtools, die sinkers smooth and Finish the die cavity. Finally, a sample is prepared from the Finished cavity and is checked against speciFications. Many forge-shop workers clean and Finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 617.885) remove excess metal with presses equipped with trimming dies. Grinders (D.O.T. 705.884) remove rough edges with power abrasive wheels. Sandblasters or shotblasters (D.O.T. 503.887) operate sandblasting or shotblasting equipment that cleans and smoothes forgings. Picklers (D.O.T. 503.885) dip forgings in an acid solution to remove surface scale and reveal any surface de fects. Heat treaters (D.O.T. 504.782) heat and cool forgings to harden and temper the metal. Places of Employment In 1974, about 65,000 produc tion workers were employed in forge shops. About three-fourths of these worked in shops that make and sell forgings. The remainder worked in plants that use forgings in their final products, such as plants operated by manufacturers of au tomobiles, farm equipment, and handtools. Although forge-shop workers are found in all areas, they are concen trated near steel-producing centers that provide the steel for forgings, and near metalworking plants that are the major users of forged products. Large numbers of forgeshop workers are employed in and around the cities of Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, and Pittsburgh. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forge-shop workers learn their skills on the job. They generally join hammer or press crews as helpers or heaters. As they become experienced, they progress to other jobs. Advancement to hammersmith, for example, re quires several years of on-the-job training and experience. Some forge shops offer ap prentice training programs for skilled jobs such as diesinker, heat treater, hammer operator, hammer smith, and press operator. Ap prenticeships usually last 4 years. These programs provide classroom training and practical experience in metal properties, power hammer and furnace operation, hand tool use, and blueprint reading. Training requirements for inspec tors vary. Only a few weeks of onthe-job training are necessary for those who make examinations visually or with simple gauges. Others who inspect forgings made to exact specifications may need some background in blueprint read ing and mathematics, and may be given several months of training. Employers usually require no more than a grammar school educa tion for helpers and heaters, but high school graduates are pre ferred. Young people interested in more skilled forge-shop jobs should complete high school and take mathematics (especially ge ometry), drafting, and shopwork. Although cranes are used to move very large objects, forge-shop workers must be strong enough to lift and move heavy forgings and dies. They need stamina and en durance to work in the heat and noise of a forge shop. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings of forgeshop production workers are higher than the average for all manufactur ing production workers. In 1974, production workers in iron- and steel-forging plants averaged $5.81 an hour, compared with $4.40 an hour for production workers in all manufacturing industries. Many forge shops have heat deflectors and ventilating fans to reduce heat and smoke. Improve ments in machinery and shop prac tices have reduced some noise and vibration. Forge-shop occupations are more hazardous than most manufacturing occupations. Thus, labor and management cooperate Employment Outlook to encourage good work practices Employment of forge-shop through safety training and the production workers is expected to required use of protective equip increase more slowly than the ment such as face shields, ear plugs, average for all occupations through safety glasses, metal-toe shoes, hel the mid-1980’s. Some new jobs will mets, and machine safety guards. Most forge-shop workers are become available because of union members. Many are members growth, but most openings will arise of the International Brotherhood of from the need to replace ex Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, perienced workers who retire, die, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. or transfer to other fields of work. Others are members of the United Employment will grow because Steelworkers of America; the Inter of expansion in industries that use national Union, United Automo forgings, particularly automobile and energy-related industries. The bile, Aerospace and Agricultural rapid expansion of nuclear power- Implement Workers of America; plant construction will cause a great the International Association of demand for forged piping and Machinists and Aerospace Work fittings. Likewise, many forged ers; and the International Die drilling bits and other forged Sinkers Conference (Ind.). products will be needed for oil drilling and coal mining operations. Sources of Additional However, employment will not Information keep pace with forge shop produc For information on employment tion, because improved forging opportunities in forging, contact techniques and equipment will result in greater output per worker. local offices of the State employ Employment in some forge shops ment service, personnel depart is sensitive to changes in economic ments of forge shops, locals of the conditions. In shops that make au labor organizations listed above, or: tomobile parts, for example, em The Forging Industry Association, 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. ployment fluctuates with changes in the demand for new cars; thus, jobs The Open Die Forging Institute, 120 E. Ogden Ave., Hinsdale, III. 60521. in these shops may be plentiful in some years, scarce in others. FURNITURE UPHOLSTERERS (D.O.T. 780.381) Nature of the Work Furniture upholsterers recondi tion sofas, chairs, and other uphol stered furniture. These craft work ers repair or replace fabrics, springs, webbing, frames, and other parts that are worn or damaged. (Workers employed in the manu facture of upholstered furniture are not included in this statement.) To work at a convenient level, upholsterers usually place the furni ture on which they are working on padded wooden horses. Using tack pullers or chisels and mallets, they pull out the tacks holding the old fabric. They may then remove the padding and burlap to uncover the springs. Broken or bent springs are removed. If the webbing that holds the springs in place is worn, the workers remove all the springs and the webbing. Upholsterers then repair the frame, as well, by reglu ing loose sections and refinishing exposed wooden parts. In reupholstering furniture, they first tack strips of webbing to the frames. Next, they sew or staple new springs to the webbing and tie each spring to the adjoining ones, securing the outside springs to the frame. They use burlap, filling, and padding to cover the springs, and sew the padding to the burlap. Finally, after covering the padding with muslin and new upholstery fabric, they attach these materials to the frame and make sure everything is smooth and tight. They complete the job by sewing or tacking on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use a variety of handtools including tack and staple removers, pliers, hammers, and hand or power shears. They also use special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They may also use sewing machines. Upholsterer covers frame and springs with burlap. Sometimes upholsterers pick up Geographically, upholsterers are and deliver furniture. Those who distributed in about the same pro own and manage shops order sup portion as population, with the plies and equipment, and keep busi highest concentration in metro ness records. politan areas. Places of Employment About 34,000 people worked as furniture upholsterers in 1974. Over half worked in small uphol stery shops, most of which had from 1 to 10 employees. Many uphol sterers also worked for furniture stores. A few worked for businesses such as hotels, that maintain their own furniture. Almost 1 out of every 3 upholsterers is self-em ployed—a much higher proportion than in most other trades. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common way to enter this trade is to start as a helper in an upholstery shop and learn on the job. Newly hired helpers remove old fabric, padding, and springs, and do other simple jobs. As they gain experience, they do more com plex tasks such as installing webbing and springs, and sewing on fabric and trimming. A beginner needs about 3 years of on-the-job training to become a skilled uphol sterer. Inexperienced persons can learn many skills of the trade by working in furniture factories and doing dif ferent jobs related to furniture upholstering. They may get valua ble training, also, in vocational or high school courses that include chair caning, furniture making, tex tile fabrics, and upholstery repair. However, additional training and experience in a shop are usually required before these workers can qualify as skilled upholsterers. A few people learn the trade through formal apprenticeship programs that last from 3 to 4 years and in clude classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Young persons interested in becoming upholsterers should have good manual dexterity, coordina tion, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail, good color sense, and a flair for creative work are helpful. Many upholsterers open their own shops. Employment Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow at a rate slower than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced work ers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. More upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal in come, and business expenditures grow. But the demand for uphol sterers will be limited because fur niture is being constructed of fewer upholstery materials, and because more people are buying new furni ture instead of having old pieces reupholstered. Earnings and Working Conditions Based on limited information, hourly wages for experienced furni ture upholsterers ranged from $3.75 to $6 in 1974. Many self-em ployed upholsterers earned con siderably more. Wages for inex perienced trainees ranged from $2 to $3.60 an hour. Upholsterers usually buy handtools, but employers provide power tools. Upholsterers generally work 40 hours a week, although overtime is common during the weeks before major holidays. Many upholstery shops are spa cious, adequately lighted, and well ventilated and heated. The workshop’s air may be dusty when padding and stuffing are being cut, but precut materials have reduced this problem. Upholsterers stand while they work and also do a con siderable amount of stooping and bending. Sources of Additional Information ders or blueprints and do calcula tions using decimals or common fractions when measuring. They sometimes use handtools, such as screwdrivers, magnifying glasses, and tweezers. Skilled inspectors work under general supervision, whereas semi skilled inspectors usually work under close supervision. Generally, skilled inspectors have greater dis cretion in accepting or rejecting products, and are responsible for inspecting the most important parts of mass-produced goods. Skilled in spectors may also use a wider variety of testing instruments. Many inspectors count the items rejected. When the number rises above a certain level, they notify their supervisors so that corrections can be made on the production line. Some inspectors make minor repairs and adjustments and grade products for quality. Places of Employment For more details on work oppor tunities for upholsterers, contact About 790,000 inspectors were local employers or the local office employed in 1974. Two-thirds of the State employment service. worked in plants that produced durable goods such as machinery, transportation equipment, elec tronics equipment, and furniture. Others worked in plants that INSPECTORS produced goods such as textiles, ap (MANUFACTURING) parel, and leather products. Inspectors worked in every part Nature of the Work of the country, although they are Most products—including the concentrated in the industrialized things we eat, drink, wear, and ride States. Almost two-thirds are found in—are checked by inspectors in Ohio, New York, Michigan, Il sometime during the manufacturing linois, Pennsylvania, California, process to make sure they are of the New Jersey, North Carolina, and desired quality. Inspectors also Indiana. check the quality of the raw materi als and parts that make up finished Training, Other Qualifications, goods. and Advancement Inspectors use a variety of Inspectors generally are trained methods to make certain that products meet specifications. They on the job for a brief period—from may merely look for flaws, imper a few hours or days to several fections, or defects; or they may use months, depending upon the skill gauges, micrometers, and other in required. Employers look for applicants struments to examine parts and materials. They may read work or who have good health and eyesight, changes in business conditions, may find jobs scarce in some years, plen tiful in others. Earnings and Working Conditions Inspector checks operation of washing machines. can follow directions, and can con centrate on details. Applicants should be able to get along with people since inspectors work occa sionally as part of a team. A few large companies give preemploy ment tests to check such skills as the ability to work with numbers. Some employers may hire appli cants who do not have a high school diploma but who have qualifying aptitudes or related experience. Other employers prefer ex perienced production workers for inspection jobs. Some semiskilled inspectors— particularly in metalworking indus tries—who take courses, such as blueprint reading and shop mathe matics, may advance to skilled in spectors or quality control techni cians. After acquiring sufficient ex perience and knowledge, a few become supervisors. Employment Outlook Wages for inspectors ranged from $2.30 to $6.30 an hour in 1974, according to information from a limited number of union contracts. Most inspectors covered by these contracts earned between $3 and $5.50 an hour. Working conditions vary con siderably for inspectors. For exam ple, some have well lighted, air-con ditioned workplaces in an aircraft or missile plant; others, who work on the production floor of a machinery or metal fabricating plant, often are exposed to high temperatures, oil, grease, and noise. Many inspectors are members of labor unions, including the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the In ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Sources of Additional Information Employment of inspectors is ex Information about employment pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through opportunities in this field may be the mid-1980’s, with thousands of available from local offices of the openings each year. Most of the in State employment service. The American Society for Quali dustries that employ these workers are expected to increase their out ty Control certifies quality techni put and thus employment in the cians. For information about the longrun. The growing complexity of test required for certification, write manufactured products should also to: result in a need for more inspectors. American Society for Quality Control, 161 Additional openings will result as West Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 53203. workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Inspectors seeking jobs in compa nies that produce durable goods, which are particularly sensitive to MILLWRIGHTS (D.O.T. 638.281) Nature of the Work Millwrights are skilled workers who move and install heavy indus trial machinery. They must know how to dismantle, reassemble, and align complex equipment. To as semble machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, at tach motors, and connect belts. They often construct concrete foundations and platforms and fabricate metal framework on which machinery is mounted. Mill wrights must be able to read blueprints and work with wood, steel, concrete, and other building materials. To move machinery, millwrights use hoists, jacks, wood blocking, and other rigging devices. To dismantle and assemble equipment, they use wrenches and other handtools and portable power tools. They also use calipers, squares, plumb bobs, and other devices to align and level machinery. Millwrights employed by con tract installation and construction companies do a variety of installa tion work. Those employed in fac tories usually specialize in installing the particular types of machinery used by their employers. They also may maintain plant equipment such as conveyors and cranes. Many of the millwright’s duties are also performed by industrial machinery repairers. (See state ment on Industrial Machinery Repairers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Places of Employment Most of the estimated 95,000 millwrights employed in 1974 worked for manufacturing compa nies; the majority were in transpor tation equipment, metal, paper, lumber, and chemical products in dustries. Others worked for con tractors in the construction indus try. Machinery manufacturers em ployed a small number to install equipment in customers’ plants. Millwrights work in every State. However, employment is concen trated in heavily industrialized areas such as Detroit, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Buffalo, and ChicagoGary. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade on the job. Others learn through formal apprenticeship pro grams. Apprenticeship programs generally last 4 years and include training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery. Helpers also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheet metal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop mathematics, blueprint read ing, hydraulics, electricity, and safety. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Many employers prefer to hire high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are use ful. Because millwrights often put together and take apart com plicated machinery, mechanical ap titude is important. Strength and ability also are important, because the work requires considerable lift ing and climbing. Employment Outlook Millwrights work on heavy gear assembly. Employment of millwrights is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Employ ment will increase as new plants are built, as existing plant layouts are improved, and as increasingly com plex machinery is installed and maintained. Besides job openings from employment growth, a few thousand openings will arise an nually as experienced millwrights retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. nies that manufacture and install tionist operates the movie projec machinery may have periods of tors and sound equipment. unemployment. Frequently they To show a feature-length movie, work away from home. projectionists use two projectors, The work of millwrights involves sound equipment, a film rewinding some hazards. For example, there machine, and seven reels of film or are dangers of being struck by more. Before the movie begins, falling objects or by machinery that they examine the film an$l check is being moved. There also is the the equipment to see that it works danger of falling from high work properly, and load the projectors places. In addition, millwrights are with the first and second reels. Most subject to usual shop hazards such projectors burn a carbon rod to as cuts and bruises. Accidents have provide light for the screen. After been reduced by the use of protec igniting and adjusting the rod, pro Earnings and Working tive devices such as safety belts and jectionists start the first reel. If the Conditions hats. picture is out of focus or unsteady, Most millwrights belong to labor they adjust the projector lens. According to a 1973-74 survey of A reel of film lasts 20 minutes or unions, among which are the Inter metropolitan areas, hourly wages national Association of Machinists more. When the reel is almost for millwrights averaged $5.76— more than one-third higher than the and Aerospace Workers; United complete, cue marks (small circles average wage for all nonsupervisory Brotherhood of Carpenters and in the upper right corner of the pic workers in private industry, except Joiners of America (construction ture) signal that it is time to start farming. Earnings for millwrights in millwrights); United Steelworkers the second projector. After a 11 areas that represent various re of America; International Union, second series of cue marks appears, gions of the country appear in the United Automobile, Aerospace and the projectionist simultaneously Agricultural Implement Workers of closes the shutter on the first pro accompanying tabulation: America; United Paperworkers In jector and opens the second one. ternational Union; and the Interna This changeover happens so Rate per hour, tional Union of Electrical, Radio quickly that the audience does not industrial notice an interruption on the and Machine Workers. City (all industries) screen. Next, the projectionist Akron................................................. $6.00 removes the first reel and rewinds it Sources of Additional Louisville............................................... 6.00 on the rewinding machine. The en Information Los Angeles-Long Beach and tire process is repeated until all the Anaheim-Santa Ana-Garden For further information on ap reels have been shown. When film Grove................................................. 5.92 prenticeship programs, write to the breaks, the projectionist must St. Louis................................................ 5.85 Apprenticeship Council of the State rapidly rethread it so that the show Houston................................................. 5.81 Trenton.................................................. 5.76 Labor Department, local offices of may continue. Some new theaters have auto Buffalo.................................................... 5.70 State employment service, local firms employing millwrights and to: matic equipment that reduces the Minneapolis-St. Paul...................... 5.65 workload. Some New Orleans......................................... 5.16 United Brotherhood of Carpenters and projectionist’s Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Boston.................................................... 4.63 machines, for example, automati Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. New Haven........................................... 4.53 cally change reels. Projectionists clean and lubricate Millwrights employed by con equipment, check for defective struction companies usually have parts and damaged film, and make MOTION PICTURE higher wage rates than those in minor repairs and adjustments. For PROJECTIONISTS manufacturing. The average hourly example, they may replace a badly rates for millwrights under union worn projector sprocket. Major (D.O.T. 960.382) contracts in construction in 26 ci repairs are made by service techni ties ranged from $6.70 to $9.77 in cians who specialize in repairing Nature of the Work 1974. projection and sound equipment. Projectionists are key behindMillwrights employed by facto ries ordinarily work year round. the-scenes workers in motion pic Places of Employment Millwrights employed by construc ture theaters. From a booth high in An estimated 18,000 motion piction companies and those compa the back of the theater, the projec first learn simple tasks such as threading and rewinding film, and as they gain experience, progress to more difficult assignments, such as adjusting and repairing equipment. An apprentice may work in several theaters to become familiar with different types of equipment. Young people interested in becoming projectionists should have good eyesight, including nor mal color perception, and good hearing. They should be tempera mentally suited to working alone and in close quarters. Manual dexterity and mechanical aptitude also are important personal qualifi cations. Practical experience gained from operating small movie projectors at home, at school, or in the Armed Forces also is help ful. Advancement opportunities for projectionists are limited. Some, however, become theater managers. In a few theaters, owners reduce costs by training apprentices to be both projectionists and managers of theaters. Employment Outlook ture projectionists were employed full time in 1974. More than threefourths worked for indoor theaters; most of the remainder worked for drive-ins. Some projectionists worked in large manufacturing companies, television studios, and in Federal, State, and local govern ments. Projectionists work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. In theaters located in small towns, theater owners or members of their families may do projec tionist work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most theaters in urban areas are unionized and young people who want jobs as projectionists must complete a union apprenticeship program. In nonunion theaters, young people may start as ushers or helpers and learn the trade by working with an experienced pro jectionist. Unions require applicants to be 18 and prefer high school gradu ates. The apprenticeship training usually lasts 1 to 2 years depending on the policy of the local union. After training, the apprentice must pass an exam for union member ship. In some cases, a capable ap prentice may be assigned to a fullor part-time job at an experienced projectionist’s pay before becoming a union member. In a few cities and States, projectionists must be licensed. Apprentices learn the trade by working with projectionists. They Employment of motion picture projectionists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Most job openings will occur as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Applicants may face keen competition for the jobs that become available. Because earnings of motion picture projectionists are relatively high, applicants fre quently outnumber job openings. The number of movie theaters is expected to increase as a result of increases in population and per sonal income. Because of laborsav ing innovations in equipment and theater design, however, employ ment of projectionists will not keep pace with theater growth. While older theaters required one projec tionist per shift, many new ones are built side by side so that one projec tionist, aided by automated projec tion machines and longer film reels, can take care of more than one theater at a time. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings for pro jectionists in large metropolitan areas ranged from $4.75 to $11.73 in 1974, according to information from several union contracts. Generally, downtown theaters pay higher hourly rates than suburban or drive-in theaters. Projectionists who work more than one screen usually receive extra pay. Most projectionists work evenings; generally 4 to 6 hours, 6 evenings a week. They may work more than 6 hours on Saturday and Sunday in theaters that feature matinees. Some projectionists work at several theaters. For example, a weekly schedule may call for two evenings in each of three theaters. Projectionists employed in driveins, particularly in northern States, may be laid off for several months during the winter. Projection rooms usually have adequate lighting and ventilation, and many are airconditioned. The work is not strenuous and is rela tively hazard free, but there is some danger of electrical shock and burns if proper safety precautions are not taken. Although projec tionists must stand a lot, they can sit for short periods while the equip ment is operating. Most projec tionists work without direct super vision and have infrequent contact with other theater employees. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship pro grams and employment opportuni ties may be obtained from any local of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada. OPHTHALMIC LABORATORY TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 711.381 and 713.884) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory techni cians (also called optical mechanics) make eyeglasses prescribed by eye physicians (ophthalmologists) and op tometrists. The two types of ophthalmic laboratory technicians are surfacer (or lens grinder) and bench techni cian (or finisher). Starting with standard size lens blanks, which large optical firms mass-produce, surfacers lay out the work and grind and polish the lens surfaces. Sur facers use precision instruments to measure the lenses and assure that they fit the prescription. In small laboratories, one person may do these operations and benchwork too. In large laboratories, work is divided into separate operations which are performed mainly by workers who operate power grind ing and polishing machines. Bench technicians mark and cut lenses and smooth their edges to fit frames. They then assemble the len ses and frame parts into finished glasses. Bench technicians use spe cial tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as well as small files, pliers, and other handtools. They also use automatic edging machines to shape lens edges, and precision instruments to detect imperfec tions. In large laboratories, the du ties of bench technicians are di vided into several operations which are performed mainly by semiskilled workers. Places of Employment About 22,000 persons worked as ophthalmic laboratory technicians in 1974. Most ophthalmic laborato ry technicians work in ophthalmic laboratories. Some work for retail optical dispensaries or other stores that sell prescription lenses. A few work for eye physicians or op tometrists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Ophthalmic laboratory techni cians are found in every State. However, employment is concen trated in large cities and in popu lous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. At first, technician trainees do simple jobs such as processing len ses through a grinding machine. As they gain experience, they progress to other operations such as lens cutting and eyeglass assembly. When the trainees have acquired experience in all types of work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all-round opti cal mechanics. Some technicians specialize in one type of job, such as surfacing or bench work. The train ing time required to become a spe cialist is less than that needed to become an all-round technician. High school graduates also can prepare to become a technician through 3- to 4-year formal ap prenticeship programs. Apprentices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Most training authorities agree that technicians who learn as apprentices have more job opportu nities and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. In addition, a number of vocational schools offered 9month full-time optical technician courses. Graduates from such schools often work for retail optical stores to receive additional on-thejob training. A small number of technicians learn their trades in the Armed Forces. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as ophthalmic laboratory technicians to be high school gradu ates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable. The interest and ability to do precision work is essential. Some States require licenses for ophthalmic laboratory technicians in retail optical shops. To obtain a license, the applicant generally must meet certain minimum stand ards of education and training, and must also pass either a written or practical examination, or both. For specific requirements, the licensing boards of individual States should be consulted. Ophthalmic laboratory techni cians can become supervisors and managers. Many of them have become dispensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Work ers in both occupations, especially those having all-round training in both shop and dispensing work, have opportunities to go into busi ness. Employment Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings from employment growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. More technicians will be needed due to the rising demand for eyeglasses. Growth in the popula tion, rising literacy and educational levels, and a large increase in the number of older persons (a group most likely to need glasses) will in crease the demand for glasses. State programs to provide eye care for low-income families, union health insurance plans, and medicare also will stimulate demand. Moreover, the growing variety of frame styles and colors may encourages in dividuals to buy more than one pair of glasses. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for ophthalmic technicians ranged from $3.61 to $6.14 in 1974, based on informa tion from a small number of union contracts. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate; their wages are increased periodi cally so that upon completion of the apprenticeship program, they receive the beginning rate for ex perienced workers. Most opthalmic laboratory tech nicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Work surroundings of the ophthalmic technician are pleasant, well-lighted, and well-ventilated, but noisy because of the power grinding and polishing machines. Physically handicapped persons who have full use of their eyes and hand can perform some of the more specialized jobs in the larger firms. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians are member of unions. The principal union in this field is the International Union of Electri cal, Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses for people who wish to become ophthalmic laboratory technicians is available from: National Academy of Opticianry, 514 Chest nut St., Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. For general information about the occupation, contact: International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Optical Wholesalers Association, 6935 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 970.281, 976.381, .687 through .887) Nature of the Work Amateur snapshots, home mov ies, professional portraits, and photographs to illustrate publica tions require the skills of thousands of photographic laboratory em ployees. These workers develop film, make prints and slides, and perform related tasks, such as en larging and retouching photo graphs. (This chapter does not discuss employees of laboratories who specialize in processing profes sional motion picture film.) All-round darkroom technicians (D.O.T. 976.381) can perform all tasks necessary to develop and print film. The technician varies the developing process according to the type of film—black-and-white negative, color negative, or color positive. For example, a developing process for black-and-white nega tive film covers five steps: developer, stop bath, fixing bath, washing, and drying. The first three steps use chemical solutions and are performed in darkness. After un winding a roll of film or in the case of cut film, the technician places it in the developer, a solution that brings out the image on exposed film. When the film has remained in the developer for a specified period, the technician transfers it to a stop bath to prevent overdevelop ment. Next, the film is placed in a fixing bath that makes it insensitive to light to prevent further exposure. Finally, the technician washes the film with water to remove the fixing solution and places the film in a drying cabinet. In many photo graphic labs, technicians regulate machines that automatically per form the steps described above. Processes for developing color films are more complex than those used for black-and-white. Thus, some labs employ color technicians (D.O.T. 976.381)—highly skilled workers who specialize in processing color film. The darkroom technician makes a photograph by transferring the image from a negative to photo graphic paper. Printing frequently is performed on a projection printer, which consists of a fixture for holding negatives and photo graphic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The technician places the negative between the lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp, light passes through the negative and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During printing, the technician may vary the contrast of the image or remove unwanted background by using paper patterns to shade part of the photographic paper from the projected image. After removing the exposed photo graphic paper from the printer, the technician develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. In addition to working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist experienced photographers. Many technicians, particularly those who work in por trait studios and aspire to become professional photographers, divide their time between taking and processing pictures. In some labs, helpers assist technicians. They also may be assisted by workers who specialize in a particular activity, such as developers (D.O.T. 976.381) printers (D.O.T. 976.381), and retouchers (D.O.T. 970.281). In most large photo labs, dark room technicians supervise semi skilled workers who do special ized assignments that require only a limited knowledge of developing and printing. Included are film numberers (D.O.T. 976.887), who sort film according to the type of processing needed and number each roll for identification; film strippers, who unwind rolls of film and place them in developing machines; printer operators (D.O.T. 976.782), who operate machines that expose rolls of photographic paper to negatives; print developers, machine (D.O.T. 976.885), who operate machines that develop these rolls of exposed photographic paper; chemical mixers (D.O.T. 976.884), who measure and com bine the various chemicals that make up developing solutions; slide mounters, who operate machines that cut, insert, and seal slides in carboard mounts; and photo checkers and assemblers (D.O.T. 976.687), who inspect the finished slides and prints and package them for customers. Places of Employment In 1974, about 50,000 persons worked in photo lab occupations. M ore than half o f them were in semiskilled photofinishing occupa tions; the remainder were dark room technicians. Most semiskilled workers are em ployed by large photofinishing labs that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers. A large proportion of darkroom technicians work in photo labs operated by por trait and commercial studios and by manufacturers, newspaper and magazine publishers, advertising agencies, and other organizations. Darkroom technicians also work in commercial labs that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers. Photo lab workers are situated in all parts of the country, but employ ment is concentrated in the more populous areas such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most darkroom technicians learn their skills through informal on-thejob training. Beginners start as help ers and gradually learn to develop and print film by assisting ex perienced technicians. It generally takes 3 to 4 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some helpers become specialists in a particular activity, such as print ing or developing. Generally, the training time required in order to become a specialist is less than is needed to become an all-round darkroom technician. When hiring darkroom techni cian helpers, employers prefer ap plicants who are high school gradu ates. Courses in chemistry and mathematics are helpful to people interested in this trade. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in photography that include training in film processing. The Armed Forces also offer training for darkroom technicians. Ex perience gained through processing film as a hobby is helpful. Two-year curricula leading to an associate degree in photographic technology are offered by a few col leges. Completion of college level courses in this field is helpful to people who are interested in super visory and managerial jobs in photo labs. Many darkroom technicians eventually become professional photographers. (See statement on Photographers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others advance to su pervisory positions in laboratories. Training requirements for wor kers in semiskilled photolab occu pations range from a few weeks to several months of on-the-job train ing. For example, film numberers and slide mounters usually can learn their jobs in less than a month, but printer operators and chemical mixers may need several months or longer. For many semiskilled jobs, manual dexterity, good vision in cluding normal color perception, and good hand-eye coordination are important qualifications. How ever, some laboratories employ blind workers as film splicers and film strippers, since these jobs are performed in the dark to prevent damage to exposed film. Increas ingly, photo labs are seeking high school graduates for semiskilled jobs. Employment Outlook Employment in photo lab occu pations is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs from employment growth, many openings will result from the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The need for semiskilled workers is tied closely to the growth of amateur photography. Film purchases by amateur photog raphers are expected to increase very rapidly as a result of rising population and personal income. Improvements in still and movie cameras that make them easier to load and operate also should con tribute to increases in the use of film. However, due to the growing popularity of self-processing instant cameras and the increased use of mechanized film processing equip ment in photo labs, employment will not grow as fast as the amount of film used. The need for all-round darkroom technicians is expected to increase as a result of the growing demand for photography in business and government. A major factor con tributing to this demand will be the increasing variety of printed matter that is illustrated with photographs. The growing use of photography in research and development activities also will contribute to the demand for darkroom technicians. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of photo lab workers vary greatly and depend on factors such as skill level, experience, and geographic location. Beginning pay for inexperienced darkroom techni cians’ helpers ranged from $2.25 to $3.50 an hour in 1974, according to the limited information available. Most of the experienced all-round darkroom technicians and color technicians earned between $3.50 and $6 an hour. Workers in semiskilled occupa tions earned from $2.50 to $4.50 an hour. Among these workers, printer operators and chemical mixers generally had the highest earnings. The majority of photo lab em ployees work a 40-hour week and get premium pay for overtime. In labs that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, employees may work a considera ble amount of overtime during the summer and for several weeks after Christmas. Many labs employ tem porary workers during these seasonal peaks. Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous. In many semiskilled oc cupations, workers perform their jobs while sitting, but the work is repetitious and the pace is rapid. Some workers (for example, printer operators and photocheckers and assemblers) are subject to eye fatigue. Photofinishing labs are generally clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned. Sources of Additional Information For information about employ ment opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technolo gy, write to: Photo Marketing Association, 603 Lansing Ave., Jackson, Mich. 49202. Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, III. 60018. POWER TRUCK OPERATORS (D.O.T. 922.782 and .883) Nature of the Work In the past, manual workers usually did the hard physical labor of moving materials and products. Today, many heavy materials are moved by workers who operate various types of power trucks. A typical truck has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks to carry a load or other attachments to make it more versatile. For example, a truck may have a clamp lift to move cartons, bales, or paper rolls, a scoop to lift coal, or a tow bar to pull warehouse trailers. Operators must use care and skill in driving trucks. For example, when loading or removing materials from stock, which may be stacked from floor to ceiling, they must be able to judge distance so that no damage occurs. They also must know the lifting capacity of the truck and the kinds of jobs it can do. Operators may have to keep records of materials moved and do some manual loading and unload ing. They also may be responsible for keeping their trucks in good working condition by cleaning, oil ing, checking the water in batteries, and making simple adjustments. About three-fourths of them worked in manufacturing, indus tries. Large numbers were em ployed in plants that made automo biles, machinery, fabricated metal products, paper, building materials, and iron and steel. Many power truck operators also were epiployed in warehouses, depots, freight and marine terminals, and mines. Power truck operators are em ployed in many different industries in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns, most work in heavily populated areas where large factories are located. Places of Employment About 350,000 persons worked as power truck operators in 1974. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers can learn to operate a power truck in a few days. It takes several weeks, however, to learn the layout and operation of a plant and the most efficient way of handling materials. Many companies have formal training programs to teach new em ployees to operate power trucks, make simple repairs, and handle materials. They also learn plant layout and operation and safe driv ing rules. Because power trucks are becoming more complex and ex pensive, firms are expected to place greater emphasis on training pro grams to increase the skills of their operators. Employers seek applicants who have manual dexterity, mechanical ability, and above-average eyesight, including good depth perception. Large companies generally require applicants to pass a physical ex amination. Opportunities for advancement are limited. A few operators may become supervisors. Employment Outlook Power truck operators can find jobs in many different industries. Employment of power truck operators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the midSources of Additional 1980’s. In addition to jobs resulting Information from employment growth, many Information on work opportuni operators will be needed to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to ties for power truck operators may be available from the local office of other occupations. More goods will be manufactured the State employment service. as population grows and our stan dard of living rises, and more power truck operators will be needed to move these goods and the materials PRODUCTION PAINTERS used to produce them. The need for operators also will increase as more Nature of the Work firms use power trucks in place of hand labor to move materials. Almost every metal or wood product manufactured gets a coat ing of paint or other protection. Earnings and Working The majority of painters in factories Conditions use spray guns to apply paint, According to a survey of lacquer, varnish, and other finishes. metropolitan areas in 1974, power Others operate painting machinery truck operators in manufacturing such as spraying machines, dipping earned an average of $4.40 an hour, tanks, or tumbling barrels. The slightly above the average for non- work of production painters in fac supervisory workers in all private tories is different from that of industries except farming. Earnings skilled painters in construction and of operators varied by region, as maintenance work. (See statements shown below: on painters and automobile painters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most of the work of production Area Hourly rate painters is repetitive. Spray painters United States........................ $4.39 may paint several hundred identical items a day as these products pass Northeast.......................................... 4.35 by on conveyors. They may have to South.................................................. 3.63 North Central................................... 4.68 clean items before painting them West................................................... 4.75 and on multicolored ones they apply masking tape to keep colors Power truck operators are sub from overlapping. They follow ject to hazards such as collisions directions to mix paint and use and falling objects. They may viscosity meters to make sure the operate their trucks outdoors where paint is the right consistency. Mix they are exposed to all kinds of ing paint and figuring areas to be weather. Some operators may han painted require simple arithmetic dle loose material that is dirty or involving decimals and fractions. dusty. Moving materials throughout Painters adjust spray gun nozzles a plant, however, is likely to be less and other controls so that paint will routine and boring than many other be applied evenly. They also must production jobs. clean and maintain spray guns and A trend toward quieter and more other equipment. Painting machine operators set comfortable and better handling trucks has resulted in better work up the painting equipment at the ing conditions. Also, the increasing beginning of their shift and are use of the relatively noiseless and responsible for keeping it running. pollutant free battery-powered They make sure that the paint is truck is doing much to improve the being applied correctly and make adjustments or minor repairs to the comfort of the operator. machinery if necessary. They may also operate related machines such as washing tanks, used to clean items prior to painting, and baking ovens which dry the painted arti cles. These painters, especially in experienced ones, may load items to be painted onto conveyors or into the machinery. On production lines that use au tomatic painting machinery, spray painters paint parts of an article that the machine misses. For exam ple, some modern applicators can not paint inside surfaces, such as the interior of a bucket. Painters use regular spray guns to paint these areas. Places of Employment About 125,000 production paint ers were employed in 1974. About two-thirds of the total worked in plants that made automobiles, machinery, furniture and other wood products, or manufactured metal products such as cans, tin ware, and handtools. Although production painters are scattered geographically, large numbers are employed in industrialized States. A fourth of all furniture painters were employed in North Carolina and Pennsylvania, while one-third of all automobile painters worked in Michigan—over half of these in Detroit. Over a quarter of the paint ers employed by companies mak ing machinery and metal products worked in Ohio and Illinois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers often start off load ing and unloading items from con veyor lines. After they become familiar with the production process and as openings arise, they may be taught painting skills. They usually learn the work by watching and helping experienced painters. The length of training varies from a few days to several months. Some modern painting processes, such as those used to apply powdered paints, demand a more skilled painter and thus a correspondingly longer training period. As painters gain experience they can advance to higher skill categories, perform ing more difficult work. Production painters should be able to stand for long periods of time. Although they seldom have to lift heavy objects, the production line nature of the job demands con tinuous physical exertion. High school graduation is generally not required for entry level positions, but a diploma or its equivalent may be needed to advance to higher skill levels. Opportunities for advancement are limited, although a small number of production painters become supervisors. to $5.20 in 1974, based on informa tion from a limited number of union contracts. Most painters covered by these contracts earned between $3 and $5 per hour. Painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing in gredients. Some wear protective clothing and masks which cover the nose and mouth. They may also be exposed to noisy factory conditions. When painting large objects, they sometimes work in awkward and cramped positions. Among unions organizing production painters are the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the United Furniture Workers of Amer ica; and the United Steelworkers of America. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment of production paint ers is expected to grow at about the same rate as the average for all oc cupations through the mid-1980’s. Many job openings will also result as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Most manufacturing industries are expected to increase their out put in the years ahead. Demand for consumer products, such as au tomobiles and furniture, will in crease as population and personal income grow. Business growth will create a need for more industrial machinery and equipment. Painters will be needed to apply protective and decorative coatings to these items. Employment of painters, however, is not expected to keep pace with manufacturing output because increased use of automatic sprayers and other laborsaving in novations should raise output per worker. More facts about job opportuni ties in this field may be available from local offices of the State em ployment service. STATIONARY ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 950.782) Nature of the Work Stationary engineers operate and maintain boilers, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, and compressors. The equipment is used to generate power and to heat and air-condition factories and other buildings. Stationary en gineers must operate and maintain the equipment according to State and local laws, since the safety of many people depends upon the proper functioning of the equip ment. Earnings and Working Stationary engineers, or power Conditions engineers as they are often called, Hourly wage rates for production detect and identify any trouble that painters ranged from about $2.20 develops by watching and listening to machinery, and by analyzing readings of meters, gages, and other instruments. They operate levers, throttles, switches, valves, and other devices to periodically regu late the machinery, and also record such information as fuel consump tion and boiler temperatures and pressure. Stationary engineers also make minor repairs such as reseat ing valves and replacing gaskets, pumps, and bearings. In a large plant, the stationary en gineer may have charge of the boiler room, and direct the work of assistant stationary engineers, tur bine operators, boiler tenders, and airconditioning and refrigeration mechanics. In a small plant, the sta tionary engineer may operate and maintain equipment by himself. Places of Employment ... ^ In 1974, about 193,000 station ary engineers were employed in a wide variety of places, including power stations, factories, sewage and water-treatment plants, office and apartment buildings, hotels, and hospitals. Federal, State, and local governments also employed large numbers of these workers. Most plants which operate on three shifts employ four to eight station ary engineers, but some have more. In many plants, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and commer cial businesses are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancment Many stationary engineers start as helpers or craft workers in other trades and acquire their skills through informal on-thejob ex perience. However, most training authorities recommend formal ap prenticeship programs because of the increasing complexity of the machines and systems. In selecting apprentices, most joint labor-management ap prenticeship committees prefer high school or trade school gradu ates who have received instruction in mathematics, mechanical draw ing, machine-shop practice, phys ics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are im portant qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices receive class room instruction in practical chemistry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electrici ty, and other technical subjects. Becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal ap prenticeship program usually takes many years of experience as an assistant to licensed stationary en gineers or as a boiler tender. This practical experience usually is sup plemented by technical or other school training or home study. Some States, the District of Columbia, and many large and medium-size cities have licensing requirements for stationary en gineers. Although requirements for a license differ from place to place, the following are typical: Appli cants must be at least 20 years of age; they must reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which the examination is given; and they must meet the experience requirements for the class of license requested and pass an examination which may be written, oral, or both. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licen ses. Each class specifies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate. The chief engineer license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education and 4 years of approved apprenticeship or onthe-job training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engineer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Because of regional differences in licensing requirements, a sta tionary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers is now assisting many States in adopting a stan dardized licensing program that would eliminate this problem by establishing reciprocity of licenses. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Advancement, how ever, is not automatic. For example, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy occurs. Some stationary engineers even tually advance to jobs as plant en gineers and as building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers and techni cal instructors. Employment Outlook Employment of stationary en gineers is expected to show little change through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, several thousand job openings will arise annually because of the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Industrial growth will result in an increased use of large boilers and auxiliary equipment in factories, powerplants, and other buildings. The need for additional stationary engineers, however, will be limited by the trend to more powerful and more centralized equipment. For example, a large boiler operated by one stationary engineer can supply heat and refrigeration for several buildings, instead of each building having its own small boiler and en gineer. Earnings and Working Conditions tional Union of Operating En gineers and the International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State employ ment services, locals of the Interna tional Union of Operating En gineers, and from State employ ment services, locals of the Interna tional Union of Operating En gineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the oc cupation may be referred to: Stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $5.51 in 197374, according to a survey of International Union of Operating Engineers, metropolitan areas. This was higher 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. than the average for all nonsuper20036. visory workers in private industry, National Association of Power Engineers, except farming. Averages for en Inc. 176 West Adam St., Chicago, III. 60603. gineers in individual cities ranged from $3.88 in Greenville, S.C. to For questions concerning $6.55 in the San Francisco area. licensing requirements, contact: Stationary engineers generally National Institute for Uniform Licensing of have steady year-round employ Power Engineers, 176 West Adam St., Chicago, III. 60603. ment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. In plants that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three shifts—often on a rotating basis— and to Sunday and holiday work. WASTEWATER Engine rooms, powerplants, or TREATMENT PLANT boiler rooms usually are clean and OPERATORS (Sewagewell-lighted. Even under the most Plant Operator) favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers are ex (D.O.T. 955.782) posed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, contact with oil and grease, Nature of the Work and fumes or smoke. They may have to crawl inside boilers and Clean water is essential for our work in crouching or kneeling posi health and recreation and for the tions to inspect, clean or repair the existence of fish and wildlife. interiors. Wastewater treatment plant opera Because stationary engineers tors help keep America’s water often work around boilers and elec clean by removing harmful trical and mechanical equipment, domestic and industrial waste. Waste materials are carried by they must be alert to avoid burns, electric shock, and injury from water through sewer pipes to treat moving machinery. ment plants. Operators control Among the unions to which these equipment to remove these materi workers belong are the Interna als or render them harmless. By operating and maintaining pumps, pipes, and valves that connect the collection system to the treatment facility, operators move the wastewater through the various treat ment processes. Operators read and interpret me ters and gauges to make sure plant equipment is working properly. Other jobs include operating chemical feeding devices to remove pollutants from wastewater; taking samples of the water for laboratory analysis; and testing and adjusting the level of chlorine in the water. Operators also make minor repairs on valves, pumps, and other equip ment. They use gauges wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Occa sionally operators must work under emergency conditions—for exam ple, a heavy rainstorm may cause abnormal amounts of wastewater to flow into sewer pipes and threaten to exceed a plant’s treatment capacity. The duties of operators vary de pending on the type and size of plant. For example, the treatment process in an industrial plant, such as a food-processing company, may be simple since the wastewater is of a known content. Treatment plants which serve entire cities, on the other hand, must be equipped to treat a mixture of waste products that varies daily, thus making the operator’s job more complicated. In smaller plants, one operator may be responsible for the entire system— making repairs, keeping plant records, handling complaints, and doing the maintenance work for the facility. In larger plants, the staff may include chemists, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, su pervisors, and a superintendent. As a result of the passage of the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Con trol Act, water pollution standards will become increasingly stringent in the future. In order to meet these higher requirements, operators will have to be able to operate more so phisticated systems. Places of Employment About 62,000 people worked full time as wastewater treatment plant operators in 1974, of whom about 35.000 worked in municipal plants, 25.000 in private industry, and 2.000 in Federal installations. In ad dition, over 50,000 operators per formed operator duties in addition to other related duties. Wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country. Geographically, em ployment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Many operators in small towns are employed part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as helpers and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an ex perienced operator. They learn by doing routine tasks such as record ing meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric mo tors, and valves. They also are ex pected to perform housekeeping tasks such as cleaning and main taining plant equipment and property. Persons interested in entering the field should have some mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Employers generally prefer trainees who have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and in some States this is a minimum educational require ment. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they have to climb lad ders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in wastewater technology are available; these pro vide a good general knowledge of the water pollution control field as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Since plants are becoming more complex, completion of such courses in creases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion. Most State water pollution con trol agencies offer training courses to improve the skills of treatment plant operators. These courses cover principles of sludge digestion, odors and their control, chlorina tion, sedimentation, biological ox idation, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspond ence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment, and some employers will pay part of the tui tion for courses leading to a college degree in science or engineering. Operators may be promoted to positions such as supervisor and su perintendent. Superintendents of large and complex plants are ex pected to have an engineering or science degree. A high school diploma and increasingly responsi ble experience may be sufficient to qualify as superintendent of a small or medium-sized plant at present, but educational requirements are rising as more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. Since many new and existing plants are being organized on a regional basis, it is becoming increasingly impor tant for operators to receive some training in management techniques. A limited number of operators may become technicians employed by State water pollution control agen cies to monitor and provide techni cal assistance to plants throughout the State. Some technical-voca tional school or junior college train ing is generally preferred for techni cian jobs. In 40 States, supervisors and cer tain operators must pass an ex amination to certify that they are capable of overseeing treatment plant operations. Voluntary certifi cation programs are in effect in the remaining States, with the excep tion of Alaska. Under a typical program, there are different classes of certification for different sizes of treatment plants. For example, to be certified a “Class I operator” capable of operating a small plant with simple equipment, an applicant should be a high school graduate, demon strate general knowledge of treat ment operations by passing a writ ten test, and complete 1 year of satisfactory employment at a treat ment plant. Requirements for cer tification as a Class IV operator who supervises a large plant em ploying complex technology may require a bachelors degree in science and engineering; 4 years of treatment plant experience, 2 years of which were in a position of major responsibility; and specific knowledge of the entire field of wastewater treatment as demon strated through a written test. Employment Outlook Employment of wastewater treat ment plant operators is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s, mainly as a result of the construction of new treatment plants to process the increasing amount of domestic- and industrial wastewater. Also, more highly trained operators will be needed as existing plants expand and modernize their facilities to cope more effectively with water pollu tion. In addition to new jobs from employment growth, many job openings will occur as experienced operators retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. People who enter this field should have fairly steady employ ment in the years ahead. Even dur ing economic downturns treatment plants seldom lay off employees. Earnings and Working Conditions It is estimated that the earnings of operators ranged from about $6,500 to $20,000 a year in 1974, based on information from several surveys covering a number of cities throughout the United States. Operators at the supervisory level could earn even more. Salaries for trainees were roughly 80 percent of operators’ salaries in most cities. Because pollution control is a never-ending task, operators work different shifts and in an emergency may have to work overtime. Opera tors may be exposed to unpleasant odors, as well as noise from the operation of electrical motors and pumps. However, odor is kept to a minimum by the use of chlorine or other chemicals. Sources of Additional Information People interested in a career in wastewater treatment should con tact their local or State water pollu tion control agencies. Additional information is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 3900 Wisconsin Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20016. and steel reinforcing rods in bridges, buildings, and roads frequently are joined by welding. In addition, a growing number of plastic parts are welded to make a variety of products. Welding processes differ by the way heat is created and applied to the parts being joined. For example, in arc welding, the most frequently used process, heat is created as electricity flows across an airspace from the tip of the welding tool to the metal. In resistance welding, the heat is created by electricity flow ing directly through the metal. In gas welding, the heat of burning gases melts the metal. As part of most welding processes, special filler materials, called welding elec trodes or welding rods, usually are melted in with the metal to give the joint greater strength. Once the heat is removed, the metal and filler material harden and connect the parts. It is the welder’s job to heat the metal and filler material so that they melt together properly and harden into a strong joint. Because welding processes differ and are used for a wide variety of purposes, the equipment welders use and the skill levels of welders vary. Jobs vary from those of highly Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs Operations, Manpower Development Staff, 401 M St. SW., Washington, D.C. 20460. WELDERS (D.O.T. 810. through 819.887) Nature of the Work Welding consists of joining two pieces of material, usually metal, by melting them together. It is the most common method of per manently connecting various metal parts that go into the construction of automobiles, spacecraft, ships, household appliances, and thou sands of other products. Beams Welders use special masks and heavy gloves to prevent injuries. skilled manual welders who can use gas and electric arc welding equip ment in more than one position and who can plan their work from drawings or other specifications to those of unskilled welding machine tenders who simply press a button to start a machine. Skilled welders know the characteristics o f steel, bronze, aluminum, and other metals and can weld joints held in various positions. Welders who con struct ships and maintenance weld ers are examples of skilled welders. Ship welders join the steel plates and beams used to build ships. Some joints to be welded are on the floor, some are on the wall, and some are overhead on the ceiling. All must be carefully welded to in sure that the ship will not break apart in rough seas. Ship welders generally use arc welding equipment because it welds the steel plates faster and better than gas equipment. After reading instructions on construction plans to learn which rods to use and ob taining a supply of rods from the storage area, ship welders are ready to begin work. First, they insert a rod in a holder attached to an elec tric cable from a gasoline-powered generator or other source of elec tricity. Another electrical cable is attached to the metal being welded and controls are adjusted to provide the right amount of electricity. Next, welders “ strike an arc” by briefly touching the rod to the metal to start the electricity flowing and then pulling the rod back to create a small space which the cur rent must jump. If the distance between the rod and the metal is correct, electricity continues to flow through the rod and across the space, creating an electric arc; the heat from the electric arc melts the rod and the metal. Welders move the arc along the joint and as the rod melts and becomes shorter, move the rod closer to the metal to keep the tip at the proper distance. When the rod becomes very short, welders replace it. Maintenance welders repair tools, machines, and equipment— for example, a farmer’s plow. In this case, welders bring their equipment to the job. Gas welding generally is preferred because the torch, hoses, and tanks of gas are portable. After examining the plow and preparing the break for repair— usually by grinding—maintenance welders select the proper welding rod for the job. Next, they light the torch and adjust valves on the tanks of acetylene and oxygen to obtain the right flame. With the welding rod in one hand and the torch in the other, they heat the edges of the crack in the plow and apply the heat. As the metal begins to melt, the welders periodically melt the end of the welding rod in the hot, liquid metal while they carefully move the torch and rod along the crack to complete the repair. Weld ers must be careful to keep the torch at the right distance from the metal in order to apply the heat cor rectly and to add filler material, as needed, to fill the crack. Not all welders have the skills of shipbuilding or maintenance weld ers. For example, less skilled work ers use semiautomatic arc welding equipment to speed up the job of welding automobile frames. Semiautomatic equipment consists of a welding gun which welders must position but which automati cally supplies the proper amount of electricity and filler material to the joint. In this example, assembly lines bring car frames to welders and put them in place. Welders then position their welding guns on the parts to be welded, push a but ton on the tool, “ strike an arc,” and guide the arc to complete one or two joints before the assembly line takes the frame to another worker. Like skilled welders, these welders are responsible for the strength of the joint. However, they need less skill because all parts they weld are identical and each welded from the same position as the others. If the factory is large, and many identical parts must be welded, the Training, Other Qualifications, company may save money by using and Advancement automatic welding machines. Such machines are used, for example, in Generally, it takes several years making automobile mufflers and of training to become a skilled washing machines. The workers welder. Some of the less-skilled who operate these machines need jobs, however, can be learned in a little knowledge of welding and are few months of on-the-job training. frequently called welding machine Welding machine tenders, for ex tenders to distinguish them from ample, can be taught to operate a more skilled, manual welders. machine in a few hours and become Welding machine tenders place the completely qualified in a week. parts to be joined in holders on the Beginners often start in simple machine. To complete the weld, production jobs where the type and tenders simply push a button. The thickness of the metal, as well as the machine then clamps the part in position of the welding operation place and rotates it, as necessary, to rarely change. As the need arises, complete the welding cycle. The supervisors teach new employees welding machines, not the operator, how to weld different types of are responsible for the weld. After metal, and how to weld vertical and the welding cycle is finished, tend overhead joints. Some large compa ers remove the welded material nies conduct programs to train per and load the machine again. sons as welders. After completing Closely related to welders are the course, individuals are offered cutters. The workers use the heat jobs. A few companies offer em from burning gases or an electric ployees welder apprenticeship pro arc to cut and trim metal rather grams that last 4 years, including then join it. Some cutters operate classroom and on-the-job training. electrically or mechanically con Persons planning careers as trolled machines which automati welders or cutters need manual cally follow the proper guideline. dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand coordination. They should be able to concentrate on Places of Employment detailed work for long periods, and About 645,000 welders and should be free of any physical disa flame cutters were employed in bilities that would prevent them 1974, including a relatively small from bending, stooping, and work number of flame and arc cutters. ing in awkward positions. Many em Over one-half of all welders help ployers prefer applicants who have manufacture durable goods; for ex high school or vocational school ample, boilers, bulldozers, trucks, training in welding. Courses in shop ships, and heavy machinery. About mathematics, mechanical drawing, one-fourth repair metal products, blueprint reading, and physics also while most of the rest help con are helpful. New developments are requiring struct bridges, large buildings, and new skills of welders. This is par pipelines. Welders are concentrated in the ticularly true in fields such as manufacturing centers of the Great atomic energy or missile manufac Lakes States. About one-third work turing, which have high standards in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, for the reliability of welds. Before Indiana, and Illinois. Because of the being assigned to work on widespread use of welding, the rest buildings, bridges, or other jobs are distributed much the same as where the strength of the weld is population, with large numbers highly critical, welders may be working in New York, Texas, and required to pass an examination of California. their welding skills given by an em ployer or government agency. Welders who pass such examina tions are generally referred to as “certified welders.” Promotion opportunities for welders are good. Welding machine tenders may learn skilled welding jobs; skilled welders may be promoted to welding inspectors, technicians, or supervisors. Ex perienced workers who have ob tained college training on the prop erties of metal are in great demand to develop new applications for welding. A small number of ex perienced welders open their own welding repair shops. sands of other products which welders help make. Employment of welders also is expected to increase as welding replaces other methods of joining metals. Welding generally is cheaper than other methods of joining metal parts, and is being used more and more frequently in the manufacturing and construction industries. E m p l o y me n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s should be especially good for skilled welders in nuclear powerplant, pipeline, and ship construc tion jobs. Recent reports indicate that a shortage of skilled welders exists in these industries. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Job opportunities for welders should be very good in the years ahead. Employment in this field with many jobs is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s as a result of the generally favorable long-run outlook for metalworking industries and the greater use of welding. In addition to job openings created by employ ment growth, thousands should be available each year because of the need to replace experienced weld ers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Job opportuni ties may vary, however, because welder employment in manufactur ing industries fluctuates with ups and downs in the economy. Increases in population and in come are expected to stimulate de mand for cars, buildings, heavy machinery, appliances, and thou National wage data on welders are not available. However, the limited data vailable indicate weld ing machine tenders earned from $3.93 to $5.10 in 1974. Welders in the construction industry earned $4.50 to $ 10 an hour, depending on location. Welders and cutters use protec tive clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries. Although lighting and ventilation are usually adequate, they occasionally work in the presence of poisonous gases and fumes caused by the melting of some metals. They are often in con tact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Welding machine tenders are largely free from the hazards associated with hand weld ing. An eyeshield or goggles generally offer adequate protection to these workers. Many welders are union mem bers. However, because welding is also done by other craft workers, for example by pipefitters, and has only recently been receiving recog nition as a distinct craft, welders be long to many different unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Only one labor organiza tion—the International Union, United Welders (Ind.), Sources of Additional Information For further information on train ing and work opportunities for weld ers, contact local employers or the local office of the State employ ment service. For general informa tion about welders, write to: The American Welding Society, 2501 NW. 7th St., Miami, Fla. 33125. International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jeffer son Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. OFFICE OCCUPATIONS Office workers perform a wide for people with widely different range of tasks that are needed to educational backgrounds. Some keep business and other organiza jobs can be entered with only a high tions running on a day to day basis. school education; many others, Clerical workers, such as secretar however, require at least a college ies and typists, maintain files, type, degree. and operate office machines. Many clerical employees work Professional and technical em with things and often do detailed, ployees give legal advice, prepare repetitive tasks. Most professional and analyze financial reports, office workers, on the other hand, design computer systems, and ar work with ideas; they apply their skills to solving problems and devis range bank loans. Opportunities in office work exist ing ways to provide better services to those who depend on them. Besides the technical skills required to do their jobs, office workers need judgment and the ability to commu nicate their ideas to others. This chapter of the Handbook describes office work in Clerical Occupations, Computer and Re lated Occupations, Banking Occu pations, Insurance Occupations, and Administrative and Related Occupations. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS About 15 million people worked in clerical jobs in 1974. Many keep records and do other office paper work. Others handle communica tions, operate office machines, ship and receive merchandise, and ring sales on cash registers. Workers in clerical jobs have a wide variety of skills and ex perience. They include highly skilled title searchers in real estate firms and executive secretaries in business offices as well as relatively unskilled messengers and file clerks. Despite the diversity of jobs and duties, much clerical employ ment is concentrated in just a few familiar jobs. Roughly 1 of every 5 clerical workers is a secretary or stenographer. One in ten is a book keeper. The accompanying chart shows employment in these and other major clerical occupations discussed in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clerical workers need high school diplomas for all but the most routine jobs, and many employers prefer applicants who have had business courses. Some companies cooperate with local high schools and business schools in office edu cation programs that enable stu dents to work part time while at tending school. This experience is helpful for beginners seeking jobs after graduation. Many States and localities sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled work ers for entry level clerical jobs. Beginning clerical workers often receive on-the-job training. They learn how their employers keep records and become familiar with the kinds of business forms used. Some new workers learn to operate A Majority of the Approximately 15 Million Clerical Workers are Employed in These Occupations 11 adding and duplicating machines and other kinds of office equip ment. They may attend classes to learn how to operate tabulating machines and other specialized equipment. Secretaries, stenog raphers, and typists need special skills that must be learned in schools or formal training pro grams. Many clerical jobs require read ing comprehension, a knowledge of spelling and grammar, and arithmetic skills. Employers prefer applicants for almost all clerical jobs to have basic typing skills. Some employers test applicants for clerical aptitude. Advancement opportunities for clerical workers are good, and many employers provide courses so that their employees can learn the skills needed for more demanding jobs. As workers become more highly skilled, they are assigned more difficult tasks. For example, junior typists may be promoted to more responsible jobs as senior typists as their typing speed and ac curacy improves. Receptionists who learn typing and office procedures may become secretaries or typists. Promotion to supervisor or manager generally depends on leadership ability, work experience, and knowledge of the overall opera tions of the organization. Employment Outlook WORKERS 1974 (in millions) 0 Source Bureau of Labor Statistics 1 2 Employment of clerical workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the many new jobs created by this growth, about a million job openings a year will occur as em ployees die, retire, or leave their jobs. Future growth in the number of clerical workers is expected to result primarily from the increasing paperwork that will accompany the expansion of large and complex or ganizations. A great deal of this paperwork is handled by computer. The impact of automation on office equipment and procedures is con siderable, but it is more important in some jobs than in others. In general, long-term employment prospects are best in clerical occu pations which are not affected by automation, in those which are compatible with computer applica tions, and in jobs which have developed as a result of new technologies. Job opportunities are especially favorable for recep tionists, secretaries, typists, and computer operators. Demand for these workers will be particularly strong in banks, insurance compa nies, manufacturing firms, and professional service organizations. As more firms use computers and business machines, routine clerical jobs such as payroll, bank, and file clerk may be reduced or eliminated. However, as work is shifted from clerks to machines, many jobs will be created for cleri cal workers who are familiar with computer operations, particularly in large firms. Persons with clerical skills, par ticularly secretarial and typing skills, should find extensive oppor tunities for temporary or part-time work as more employers use these workers during peak business periods. the Northeast, $165 in the West, and $ 149 in southern cities. Clerical employees work a 40hour week in most cities. In some, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled work week is 35 hours. Most clerical workers in large cit ies receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and 2 weeks’ vacation after working 1 year. Longer vacations, based on added years of service, may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance plans, sick benefits, and retirement plans often are available. Sources of Additional Information Many State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employ ment opportunities in clerical jobs. Information concerning training for clerical occupations in your State is available from: State Supervisor of Office Occupations Edu cation, State Department of Education, State capital. A directory of private business schools located in cities throughout the country may be obtained from: United Business Schools Association, 1730 M St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. In many small firms, general bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) are the only bookkeeping workers. They analyze and record all finan cial transactions, such as orders and cash sales. They also check money taken in against that paid out to be sure accounts “balance,” and cal culate the firm’s payroll. Although most of this work is done by hand, occasionally bookkeepers use sim ple office equipment such as adding machines. General bookkeepers also prepare and mail customers’ bills and answer the telephone. In large businesses, a number of bookkeepers and accounting clerks work under the direction of a head bookkeeper. Bookkeepers often specialize in certain types of work such as preparing statements on a company’s income from sales or its daily operating expenses. They sometimes use complex bookkeep ing machines to perform these du ties. Accounting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488), sometimes known as bookkeeping clerks, perform a variety of routine duties. They record details of business transac tions, including deductions from payrolls and bills paid and due. They also may type vouchers, in voices, and other financial records. Places of Employment . Earnings and Working Conditions Clerks in routine jobs earned as little as $95 a week, while many highly skilled workers were paid $200 or more, according to a 1974 survey. Salary variations within an occupation are relatively common and these usually reflect differences in educational level, work ex perience, and level of responsibili tySalaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cit ies and highest in northeastern and western urban areas. For example, secretaries averaged $ 166 a week in .. •/_ % , f Bookkeeping workers numbered BOOKKEEPING almost 1.7 million persons in 1974. WORKERS About 90 percent were women. Jobs for bookkeeping workers are (D.O.T. 210.368 through .588, found in all kinds of firms, with an 216.388, and 219.388 and .488) especially large number in wholesale and retail trade. One of Nature of the Work every three bookkeepers works for Every business needs systematic a retail store or wholesale firm. In and up-to-date records of accounts addition, many work in factories, and business transactions. Book banks, insurance companies, keeping workers maintain these hospitals, and schools. records in journals, ledgers, and on other accounting forms. They also Training, Other Qualifications, prepare periodic financial state and Advancement ments showing all money received and paid out. The duties of book High school graduates who have keeping workers vary with the size taken business arithmetic, book of the business. keeping, and accounting meet the minimum requirements for most bookkeeping jobs. Some em ployers, however, prefer applicants who have completed business courses at a junior college or business school. Persons also may qualify for bookkeeping jobs through on-thejob training. In some areas, compa nies cooperate with business schools and high schools in workstudy programs. These programs offer part-time experience that helps students get jobs soon after graduation. Bookkeeping workers need above average aptitude for working with numbers and a knack for con centrating on details. They should be able to type and operate various office machines. Because they de pend on other office workers for in formation, bookkeepers should be able to work as part of a team. Newly hired bookkeeping work ers begin by recording routine transactions. They advance to more responsible assignments, such as preparing income statements and operating complex bookkeeping machines. Some workers are promoted to supervisory jobs. Bookkeepers who complete courses in college accounting may become accountants. (The occupation of accountant is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Thousands of job openings for bookkeepers are expected every year through 1985. Jobs will be nu merous even though bookkeeper employment is expected to grow slowly over the next 10 years or so, for the occupation is large and tur nover is high. Most job openings for bookkeepers will occur because of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or stop working for bther reasons. Future employment growth in this occupation will be slowed by the increasing use of electronic data processing and various types of bookkeeping machines. Many machines can process data more ac curately, rapidly, and economically than workers doing it by hand. Nevertheless, need for bookkeep ing workers is expected to outpace the impact of laborsaving office machines over the next decade. Earnings and Working Conditions Capable workers advance quickly to more difficult work using a bookkeeping machine. Beginning accounting clerks in private firms averaged $551 a month in 1974, according to a Bu reau of Labor Statistics survey of clerical occupations. They had higher salaries, on the average, than beginning file clerks or typists, but earned less than beginning secreta ries or stenographers. Experienced accounting clerks earned $697 a month, about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory wor kers in private industry, except farming. In late 1974, starting salaries in the Federal Government ranged from $5,996 (GS-2) to $6,764 (GS3) for bookkeeping workers right out of high school. Starting salaries were higher for bookkeeping work ers with at least 2 years’ work ex perience or 2 years of college edu cation. These salaries ranged from $7,596 (GS-4) to $8,500 (GS-5) per year. Average salaries in the Federal Government in late 1974 for general accounting clerks were $12,800 per year. Working conditions for book keepers are similar to those of other office workers in the same firms. (See introductory section to this chapter for more information on earnings and working conditions and for sources of additional infor mation.) CASHIERS (D.O.T. 211.138, .368, .468, .488, and 299.468) Nature of the Work Supermarkets, movie theaters, and restaurants are among the many businesses that employ cashiers to handle payments from customers. Most cashiers receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. (Since it is different from other cashier jobs, the occupation of bank cashier is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to these duties, cashiers, depending on their em ployers, may do other jobs and have different job titles. Those who work in theaters, for example, are often called box office cashiers or ticket sellers. They operate ticket dispensing machines and answer telephone inquiries. Restaurant cashiers, sometimes called cashier checkers, handle reservations for meals and special parties, type menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette counter. In supermar kets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as check-out clerks, checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag purchases and, during slack periods, may restock shelves and mark prices. In many offices, cashiers known as agency or frontoffice cashiers, type, operate the switchboard, do bookkeeping, and act as receptionists. Cashiers operate several types of machines. Many use cash registers which print the amount of the sale on a paper tape. However, a rapidly growing number of cashiers operate computerized point-of-sale reg isters that automatically calculate the necessary taxes and record in ventory numbers and other infor mation. Point-of-sale registers are replacing less versatile models in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels and hospitals use machines that record charges for telephone, medical, and other services and prepare itemized bills. Cashiers also operate adding and change dispensing machines. ture stores, and in other kinds of retail stores. Restaurants and theaters also employ a large number of cashiers. Most of the businesses employing cashiers are located in cities or suburban shopping centers; however, many are in small towns. Opportunities for part-time work are very good. Nearly half of all cashiers work part time; one in four is a student. Places of Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 1974, about 1.1 million per sons, over 85 percent of them women, worked as cashiers. More cashiers work in supermarkets and grocery stores than in any other kind of store. However, cashiers are needed in businesses of all types and sizes, and many find jobs in de partment stores, drugstores, shoestores, hardware stores, furni Employers prefer beginning cashiers with high school diplomas. Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good prepara tion for cashier jobs. Cashier train ing is offered as part of many public school vocational programs. Many employers offer on-the-job training for cashiers. In a small firm, the beginning cashier is trained on the job by an experienced worker. In large firms, cashier training pro grams often include classroom in struction in use of the point-of-sale register and in other phases of cashiers’jobs. For some cashier jobs, employers seek persons who have special skills or business experience, such as typ ing or selling. Many cashier openings are filled by promoting clerk-typists in offices, stock clerks and baggers in supermarkets, and other qualified workers already em ployed by the firm. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repeti tious work accurately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand coordination, and an ap titude for working with figures. Because they meet the public, cashiers should be neat in ap pearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. Promotion opportunities for cashiers tend to be limited. How ever, the cashier’s job affords a good opportunity to learn an em ployer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible clerical job or managerial position. Cashiers work ing in chainstores and other large retail businesses, for example, may Future employment of cashiers is likely to be affected by the use of computerized checkout systems, which are beginning to replace cash registers in some supermarkets. An optical or magnetic scanner trans mits the code number of each purchase to a computer which is programmed to record the price of the item, add the tax, and print out a receipt. The computer also keeps track of the store’s inventory and places orders with the warehouse when stock is needed. With this system, more of the work is handled by machine, and supermarkets may not need as many stock clerks and cashiers. Employment growth is ex pected to slow with eventual widespread adoption of automated checkout systems. of this chapter for sources of addi tional information.) COLLECTION WORKERS (D.O.T. 240.368) Nature of the Work Companies that lend money or extend credit expect to be repaid. However, customers who “ buy now” are not always able to “ pay later.” Collection workers, often called bill collectors, help maintain a company’s financial well-being by keeping bad debts to a minimum. A collector’s primary job duty is to convince people to make good on unpaid bills. The collector usually receives a bad debt file after normal billing methods, such as monthly statements and collection Earnings and Working form letters, have failed to elicit Conditions payment. The file contains informa Beginning cashiers often earn the tion about the debtor, the nature minimum wage required by law. In and amount of the unpaid bill, and several States and in establishments the last time payment was made. The collector then contacts the covered by the Federal law, the minimum was $ 1.90 or $2 an hour debtor, determines why the bill is in 1974. Unionized cashiers, many unpaid, and tries to get the debtor of them grocery checkers in super to pay or make new arrangements markets, had average earnings in for payment. 1974 which ranged from $3.30 to The approach that collectors use $5.90 an hour for experienced wor depends on the type of payment kers in metropolitan areas. problem they are handling. Some advance to department or store Cashiers often work during rush times customers feel that the bill is managers. periods such as holidays, weekends, incorrect, or that the merchandise late afternoons, and evenings. they bought is faulty, or that ser Work at these times often is vices they were billed for were not Employment Outlook required in theaters, restaurants, properly performed. Collectors Job openings for cashiers are ex and foodstores. Many cashiers in normally recommend that the pected to be plentiful through these places work part time or on debtors resolve these disagreements 1985. Employment is expected to split shifts. Full-time cashiers in su by contacting the original sellers. In grow about as fast as the average permarkets and other large retail large stores, problems are referred for all occupations. New jobs will stores usually work a 5-day, 40- to special “customer service” de result from future business growth, hour week; however, they generally partments, set up to deal with particularly in retail trade. More work on Saturday and have another disputed accounts. If the problems important than growth as a source day off during the week. are not settled, the collectors again of jobs for cashiers, however, is the Most cashiers work indoors, contact the customers to convince need to replace workers who die, often in small booths or behind them that they were properly retire, or stop working for other counters located near store en charged and should pay the debts. reasons. Because the occupation is trances. In some cases, they are ex When customers have met with large and turnover is high, many posed to cold drafts in the winter financial emergencies or cashier jobs will be available over and considerable heat during the mismanaged their money, collec summer. (See introductory section tors may work out new payment the next 10 years. schedules. If collectors find customers fraudulently avoiding payment of their bills, they may recommend that the files be turned over to an attorney. When a debtor moves without leaving a forwarding address, the collector may inquire at the post of fice, search telephone directories, and call on the person’s friends and former neighbors. In large collec tion operations, this may be done by collection workers known as “ tracers.” In small organizations, bill collec tors may perform other functions besides contacting delinquent customers. They may advise customers having financial problems, or contact customers to determine if they are satisfied with the way their accounts are being handled. Some collectors supervise the repossession procedure for businesses that reclaim goods when payment is not made. Although most collectors do their work by phone, some make per sonal visits to the debtor. These visits usually are necessary when a large amount of money is involved and the debtor has been unrespon sive to phone contact. Places of Employment About 60,000 persons—over a third of them women—were collec tion workers in 1974. Although col lectors work for a variety of busi nesses, most are employed by banks, loan companies, and collec tion agencies. Many others work for retail and wholesale businesses. Jobs for collectors are found throughout the United States, but opportunities are best in heavily populated urban centers. Many firms having branch offices in rural areas locate their collection depart ments in the business district of nearby cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education usually is sufficient for entry into the col lection field. Because a collector handles delinquent accounts on a person-to-person basis, high school courses in psychology and speech may be useful. Previous employ ment as a sales clerk can help the collection worker learn how credit transactions originate and how they are handled at the point of sale. Knowledge of a foreign language may be an asset for persons seeking collection jobs in areas with large non-English-speaking populations. Most of a collector’s training is on the job. The employer may pro vide training manuals that explain collection procedures, but more often the new employee gains col lection skills informally. For exam ple, the new collector learns telephone techniques by listening' as experienced workers make collec tion calls. A collector’s most important asset is the ability to get along with different people. He or she must be alert, imaginative, and quick-witted to handle the difficult situations that are a part of collection work. While collectors should be sym pathetic to the bill-payers’ problems, they also must be persua sive to overcome some debtors’ reluctance to fulfill their financial obligations. Because a collector spends most of the day on the telephone, a pleasant speaking voice and manner are important. The collector’s job generally of fers limited opportunities for ad vancement; competition for the few supervisory positions is keen. The collector with above-average abili ties, however, may become a col lection manager or supervisor of a further growth of suburban retail staff of collectors. Some collection stores. Delinquent accounts, unfor workers progress to other positions tunately, are an unavoidable aspect in the credit field, such as bank loan of the credit system. As businesses officer or outside representative for extend attractive credit terms for a collection agency. Further educa the purchase of greater numbers of tion, such as that available through goods and services by increasingly professional associations of collec broad segments of our society, the tors or college courses, may be number of delinquent accounts can helpful for advanced positions in be expected to increase. Additional the credit and collection field. collection workers will be required to service these accounts on a person-to-person basis. Employment Outlook The applicant with a background of high school business courses who can demonstrate effective telephone skills should find job op portunities available in the collec tion field. In the past, some job seekers have been reluctant to ac cept collection work. More recently, however, the image of the occupation has improved. The role of the collector has expanded to in clude customer debt counseling, and collection methods have been modified in line with modern management techniques and recent consumer legislation. Despite this improved image, the number of persons seeking collection jobs is expected to fall short of the need for additional workers. Employers will need large numbers of collec tors to fill vacancies created by deaths and retirements, and many new positions will open up as the occupation grows, at a rate faster than the average for other career areas. Employment opportunities should be best in collection agen cies, where replacement needs con tinue to be high, and in retail trade firms, where earnings often are somewhat lower than the average. The strongest competition for col lection positions will be in large metropolitan banks that generally offer higher salaries and better op portunities for advancement than other employers. The demand for collection wor kers will be spurred by the expan sion of credit card services and the Earnings and Working Conditions Although earnings and payment schedules for collectors vary among employers, the limited information available indicates that beginning collectors earned over $100 a week in 1974. Managers of collection de partments often earned $15,000 a year and more. A survey by the American Col lectors Association showed that telephone collectors working for collection agencies had an average monthly income of $626 in 1974. This average income can vary sub stantially because collection agen cies generally use some form of sal ary plus commission plan as an in centive to their collectors. Commission schedules vary wide ly from agency to agency. A collec tor may be paid a relatively high sal ary with a low commission percent age or receive a low salary and a high rate on the money he collects for the agency. In some agencies, a quota is assigned to a collector or group of collectors and a bonus paid if the quota is reached. A few collection workers’ earnings are only from commissions. In addition to salary, collectors receive the benefits common to other office occupations, such as paid vacations and health in surance. Those who occasionally make visits outside the office usually are furnished a company car or are paid expenses for using their own automobile. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs as collection workers as well as other positions in a credit collection office is available from: American Collectors Association, 4040 W. 70th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55435. Associated Credit Bureaus, 6767 Southwest Freeway, Houston, Tex. 77036. FILE CLERKS (D.O.T. 132.388, 205.368, 206.388, 219.588, 920.887) Nature of the Work An orderly file system is often the key to an efficient office. In most offices, records are arranged so that information can be located quickly. This creates many job opportunities for file clerks, who keep records ac curate, up to date, and properly placed. File clerks classify, store, update, and retrieve office information on request. To do this, they read in coming material and put it in order for future use by means of some system, such as by number, letter of the alphabet, or subject matter. When these records are requested, file clerks locate them and turn them over to the borrower. They keep track of materials removed from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. Some clerks operate mechanized files which rotate to bring the needed records to them. Others retrieve documents or spools of microfilm and place them in an electronic transmitter which dis plays the information on video ter minals located elsewhere in the or ganization. Records also must be up-to-date in order to be useful. File clerks make sure that new in formation is added to existing files shortly after it is received. From time to time, file clerks may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They check files at regular intervals to insure that all items are correctly placed. Whenever data cannot be located, the file clerk searches for the missing records. As an organiza tion’s needs for information change, file clerks modify old filing systems or establish new ones. In small offices, file clerks often type, sort mail, or operate duplicat ing machines. Those who work with automated filing systems may code and microfilm all incoming docu ments. Places of Employment About 275,000 persons—15 per cent of them men—worked as file clerks in 1974. In addition, many other clerical workers perform some filing tasks in connection with their work. Opportunities for parttime work are abundant in this oc cupation; in 1974, approximately 1 of every 4 file clerks worked part time. Although filing jobs are found in almost every kind of organization, over one-half of all file clerks work in banks, insurance companies, fac tories, or government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for beginning file clerks. Most seek applicants who can type, and many prefer those who have some knowledge of office practices as well. High schools, colleges, and private business schools teach these and other skills that help a beginner get a job. Many States and localities sponsor programs to train unem ployed and low-skilled workers for entry level clerical jobs such as file clerk. Some on-the-job training usually is necessary because each organiza tion has its own filing system and of fice procedures. In organizations that have specialized filing procedures, clerks learn their jobs in a few weeks. Learning to operate mechanical filing systems usually takes more time. Where file clerks have a variety of related duties, training may take up to 3 months. File clerks must read accurately and rapidly, spell well, and like detailed work. They should be neat, able to work as part of a team, and not be easily bored by repeated tasks. File clerks can advance to more difficult filing duties and to jobs su pervising other file clerks. Those who improve their skills may be promoted to office machine opera tors, receptionists, and typists. should assure steady employment growth. However, this growth should be slower than in past years as computers are used more exten sively to arrange, store, and trans mit information. Jobseekers who possess typing and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines should have greater opportunities than less experienced applicants. Temporary or part-time work often is desirable for students and persons with family responsibilities. File clerks should find many such opportunities as employers increas ingly turn to part-time and tempo rary workers during peak business periods. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a recent survey, beginning file clerks in urban areas averaged $107 a week in 1974. Those with some experience averaged $118; those with a great deal of experience, $144. File clerks earn almost three-fourths as much as the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, beginning file clerks without high school diplomas started at about $102 a week in late 1974, and high school graduates began at $ 115 a week. Experienced file clerks in the Federal Government averaged about $ 152 a week in 1974. Employment Outlook Working conditions for file clerks usually are similar to those for other Employment of file clerks is ex office workers in the same or pected to grow about as fast as the ganization. Although they do not do average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s as business expan heavy lifting, they often must stoop, sion creates a need for more and bend, and reach. (See the statement better recordkeeping. In addition, a on Clerical Occupations for infor large number of file clerks will be mation on fringe benefits and needed each year to replace those sources of additional information.) who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. The growing volume of paper work and continued expansion of those businesses that traditionally have employed many file clerks HOTEL FRONT OFFICE CLERKS (D.O.T. 242.368) Nature of the Work Hotels and motels employ front office clerks to handle room reser vations, greet guests, issue keys, and collect payments. In small hotels and in many motels, front of fice clerks also may work as book keepers, cashiers, or telephone operators. Large hotels usually em ploy several front office clerks to handle different jobs, such as receiving mail, providing informa tion, or issuing keys. In the largest hotels, floor clerks distribute mail, packages, and telegrams to guests. About 54,000 persons—half of them women—worked as front of fice clerks in 1974. Room or desk clerks assign rooms to guests and answer questions about hotel services, checkout time, or parking facilities. In assign ing rooms, they must consider guests’ preferences while trying to maximize hotel revenues. These clerks fill out guests’ registration forms and sometimes collect pay ments. Reservation clerks record written or telephoned requests for rooms, type out registration forms, and notify room clerks of guests’ arrival times. Rack clerks keep records of room assignments to advise housekeepers, telephone operators, and maintenance workers that rooms are occupied. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually select high school graduates who have some clerical aptitude when they are hir ing front office clerks. A knowledge of bookkeeping is helpful for work in a small hotel or on the night shift, because clerks often have a wider range of duties under these circum stances. Occasionally, employees in other hotel occupations, such as bellhops or elevator operators, may be transferred to front office jobs. Although education beyond high school generally is not required for front office work, college training is an asset for advancement to managerial jobs. Neatness, a'courteous and friendly manner, and a desire to help people are important traits for front office clerks. Knowledge of a foreign language can be helpful for work in large hotels or resorts that receive many foreign guests. Newly hired workers usually begin as mail, information, or key clerks and receive their training on the job. The training period is usually brief and includes an ex planation of the job’s duties and in formation about the hotel, such as room locations and services of fered. Once on the job, they receive help and supervision from the assistant manager or an ex perienced front office worker. Most hotels promote front office workers from within so that a key or mail clerk may be promoted to room clerk, then to assistant front office manager, and later to front office manager. Clerks may im prove their opportunities for promotion by taking home study courses in hotel management such as those sponsored by the Educa tional Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. (See the statement on Hotel Managers and Assistants elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Front office clerks check the occupancy and advance reservation rack before accepting telephoned reservations or assigning rooms to arriving guests. Employment of front office clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s as new hotels and motels are built. Most openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Growth in the occupation will be limited somewhat by the use of computerized reservation systems in most hotel and motel chains. See the statement on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of ad ditional information, and more in formation on employment outlook. OFFICE MACHINE OPERATORS (D.O.T. 207.782, .884, and .885; 208.782; 213.782; 214.488; 215.388; 216.488; and 234.) Nature of the Work To speed the paperwork involved in operating a business, most firms employ office machine operators to record information, determine bills and inventories, and perform other calculations. This statement decribes some of the more common machine operating jobs. Billing machine operators (D.O.T. 214.488) prepare customer state ments by typing information, such as customers’ names, purchases, and amount of sales, on a billing machine that automatically com putes the balances and required payments. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) record a firm’s financial transactions on a book keeping machine and calculate trial balances, summary reports, and other necessary data. Adding and calculating machine operators (D.O.T. 216.488) use mechanical adding machines and electronic calculators to compute payrolls and invoices and do other statistical work. Some calculators can also be used to compute square roots and percent distributions. Mail preparing and mail handling machine operators (D.O.T. 234.) use machines to open incoming mail and prepare bills and letters for mailing. Some machines fold and insert enclosures, while others address, seal, and stamp envelopes. Addressing machines print ad dresses on envelopes using stencils or metal plates prepared by em bossing machine operators (D.O.T. 208.782) using special typewriters. Duplicating machine operators (D.O.T. 207.782, .884, and .885) operate equipment that can reproduce letters, bills, invoices and other documents. Included are mimeograph, stencil, and copying machines. These workers keep the machines loaded with paper, see that they are properly adjusted for the number of copies to be made, and may collate pages of lengthy documents by hand or machine. Tabulating machine operators (D.O.T. 213.782) operate ma chines that sort and total large quantities of accounting and statistical information and print the results on special business forms. Information about workers in several other occupations that use office machines can be found elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k , in the statements on computer and peripheral equipment operators, typists, and statistical clerks. Places of Employment In 1974, about 170,000 people— three-fourths of them women— worked as office machine opera tors. About one-third worked for manufacturing companies, but large numbers were employed by banks, insurance companies, government agencies, and wholesale and retail stores. Some office machine operators are em ployed by service firms that prepare monthly bills and mailing circulars for businesses that do not have their own office machinery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school or business school graduates for jobs as office machine operators. Most newly hired workers are expected to be able to type and operate add ing machines and calculators. A knowledge of business arithmetic is helpful. The amount of instruction and on-the-job training beginners receive depends on the types of machines they operate. Although a few days of training are usually suf ficient to train duplicating machine operators, several weeks may be needed to train bookkeeping machine operators. Some office machine operators are trained at company expense in schools run by equipment manufacturers. Finger dexterity, good eye and hand coordination, and good vision are important for most office machine operator jobs. Billing and calculating machine operators should know simple arithmetic so they can detect obvious errors in computations. Some mechanical ability is advantageous, especially for duplicating and tabulating machine operators. Most employers promote from within and give strong considera tion to seniority and job per formance as shown by supervisors’ ratings. Promotion may be from a routine machine job to a more com plex one, or to a related clerical job. Employers often provide any addi tional training that may be required. In firms having large cleri cal staffs, office machine operators may advance to jobs where they train beginners or to supervisory positions as section or department heads. Employment Outlook Employment of office machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Despite expected growth in the volume of billing, computing, and duplicating work, the occupation will expand slowly as computerized recordkeeping and processing systems spread. In addition, ad vances in data transmission devices will enable large employers to cen tralize recordkeeping, and to reduce the requirements for opera tors in branch offices. office workers in the same firms. (See the statement on Clerical Oc cupations for further information on working conditions and for sources of additional information.) Earnings and Working Conditions Nature of the Work A 1974 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of earnings for several office machine operator oc cupations in urban areas showed that the lowest salaries were paid in the South and the highest in the North and West. For some occupations averages are given separately for different skill groups. Operators in Class A were very experienced and per formed comparatively difficult work. Those in Classes B and C had some or no experience, worked on more routine assignments, and used simpler equipment. The average weekly salaries reported in this sur vey are shown in the accompanying tabulation: A verage weekly salaries, 1974 Billing machine operators........... Bookkeeping machine operators: Class A.................................. Class B.................................. Tabulating machine operators: Class A .................................. Class B.................................. Class C .................................. $ 133.00 139.50 115.00 190.00 158.00 130.00 Billing and bookkeeping machine operators earned slightly less than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Because some types of office machines are very noisy, operators may work in special areas apart from other company offices. In other respects, their working condi tions are similar to those of other POSTAL CLERKS (D.O.T. 231.688, 232.138 and .368) Most people are familiar with the post office window clerk who sits behind the counter selling stamps or accepting parcel post. However, the majority of postal clerks are dis tribution clerks who sort incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms. Only in a small post office does a clerk do both kinds of work. When mail arrives at the post of fice, machines, operated by dis tribution clerks and mail handlers, separate it into groups of letters, parcel post, and magazines and newspapers. Clerks feed letters into stamp-canceling machines and can cel the rest by hand. The mail is then taken to other sections of the post office to be sorted by destina tion. Clerks first separate the mail into primary destination categories: mail for the local area, for each nearby State, for groups of distant States, and for some of the largest cities. This primary distribution is followed by one or more secondary distributions. For example, local mail is combined with mail coming in from other cities, and sorted ac cording to street and number. In post offices with electronic mail sorting machines, clerks read ZIP codes and simply push a key cor responding to the letter’s destina tion; the letter drops into the proper slot. The clerks at post office windows provide a variety of services in addi tion to selling stamps and money or ders. They weigh packages to deter mine postage and check to see if their condition is satisfactory for mailing. Clerks also register and in sure mail and answer questions about postage rates, mailing restric tions, and other postal matters. Oc casionally they may help a customer file a claim for a damaged package. In large post offices, a window clerk may provide only one or two of these services and may be called a registry, stamp, or money order clerk. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks must be at least 18 and pass a four-part written ex amination. The first part tests cleri cal accuracy by asking the appli cant to compare pairs of addresses and indicate which are identical. The second part tests ability to memorize mail distribution systems. The third measures reading ability, including vocabulary, and the fourth tests ability to do simple arithmetic. They must also pass a physical examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants who are to work with an electronic sorting machine must pass a special ex amination which includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants should apply at the post office where they wish to work because each post office keeps a separate list of those who have passed the examination. Appli cants’ names are listed in order of their scores. Five extra points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 extra points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. Disabled veterans who have a com pensable, service-connected disa bility of 10 percent or more are placed at the top of the list. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing of ficer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list for future ap pointments. New clerks are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruction. A good memory, good coordina tion, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Dis tribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting mail ing deadlines. Window clerks must be tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. Postal clerks are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are hired to help handle the large amounts of mail during the Christ mas season. Part-time flexible em ployees do not have a regular work schedule, but replace absent wor kers or help with extra work loads as the need arises. Part-time regular workers have a set work schedule— for example, 4 hours a day. Most clerks begin as part-time flexible employees and become full time workers as vacancies occur. As their seniority increases, they may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window ser vice technician. A relatively small number of clerks become super visors. Employment Outlook Most postal clerks sort incoming and outgoing mail. Employment of postal clerks— who numbered 268,000 in 1974—is expected to change very little, through the mid-1980’s. Although the amount of mail may increase along with population and business growth, modernization of post of fices and installation of new equip ment will increase the amount of mail each clerk can handle. Most job openings will result from the need to replace clerks who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Most clerks are at the grade 5 level; in mid-1974 those working a part-time flexible schedule began at $4.77 and could reach $6.06 an hour after 8 years. By comparison, nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, averaged $4.22 an hour. Clerks working full time earned $9,588 a year and could advance to $12,173 after 8 years. All clerks who work night shifts receive 10 percent additional pay. Besides good pay, full-time postal employees have more job security than workers in most other indus tries. Working conditions of clerks differ according to the specific work assignments and the amount and kind of laborsaving machinery in the post office. In small post of fices, clerks may carry heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another, and sort the mail by hand. In large post offices, chutes and conveyors move the mail and much of the sorting is done by machine. In either case, clerks are on their feet most of the time, reaching for sacks of mail and plac ing packages and bundles into sacks while walking around the work room. Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail unless they enjoy trying to im prove their speed and accuracy. They also may have to work at night, because most large post of fices process mail around the clock. A window clerk, on the other hand, has a greater variety of du ties, has frequent contact with the public, generally has a less strenu ous job, and never has to work a night shift. (For information on fringe benefits, see statement on Postal Service Occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State em ployment service offices can supply details about entrance examina tions and employment opportuni ties for postal clerks. RECEPTIONISTS (D.O.T. 235.862, 237.368) Nature of the Work Clerk unloads mail from truck. tor’s booth; and in large plants, they provide callers with identification cards and arrange escorts to take them to the proper office. Many receptionists keep business records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, receptionists may type, file, or operate a switchboard. Some recep tionists open and sort mail and col lect and distribute messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeeping. Places of Employment Nearly 460,000 persons worked as receptionists in 1974. Ninetyseven percent of them were women. Part-time employment is readily available for receptionists, and about 1 in 3 works part time. Although receptionists work in almost every kind of organization, over half work for doctors, lawyers, or other professional people. Large numbers also work in insurance companies, banks, factories, and firms providing business and per sonal services. All organizations want to make a good first impression on the public. This is an important part of the job of the receptionist, who generally is the first person a caller sees. Receptionists greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the offi Training, Other Qualifications, cial who can help them. Recep and Advancement tionists in hospitals, after obtaining personal histories, direct patients to A high school diploma generally the proper waiting rooms; in beauty is required for work as a recep shops, they arrange appointments tionist. Courses in English, spelling, and show customers to the opera typing, elementary bookkeeping, and business practices are helpful to the beginner. Liking people and wanting to help them are assets to the recep tionist. A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, and an even disposi tion also are important. Because receptionists do not work under close supervision, common sense and a thorough understanding of how the business is organized help them handle various situations that arise. Promotion opportunities for receptionists are limited, especially in small offices. In large work places, however, a receptionist who has clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary or administrative assistant. Many com panies have their own training pro grams so that the skills needed for advancement can be learned on the job. College or business school training also can be helpful in ad vancing to better paying office jobs. to-person nature, it is unlikely to be affected by office automation. Job opportunities should con tinue to be excellent for students, persons with family responsibilities, and others who do not wish to work full time. Earnings and Working Conditions Full-time switchboard/reception ists working in urban areas averaged $113 a week in 1974. This was slightly under the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Re ceptionists working in the western United States had average weekly earnings of $ 118. Those in southern cities averaged $105 a week. In the Federal Government, beginning in formation receptionists earned $ 115 a week in late 1974. Receptionists usually work in areas that are comfortably furnished. Although most have regular hours, receptionists in Employment Outlook hospitals and beauty shops may work evenings and weekends. (See Employment of receptionists is the statement on Clerical Occupa expected to grow faster than the tions for sources of additional infor average for all occupations during the next 10 years. Thousands of mation.) openings will result each year as businesses expand and as recep tionists who die, retire, or transfer SECRETARIES AND to other jobs are replaced. The STENOGRAPHERS number of replacements will be (D.O.T. 201.268 and .368; quite large because the occupation 202.388, and 209.138) is large and turnover is high. Within the fast-growing clerical Nature of the Work field, receptionist employment is expected to grow very rapidly. Only The efficiency of any organiza a few other clerical jobs are pro tion depends upon secretaries and jected to grow faster through 1985. stenographers who are at the center This is largely because so many of communications within their receptionists work for firms provid firm. They transmit information ing business, personal, and profes among their employer’s staff and to sional services—a sector of the persons in many other organiza economy which is expected to show tions. very strong growth in the future. In Secretaries (D.O.T. 201.368) re addition, more and more firms lieve their employers of routine du recognize the importance of the ties so that they can work on more receptionist in promoting good important matters. Although most public relations. Also, because the secretaries type, take shorthand, receptionist’s work is of a person- and deal with callers, the time spent on these duties varies in different types of organizations. In offices where dictation and typing are handled in word processing centers, administrative secretaries handle all other secretarial duties. (For more infor mation on these centers, see the statement on Typists elsewhere in the Handbook.) They often work in clusters of three or four so that they can readily help each other. Because they are released from dic tation and typing, they can serve several members of the professional staff. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering telephones to more responsible jobs such as answering letters, doing statistical research, and writing re ports. Some secretaries are trained in specific skills needed in certain types of work. Medical secretaries prepare case histories and medical reports; legal secretaries do legal research and help prepare briefs; and technical secretaries assist en gineers or scientists in drafting re ports and research proposals. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary (D.O.T. 201.268), who arranges social functions, an swers personal correspondence, and keeps the employer informed about all social activities. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.388) take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter. They may either take shorthand or use a stenotype machine which prints symbols as certain keys are pressed. including most beginners, take routine dicta tion and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take difficult dictation and do more responsible clerical work. They may sit in on staff meetings and give a summary report or a word for word record of the proceedings. They also super vise other stenographers, typists, and clerical workers. Technical stenographers must know the terms used in a particular profession. They include medical, legal, and engineering or scientific stenog raphers. Some experienced stenog raphers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenographers serving traveling business people and others. Shorthand reporters are special ized stenographers who record all statements made in a proceeding. Nearly half of all shorthand report ers work as court reporters at tached to courts of law at different levels of government. They take down all statements made at legal proceedings and present their record as the official transcript. Many other shorthand reporters work as free-lance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for attorneys, meetings and conven tions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the Congress of the United States, in State legislatures, and in both State and Federal agencies. Most shorthand reporters take their notes on a stenotype machine and transcribe them on a typewriter. Sometimes the reporter dictates notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Because the reporter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally important. General stenographers, nearly all of them women—worked in jobs requiring secretarial or stenographic skills in 1974; most were secretaries. Despite impres sive employment gains in non-traditional occupations, more women work as secretaries than in any other job. Only about 100,000 per sons worked as stenographers in 1974. Opportunities for part-time work are increasing in these and other clerical occupations. In 1974, ap proximately 1 of every 5 secretaries and 1 in 6 stenographers worked part time. Secretaries and stenographers are employed throughout the economy. About two-thirds of them, however, work in banks, in surance companies, real estate firms, government agencies, and other establishments providing services to the public. Most specialized stenographers and sec retaries-work for doctors, lawyers, and other professional people. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, graduation from high school is required for a job as a secretary or stenographer. Many employers prefer applicants having additional secretarial training at a college or private business school. Courses vary from a few months’ in struction in basic shorthand and typing to longer programs teaching specialized skills such as shorthand reporting or legal or medical secretarial work. Shorthand report ers generally must complete a 2year course in a shorthand report ing school. An increasing number of private firms and government agencies have their own training facilities where employees can upgrade their skills and broaden their knowledge of the organization. Also, many State and local governments sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled Places of Employment workers for entry jobs as secretaries. About 3.3 million persons— Many courts of law require their court reporter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). Others hire reporters with the understand ing that they will be certified within 1 year. The National Shorthand Re porters Association gives tests for speed and accuracy to certify re porters. Although there are many dif ferent shorthand methods, em ployers usually have no preferences. The most important factor in hiring and promotion is speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Service—and for employment in many private firms—stenographers must be able to take dictation at 110 words per minute and type 40 to 50 words per minute. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dictation per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Govern ment generally must take 175 words a minute. Secretaries and stenographers should have good hearing; a knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, and vocabulary is essen tial. The ability to concentrate amid distractions is vital for shorthand reporters. Employers look for per sons who are poised and alert, and who have pleasant personalities. Discretion, judgment, and initiative are important for the more respon sible secretarial positions. Many stenographers who im prove their skills advance to secretarial jobs; others, who acquire the necessary speed through additional training, can become shorthand reporters. Secretaries can increase their skills and broaden their knowledge of their company’s operations by tak ing courses offered by the company or by local colleges and universities. As secretaries gain knowledge and experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified Professional Secretary (C.P.S.) by passing a se ries of exams given by the National Secretaries Association. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employers as dictation machines has severely reduced the need for office stenog raphers, and fewer jobs will be available than in the past. Prospects for skilled shorthand reporters, in contrast to the overall outlook for stenographers, appear to be very good as State and Federal court systems expand to handle the rising Employment Outlook number of criminal court cases and Employment of secretaries is ex civil lawsuits. Opportunities will be pected to increase faster than the best for those who have earned cer average for all occupations through tification by the National Short the mid-1980’s as the continued ex hand Reporters Association. pansion of business and govern ment creates a growing volume of Earnings and Working paper work. Several hundred Conditions thousand jobs will become available According to a recent survey, each year due to growth and the need to replace those who die, general stenographers working in retire, or stop working for other urban areas averaged $586 a month in 1974; experienced workers who reasons. Demand for secretaries will rise were highly skilled averaged $663. mainly as those organizations which Shorthand reporters generally earn require large secretarial staffs ex higher salaries than other steno pand their operations. New or ex graphic workers. The National panded government agencies, par Shorthand Reporters Association ticularly at the State and local level; estimates that well-trained begin insurance companies offering new ners receive from $800 to $1,000 a forms of protection; and banks month, depending on speed and re providing financial counseling for gional location. an increasingly affluent population According to the same survey, all underscore the need for well- secretaries to supervisors in small trained and versatile secretaries. offices earned monthly salaries of Although many new types of auto $638. Secretaries to officers in matic office equipment have been small companies had average introduced in recent years, no ad monthly salaries of $690; those verse impact on employment of working for middle management in secretaries is expected. However, large companies averaged $735. job seekers who are familiar with a Secretaries having greater responsi wide range of office machines and bilities, such as executive secreta procedures should have better ries to corporate officers, earned prospects than less experienced average monthly salaries of $804. workers. Beginning clerk-stenographers in Persons with secretarial skills the Federal Government earned should find extensive opportunities from $499 to $708 a month in late for^emporary or part-time work as 1974 depending on education, employers increasingly turn to training and experience. Earnings these workers during peak business of beginning shorthand reporters periods. This type of arrangement ranged from $789 to $1,070 a should be especially attractive to month depending on speed, educa students and persons with family tion, and experience. Starting sala responsibilities. ries for secretaries in the Federal Employment of stenographers is Government ranged from $708 to expected to continue the decline of $876 a month, while the average for recent years. The increased use of all secretaries was $840 a month. In the mark of achievement in the secretarial field. Many executive secretaries are promoted into management positions where they can use their vast experience and knowledge of their employer’s operations. 1974, earnings of stenographers were slightly less and those of secretaries somewhat more than average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Working conditions for secreta ries and stenographers generally are similar to those of other office workers in the same organization. Shorthand reporters, however, often sit for long periods of time while recording an event. (See the statement on Clerical Occupations for more information on earnings and working conditions.) Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in secretarial work, write: National Secretaries Association (International), 2440 Pershing Road, Suite G 10, Kansas City, Missouri 64108. Additional information on careers in secretarial work and a directory of business schools is available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW„ Washington, D .C .20036. For information about shorthand reporting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 25 West Main St., Madison, Wis. 53703. SHIPPING AND RECEIVING CLERKS (D.O.T. 209.688, 219.388, 222.138 through .687, 223.387, 239.588, 910.368 and 920.887) Nature of the Work Shipping and receiving clerks keep track of goods transferred between firms and their customers and suppliers. In small companies, one clerk may keep records of all shipments sent out and received; in larger companies, many clerks take care of this recordkeeping. Shipping clerks are responsible for all shipments leaving a business place. Before goods are sent to a customer, these clerks check to be sure the order has been filled cor rectly. They obtain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping containers. Clerks also put addresses and other identifying information on packages, look up and compute either freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They may also be respon sible for preparing invoices and furnishing information about ship ments to other parts of the com pany, such as the accounting de partment. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it to the shipping dock and direct its loading on trucks according to its destination. Shipping and receiving clerks work ing in small firms may combine the various duties of stock clerks in their jobs. (For more information about the additional duties of shipping clerks in small firms, see the statement on Stock Clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer’s orders have been correctly filled, by veri fying incoming shipments against the original order and the accom panying bill of lading or invoice. They record the receipt and condi tion of incoming shipments. Clerks also make adjustments with ship pers for lost and damaged merchan dise. Routing or moving shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom, and providing information that is needed to compute inventories also may be part of their job. Places of Employment About 465,000 persons—onequarter of them women—worked as shipping and receiving clerks in 1974. More than half worked in workers in shipping or receiving rooms. Work as a shipping or receiving clerk offers a good opportunity for ambitious young people to learn about their company’s products and business practices. Some clerks may be promoted to head shipping or receiving clerk or warehouse manager. Others may enter related fields such as industrial traffic management or purchasing. (Industrial Traffic Managers and Purchasing Agents are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook factories; large numbers also were employed by wholesale houses or retail stores. Although jobs for shipping and receiving clerks are found in all localities, most clerks work in urban areas, where many factories and wholesale houses are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates are preferred for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving depart ments. Business arithmetic, typing, and other high school business sub jects are helpful. The ability to write legibly is important. Dependa bility and an interest in learning about the firm’s products and busi ness activities also are qualities which employers seek. In addition, shipping and receiving clerks should be able to work under close supervision at repetitive tasks. New employees usually are trained on the job by an ex perienced worker. As part of their training they often file, check ad dresses, attach labels, and check items included in shipments. As clerks gain experience, they may be assigned tasks requiring a good deal of independent judgment, such as handling problems of damaged merchandise, or supervising other Employment of shipping and receiving clerks is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s as business expands and there are more goods to be dis tributed. Several thousand jobs will become available each year as em ployment grows and as workers retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. Although substantial growth is expected in the volume of goods to be moved, employment of shipping and receiving clerks will increase rather slowly because of changes in technology which enable fewer clerks to handle more goods. Grow ing numbers of firms are using com puters to keep track of shipping and receiving records, and moving belts to handle shipments once lifted by hand. Earnings and Working Conditions Shipping and receiving clerks in urban areas averaged $169 a week, according to a 1974 survey. This is about as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Salaries varied substan tially, however, by type of em ployer. Shipping and receiving clerks employed by manufacturing firms averaged $ 166, those working numerical records to help make decisions. Statistical clerks prepare and insure the accuracy of these records. Jobs in this field can be grouped into four categories: recording, compiling and coding, computing and tabulating, and scheduling. Recording. This work involves collecting and verifying the accura cy of information. Shipping checkers in manufacturing companies and wholesale and retail businesses (D.O.T. 222.687) insure that merchandise is ready for shipment, is properly labeled, and contains the desired number of items. Car checkers for railroads (D.O.T. 209.588) record shipments as they arrive at or leave a freight terminal. They check railroad car numbers and contents to verify specifications on the invoice. Counters (D.O.T. 223.588) , who may have a title specifying their work or the items which they count, record the number of materials received, transferred, or produced, and work in several industries. For example, lumber talliers or lumber checkers work in saw mills; pit recorders col lect production data in the steel in dustry. Compiling and coding. In or Sources of Additional ganizations of all types, information Information must be properly filed, verified, or Information about the work and analyzed by data processing equip earnings of shipping and receiving ment. Posting clerks (D.O.T. clerks in wholesale establishments 219.588) do this work by making entries in registers and journals. is available from: They receive and sort records of National Association of Wholesaler Distribu tors, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. shipments, production, and finan cial transactions to provide com 20006. pany officials with current informa tion on business activities. Recordkeepers (D.O.T. 206.588), also known as classification clerks, STATISTICAL CLERKS record data systematically for easy (D.O.T. 205.368, 206.588, location. Coding clerks (D.O.T. 209.588, 219.388, .488, .588, 219.388) code information for 222.687, 223.588, 913.368, and transfer to computer cards. Person 953.168) nel clerks (D.O.T. 205.368) gather and file information on the em Nature of the Work ployees of a business; their work Administrators and managers in may include some typing and all types of organizations depend on preparation of reports. for wholesale houses earned $175, and those employed by public utili ties averaged $ 198. Most shipping and receiving clerks receive time-and-a-half for work over 40 hours. Night work and overtime, including work on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, may be necessary when shipments have been unduly delayed or when materials are needed immediately on production lines. Although shipping and receiving clerks do much of their work in warehouses or in shipping and receiving rooms, they may do some of it on outside loading platforms. Workplaces often are large, unpartitioned areas which may be drafty, cold, and lit tered with packing materials. Most clerks must stand for long periods while they check merchan dise. Locating numbers and descriptions on cartons often requires a great deal of bending, stooping, and stretching. Also, under the pressure of getting ship ments moved on time, clerks some times may help load or unload materials in the warehouse. (See the statement on Clerical Occupa tions for additional information on fringe benefits.) Computing and tabulating. Or ganizations frequently use numeri cal records for reports and research. Statistical clerks gather information from records to present in a chart or table for analysis. Ac tuary clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) assist actuaries in insurance companies to determine the risk involved in providing insurance coverage. They also prepare charts and tables for studies on general insurance prac tices. Policy checkers (D.O.T. 219.488) verify insurance company records. Statistical assistants (D.O.T. 219.388), also known as tabulating clerks, calculate and compute numerical data for government and business research projects. Demurrage clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), employed by railroads, compute charges for the use of rail road tracks and calculate the weight of shipments or distance railroad cars have traveled. Scheduling. Many business activi ties involve the movement of peo ple and things, and statistical clerks do much of the required schedul ing. For example, assignment clerks (D.O.T. 913.368) work for bus companies and assign drivers to meet riders’ transportation needs. Drivers are selected on the basis of experience, length of service, and nature of the assignment. Crew schedulers (D.O.T. 219.388) do similar work for airlines; they assign pilots to scheduled flights and log the mileage each pilot has flown. Gas dispatchers (D.O.T. 953.168) determine the proper pressure in a natural gasline to meet customers’ requirements after considering in formation such as the weather, time of day, and other factors that affect the use of gas. Places of Employment Over 325,000 persons worked as statistical clerks in 1974. More than two-thirds were women, but some jobs were held predominantly by men. For example, shipping checkers, who may lift and move records in an orderly manner. In preparing data for computers, cod ing clerks must be careful to avoid errors. Most employers follow a promotion-from-within policy that allows experienced workers to qualify for more responsible jobs as they become available. Qualified statisti cal clerks may perform more dif ficult assignments or advance to su pervisory positions. Many compil ing and coding jobs and computing and tabulating jobs can lead the ex ceptional employee with special ized training to a career in com puter programming and related work. Employment Outlook Employment of statistical clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for other occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job opportunities arising from this growth, many additional openings will occur as clerks die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. This occupation includes a wide heavy items, and assignment clerks, numbers and the ability to do who normally are experienced bus- detailed work. Clerks should be range of jobs. Some statistical tactful and even tempered. Courses clerks perform routine duties and drivers, usually are men. Although statistical clerks are in business arithmetic, bookkeep there may be fewer such jobs in the employed in nearly every industry, ing, and typing are good prepara future as computers increasingly are used to collect and process in over half worked in finance, in tion for this work. In many companies, general formation. Other jobs will not be surance, and real estate companies; manufacturing firms; and Federal, clerks who have become familiar eliminated by the computer State, and local government. with their employers’ record because they require personal con Because businesses of almost systems and office procedures are tact or involve preparing data for every size require numerical promoted to statistical clerk posi computer use. The demand for records, statistical clerks work tions. On-the-job training that these workers should outpace the throughout the United States. Jobs equips the employee to specialize in growth of the occupation as a are concentrated, however, in numerical work may include the whole. Among the factors that will con heavily populated cities that are use of calculators, tabulating centers of industry and government machines, and typewriters. tribute to the demand for statistical Statistical clerks who observe clerks is the expected increase in activities. and record data must be familiar business and government projects with the items or information which requiring the collection and Training, Other Qualifications, they observe. For example, lumber processing of large amounts of nu and Advancement checkers must know the various merical data. In addition, adminis Most employers prefer statistical types and qualities of wood trators increasingly will rely on nu clerks who are high school gradu products. Statistical clerks in com merical records to analyze and con ates. They also seek applicants who piling and coding jobs must locate trol all aspects of their organiza have an aptitude for working with and assemble information from tion’s work. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited information indicates that beginning statistical clerks earn about as much as workers in other entry level clerical jobs such as of fice clerks or file clerks; salaries for these workers ranged between $90 and $100 a week in 1974. The en trance salary for beginning statisti cal assistants employed by the Federal Government was $130 a week in late 1974. Experienced workers doing statistically related clerical work, including the operation of tabulat ing machines or calculators, earned between $120 and $150 a week in 1974. Top level clerks and super visors earned $175 a week and more. Earnings usually are highest in the manufacturing, transporta tion, and utilities industries; and lower in retail trade; finance, in surance and real estate; and service industries. Nearly every employer of statisti cal clerks offers some form of ing orders for quality and quantity health plan, life insurance and sometimes make minor repairs coverage, and retirement benefits. or adjustments. They also report Most statistical clerks work in damaged or spoiled goods and clean, well-lighted and well-venti process papers necessary for ob taining replacements or credit. lated offices. Materials are stored in bins, on the floor, or on shelves according to the plan of the stockroom. Stock clerks organize and mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inventories can be located quickly STOCK CLERKS and easily. They keep records of (D.O.T. 223.138, .368, .387, .388, items entering or leaving the .588, .687; 910.388; 969.387) stockroom. Sometimes they label, pack, crate, or address goods for Nature of the Work delivery. Most employers recognize the Stock clerks working in small importance of keeping well- firms may combine the varied du balanced inventories to prevent ties of shipping and receiving sales losses or slowdowns in clerks. (For more information production. about the additional duties of stock Stock clerks (D.O.T. 223.387) clerks in small firms, see the state help protect against such losses by ment on Shipping and Receiving controlling the flow of goods Clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) received, stored, and issued. They In large firms with specialized jobs, usually receive and unpack incom inventory clerks (D.O.T. 223.388) ing merchandise or material. They take periodic counts of items on may check the items against outgo hand and make reports showing stock balances. Procurement clerks (D.O.T. 223.368) work in factories and prepare orders for the purchase of new equipment. The duties of stock clerks also depend on the items they handle. For example, stock clerks who work with foods and drugs must maintain proper temperature and humidity conditions; those who handle large construction items must do much walking and climbing to note the condition and quantity of that stock. Places of Employment Nearly 490,000 persons—onefourth of them women—worked as stock clerks in 1974. About twothirds of the total worked in facto ries, wholesale firms, and retail stores. Many others were employed by airlines, government agencies, hospitals, and other organizations that keep large quantities of goods on hand. Although jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, most work in urban areas where factories, warehouses, and stores are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no specific educational requirements for stock clerks, employers prefer high school graduates. Many look for reading and writing skills, a basic knowledge of mathematics, and typing and filing abilities. Good health, especially good eyesight, is important. Generally, those who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs must be bonded. Stock clerks usually receive onthe-job training. New workers begin with simple tasks such as counting and marking stock. Basic responsi bilities of the job usually are learned within several weeks. As they progress, stock clerks learn to keep records of incoming and out going materials, take inventories, and order supplies. This is a job where many young people start their careers. In a small firm, the stock clerk may advance to a sales position or become an assistant buyer or purchasing agent. In large firms, stock clerks can ad vance to more responsible stock handling jobs such as invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. A few may be promoted to the stockroom supervisor’s job, but additional education often is required. Employment Outlook Employment of stock clerks is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Many thousands of job openings will occur each year as employment grows and as workers die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Growth in employment of stock clerks probably will be slower than in the past as computers are used increasingly for inventory control. Because entrance into this occupa tion is relatively easy and many young people seek this work as a first job, some competition for openings is likely. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced stock clerks earned average weekly salaries of $166 in 1974, according to the limited data available. This was slightly above the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, beginning stock clerks without ex perience were paid $ 115 a week in late 1974; those with general work experience received $130 a week. Experienced stock clerks in the Federal Government averaged about $ 180 a week in 1974. Stock clerks generally receive time-and-a-half for work over 40 hours. Overtime may be required when large shipments are delivered and when inventory is taken. Although stock clerks usually work in relatively clean, heated, and well-lighted areas, some stockrooms may be damp and drafty. Clerks handling refrigerated goods may spend some time in cold storage rooms. Stock clerks are on their feet much of the working day, often on a concrete floor. The job also involves considerable bending, lifting, and climbing. (See the state ment on Clerical Occupations for additional information on working conditions and fringe benefits.) Sources of Additional Information Information about the work and earnings of stock clerks in wholesale establishments is availa ble from: National Association of Wholesaler Distribu tors, 1725 K St. N W., Washington, D.C. 20006. TYPISTS (D.O.T. 203.138 through .588; 208.588; and 209.382 through .588) Nature of the Work A rapid flow of written communi cation is essential to the modern of fice. The typist helps to maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies of handwritten, printed, and recorded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, copy directly from handwritten drafts, and address envelopes. Often, they do other office tasks, including an swering telephones, filing, and operating office machines such as copiers and calculators. More experienced typists do work that requires a high degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts which are difficult to read or which contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, com bine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Clerk typists (D.O.T. 209.388) combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Varitypists (D.O.T. 203.582) produce master copies, such as stencils, on machines similar to typewriters. Transcribing machine operators (D.O.T. 208.588) type letters and reports as they listen to dictation recorded on magnetic tape. Other typists who have special duties in clude policy writers (D.O.T. 203.588) in insurance companies, waybill clerks (D.O.T. 209.588) in railroad offices, and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 203.588) who work in banks. In some offices, many typists are grouped in a specialized word processing center that handles all the transcription and typing for chance to learn or upgrade skills so that they can advance to more responsible positions within the or ganization. Many States and locali ties sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled work ers for entry jobs as typists. Many employers require appli cants for typing jobs to take a test that shows their speed and accura cy. For most jobs, 40 to 50 words per minute is required. All typists who transcribe recorded dictation need sharp hearing and must be especially good in spelling. Success ful typists are neat, accurate, and are able to concentrate amid dis tractions. As beginners increase their skills, they often advance to higher level typing jobs. Some typists are promoted to supervisor jobs in word processing centers. Others, who master additional skills, can move into secretarial jobs. Typists operating high-speed equipment Employment Outlook several departments. These work ers, usually called correspondence secretaries, operate various kinds of high-speed typewriters equipped with a programmed memory which enables them to produce final copy with a minimum of retyping. Places of Employment About 1 million persons worked as typists in 1974. Ninety-seven percent of them were women. Despite recent gains in other fields, employment of women remains highly concentrated in clerical oc cupations, and typist is one of the largest of these. In addition to the 1 million typists, many other workers—including secretaries, newspaper reporters, writers, and editors—use typing skills in the per formance of their jobs. Part-time employment is readily available for workers with clerical skills, and nearly 1 typist out of 4 works part time. Typists are employed throughout the entire economy. Over half of them work in factories, banks, in surance companies, real estate firms, and government agencies. The largest single concentration of typists is found in Federal, State, and local government agencies where the volume of paperwork to be processed is extremely high. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Typists generally need high school diplomas. Good spelling, punctuation, and grammar are es sential. Ability to operate office equipment, such as copying and adding machines, and also a knowledge of office procedures, are assets. An increasing number of compa nies and government organizations have their own typist training pro grams. These give employees a The number of typists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s as business expansion in creases the volume of paperwork. Many thousands of job openings will occur each year due to growth of the occupation and the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the labor force. Continued growth of the econo my, particularly those industries that generate vast quantities of writ ten records and correspondence, will assure very good prospects for typists in the years ahead. Demand should be particularly strong for highly skilled workers and those who can handle other office jobs as well as typing. Many employers will prefer typists who are familiar with new kinds of word processing equipment. Because an increasing number of employers are using tem porary and part-time workers dur ing peak business periods, opportu nities should continue to be excel lent for typists who do not wish to work full time. slightly less than the average office employees. Typists, like earnings for nonsupervisory workers in other clerical workers, sit for periods of time and often must con private industry, except farming. tend with high noise levels caused In the Federal Government, the Earnings and Working by office machines located nearby. starting salary for typists without Conditions experience was $ 115 a week in late (See the statement on Clerical Oc According to a recent survey, 1974, compared with $146 a week cupations for more information on working conditions and also for a beginning typists averaged $122 a for those with experience. Working conditions for typists list of places to write for additional week in 1974. Those with ex perience earned $141 a week, usually are similar to those of other information on clerical jobs.) COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Since 1951, when the first com puter was installed for commercial use, computer systems have become an increasingly important part of everyday life. Today these machines bill customers, pay em ployees, record airline and hotel reservations, and monitor factory production processes. Scientific and engineering research relies on computer systems to solve complex equations as well as to collect, store, and sort vast amounts of data. Workers in computer and related occupations design data processing systems, write instructions and translate data into machine-reada ble language, and operate compu ters and peripheral equipment. Most computer careers require some type of specialized training. Although not a universal require ment, a college degree is increas ingly important for systems analysts and programmers—especially for those who work in scientific and technical research operations. Computer operators usually need a high school diploma, but special ized training and experience are more important than formal educa tion. For all computer occupations, employers stress the importance of learning on the job. In addition to technical knowledge and skills, computer personnel must be able to concen trate on their work and should enjoy working with details. Those who operate equipment, keypunchers or console operators, for example, must have manual dexterity and some mechanical ap titude. Programmers and systems analysts must be able to think logi cally and enjoy solving problems. This chapter describes three computer occupations: Computer Operating Personnel, Program mers, and Systems Analysts. COMPUTER OPERATING PERSONNEL (D.O.T. 213.138, .382, .582, .588, and .885, and 223.387) Nature of the Work All data systems require special ized workers to enter data and in structions, operate the computer, and retrieve the results. The data to be processed and the instructions for the computer are called “ input”; the results are called “output.” In many systems, keypunch opera tors (D.O.T. 213.582) prepare input by punching patterns of holes in cards to represent different let ters, numbers, and special charac ters, using a machine similar to a typewriter. In others, data typists (D.O.T. 213.588) use special machines that convert the informa tion they type to holes in cards or magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. They also may type input material directly on-line into a com puter. Some computer systems only use input from magnetic tapes. Card-totape converter operators (D.O.T. 213.382) are needed to transfer data from punched cards or paper tapes to magnetic tapes. These workers wire plugboards-to fconnect circuits according to prepared dia grams, load the machines with cards and tapes, and observe their operation for any malfunctions. Once the input is coded, prepared in a form the computer can read, it is ready to be processed. Console operators (D.O.T. 213.382) examine the pro grammer’s instructions for processing the input, make sure the computer has been loaded with the correct cards or magnetic tapes, and then start the computer. While it is running, they watch the machine, paying special attention to the error lights that could signal a malfunction. If the computer stops or one of the lights goes on, opera tors must locate the problem and remove the faulty input materials. In some systems, machines directly connected to the computer translate output into the form desired by the programmer. In others, highspeed printers or con verters run by auxiliary equipment operators—high-speed printer operators (D.O.T. 213.382) and converter operators (D.O.T. 213.382)—perform this function. Frequently, the cards, magnetic tapes, and computer programs are kept for future use. Tape librarians (D.O.T. 223.387) classify and catalog this material and maintain files of program development records and computer operating in structions. Places of Employment About 500,000 persons worked as console, auxiliary equipment, and keypunch operators in 1974. Women held ifiore than 90 percent of the keypunching jobs and nearly 45 percent of the console and aux iliary equipment jobs. Although workers in these occu pations are employed in almost every industry, most work in government agencies, manufactur ing firms, banks, and insurance companies. Many computer and peripheral equipment operators, however, work for wholesale and retail trade establishments and data processing service organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In firms that have just installed a COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 105 causes of failures. Keypunch and auxiliary equip ment operators should be able to work under close supervision as part of a team. They also must like working with machines and not become easily bored by repetitious tasks. Console operators must be capable of independent judgment, especially when working without supervision on second and third shifts. Although advancement opportu nities for keypunch and auxiliary equipment operators are limited, promotion to a supervisory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often including college study, a few ad vance to jobs as console operators. Console operators also may be promoted to supervisory positions, or to jobs that combine supervision and console operation. Through onthe-job-experience and additional training, some console operators advance to jobs as programmers. Employment Outlook Changes in data processing technology will have differing ef fects on computer operating occu Computer operators who work in scientific research installations may wear special pations. Employment of keypunch clothing to prevent dust and fingerprints from marring sensitive magnetic tapes operators is expected to decline and equipment. through the mid-1980’s because of new computer system, tabulating some college training. The Federal advances in other data entry and bookkeeping machine opera Government requires a high school techniques and equipment. By con tors may be transferred to jobs as diploma, unless applicants have had trast, expanding usage of computer keypunch or auxiliary equipment specialized training or experience. hardware, especially terminals, will operators, or console operators. Many employers test applicants to cause the demand for console and Most often, however, employers determine their aptitude for com auxiliary equipment operators to recruit workers from the outside. puter work, particularly their ability rise very rapidly and employment is Some organizations will train typists to reason logically. Keypunch expected to grow faster than the to operate keypunch machines, but operators and data typists are tested average for all occupations. most seek workers who already for their ability to work quickly and Earnings and Working have this skill. Many high schools, accurately. Conditions public and private vocational Beginners usually are trained on schools, private computer schools, the job. The length of training Average weekly earnings of and business schools and colleges needed varies—auxiliary equip beginning keypunch operators in offer training in computer operat ment operators can learn their jobs private industry ranged from $105 ing occupations. in a few weeks, but console opera to $120 in 1974, according to sur Employers in private industry tors require several months of train veys conducted in urban areas by usually require applicants to have a ing because they must become suf the Bureau of Labor Statistics and high school education, and many ficiently familiar with the computer firms engaged in research on data occupations. Lead prefer console operators to have equipment to be able to trace the processing OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K 106 operators earned from $140 to $ 160 weekly. Average weekly earnings of beginning console operators ranged from $140 to $160. Experienced workers earned from $ 180 to $205, and lead operators earned from $210 to $250 weekly. Salaries of beginning operating personnel in the Federal Govern ment are comparable to those in private industry. Console operators earned slightly more and keypunch operators slightly less than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Because electronic computers must be operated at carefully con trolled temperatures, operators work in air-conditioned rooms. One disadvantage, however, is the high noise level generated by some aux iliary equipment. Some console and auxiliary equipment operators work evening or night shifts because many organizations use their com puter 24 hours a day. Tape librari ans usually work only day shifts. Sources of Additional Information Further information on data processing careers is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. PROGRAMMERS (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work Computers can process masses of information rapidly and accurately, but only if they are given step-bystep instructions to follow. Because the machines cannot think for themselves, computer programmers must write detailed instructions called programs that list in a logical order the steps the machine must follow to solve a problem. When a new problem is to be given to a computer, an ex perienced programmer first care fully examines the problem and determines the steps necessary to reach a solution. Programmers whose work includes a considerable amount of this preliminary analysis are sometimes called program analysts. Once this part of the job is finished, an applications pro grammer writes detailed instruc tions for processing the data, using one of the languages developed especially for computers. Programs vary with the type of problem to be solved because the mathematical calculations involved in payroll accounting procedures, for example, are different from those required to determine the flight path of a space probe. A busi ness applications programmer developing instructions for billing customers would first decide what company records the computer would need and then draw a flow chart or diagram showing the steps the computer must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, cal culate finance charges, and deduct payments before determining a customer’s bill. Using the flow chart, the programmer writes the actual instructions the computer will follow. The programmer then checks the operation of the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. This check is called “debugging.” The programmer tries a sample of the data with the program and reviews the results to see if any er- 107 COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS rors are made. If errors occur, the program must be changed and rechecked until it produces the cor rect results. Finally, an instruction sheet is prepared for the computer operator who will run the program. (The work of computer operators is described in the statement on Com puter Operating Personnel.) Although simple programs can be written in a few days, programs which use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In such cases, several programmers often work together under an ex perienced programmer’s supervi sion. Programmers usually specialize in either business or scientific operations because they require dif ferent types of educational backgrounds. Some programmers who have had training in systems analysis specialize in writing in structions for an entire operating system and are called systems pro grammers. These workers write programs that tell the computer how to schedule the jobs it has been given and when to switch from one to another. They also develop new computer languages. Places of Employment In 1974, about 200,000 per sons—about three-fourths of them men—worked as computer pro grammers. Most were employed by manufacturing firms, banks and financial institutions, data processing service organizations, and government agencies. Programmers usually work in large firms that need and can afford extensive computer systems. Small firms generally require computers only for payroll or billing purposes and frequently pay data processing service organizations to do this work. Systems programmers usually work in research organizations and computer manufacturing firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training requirements for progammers because employers’ needs vary. Some programmers are college graduates; others have taken spe cial courses in computer work to supplement their experience in fields such as accounting or inven tory control. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applica tions prefer college graduates with degrees in the physical sciences, mathematics, engineering, or com puter science. Graduate degrees are required for some jobs. Very few scientific organizations are in terested in applicants with no col lege training. Although many employers who use computers for business applica tions do not require college degrees, they prefer applicants who have had college courses in data processing, accounting, and busi ness administration. Occasionally, workers who are experienced in machine tabulation or payroll ac counting but have no college train ing are promoted to programming jobs; however, they need additional data processing courses to become fully qualified programmers. Computer programming is taught at a growing number of technical schools, colleges, and universities. Instruction ranges from introducto ry home study courses to advanced courses at the graduate level. High schools in many parts of the country also offer courses in com puter programming. In hiring programmers, em ployers look for people who can think logically and are capable of exacting analytical work. The job also calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with ex treme accuracy even under pres sure. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly important when pro grammers must find new ways to solve a problem. Beginning programmers usually spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes. After this initial instruction, they work on simple assignments while complet ing further specialized training pro grams. Programmers generally must spend at least a year working under close supervision before they can handle all aspects of their job. Once skills have been acquired, however, the prospects for further advance ment are good. In large organiza tions, they may be promoted to lead programmers or systems analysts and have supervisory responsibili ties. Employment Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s as computer usage expands, particularly in medical, educational, and data processing services. In addition to job openings resulting from growth of the occu pation, several thousand openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because many pro grammers are relatively young, few openings will result from deaths or retirements. The demand for applications pro grammers will increase as many processes once done by hand are automated, but employment will not grow as rapidly as in the past for several reasons. Improved pro gramming languages that can be used by other than data processing personnel will simplify or eliminate some programming tasks. Also, many programs for business opera tions have been standardized and are sold to computer users by computer manufacturers and “ software” companies that special ize in writing programs. Job oppor tunities will be best for systems pro grammers and applications pro grammers who have had some training in systems analysis. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 108 Earnings and Working Conditions Average weekly earnings of beginning programmers in private industry ranged from $170 to $240 in 1974, according to surveys con ducted in urban areas by the Bu reau of Labor Statistics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupations. Ex perienced workers earned from $260 to $335 weekly, and lead pro grammers earned from $295 to $360. Earnings of applications pro grammers are generally at the lower end of the scale, systems program mers at the higher end. Salaries in the Federal Govern ment are comparable to those in private industry. Programmers working in the North and West earned somewhat more than those working in the South. Those work ing for data processing services and manufacturing firms had higher earnings than programmers em ployed in banks, advertising, or educational institutions. Overall, programmers earned about twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Programmers work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Once or twice a week a programmer may re port early or work late to use the computer when it is available. Oc casionally, they work on weekends or are telephoned to advise com puter operators working a second or third shift. SYSTEMS ANALYSTS (D.O.T. 003.187, 012.168, 020.081 and 020.088) Nature of the Work Many essential business functions and scientific research projects de pend on systems analysts to plan ef ficient methods of processing data and handling the results. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers or specialists in the area concerned. If a new inventory system is desired, for example, analysts must determine what new data need to be collected, the equipment needed for processing, and the procedure to be followed in using the information. Analysts use various techniques, such as cost accounting, sampling, and mathematical model building to analyze the problem and devise a new system. Once a system has < been developed, they prepare charts and diagrams that describe its operation in terms that managers or customers can understand. If the system is accepted, analysts prepare instructions for program mers and test the operation of the system. The problems systems analysts must solve range from monitoring nuclear fission in a powerplant to forecasting sales for an appliance manufacturing firm. Because the work is so varied and complex, most analysts specialize in either business or scientific and engineer ing applications. Some analysts improve systems already in use by developing better procedures or adapting the system to handle additional types of data. Others do research, called ad vanced systems design, to devise new methods of systems analysis. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupation of programmer is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. Systems analyst checks results of a sales forecasting program with data processing manager. 109 COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Places of Employment About 115,000 persons—10 per cent of them women—worked as systems analysts in 1974. Most worked in urban areas for manufac turing firms, wholesale and retail businesses, and data processing ser vice organizations. In addition, large numbers worked for banks, insurance companies, and educa tional institutions. acquiring additional training. Later they are promoted to systems analysts. Systems analysts must be able to think logically and should like working with ideas. Although most systems analysts work independ ently, they sometimes work in teams on large projects. The ability to concentrate and pay close atten tion to details also is important. In large data processing depart ments, persons who begin as junior systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Systems analysts who show leader ship ability also can advance to jobs as managers of systems analysis or data processing departments. nesses, and this, too, will contribute to employment growth. Earnings and Working Conditions Average weekly earnings for beginning systems analysts in private industry ranged from $230 to $250 in 1974, according to sur veys conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and private firms engaged in research on computer occupations. Ex Training, Other Qualifications, perienced workers earned from $300 to $335, and lead systems and Advancement analysts earned from $335 to $360 There is no universally accepta weekly. Earnings in the Federal ble way of preparing for a job as a Government were comparable to systems analyst because employers’ those in private industry. preferences depend on the work Systems analysts working in the being done. Employers usually want North and West earned somewhat analysts with backgrounds in ac more than those in the South and counting, business, or economics generally their earnings were for work in finance, while persons Employment Outlook greater in data processing or manu with backgrounds in the physical facturing firms than in banks or Employment of systems analysts educational institutions. Overall, sciences, mathematics, computer science, or engineering are is expected to grow faster than the systems analysts earn more than preferred for work in scientifically average for all occupations through twice as much as the average for all oriented organizations. Some em the mid-1980’s as computer usage nonsupervisory workers in private ployers prefer applicants who have expands, particularly in medical, industry, except farming. a bachelor’s degree and work ex educational, and data processing Systems analysts usually work perience in one of these fields. services. In addition to opportuni about 40 hours a week—the same Others stress a graduate degree. ties that will result from growth, as other professional and office Applicants also may qualify on the some openings will occur as systems workers. Unlike many computer basis of professional experience as a analysts advance to managerial operators, systems analysts are not programmer or computer operator. positions or enter other occupa assigned to evening or night shifts. Most employers prefer people tions. Because many of these work Occasionally, however, evening or who have had some experience in ers are relatively young, few posi weekend work may be necessary to computer programming. Beginning tions will result from retirement or complete emergency projects. analysts without this experience can death. The demand for systems analysts learn to use electronic data Sources of Additional processing equipment on the job, or is expected to increase as users Information can take special courses offered by become more familiar with com Further information about the their employers, computer manu puter capabilities and expect facturers, or colleges. In the greater efficiency and performance occupation of systems analyst is Federal Government and many in from their data processing systems. available from: dustries, systems analysts begin Advances in hardware and com American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., their careers as programmers and puter programs will result in ex Montvale, N.J. 07645. are promoted to analyst trainees panded computer applications in after gaining some experience and manufacturing and small busi BANKING OCCUPATIONS Modern banks offer a variety of fice machine operators, recep services to meet the needs of their tionists, and other clerical workers customers. They provide checking whose jobs are much the same in and savings accounts, loans, trust banks as in other businesses are fund management, and financial discussed elsewhere in the Hand counseling. book.) Bank work is highly specialized, In a small bank, one clerk may do and most employees gain ex several jobs, such as sorting checks, perience and skill through on-the- totaling debit and credit slips, and job training. Although banks preparing monthly statements for usually seek college graduates for depositors. In a large bank, how officer trainee jobs, opportunities ever, each clerk usually specializes for high school graduates are plenti and frequently has a special job ful in other bank jobs. Opportuni title, as well. ties for advancement are good. Bank clerks known as sorters Bank employees can qualify for (D.O.T. 219.388) separate docu better positions by enrolling in pro ments—checks, deposit slips, and grams offered by the American In other items—into different groups stitute of Banking, or by taking col and tabulate each “batch” so they lege courses in finance and busi may be charged to the proper ac counts. Often the clerks use cancel ness. Bank employees should enjoy ing and adding machines in their working with numbers and be able work. Many banks also employ to perform detailed work. Personal proof machine operators (D.O.T. qualifications such as honesty and 217.388) , who use equipment that the ability to meet and commu sorts items and then both adds and nicate with customers are impor records the amounts of money in volved. tant. Bookkeeping workers are the This section discusses three of largest single group of bank clerks. fice occupations unique to banking: Bookkeeping machine operators Clerks, Tellers, and Officers. (D.O.T. 215.388) may use conven tional bookkeeping machines or electronic posting machines to record financial transactions. In BANK CLERKS banks, these workers are sometimes (D.O.T. 209.388, 210.388, known as account clerks, posting 215.388 217.388, 219.388 and machine operators, or recording .488) clerks. Bookkeepers' (D.O.T. 210.388) job titles sometimes relate to the kinds of records they keep— Nature of the Work for example, Christmas club book All complex organizations need keeper, discount bookkeeper, in clerks to handle their paperwork. terest-accrual bookkeeper, trust Because of the specialized nature of bookkeeper, and commodity loan banking, some of the duties of bank clerk. Thousands of bookkeeping clerks differ from those of clerks in and accounting clerks (D.O.T. other businesses. (Secretaries, of 219.488) also do routine typing, 1 10 calculating, and posting. Included in this group are reconcilement clerks, who process statements from other banks to aid the auditing of accounts, and trust investment clerks, who post the daily invest ment transactions of bank customers. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include country collection clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), who sort thousands of pieces of mail daily and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks for collection. Also employed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388), who sort checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts in volved, and prepare documents to be mailed for collection; exchange clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), who serv ice foreign deposit accounts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), who keep records on in terest-bearing items that are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 209.388), who type legal papers dealing with real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relat ing to taxes and insurance on these properties. Electronic data-processing has created several new clerical occu- pations unique to banking. These include the electronic reader-sorter operator who runs electronic check sorting equipment; the check inscriber or encoder who operates machines that print information on checks and other documents in magnetic ink to prepare them for machine reading; and the control clerk who keeps track of the large volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupations include cardtape converter operator, coding clerk, console operator, data typist, data converting machine operator, data examination clerk, high speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype operator, and verifier operator. Most of the 517,000 clerical em ployees working in banks in 1974 were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is con sidered adequate preparation for most beginning clerical jobs in banks. Courses in bookkeeping, typing, business arithmetic, and of fice machine operation also are desirable. Applicants may be given brief tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to communicate effectively with others. They should be able to work as part of a team and under close supervision. Beginners may be hired as file clerks, keypunch operators, transit clerks, clerk-typists, or for related work. Some are trained by the bank to operate various office machines. A few start as messengers. A clerk in a routine job may be promoted to a clerical supervisory position, to teller or credit analyst, and eventually to senior supervisor. Advancement to a bank officer position is a possibility for outstand ing clerks who have had college training or have taken specialized courses in banking. Additional education—particu larly the courses offered by the American Institute of Banking— may help workers advance. (See statement on the Banking Industry for information on the Institute’s educational program.) Employment Outlook Employment of bank clerks is ex pected to grow faster than the average for other occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to opportunities stemming from employment growth, many jobs will open up from the need to replace the large number of clerks who leave their jobs each year. As a result, banking should continue to be a good source of employment opportunities for clerical workers. Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their ser vices and new banks and branches open. Nearly all banks use elec tronic equipment that lessens de mand for some workers, such as check sorters and bookkeeping machine operators. Moreover, the jobs of keypunch operators and others who prepare data for com puter input are being affected by developments in computer technology and increased use of remote terminals. Most workers affected by a shift in computer technology will be retrained and reassigned, either to new jobs created by the change in equipment and methods, or to du ties related to new banking services. Overall, the volume of work is ex pected to be so great that the number of clerks will continue to grow. Earnings Clerical workers in financial in stitutions, including banks, usually earned between $90 and $170 a week in 1974, according to a Bu reau of Labor Statistics survey. Experienced secretaries and tabulating machine operators received the highest weekly sala ries: $150 and $170. The earnings of beginning file clerks and messen gers were generally the lowest: $90 and $ 100 a week. See the statement on the Banking Industry for additional information. BANK OFFICERS (D.O.T. 186.1 18, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118, 189.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a pres ident who directs operations; one or more vice presidents who act as general managers or who are in charge of bank departments such as trust or credit; and a comptroller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses, is an executive officer generally respon sible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as jun ior officers, to supervise the vari ous sections within different depart ments. Banks employed almost 240,000 officers in 1974; women were about one-fifth of the total. Bank officers make decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. They must have a broad knowledge of business activities to relate to the operations of their department. For example, loan officers evaluate the credit and collateral of individuals and busi nesses applying for a loan. Similarly, trust officers must un derstand each account before they invest funds to support families, send young people to college, or pay retirement pensions. Besides supervising financial services, of ficers advise individuals and busi nesses and participate in communi ty projects. Because banks offer many serv ices, a wide choice of careers is available to workers who specialize. Loan officers may handle install ment, commercial, real estate, or agricultural loans. To evaluate loan applications properly, officers need to be familiar with economics, production, distribution, merchan dising, and commercial law. Also, they need to know business opera tions and should be able to analyze financial statements. Bank officers in the field of trust management require knowledge of financial planning and investment for purposes of investment research and for estate and trust administra tion. Operations officers plan, coor dinate, and control the work flow, update systems, and strive for ad ministrative efficiency. Careers in bank operations include electronic data processing manager and other positions involving internal and customer services. A correspondent bank officer is responsible for relations with other banks; a branch manager, for all functions of a branch office; and an international officer, for advising customers with financial dealings abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign country’s financial system, trade relations, and economic con ditions is beneficial to those in terested in international banking. Other career fields for bank of ficers are auditing, economics, per sonnel administration, public rela tions, and operations research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer positions are filled by management trainees or by promoting outstanding bank clerks or tellers. College graduation usually is required for management trainees. A business administration major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum including accounting, economics, commercial law, politi cal science, and statistics serves as excellent preparation for officer trainee positions. Valuable ex perience may be gained through summer employment programs. Many banks have well-organized officer-training programs usually ranging from 6 months to 1 year. Trainees may start as credit or in vestment analysts or may rotate among bank departments to get the “feel” of banking; bank officials then can determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Persons planning to become bank officers should like to work inde pendently and analyze detailed in formation. They also need tact and good judgment in order to counsel customers. Advancement to officer may come slowly in small banks where the number of positions is limited. In large banks that have special training programs, promotions may come more quickly. For a senior of ficer position, however, an em ployee usually needs many years of experience. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement also may be accelerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are offered by the American In stitute of Banking, a longestablished, industry-sponsored school. (See the statement on the Banking Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for more information on the Institute’s program and other training programs sponsored by universities and local bankers’ as sociations.) Employment Outlook Through the mid-1980’s, employ ment of bank officers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing de pendence on computers and an ex pansion in the services offered by banks will require growing numbers of officers to provide sound management and effective quality control. Opportunities also will arise as experienced officers leave their jobs. College graduates who meet the standards for management trainees should find good opportu nities for entry positions. However, many senior officer positions will be filled by promoting people already experienced in banking. Competi tion for these promotions, particu larly in large banks, is likely to be keen. Earnings Large banks, insurance compa nies, and other financial institutions paid executive trainees who were college graduates starting salaries ranging from about $730 to $930 a month in 1974, according to the limited information available. Salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, earnings are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. See the statement on the Banking Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional information on bank ing occupations. BANK TELLERS (D.O.T. 212.368) Nature of the Work Every bank, no matter how small, has at least one teller who receives and pays out money and records these transactions. In a very small bank, one all-round teller may han dle all transactions; in larger banks different kinds of transactions usually are assigned to different tel lers. For example, a Christmas Club teller accepts and records deposits made to Christmas Club savings ac counts and a note teller handles certain transactions for clients who have made loans. Other tellers who have special job titles include com mercial (or paying and receiving) savings, foreign exchange, payroll, discount, and securities tellers . ment sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one or more clerks. About 270,000 tellers were em ployed in 1974. A large number worked part time; about 9 out of 10 were women. Commercial tellers, the most common, cash customers’ checks and handle deposits and withdrawals from checking and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must verify the identity of the person to whom pay ment is made, and must be certain that the payee’s account has suffi cient funds to cover the payment. When accepting a deposit, the teller Training, Other Qualifications, checks the accuracy of the deposit and Advancement slip and enters the total in a pass In hiring tellers, banks prefer book or on a deposit receipt. Tel lers may use machines for making high school graduates experienced change and for totaling deposits. in clerical work. Maturity, neatness, Those who handle savings accounts tact, and courtesy are important may use a “window” posting because customers deal with tellers machine to print a receipt, record far more frequently than with other the transaction in the customer’s bank employees. Since tellers han passbook, and simultaneously post dle large sums of money and are the transaction to the bank’s ledger. bonded, they must meet the stand After banking hours, tellers ards established by bonding com count cash on hand, list the cur panies. Although tellers work inde rency-received tickets on a settle pendently, their recordkeeping is closely supervised. They work with detail and are confined to a small work area. New tellers usually observe ex perienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. Beginners usually start as commercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “cage,” they may start as savings tellers. After gaining experience, a teller in a large bank may advance to head teller; those who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to officer. (See the statement on the Banking In dustry for information about the educational programs of the Amer ican Institute of Banking.) Employment Outlook The number of bank tellers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s as banks expand their services. An increasing pro portion of tellers, however, will work part-time during the noon hour and evenings to accommodate customers who transact business during these peak periods. Thousands of openings will occur each year as a result of employment growth and the need to replace tell ers who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. The relatively high replacement needs in this oc cupation are expected to be an im portant source of job opportunities. Qualified applicants should find good employment prospects. Although increased use of mechanical and electronic equip ment may eliminate some routine duties and speed other work, total employment is not likely to be ad versely affected. Earnings All nonsupervisory workers in banking, including tellers, averaged $121 a week in 1974, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. The range between the lowest and highest salaries depends on ex perience, the worker’s specific du ties, and location and size of the bank. See the statement on the Banking Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional information on this and other banking occupations. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of in surance, actuaries may work on problems arising in the company’s investment, group underwriting, or pension planning departments. Ac tuaries in executive positions help determine general company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to company executives, government officials, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legisla tion affecting the insurance busi ness, for example, or explain in tended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. Actuaries who work for the Federal Government usually deal with a particular insurance or pen sion program, such as social securi ty or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Ac tuaries in State government posi tions regulate insurance companies, supervise the operations of State retirement or pension systems, and work on problems connected with unemployment insurance or work ers’ compensation. Consulting ac tuaries set up pension and welfare plans and make periodic evalua tions of these plans for private com panies, unions, and government agencies. Insurance protection is an in ACTUARIES tegral part of the American way of (D.O.T. 020.188) life. It frees policyholders and their beneficiaries from worry and finan cial burdens that may result from Nature of the Work death, illness, or other losses Why do young persons pay more beyond their control. Businesses could not operate, nor could most for automobile insurance than older people buy homes or other major persons? How much should an in items, without the assurance of pro surance policy cost? Answers to tection from sudden disaster. In these and similar questions are pro surance workers adapt policies to vided by actuaries who design in meet changing needs, decide which surance and pension plans that can applications can be accepted and be maintained on a sound financial establish premium rates on the poli basis. They assemble and analyze cies, and investigate and settle statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, claims. A college degree is increasingly unemployment, retirement, and important for professional, techni property loss from accident, theft, cal, and managerial jobs in in fire, and other potential hazards. surance, although some positions Actuaries use this information to are open to high school graduates determine the expected insured who have appropriate experience. loss. For example, they may calcu Insurance workers in clerical posi late how many persons who are 21 tions need a high school diploma. years old today can be expected to Regardless of their previous train live to age 65—the probability that ing, insurance workers must con an insured person might die during tinually learn while on the job. this period is a risk to the company. Many professional associations They then calculate a price for as sponsor courses in all phases of in suming this risk that will be profita Places of Employment surance work; employees are en ble to the company yet be competi Approximately 10,700 persons couraged to participate to prepare tive with other insurance compa themselves for more responsible nies. Finally, they must make sure worked as actuaries in 1974. Four that the price charged for the in of every 10 actuaries worked in five jobs. This section describes three in surance will enable the company to major cities—New York, Hartford, surance occupations: Actuaries, pay all claims and expenses as they Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. About two-thirds of all actuaries Claim Representatives, and Un occur. In the same manner, the ac worked for private insurance com tuary calculates premium rates and derwriters. (Statements on the In panies. Almost 90 percent of them policy contract provisions for each surance Industry and Insurance worked for life insurance compa type of insurance offered. Most ac Agents and Brokers are included tuaries specialize in either life and nies; the rest worked for property elsewhere in the Handbook.) health insurance or in property and and liability (casualty) companies. The number of actuaries employed liability (casualty) insurance. To perform their duties effective by an insurance company depends ly, actuaries must keep informed on the volume of its business and about general economic and social the number and types of insurance trends, and legislative, health, and policies it offers. Large companies other developments that may affect may employ over 100 actuaries on their staffs or rely instead on rating bureaus or consulting firms. Consulting firms and rating bu reaus (associations that supply ac tuarial data to member companies) employed about one-fifth of all ac tuaries. Other actuaries work for private organizations administering independent pension and welfare plans or for Federal and State government agencies. A few teach in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for beginning jobs in large life or casualty companies is a bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics or statistics. Some companies will hire applicants with a major in economics or business administra tion who demonstrate a thorough foundation in calculus, probability, and statistics (20-25 hours). Other desirable courses are insurance law, economics, and accounting. Although only 17 colleges and universities offer training specifi cally designed for actuarial careers, several hundred schools offer some of the necessary courses. It usually takes from 5 to 10 years after beginning an actuarial career to complete the entire series of ex aminations required for full profes sional status. These examinations cover general mathematics, special ized actuarial mathematics, and all phases of the insurance business. Those considering an actuarial career should take at least the beginning examination covering general mathematics while still in college. Success in passing the first two examinations helps beginners to evaluate their potential as actu aries. Those who pass these exami nations usually have better oppor tunities for employment and receive a higher starting salary. Advanced examinations, usually taken by those in junior actuarial positions, require extensive home study and experience in insurance work. The Society of Actuaries gives 10 actuarial examinations for the life insurance and pension field; the Casualty Actuarial Society also gives 10 for the property and liabili ty field. Since the first parts of the examination series of either society are the same, students may defer the selection of their insurance spe cialty until they become more familiar with the field. Persons who complete five examinations in the life insurance series or six in the casualty series are awarded “ associate” membership in their respective society. Those who have passed an entire series receive full membership and the title “fellow.” Beginning actuaries often rotate among different jobs to learn vari ous actuarial operations and to become familiar with different phases of insurance work. At first, their work may be rather routine, such as preparing calculations or tabulations for actuarial tables or reports. As they gain experience, they may supervise actuarial clerks, prepare correspondence and re ports, and do research. Advancement to more responsi ble work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Many actuaries, because of their broad knowledge of insurance and related fields, are selected for ad ministrative positions in other com pany activities, particularly in un derwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Many ac tuaries advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook Actuaries discussing a problem. Employment of actuaries is ex pected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from this growth, several hundred actuaries will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Job opportunities will be best for new college graduates who have passed at least one ac tuarial examination while still in school and have a strong mathe matical and statistical background. However, because of the large number of persons expected to receive degrees in mathematics, and the large number of students taking actuarial examinations, com petition for beginning jobs should remain keen. Employment in this occupation is influenced by the volume of in surance sales, which will continue to grow over the next decade. Shifts in the age distribution of the popu lation over the next decade will result in many more people with established careers and family responsibilities. This is the group traditionally responsible for the bulk of private insurance sales. Increased sales, however, are only one determinant of demand. Changes in existing insurance prac tices are creating a need for more actuarial services. For example, passage of a “ no-fault” automobile insurance plan would require com panies writing automobile in surance to reevaluate their pricing structures in light of no-fault requirements. It is uncertain at this time whether Federal no-fault legislation will be enacted; how ever, the growing number of States enacting their own plans indicates continued strong demand for actu aries to make these analyses. The Pension Reform Act of 1974 is like ly to stimulate employment of ac tuaries, particularly in consulting firms. As more States pass competi tive rating laws, companies which previously relied on rating bureaus for actuarial data will expand exist ing actuarial departments or create new ones. Changes in the way medical mal practice insurance is handled also may generate additional demand for actuaries. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial oppor tunities and qualifications, contact: Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, actuaries had average salaries over twice as high as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. New college graduates en tering the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged $9,800 in 1974, ac cording to a survey of U.S. compa nies by the Life Office Management Association (LOMA). Applicants who had successfully completed the first exam received $10,400 and those who had passed two exams averaged $11,100. Salaries for ac tuaries in casualty companies generally are comparable to those offered by life companies. In the Federal Government, new graduates with the bachelor’s degree could start at $8,500 a year in late 1974. Applicants with either 1 year of graduate study or relevant work experience were hired at $10,500, and those with the master’s degree started at $12,800 a year. Actuaries in the Federal Government averaged $22,800 a year in late 1974. Beginning actuaries can look for ward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain professional experience and successfully ad vance in either society’s examina tion program. Insurance companies usually give merit increases averag ing from $400 to $800 to their ac tuaries as they pass each successive examination leading to membership in either society. Associates averaged $16,400 a year in 1974; salaries for actuaries who were awarded full fellowship during that year averaged $22,700. Fellows with additional years of experience earned substantially more, and many top actuarial executives were paid over $35,000. Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, III. 60604. CLAIM REPRESENTATIVES (D.O.T. 168.288, 191.268, 241.168, and 249.268) Nature of the Work Fast and fair settlement of all claims is essential to any insurance company if it is to meet its commit ments to policyholders and also protect its own financial well-being. The people who investigate claims, negotiate settlement with policy holders, and authorize payment are known as claim representatives—a group which includes claim ad justers and claim examiners. When a property-liability (casualty) insurance company receives a claim, the claim adjuster determines the amount of the loss and whether the policy covers it. Adjusters use reports, physical evidence, and testimony of wit nesses in investigating a claim. When their company is liable, they negotiate with the claimant and set tle the case. Adjusters must make sure that settlements are in line with the real extent of the loss. They must pro tect their company from false or in flated claims but, at the same time, settle valid claims fairly and promptly. Some adjusters are al lowed to issue checks on company funds; most, however, submit their findings to claim examiners who review them to insure that proper procedures have been followed and then authorize payment. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize In life insurance companies, the partments and other insurance counterpart of the claim adjuster is companies. In addition to verifying the claim examiner, who in claims and approving payment, ex vestigates the details surrounding aminers also maintain records of questionable claims or those ex settled claims and prepare reports ceeding a specified amount. They to be submitted to their company’s may check claim applications for data processing department. Some completeness and accuracy, inter experienced examiners serve on view medical specialists, consult committees, conduct surveys of policy files to verify information on claim practices within their com a claim, or calculate benefit pay pany, and help devise more effi ments. Generally, examiners are cient ways to process claims. They authorized to investigate and ap sometimes testify in court on con prove payment on all claims up to a tested claims. certain limit; larger claims are referred to a senior examiner. Examiners checking incorrect or questionable claims may cor Places of Employment Adjuster determines extent of auto body respond with investigating compa nies, field managers, agents, or the damage. About 125,000 persons worked family of the insured. Claim ex as claim representatives in 1974. in claims from property damage by The majority of claim adjusters fire, marine loss, automobile aminers occasionally travel to ob tain information by personal inter worked for insurance companies damage, workers’ compensation view, or contact State insurance de that sell property and liability loss, or bodily injury. Several States have “ no-fault” automobile in surance plans that relieve the ad juster from determining responsi bility for a loss. Adjusters in these States still must decide the amount of loss, however. A growing number of casualty companies employ spe cial claims people to settle small claims, usually minor automobile or homeowner damage claims. These claim workers, generally called “ inside adjusters” or “telephone adjusters,” contact claimants by telephone or mail and have the pol icyholder send repair costs, medical bills, and other statements to the company. Many companies central ize this operation in a drive-in claims center where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued on the spot. Adjusters work away from the of fice most of the time. They may be called to the site of an accident or to the location of a fire or burglary. Adjusters make their own schedules of the activities needed to dispose of a claim properly. They also keep written or taped records of informa tion obtained from witnesses and other sources and prepare reports Claim examiner calculates benefit payment. of their findings. coverage. Some were employed by independent adjusting firms that contract their services for a fee. These independents range from na tional companies employing hun dreds of adjusting specialists to small 3- or 4-person operations. A relatively small number of adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance company. These ‘public adjusters4 usually are retained by banks, financial or ganizations, and other business firms to handle fire and other losses to property. They negotiate claims against insurance companies and deal with adjusters for such compa nies. Most claim examiners worked for life insurance companies in large ci ties such as New York, Hartford, Chicago, San Francisco, and Dallas, where most home offices are located. Adjusters may travel to almost any area of the United States, since claims must be settled locally. Oc casionally, the adjuster may travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane or a riot, to work with local personnel. Some cases result in travel outside the United States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a growing number of insurance companies prefer claim representatives to have a college degree, many hire those without college training, particularly if they have specialized experience. For example, persons experienced in automobile repair work may qualify as auto adjusters, and those with clerical work experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is recommended. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a major in almost any college field is adequate preparation. An adjuster who has a business or accounting background might specialize in loss from business interruption or damage to merchandise. Those with college training in engineering will find their education helpful in ad justing industrial claims. Most large insurance companies provide beginning claim adjusters and examiners on-the-job training and home study courses. Claim representatives are encouraged to take courses designed to enhance their professional skills. For exam ple, the Insurance Institute of America offers a 6-semester study program leading to a diploma in in surance loss and claim adjusting upon successful completion of six examinations. Adjusters can prepare for these examinations by independent home study or through company or public classes. A professional Certificate in In surance Adjusting also is available from the College of Insurance in New York City. The Life Office Management As sociation (LOMA) in cooperation with the International Claim As sociation offers a claims education program for life and health ex aminers. The program is part of the LOMA Institute Insurance Educa tion Program leading to the profes sional designation, FLMI (Fellow, Life Management Institute) upon successful completion of eight writ ten examinations. About three-fourths of the States require adjusters to be licensed. Despite wide variation in State licensing requirements, applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a writ ten examination covering the fun damentals of adjusting; furnish character references; be 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; offer proof that they have completed an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, representa tives must be able to adapt to many different persons and situations. They should be able to commu nicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of people from different backgrounds. For ex ample, when adjusters’ evaluations of claims differ from those of the persons who have suffered the loss, they should be able to explain their conclusions tactfully. Examiners need to be familiar with nfedical and legal terms and practices and Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Because they may have to check premium payments, policy values, and other numerical items in processing a claim, ex aminers should be adept at making mathematical calculations. Both adjusters and examiners should have a good memory and enjoy working with details. Beginning adjusters and ex aminers work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned claims that are higher in loss value and more dif ficult. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling assignments and progress in the courses they take. Because of the complexity of insurance regula tions and claims procedures, work ers who lack formal academic training may advance more slowly than those with 2 years or more of college. Employees who show unusual competence in claims work or outstanding administrative skills may be promoted to department su pervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home of fice. Qualified adjusters and ex aminers can transfer to other de partments, such as underwriting or data processing. Employment Outlook Employment of claim representa tives is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s as the number of insurance claims con tinues to increase. In addition to jobs created by growth of the occu surance Association-American Mu tual Insurance Alliance-National Association of Independent In surers survey of property and lia bility companies, claim adjusters averaged about $ 11,900 a year in 1974; inside adjusters earned average salaries of about $8,300. Most public adjusters are paid a percentage of the amount of the settlement—generally 10 percent. Adjusters are furnished a company car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicles for business pur poses. Salaries of claim adjusters are about one and one-half times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming; salaries of in side adjusters are slightly above this average. A survey of life insurance compa nies by the Life Office Management Association revealed that claim ex aminers earned average salaries of $11,200 a year in 1974. According to the survey of property and liabili ty companies, casualty claim ex aminers averaged $13,300. Claim supervisors in casualty companies and life companies averaged between $14,000 and $15,000 and many earned more than $20,000 a year. Claim examiners earn nearly twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It requires that a person be physi cally fit because much of the day may be spent in traveling from one place to another, walking about outdoors, and climbing stairs. Ad justers may have to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claimants when they are available. Since most compa nies provide 24-hour claim service to their policyholders, some ad justers always must be on call. (See the statement on the Insurance In dustry for additional information on working conditions and employee Earnings and Working benefits.) Conditions Claim examiners have desk jobs According to an American In that require no unusual physical ac pation, many others will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Several factors point to a growing volume of insurance and a resulting need for claim adjusters. Shifts in population patterns over the next decade will insure a steadily rising number of workers entering their most productive years. These work ers and their families are likely to seek insurance protection as they purchase homes, automobiles, and other consumer durables. Expand ing business will need protection for new plants and equipment and for insurance covering workers’ com pensation and product liability. As more people live and work in densely populated areas, the in creased risk of automobile acci dent, fire, or theft should result in a greater number of claims. Growth of this occupation may be slower than in recent years as no-fault automobile insurance plans enable adjusters to handle more cases. The growing emphasis on drive-in claim centers and claim handling by telephone also should reduce the demand for automobile adjusters while it stimulates de mand for inside adjusters. Indepen dent adjusters who specialize in au tomobile damage claims should continue to suffer some loss of busi ness. Prospects are expected to be quite good for adjusters who spe cialize in other types of claims or those who can move into other lines of adjusting. Prospects are much less favora ble for claim examiners. Employ ment of examiners in casualty com panies should rise about as fast as for adjusters; however, much slower growth is expected for life insurance examiners as increased use of computers enables them to process more claims, especially routine ones and those that arise under group policies. tivity. Although the average work week for examiners is 35 to 40 hours, they may work longer at times of peak claim loads or when quarterly and annual statements are prepared. They also may need to travel occasionally. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claim examiner or ad juster is available from the home of fices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the depart ment of insurance in each State. Information about career oppor tunities in these occupations also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. For information about public in surance adjusting, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202 . Career information on life in surance claim examining is availa ble from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. UNDERWRITERS (D.O.T. 169.188) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume mil lions of dollars in risks each year, by transferring chance of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. (The term underwriter sometimes is used in referring to insurance agents; see the statement on In surance Agents and Brokers else where in the Handbook for a dis cussion of that occupation.) Underwriters decide whether their companies will accept risks after analyzing information in in surance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical re ports, and actuarial studies (reports that describe the probability of in sured loss). Some routine applica tions that require very little inde pendent judgment are handled by computers. Generally, however, un derwriters use considerable per sonal judgment in making deci sions. Because these decisions are seldom reviewed at a higher level, underwriters have great responsi bility. Their companies may lose business to competitors if they ap praise risks too conservatively or have to pay many future claims if their underwriting actions are too liberal. When deciding that a policy is an acceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premi um. Underwriters frequently cor respond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancel lations or requests for information. In addition, they sometimes accom pany salespeople on appointments with prospective customers. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of in surance: life, property and liability, or health. Life insurance un derwriters may further specialize in one type of life insurance or more, such as group or individual policies. The property and liability un derwriter specializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine, or workers’ compensation. Some underwriters, called commer cial account underwriters, handle business insurance exclusively. They often must evaluate a firm’s entire operation in appraising its in surance application. A standard group insurance pol icy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates; this type of group policy generally provides life or health insurance protection. The home offices in a few large cities, such as Hartford, New York, Chicago, Dallas, and Los Angeles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Underwriter analyzes information pre sented on policy application. group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that total risk is not exces sive. A different type of group pol icy finding increasing acceptance is the policy that provides the mem bers of a group—a labor union, for example—with an individual policy geared to their own circumstances. These policies generally are in the casualty field, covering automo biles, pleasure boats, and homes. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual ap praisals. Some group underwriters attend meetings with union or em ployer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their groups. Places of Employment An estimated 20,000 persons worked as insurance underwriters in 1974. Over three-fourths were property and liability underwriters working in regional or home offices throughout the United States; most life insurance underwriters are in For beginning underwriting jobs, most insurance companies seek col lege graduates who have degrees in liberal arts or business administra tion, but a major in almost any field provides a good general background. Some high school graduates who begin as underwrit ing clerks may be trained as un derwriters after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. College graduates usually start as trainees or junior underwriters. They study claim files to learn the factors associated with certain types of losses, and carry out their work assignments under an ex perienced risk appraiser. Many sup plement on-the-job training with courses and instruction at home of fice schools or local colleges and universities. Many firms pay tuition and the cost of books for those who satisfactorily complete underwrit ing courses. Some companies offer salary increases as an incentive. In dependent study programs are available through the American In stitute of Property and Liability Un derwriters, the American College of Life Underwriters, the Home Office Life Underwriters Association, the Institute of Home Office Un derwriters, and the Life Office Management Association. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with details and enjoy relating and evaluating information. In addition to analyzing problems, underwriters must make prompt decisions and be able to communicate their ideas to others. They must also be imagina tive and aggressive, especially when they have to get additional informa tion from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete study courses may ad vance to chief underwriter or un derwriting manager. Some un derwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs after several years. Employment Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s as insurance sales continue to expand. Each year many jobs will become available as the occupation grows and as those who die, retire, or transfer to other work are replaced. Several factors underlie the ex pected growth in the volume of in surance and the resulting need for underwriters. Over the next decade, a much larger portion of our popu lation will enter their most produc tive years. As this traditional mar ket for life insurance expands, the volume of insurance sales also should rise. This will occur as more individuals purchase life insurance to protect their families’ standard of living, finance their childrens’ edu cation, or provide retirement in come. Property and liability in surance sales also should expand as purchases of automobiles, pleasure boats, and other consumer durables increase. Both spending for new home construction and the Amer ican public’s growing security con sciousness should contribute to de mand for more extensive insurance protection. Expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment and insurance for workers’ compensation and product liability. Heightened com petition among insurance compa nies and changes in regulations af fecting investment profits also are expected to increase the insurance industry’s need for competent un derwriters. Earnings and Working Conditions Underwriters in life insurance averaged $12,500 a year in 1974, according to a Life Office Manage ment Association (LOMA) survey. Senior life underwriters (those with 5 years’ experience) averaged $14,300, while senior group un derwriters earned average salaries of $14,800. Supervisors of un derwriting in life insurance compa nies averaged $15,000 to $20,000. In most cases, underwriters in larger companies earned higher salaries. An American Insurance Association-American Mutual Insurance Alliance-National Association of Independent Insurers survey of companies that sell property and liability insurance showed that ex perienced underwriters averaged $11,300 a year in 1974. Earnings varied substantially by underwriting specialty; senior commercial lines underwriters averaged $13,100, while personal lines underwriters earned average salaries of $10,900. Experienced underwriters earn over 1 1/2 times the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Underwriting supervisors in proper ty and liability companies averaged $15,100 a year in 1974; many earned over $17,500. Most underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac tivity. Although the average week is 37 hours, underwriters sometimes work overtime. Most insurance companies have liberal vacation policies and other employee benefits. (See the statement on the Insurance Industry for additional information on working conditions and employee benefits.) Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportu nities as an underwriter also may be obtained from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N Y. 10017. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, III. 60606. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most administrative workers are professional office employees who run, or help run, business and other organizations. Some are managers, who supervise, plan operations and make company policy. Others pro vide assistance to management, such as personnel workers who recruit and hire staff members and handle employee problems. The success or failure of an organization depends heavily on the way ad ministrative workers do their jobs. Nearly all administrative jobs require a college degree, although employers vary in the specific area of study they prefer. Some seek business administration or liberal arts graduates; others want a background in technical area such as engineering or science. Many administrative workers solve problems and make decisions, using numbers and technical data. In addition, these workers must be tactful and able to get along with others. They must be able to handle the uneven flow of work in offices. This section describes several ad ministrative occupations including City Managers, Accountants, Credit Officials, and Personnel and Labor Relations workers. ports that furnish this kind of infor mation. Three major accounting fields are public, management, and government accounting. Public ac countants have their own busi nesses or work for accounting firms. Management accountants, also called industrial or private ac countants, handle the financial records of the company they work for. Government accountants ex amine the records of government agencies and audit private busi nesses and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regulations. Accountants often concentrate on one particular phase of account ing. For example, many public ac countants specialize in auditing (reviewing a client’s financial records and reports to judge their reliability). Others specialize in tax matters, such as preparing income tax forms and advising their clients of the advantages and disad vantages of certain business deci sions. Still others become spe cialists in management consulting and give advice on a variety of mat ters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of clients more effectively or give advice about different types of accounting equipment. Management accountants pro- A C C O U N TA N TS (D.O.T. 160.188) Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial information to make im portant decisions. Accountants prepare and analyze financial re CPA familiarizes himself with plant operations before beginning financial audit vide the financial information ex ecutives need to make sound busi ness decisions. They may choose to work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, or investments. Internal auditing is an area of specialization within management accounting which is rapidly growing in im portance. Accountants who work as internal auditors examine and eval uate their firm's financial systems and management control procedures to ensure efficient and economical operation. Many accountants in the Federal Government work as Internal Revenue agents, investigators, and bank examiners; other government accountants have regular account ing positions. Places of Employment About 805,000 people worked as accountants in 1974; almost 20 per cent were Certified Public Accoun tants (CPA’s). About 4 percent of CPA’s and nearly 24 percent of all accountants are women. Since the early 1960’s, employment of women accountants has increased more rapidly than that of men, and there is every indication that women will continue to play an in creasingly active role in the occupa tion. About 60 percent of all account ants do management accounting work; one-fifth of these work as in ternal auditors. An additional 20 percent are engaged in public ac counting as proprietors, partners, or employees of independent ac counting firms. Other accountants work for Federal, State, and local government agencies, and a small number teach in colleges and universities. Opportunities are plen tiful for part-time work in account ing, particularly in smaller firms. Accountants are found in all business, industrial, and govern ment organizations. Most, however, work in large urban areas where many public accounting firms and central offices of large businesses Public Accountants, to establish certification. Most successful can didates have college degrees, and three-fourths of the States require CPA candidates to be college grad uates. Nearly all States require ap plicants to have at least 2 years of Training, Other Qualifications, public accounting experience for a and Advancement CPA certificate. Requirements vary, but more Training in accounting is availa ble at colleges and universities, ac than half the States restrict the title counting and business schools, and “public accountant” to those who correspondence schools. Although are licensed or registered. Some many graduates of business and States require only a high school correspondence schools are suc diploma while others require 2 cessful in small firms, most large years of college or more. Informa public accounting and business tion on requirements may be ob firms require applicants to have at tained directly from individual least a bachelor’s degree in ac State boards of accountancy or counting or a closely related field. from the National Society of Public Many employers prefer those with Accountants. The recognized mark of com the master’s degree in accounting. A strict accounting background petence and experience in the field usually is not required for starting of internal auditing is the designa jobs as internal auditors; however, tion, Certified Internal Auditor training in business management, (CIA). The Institute of Internal Au industrial relations, business law, ditors, Inc. confers this designation candidates who have and mathematics is helpful. A grow upon ing number of large employers completed 3 years’ experience in prefer applicants who are familiar internal auditing and who have with computer technology for both passed a 4-part examination. accounting and internal auditor Beginning in 1978, a bachelor’s positions. For beginning accounting degree from an accredited college positions, the Federal Government or university also will be required. requires 4 years of college training Persons planning a career in ac (including 24 semester hours in ac counting should have an aptitude counting or related subjects) or an for mathematics. Neatness and ac equivalent combination of educa curacy also are necessary. Em tion and experience. For teaching ployers seek applicants who can positions, most colleges and univer handle responsibility and work with sities require at least the master’s little supervision. degree or the Certified Public Ac To get to the top in the profes countancy Certificate. sion, accountants usually must con Previous work experience in ac tinue their study of accounting even counting can help an applicant get a though they already have college job. Many colleges offer students an degrees or professional certificates. opportunity to gain experience They may participate in seminars through internship programs con sponsored by various professional ducted by public accounting or associations or take courses offered business firms. by their employers. A growing Anyone working as a “certified number of States require both public accountant” must hold a cer CPA’s and licensed public accoun tificate issued by the State board of tants to complete a certain number accountancy. All states use the of hours of continuing education CPA examination, administered by courses before their licenses can be the American Institute of Certified renewed. An increasing number of are concentrated. For example, over 20 percent of all accountants are employed in just four major cit ies: Chicago, Los Angeles; New York; and Washington, D.C. accountants study computer opera each year when workers die, retire, tion and programming to adapt ac or leave the occupation. counting procedures to new data Demand for skilled accountants processing methods. Although will rise as managers rely more on capable accountants should ad accounting information to make vance rapidly, those having in business decisions. For example, of adequate academic preparation ficers of large corporations base may be assigned routine jobs and their decisions concerning find promotion difficult. proposals such as plant expansion, Junior public accountants usually mergers, or foreign investments on start by assisting with auditing work information about the financial for several clients. They may ad condition of the firm, tax implica vance to intermediate positions tions of the proposed action, and with more responsibility in 1 or 2 other considerations. On a smaller years and to senior positions within scale, owners of small businesses another few years. In larger firms, are expected to rely more and more those who deal successfully with on the expertise of public account top industry executives often ants in planning their operations. become supervisors, managers, or Government legislation to monitor partners, or transfer to executive business activity also is expected to positions in private firms. Some add to the demand for accountants. open their own public accounting An example is the Pension Reform offices. Act of 1974, which establishes Beginning management account minimum standards for private pen ants often start as ledger account sion plans. This and other legisla ants, junior internal auditors, or as tion should create many new jobs trainees for technical accounting for management accountants to positions. They may advance to maintain new systems and public jobs such as chief plant accountant, accountants to audit them. chief cost accountant, budget Because of the growing complex director, or manager of internal au ity of business, college graduates diting. Some become controllers, will be in greater demand than ap treasurers, financial vice-pre plicants who lack this training. sidents, or corporation presidents. Many employers prefer graduates In the Federal Government, begin who have worked part time in a ners are hired as trainees and business or accounting firm while in usually are promoted in a year or school. Those who have been so. In college and university trained in a specific phase of ac teaching, those having minimum counting should find ample oppor training and experience may tunities. receive the rank of instructor As data processing systems con without tenure; advancement and tinue to replace manual preparation permanent faculty status depend of accounting records and state upon further education and ments, the need for some accoun teaching experience. tants to perform routine tasks, par ticularly in large firms, may be reduced. However, many opportu Employment Outlook nities will arise for accountants Employment is expected to in without a college degree, mainly in crease about as fast as the average small businesses and public ac for all occupations through the mid- counting firms. 1980’s as businesses and govern ment agencies continue to expand Earnings and Working in size and complexity. In addition Conditions to jobs resulting from growth, many thousands of openings will result Starting salaries of beginning ac countants in private industry were $9,700 a year in 1974, according to a survey in urban areas. Earnings of experienced accountants ranged between $13,300 and $19,600, de pending on their level of responsi bility and the complexity of the ac counting system. In general, ex perienced accountants earn'about twice as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Chief accountants who direct the accounting program of a company or one of its establish ments earned between $17,600 and $29,000, depending upon the scope of their authority and size of profes sional staff. According to the same survey, beginning auditors averaged $10,400 a year, while experienced auditors’ earnings ranged between $14,400 and $17,500. Salaries generally are higher for accountants who travel a great deal or who hold a graduate degree or a CPA certificate. In the Federal Civil Service, the entrance salary for junior accoun tants and auditors was about $10,200 in late 1974. Candidates who had superior academic records received a starting salary of about $ 11,200. Applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years’ professional ex perience began at about $12,800. Accountants in the Federal Government averaged about $23,000 a year in 1974. Accountants who specialize in in come tax preparation often work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season; those em ployed by national accounting firms may travel extensively to conduct audits and perform other services for their clients. The majority, how ever, work in one office between 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general conditions as fellow office workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about CPA’s and about aptitude tests in high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Ac countants, 666 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Further information on special ized fields of accounting is available from: National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Accountants, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing ton, D C. 20006. Institute of Internal Auditors, 5500 Diplomat Circle, Orlando, Fla. 32810. ADVERTISING W ORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088; 132.088; 141.081 and .168; 162.158; and 164.068 through .168) Nature of the Work Almost every business does some form of advertising to pursuade people to buy its products or use its services. A wide variety of workers in many industries create and produce advertisements, or make arrangements for them to be broad cast on radio and television or published in newspapers and magazines. The following occupa tions are those most commonly as sociated with advertising. Advertising managers direct the advertising program of the busi nesses for which they work. They determine the size of the advertis ing budget, the type of ads and media to be used, and the advertis ing agency, if any, that will be em ployed. Managers who decide to employ an agency work closely with the account executives assigned to their firms. They also may supervise the preparation of pamphlets, brochures, or other materials developed to promote the firm’s products or services. Advertising managers working for newspapers, radio stations, and other communi cations media have somewhat dif ferent duties. They are responsible for selling advertising time or space, and their work is similar to that of sales managers in other businesses. Account executives are employed by advertising agencies to develop advertising programs for clients. They study the client’s sales, public image, and advertising problems and create a program that meets the client’s approval. In most agencies, the actual artwork and slogans are developed by artists and copy writers, but in some small agencies, account executives are responsible for this aspect of the job. Account executives may be supervised by ac count supervisors; usually, how ever, they report directly to agency heads. Research directors and their assistants study the market for the product or service being sold. They review its possible uses, advantages or disadvantages compared to those of competitors, and ways of reaching potential buyers. These workers may survey buying habits and motives of customers, or try out sample advertisements to find the selling theme or medium that best sells the product. (See the state ment on Marketing Research Work ers for more information on this occupation.) Advertising copywriters develop the slogans and text to be used in the ads. By studying information about the product and its potential customers, they are able to write copy aimed at the particular group of customers the advertiser seeks to attract. They may specialize in writ ing copy for certain groups, such as business managers, teenagers, or sports lovers, or for a class of products, such as cars or computer equipment. Copywriters usually work closely with account execu tives. In some agencies they may be supervised by copy chiefs. Artists and layout workers create the visual impact of an advertise ment by selecting photographs, drawing symbols or figures, and selecting the size or type of print to be used in a magazine or newspaper ad. When television commercials are planned, they usually sketch sample scenes for the client to con sider. (See the statements on Com mercial Artists and Photographers for more information on this type of work.) Media directors (or space buyers and time buyers ) negotiate con tracts for advertising space or air time. They determine, for example, the day and time when a television commercial would reach the largest group of prospective buyers at the least cost. To select the best medi um for the advertiser, they must know the costs of using various media and the characteristics of the audience that would be reached by specific publications or television stations. Production managers and their assistants arrange to have the ad printed for publication or filmed for television use. They must know which firms or freelance workers will be able to produce the best ad for the least cost. Places of Employment In 1974, about 170,000 people worked in jobs requiring considera ble knowledge of advertising. More than one-third were employed in advertising agencies, largely con centrated in New York City and Chicago. The rest worked for a variety of firms and industries. Many advertis ing workers are employed directly by organizations with products or services to sell, such as manufac turers and retail stores. Others work for television or radio stations, newspapers, and magazines and sell air time or space to advertisers. Some work for printers, art studios, and package design firms that help advertisers create their ads. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer college graduates who have liberal arts strongly affected by general busi ness conditions because firms ex pand or contract their advertising budgets according to their financial success. Although opportunities should be favorable for highly qualified applicants, others seeking entry jobs will face keen competi tion because many persons are at tracted to the field. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Layout worker designs a newspaper ad for a department store sale. training or majors in advertising, marketing, journalism, or business administration. No particular edu cational background, however, is equated with success in advertising. Preparing or selling ads for school publications or a summer job with a marketing research service can be helpful experience. Some large organizations recruit outstanding college graduates for training programs that cover all aspects of advertising work. Some beginners start as research or production assistants or as space or time buyers. A few begin as junior copywriters. Many advertising jobs require imagination, creativity, and a flair for language. Persons interested in becoming advertising managers, ac count executives, media buyers, and production managers must be able to get along well with people and be able to sell their ideas. Research directors and their assistants must have an understand ing of human behavior. Creativity is especially important to artists, layout workers, and account execu tives. Advertising workers must be able to accept criticism of their work and be able to function as part of a team. Copywriters and account execu tives may advance to more respon sible work in their specialties, or to managerial jobs, if they demon strate ability in dealing with clients. Some who are especially capable may become partners in an existing agency, or establish their own. Employment Outlook Employment of advertising work ers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s, as the growing number of consumer goods and increasing competition in some product or service markets cause advertising expenditures to rise. Employment in these occupations is According to the limited infor mation available, annual salaries for beginning advertising workers with bachelor’s degrees ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1974. The higher starting salaries generally were paid by the largest firms or ad vertising agencies to outstanding applicants. Salaries of experienced advertis ing workers employed by agencies varied by size of firm and type of job. For example, account execu tives averaged $18,000 to $25,000 a year and media directors, $20,000, according to limited infor mation. Copywriters’ salaries ranged from $15,000 for beginners to as much as $50,000 for those having print and television ex perience. People in advertising work under great pressure. They are expected to produce quality ads in as short a time as possible. Sometimes they must work long or irregular hours in order to meet deadlines or make last-minute changes. Account ex ecutives, copywriters, and layout workers may become frustrated by a client’s inability to define the type of ad he or she wants for a product. Advertising can be a satisfying career for persons who enjoy variety, excitement, creative chal lenges, and competition. Unlike workers in many other occupations, advertising workers experience the satisfaction of having their work in print, on television, or on radio, even though they remain unknown to the public at large. buying trips, and also place orders with wholesale and manufacturers’ salesworkers who call on them to display their merchandise. Sources of Additional Buyers must be able to assess the Information resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make a purchase Information on advertising agen decision quickly. They are aware of cies and the careers they offer is their stores’ profit margins and try available from: to select merchandise that will sell American Association of Advertising Agen quickly at well above the original cies, 200 Park Ave. New York, N.Y. cost. Since most buyers work within 10017. a limited budget, they must plan For a list of schools that provide their purchases to keep needed training in advertising, contact: items always in stock but also allow American Advertising Federation, 1225 for unexpected purchases when a Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, “good buy” presents itself. D C. 20036. Because buyers purchase merchandise for their firms to resell (unlike purchasing agents who buy goods for direct use by the firm— see the statement on Purchasing BUYERS Agents elsewhere in the Handbook), (D.O.T. 162.158 and 185.168) they must know what motivates customers to buy. Before ordering a Nature of the Work particular line of merchandise, Buyers determine which products buyers study market research re are on display in retail stores. ports and analyze past sales records Although all buyers seek to satisfy to determine what products are cur their stores’ customers and sell at a rently in demand. They also confer profit, the kind and variety of goods with assistant buyers and sales they purchase depend on the store clerks whose daily contact with where they work. A buyer for a customers furnishes information small clothing store, for example, about consumer likes and dislikes. may purchase its complete stock of In addition, buyers read fashion and merchandise from sportswear to trade magazines to keep abreast of formal evening clothes. Buyers who style and manufacturing trends; fol work for larger retail businesses low ads in newspapers and other often handle one or a few related media to check retail competitors’ lines of goods, such as men’s wear, sales activities; and watch general ladies’ sportswear, or children’s economic conditions to anticipate toys. Some, known as foreign consumer buying patterns. buyers, purchase merchandise out Merchandise managers ( D.O.T. side the United States. 185.168) plan and coordinate buy In order to purchase the best ing and selling activities for large selection of goods for their stores, and medium-sized stores. They di buyers must be familiar with the vide the budget among buyers, de manufacturers and distributors who cide how much merchandise to handle the merchandise they need. stock, and assign each buyer to They also must keep informed purchase certain goods. Merchan about changes in existing products dise managers may review buying and the development of new ones. decisions to insure that needed To learn about merchandise, buyers categories of goods are in stock, attend fashion and trade shows and and help buyers to set general pric visit manufacturers’ showrooms. ing guidelines. They usually order goods during Buyers and merchandise managers usually have very busy schedules and deal with many dif ferent people in the course of a day. They work with manufacturers’ representatives, other store person nel including store executives and salesworkers, and customers. Assisting with sales promotions and creating enthusiasm among sales personnel are part of the buyer’s job, and he or she may be asked to provide information such as dress sizes and product descriptions to the advertising department for a sales promotion, or to meet with floor salesworkers before a new line of merchandise is introduced. Some buyers direct assistants who handle routine aspects of purchasing such as verifying shipments; others su pervise department managers. Some buyers represent large stores or chains in cities where many manufacturers are located. The duties of these “ market representatives” vary by employer; some purchase goods, while others supply information and arrange for store buyers to meet with manufac turers when they are in town. Places of Employment In 1974, almost 110,000 buyers and merchandise managers worked Linen buyer in a large department store discusses special order with cus tomer. a for retail firms—half of them for usually lasts about a year. After clothing and general department about 5 years of working as a buyer, those who show exceptional ability stores. About 2 out of every 5 people in may advance to merchandise manager. A few find further promo the occupation were women. Although jobs for buyers are tion to top executive jobs such as found in all parts of the country, general merchandise manager for a most jobs are in major metropolitan retail store or chain. The length of areas were retail stores are concen time it takes to reach any of these trated. Market representatives levels depends not just on the in work for buying offices in major dividual’s ability but on the store’s market areas such as New York, need for management personnel. The faster growing the company, Chicago, and Dallas. the more opportunity there is for a worker to acquire responsibility. Training, Other Qualifications, Buyers should be good at and Advancement planning and decisionmaking and A job which traditionally has at have an interest in merchandising. tracted career-minded people, buy They need leadership ability and ing offers good opportunities to communications skills to supervise salesworkers and assistant buyers begin a career in merchandising. Most retail stores prefer college and to deal effectively with manu facturers’ representatives and store or junior college graduates for buy executives. Because of the fast pace ing jobs. Courses in merchandising and constant pressure of their work, or marketing may help in getting a buyers need physical stamina and first job, but most employers accept emotional stability. graduates in any field of study and train them on the job. Promising salesworkers sometimes are con Employment Outlook sidered for promotion to jobs at the Employment of buyers is ex management level, and begin as pected to grow faster than the assistant buyers. Many stores have formal training average for all occupations through programs for all management or ex the mid-1980’s, as retail stores seek ecutive trainees, including buyers. to promote sales by offering their These programs usually last from 6 customers a broader selection of to 8 months and combine classroom goods. In addition to opportunities instruction in merchandising and created by this growth, many job purchasing with short rotations to openings will arise each year from various jobs in the store. This train the need to replace workers who ing introduces the new worker to leave the occupation. Competition store operations and policies, and for these jobs is expected to be provides the fundamentals of keen, for merchandising attracts merchandising and management as large numbers of college graduates every year. Prospects are likely to well. The trainee’s first job is likely to be best for qualified applicants who be that of assistant buyer. The du enjoy the competitive nature of ties include supervising saleswork retailing, and work best in a de ers, checking invoices on material manding, fast-paced job. Employment of buyers will grow received, and keeping account of stock on hand. Assistant buyers as retailers put greater emphasis on gradually assume purchasing the selection, display, and promo responsibilities, depending upon tion of the goods they have for sale. their individual abilities and the size This is likely to spur demand for of the department where they work. buyers with the professional exper Training as an assistant buyer tise to discover new sources of merchandise and select goods that will appeal to customers and make a profit for the retailer. The de mand for astute buyers and merchandise managers will grow even though chain stores and other large firms are centralizing their purchasing functions and turning to the computer for routine buying and for compiling and tabulating data on past sales. Earnings and Working Conditions Newly hired buyers who were college graduates started at $8,300 to $9,000 a year in 1974. Some who showed unusual promise started at annual salaries of $ 12,000 or more. Earnings, which frequently in clude a bonus in addition to regular salary, vary according to the sales volume of the store and the type of merchandise purchased. Buyers in single-store companies with yearly sales of $5-15 million earned about $10,500 in 1974; merchandise managers in these stores averaged nearly $24,000. Buyers for discount department stores and other mass merchandis ing firms are among the most highly paid in the industry. Those working for mass merchandising firms with annual sales of $40-400 million earned over $21,000 in 1974, while merchandise managers earned about $36,000. A 1972 survey con ducted by the Mass Retailing In stitute shows that in firms with an nual sales of $4 million or more, average earnings for buyers ranged from about $16,000 to $24,000, de pending on the type of merchandise purchased; most buyers earned between $19,000 and $21,000. Merchandise managers made con siderably more. Buyers regulate their own hours, and often work more than 40 hours a week because of sales, con ferences, and travel. The amount of traveling a buyer does varies with the type of merchandise bought and the location of suppliers, but most spend 4 or 5 days a month on the road. Merchandise managers also travel frequently, averaging several trips a month in many cases. civic meetings to advocate certain programs or to inform citizens of current government operations. City managers work closely with planning departments to coordinate new and existing programs. In Sources of Additional smaller cities that have no per Information manent planning staff, coordination General information about a may be assumed entirely by the career in retailing is available from: manager. National Retail Merchants Association, 100 Many cities employ assistant city West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. managers, department head Mass Retailing Institute, 570 Seventh Ave., assistants, and administrative New York, N.Y. 10018. assistants to aid city managers. Under the manager’s direction, they administer programs, prepare reports, receive visitors, answer correspondence, and generally help C ITY MANAGERS to keep the city functioning (D.O.T. 188.118) smoothly. Assistant city managers organize and coordinate city pro Nature of the Work grams, supervise city employees, Population growth and industrial and act for the city manager in their expansion place increasing pressure absence. They also may assume on housing, transportation, and other facilities of cities. Problems associated with growing modern communities, such as air and water pollution and rising crime rates, also demand attention. To cope ef fectively with these problems, many communities hire a specialist in management techniques—the city manager. A city manager is responsible to the community's elected officials who appoint him. Although duties vary by city size, city managers generally administer and coor dinate the day-to-day operations of the city. They are responsible for functions such as tax collection and disbursement, law enforcement, and public works; hire department heads and their staffs; and prepare the annual budget to be approved by elected officials. They also study current problems, such as traffic congestion, crime, or urban renewal, and report their findings to the elected council. City managers must plan for fu ture growth and development of cit ies and surrounding areas. To pro vide for an expansion of public serv ices, they frequently appear at responsibility for some projects, such as the development of a preliminary annual budget. Depart ment head assistants generally are responsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law, but also may assist in other areas. Adminis trative assistants, also called execu tive assistants or assistants to the city manager, usually do adminis trative and staff work in all depart ments under the city manager. For instance, they may compile operat ing statistics, or review and analyze work procedures. Places of Employment About 2,900 city managers were employed in 1974. Although nearly all of them were men, in recent years a growing number of women have entered the occupation. In ad dition, several thousand persons worked as administrative assistants, department head assistants, and assistant city managers. Most city managers worked for cities and counties having a council-manager form of government, in which the council appoints a manager who is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the government as well as for the hiring and firing of assistants, department heads, and other staff. Most of the remainder worked in municipalities having other forms of government, such as mayor-council government in which the mayor appoints the city manager as his administrative assistant or chief administrative of ficer. A few city managers also worked for metropolitan or re gional planning organizations and councils of governments. Although over three-quarters of all city managers work for small cit ies having 25,000 or less inhabit ants, many larger cities also em ploy a city manager. About half of the cities having a population of between 10,000 and 500,000 have city managers. City managers work in all States, but one-half are con centrated in the eastern part of the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree, generally in public or business administration, is becoming increasingly important for those seeking a career in city management. Although some appli cants with only a bachelor’s degree may find employment, strong com petition for positions, even among master’s recipients, will make the graduate degree a requirement for most entry level jobs. In some cases, employers may hire a person with training in a field related to public administration, such as engineering, recreation, social work, or political science. In 1974, over 150 colleges and universities offered graduate degree programs in public or municipal ad ministration. Degree requirements in some schools include successful completion of an internship pro gram in a city manager’s office. During this internship period, which may last from 6 months to a year, the degree candidate observes local government operations and does research under the direct su pervision of the city manager. Most new graduates work as ad ministrative assistants to city managers for several years and gain experience in solving urban problems, coordinating public serv ices, and management techniques. Others work in an area of govern ment operations such as finance, public works, or public planning. They may acquire supervisory skills nd additional experience by work ing as assistant city manager or de partment head assistant in opera tions. City managers often are first employed in small cities, but during their careers, they may work in several cities of increasing size. Young persons who plan a career in city management should like to work with detail and as part of a team. They must have sound judgment, self-confidence, and be able to perform well under stress. To handle emergency situations, city managers must quickly isolate problems, identify their causes, and provide alternate solutions. City managers should be tactful and able to communicate with and work well with people. City managers also must be dedicated to public service since they often put in long, hard hours in times of crises. Employment Outlook This small occupation is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations to the mid1980’s as problems of our growing cities become more complex. Ex amples of more sophisticated ways of dealing with these problems in clude computerized data collection of police information, advances in technology of traffic control, and the application of systems analysis to urban problems. The demand for city managers also will increase as cities convert to the councilmanager form of government, cur rently the fastest growing form of city government. Furthermore, city managers will be needed in places having other forms of government to help elected officials cope with day-to-day operations of govern ment. Persons who seek beginning city management jobs as administra tive assistants, department head assistants, or assistant city man agers may face strong competi tion through the mid-1980’s, espe cially if they do not have a graduate degree in public administration or related management experience. However, many of those unable to find employment in this area should find jobs in other fields of public ad ministration. Competition should be keen among the growing number of administrative assistants, depart ment head assistants, and assistant city managers for the relatively few city manager positions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of city managers and their assistants vary according to their education and experience as well as job responsibility and size of city. Generally, city managers’ earnings are very high relative to the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1974, annual salaries of city managers ranged from about $12,000 in cities of 5,000 to more than $40,000 in cit ies of over 250,000, according to the International City Management Association. The average annual salary for all city managers is al most $20,000. City managers in cities not having council-manager governments received slightly less. Salaries of assistant city managers and department head assistants ranged from about ability to provide for their housing, $ 10,000 in small cities to more than social, cultural, and recreational $25,000 in large ones. They were needs. Development and adminis generally paid about three-fourths tration of these services, including the salaries paid city managers. Ad educational and similar programs, ministrative assistant salaries typi provide a wide variety of jobs for cally ranged from $8,500 to college student personnel workers. $ 10,000, annually. The admissions officer, registrar, City managers often work more the dean of students, and the career than 40 hours a week. Emergency planning and placement counselor problems may require evening and are probably the best known among weekend work and meetings with these. Some other types of workers individuals and citizen’s groups that may make up this broad occu pational field are student activities consume additional time. Fringe benefits usually include and college union personnel, stu health and life insurance programs, dent housing officers, counselors in pension plans, sick leave, vacation the college counseling center, time, and often a car for official financial aid officers, and foreign business. Managers generally are student advisers. reimbursed for expenses incurred Titles of student personnel work while attending professional ers vary from institution to institu meetings and seminars. tion and from program to program within a single school. Titles also Sources of Additional vary with the level of responsibility Information within a certain student personnel program. The more common titles For information on a career in include dean, director, officer, as city management, contact: sociate dean, assistant director, and International City Management Association, counselor. 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing The dean o f students, or the vice ton, D.C. 20036. president for student affairs, heads For further information on the the student personnel program at a council manager form of govern school. Among his or her duties is ment, contact: evaluating the changing needs of National Municipal League, 47 E. 68th St., the students and helping the pre New York, N Y. 10021. sident of the college develop in stitutional policies. The dean of stu dents generally coordinates a staff of associate or assistant deans; these are in charge of the specific C O LLEG E STU DENT programs that deal directly with the PERSONNEL W ORKERS students. (D.O.T. 045.108, 090.118, At some school's, the admissions 090.168, 129.108, and 166.168) office and the records office are separate. Admissions counselors in Nature of the Work terview and evaluate prospective A student’s choice of a particular students and process their applica institution of higher education for tions. They may travel extensively further study is influenced by many to recruit high school, junior col factors. Availability of a specific lege, and older students and to educational program, quality of the acquaint them with opportunities school, and cost, as well as proximi available at their college. They ty to home, may all play important work closely with faculty, adminis roles. trators, financial aid personnel, and For many students, an equally public relations staff to determine important factor is the institution’s policies for recruiting and admitting students. Personnel in the office of the registrar maintain the academic records of students, and provide current enrollment statistics for communication both within the col lege and between the college and the community. Student financial aid personnel assist students in obtaining financial support to pay for their education. Workers in this field must keep well informed about sources of financial aid, funding, and about manage ment of all forms of financial aid— scholarships, grants, loans, student employment, fellowships, teaching and research assistantships. They work closely with administrators and with the admissions, counsel ing, business, and academic office staffs. Career planning and placement counselors, sometimes called col lege placement officers, assist stu dents in making long-range career selections and may also help stu dents get part-time and summer jobs. On many campuses, they ar range for prospective employers to visit the school to discuss their firm’s personnel needs and to inter view applicants. (For further infor mation on this field, see statement on College Career Planning and Placement Counselors.) The student personnel staff in charge of student activities work with members of proposed and established student organizations, especially with student government. They help the student groups to plan, implement, and evaluate their activities. Often, the student activi ties staff will assist in the orienta tion of new students. College union staff members work with students to provide intellec tual, cultural, and recreational pro grams. Many college union staff members are responsible for direct ing the operation of the physical facilities and services of the build ing, such as food and recreational services, building maintenance, fiscal planning, conference facili ties, and employee supervision. formation on this field, see state ment on Psychologists.) Foreign student advisers ad minister and coordinate many of the services which are crucial in in suring a successful academic and social experience for students from other countries. They usually assist with foreign student admissions, orientation, financial aid, housing, English as a foreign language, academic and personal counseling, student-community relationships, placement, and alumni relations. In addition they may be an adviser for international associations and na tionality groups and for U.S. stu dents interested in study, educa tional travel, work, or service pro jects abroad. Student housing officers some times live in the dormitories and, in general, help the students to live together in harmony. They may serve as counselors to individual students with personal problems. Housing officers also may be in volved in managing the fiscal, food service, and housekeeping opera tions of student residences. Counselors help students with personal, educational, and voca tional problems. Students may come to the counselors on their own or be referred by a faculty member, a residence hall coun selor, o r a friend. C ounseling needs may arise from lack of self-con fidence or motivation on the part of the student, failure in academic work, desire to leave college or transfer to another college, inability to get along with others, loneliness, drug abuse, or marriage problems. In addition, there is a growing trend for counselors to try to reach more students by establishing group sen sitivity sessions and telephone “ hotlines.” Counselors often ad minister tests that indicate ap titudes and interests to students having trouble understanding them selves. Some also teach in the col lege or assist with admissions, orientation, and training of res idence hall staff. (For further in Places of Employment An estimated 50,000 college stu dent personnel workers, roughly one-third of them women, were em ployed in 1974. Every college and university, whether a 2-year or a 4year school, has a staff performing student personnel functions. They are not always organized as a unified program. Large colleges and universities generally have spe cialized staffs for each personnel function. However, in many small colleges a few persons may carry out the entire student personnel program. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity in duties, the education and backgrounds of college student personnel workers vary considerably. A bachelor’s degree is the minimum require ment; however, for some student personnel programs it is necessary to have a master’s degree, and others in the field have doctoral degrees. In 1974, more than 100 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in student personnel work. However, many employers prefer instead a graduate degree in a specific academic field added to some courses in student personnel work. A master’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology is usually required for work as a college coun selor. This degree also is helpful in other student personnel fields such as career planning and placement. Business administration also is help ful, especially for those who wish to go into the admissions, records, col lege union, financial aid, or student housing fields. Familiarity with data processing is an asset especially for work in admissions, records, or financial aid. Social science and recreation degrees also are useful, as is work experience in business, government, or educational as sociations. The majority, however, have degrees in education or the so cial sciences. College student personnel work ers must be interested in, and able to work with, people of all backgrounds and ages. They must have the patience to cope with con flicting viewpoints of students, faculty, and parents. People in this field often deal with the unexpected and the unusual; therefore emo tional stability and the ability to function while under pressure are necessities. Entry level positions are usually those of student activities advisers, admissions counselors, financial aid counselors, residence hall directors, and assistants to deans. Persons without graduate degrees may find advancement opportunities limited. A doctorate is usually necessary for the top student personnel positions. Employment Outlook The employment outlook of col lege student personnel workers is likely to be somewhat competitive through 1985. Employment is ex pected to remain relatively stable. Tightening budgets, in both public and private colleges and universi ties, is the chief factor underlying this expected lack of growth in em ployment. Student personnel posi tions least likely to be affected if some reduction in number becomes necessary are those most closely tied to the academic function of the school—admissions, financial aid, and records. Over the short run, until colleges and universities resolve their financial difficulties, most openings each year will result from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. During the early 1980’s, how ever, employment of student per sonnel workers is expected to in crease as colleges provide more services for students, especially the growing number from low-income and minority families who often require special counseling and assistance. The increasing number of college students, in junior and community colleges, is a factor which also could contribute to some growth in the student person nel occupations, especially if finan cial problems should ease. Twoyear public colleges, for the most part, have less serious financial problems because, unlike most 4year institutions, their enrollments are growing and their operating costs are moderate. Earnings and Working Conditions Median salaries of chief student affairs officers ranged from $ 13,700 in small private colleges to $29,900 in large public universities in 1974, according to a National Education Association survey of public and private colleges and universities. Median salaries of deans o f admis sions ranged from $12,700 to $22,300; for registrars, from $9,400 to $20,400. Directors o f student testing and counseling had median salaries of $ 11,400 to $22,800. The median salaries of the other student personnel workers were somewhat lower. New entrants to the field received about $8,500 in 1974. College student personnel work ers frequently work more than a 40-hour week; often irregular hours and overtime work are necessary. Employment in these occupations is usually on a 12-month basis. In many schools, they are entitled to retirement, group medical and life insurance, and sabbatical and other benefits. tions, executive level credit managers are responsible for for mulating a credit policy. They must establish financial standards to be met by applicants and thereby determine the amount of risk that their company will accept when of fering its products or services for sale on credit. Managers usually cooperate with the sales depart ment in developing a credit policy Sources of Additional liberal enough to allow the com Information pany’s sales to increase and yet strict enough to deny credit to A pamphlet, Careers in Higher customers whose ability to repay Education, is available from: their debts is questionable. Many The American Personnel and Guidance As credit managers establish office sociation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. procedures and supervise workers NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. who gather information, analyze facts, and perform general office duties in a credit department; they include application clerks, collec tion workers, bookkeepers, and CREDIT M ANAGERS secretaries. (D.O.T. 168.168) In smaller companies that handle a limited number of accounts, Nature of the Work credit managers may do much of Both businesses and individuals the work of granting credit them may require credit to meet their selves. They may interview appli daily needs for a variety of goods cants, analyze the information and services. In most forms of gained in the interview, and make credit granting, a credit manager the final lending decision. They has final authority over the decision frequently must contact customers to accept or reject a credit applica who are unable or refuse to pay their debts. They do this through tion. writing, telephoning, or personal In extending credit to a business (commercial credit), the credit contact. If these attempts at collec manager, or an assistant, analyzes tion fail, credit managers may refer detailed financial reports submitted the account to a collection agency by the applicant, interviews a or assign an attorney to take legal representative of the company action. about its management, and reviews credit agency reports to determine Places of Employment the firm’s record in repaying debts. The manager also checks at banks About 66,000 persons, nearly a where the company has deposits or third of them women, worked as previously was granted credit. In credit managers in 1974. About extending credit to individuals one-half were employed in whole (consumer credit), detailed finan sale and retail trade, but many cial reports usually are not availa others, almost one-third of the ble. The credit manager must rely total, worked for manufacturing more on personal interviews, credit firms and financial institutions. bureaus, and banks to provide in Although goods and services are formation about the person apply sold on credit, and cash loans granted, throughout the United ing for credit. Particularly in large organiza States, most credit managers work in urban areas where many finan thorough understanding of the cial and business establishments are company’s credit procedures and located. policies. They may analyze previous credit transactions to learn how to Training, Other Qualifications, recognize which applicants should prove to be good customers. and Advancement Trainees also learn to deal with A college degree is becoming in credit bureaus, banks, and other creasingly important for entry level businesses that can provide infor jobs in credit management. Em mation on the past credit dealings ployers usually seek persons who of their customers. have majored in business adminis Many formal training programs tration, economics, or accounting, are available through the educa but may also hire graduates holding tional branches of the associations liberal arts degrees. Some em that serve the credit and finance ployers promote high school gradu field. This training includes home ates to credit manager positions if study, college and university pro they have experience in credit col grams, and special instruction to lection or processing credit infor improve beginners’ skills and keep experienced credit managers aware mation. Newly hired workers normally of new developments in their field. A person interested in a career as begin as management trainees and work under the guidance of more a credit manager should be able to experienced personnel in the credit analyze detailed information and department. Here they gain a draw valid conclusions based on Manager trainee reviews previous credit transactions. this analysis. Because it is necessary to maintain good customer relation ships, a pleasant personality and the ability to speak and write effective ly also are characteristics of the successful credit manager. The work performed by credit managers allows them to become familiar with almost every phase of their company’s business. Highly qualified and experienced managers can advance to top-level executive positions. However, in small and medium-sized companies, such opportunities are limited. Employment Outlook Credit management is an expand ing field. Through the mid-1980’s employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations. In addition to opportunities created by this growth, many jobs will open each year from the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Although there will be employment opportunities through out the country, prospects should continue to be best for wellqualified jobseekers in metropolitan areas. The volume of credit extended rose very rapidly during the past decade. In the years ahead, busi nesses can be expected to require increasing amounts of credit to secure raw materials for production and obtain finished goods for even tual resale. Consumers, whose per sonal incomes have risen, are ex pected to finance greater numbers of high-priced items. In addition, the use of credit for everyday purchases is expected to grow as demand increases for recreation and household goods as well as a wide range of consumer services. Although the increasing use of computers for storing and retriev ing information will allow in dividual credit managers to serve more customers, this should not slow the growth of the occupation. As companies handle greater num bers of credit transactions, credit managers will spend more time managing and supervising the credit handling process in their firms. Moreover, many duties of credit managers, such as customer coun seling and interviewing applicants, demand the tact and good judgment only personal contact can provide. In addition, attractive credit terms are a major tool for increas ing the sales volume of almost any business. As firms strive to max imize their sales in the face of com petition, there will be a greater de mand for skilled credit managers who can establish credit policies strict enough to minimize bad debt losses. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, beginning credit man agers earned annual salaries that ranged from about $7,500 to over $10,000, depending on the type of employer and the geographic loca tion of the job. As credit managers gain ex perience and reach middle manage ment positions, their earnings usually range from $10,000 to $20,000 a year; with the largest em ployers, earnings may be as high as $25,000 or more. Some individuals in top-level positions earned sala ries well over $40,000 a year. Credit managers normally work the standard workweek of their company—35-40 hours, but some work longer hours. In wholesale and retail trade, for example, a seasonal increase in credit sales can produce a greater work volume. In addition, some credit managers at tend conferences sponsored by in dustry and professional organiza tions where managers meet to develop and discuss new techniques for the management of a credit de partment. Sources of Additional Information Information about training pro grams available in consumer credit may be obtained from: Society of Certified Consumer Credit Execu tives, 7405 University Dr., St. Louis, Mo. 63130. For information about training programs available in commercial credit, write: Credit Research Foundation, 3000 Marcus Ave., Lake Success, N.Y. 11040. H O TEL MANAGERS AND ASSISTAN TS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118, .168) Nature of the Work Hotel managers are responsible for operating their establishments profitably and satisfying guests. They determine room rates and credit policy, direct the operation of the kitchen and dining rooms, and manage the housekeeping, ac counting, and maintenance depart ments of the hotel. They also are responsible for solving any problems that may arise. Managers who work in small hotels may do much of the front of fice clerical work, such as taking room reservations and assigning rooms. In some small hotels and many motels, the manager is also the owner and may be responsible for all aspects of the business. General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants who manage various parts of the opera tion. Because the hotel restaurant and cocktail lounge are important to the success of the entire establishment, they almost always are operated by managers with ex perience in the restaurant field. Other areas that usually are han dled separately are advertising, rental of banquet and meeting facilities, personnel, and account ing. Large hotel and motel chains often centralize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these departments. Managers who work for chains may be assigned to or ganize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. About 120,000 hotel and motel managers, one-third of them women, were employed in 1974. More than a third were self-em ployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although experience is generally the most important consideration in selecting managers, employers in creasingly emphasize college edu cation. Many believe that acquiring a 4-year college degree in hotel and restaurant administration is the best educational preparation. The cours es in hotel work that are available in a few junior colleges and through the American Hotel and Motel As sociation also are considered help ful. A college program in hotel management usually includes cours es in hotel administration, ac counting, economics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Students are encouraged to work in hotels or restaurants during summer vacations because the ex perience gained and the contacts made with employers may help them to get better hotel jobs after graduation. Managers should have initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to or ganize work and direct the work of others. They must be able to con centrate on details and solve problems. Some large hotels have special on-the-job management trainee programs in which trainees rotate among various departments to acquire a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Outstanding employees who have not had col- and the particular carrier. To make their decisions, managers consider factors such as freight classifica tions and regulations, time schedules, size of shipments, and loss and damage rates. (This state ment does not cover traffic managers who sell transportation services for railroads, airlines, trucking firms, and other freight carriers.) Activities of industrial traffic a managers range from checking freight bills to deciding whether the company should buy its own fleet of trucks or contract for services. They route and trace shipments, ar range with carriers for transporta tion services, prepare bills of lading and other shipping documents, and handle claims for lost or damaged goods. Traffic managers keep i records of shipments, freight rates, commodity classifications, and ap plicable government regulations. Hotel manager personally greets an association representative who is considering They also must stay informed about his hotel as a convention site. changing transportation technolo gy, such as containerization (the lege training may receive financial See the statement on the Hotel use of containers packed with many assistance to help them acquire a Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and individual items). Some traffic degree. Most hotels promote employees working conditions, sources of ad managers (called physical distribu with proven ability, usually front of ditional information, and more in tion managers) are responsible for fice clerks, to assistant manager and formation on employment outlook. packaging shipments and maintain ing warehouse facilities and trans eventually to general manager. portation equipment. Hotel chains may offer better opTraffic managers often consult portunites for advancement than in with other company officials about dependent hotels, because em INDUSTRIAL TRAFFIC the firm’s transportation needs. ployees can transfer to another They may, for example, work with M ANAGERS hotel in the chain or to the central production department personnel office if an opening occurs. (D.O.T. 184.168) to plan shipping schedules, or with members of the purchasing depart Employment Outlook Nature of the Work ment to determine what quantities Industrial firms want to receive of goods can be transported most Employment of hotel managers is expected to grow about as fast as raw materials and deliver economically. the average for all occupations customers’ goods promptly, safely, Since many aspects of transporta through the mid-1980’s as addi and with minimum cost. Arranging tion are subject to Federal, State, tional hotels and motels are built the transportation of materials and and local government regulations, and chain and franchise operations finished products is the job of an in traffic managers must know about spread. Many openings also will dustrial traffic manager. Industrial these and any other legal matters occur as experienced managers die, traffic managers analyze various that apply to their companies’ retire, or transfer to other jobs. Ap transportation possibilities and shipping operations. High level traf plicants having college degrees in choose the most efficient type for fic managers represent their com hotel administration will have an their companies’ needs—rail, air, panies before ratemaking and regu advantage in seeking entry posi road, water, pipeline, or some com latory bodies such as the Interstate tions and later advancement. bination. Then they select the route Commerce Commission, State M / / commissions, and local traffic bu reaus. Places of Employment More than 20,000 persons were industrial traffic managers in 1974. Although most jobs are found in manufacturing firms, some traffic managers work for large stores. A few are self-employed consultants, or work for firms that handle trans portation problems for clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although high school graduates with experience in traffic depart ments sometimes are hired as traffic managers, a college education is in creasingly important in this field. For some kinds of work, college training is required. To argue cases before the Interstate Commerce Commission, for example, a traffic manager must meet standards that include at least 2 years of college. Although some employers prefer graduates who have a degree in traffic management, others seek liberal arts majors who have had courses in transportation, manage ment, economics, statistics, market ing, or commercial law. Industrial traffic training is available through colleges and universities, traffic management schools, and seminars sponsored by private organizations. More than 100 colleges, universities, and ju nior colleges offer a degree in traf fic management. Industrial traffic managers should be able to analyze numerical and technical data such as freight rates and classifications to solve trans portation problems. The job also requires the ability to work inde pendently and to present facts and figures in a convincing manner. Newly hired traffic specialists often complete shipping forms and calculate freight charges. After gaining experience, they do more technical work such as analyzing transportation statistics. A com petent worker may advance to a su pervisory job such as supervisor of rates and routes; a few are promoted to assistant general traf fic manager and eventually to general traffic manager. Industrial traffic managers can sometimes help their chances for advancement by participating in company-spon sored training programs or taking advanced courses in traffic manage ment. Employment Outlook Industrial traffic management is a relatively small occupation and is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. A few openings will become available each year as new jobs are created, and as traffic managers die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. College graduates with a major in traffic management or transporta tion can expect first consideration for the available jobs. Growth in the occupation will stem from an increasing emphasis on reducing the cost of receiving raw materials and distributing finished products. As the distance between markets becomes greater and rate schedules and regulations governing transportation more complex, manufacturers increas ingly will require traffic specialists with the expertise to obtain the lowest possible freight rates. Earnings and Working Conditions Industrial traffic managers’ sala ries started at about $ 15,000 a year in 1974, according to the limited in formation available. Although earnings of experienced traffic managers vary, in general they are much higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Some traffic executives earned $40,000 a year or more. Although industrial traffic man agers usually have a standard workweek, some of them have to spend time outside regular working hours preparing reports, attending meetings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agencies. Sources of Additional Information Information on education and technical training is available from: American Society of Traffic and Transporta tion, Inc., 547 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, III. 60606. LAW YERS (D.O.T. 110.108, .118, and 119.168) Nature of the Work At some time in our life, each of us may need a lawyer for advice about our rights and responsibilities w hen we buy p ro p e rty , make a will, or settle an estate. In addition, lawyers, also called attorneys, negotiate the settlement of legal problems out of court or, when necessary, represent clients in court or before government agencies. Most lawyers are engaged in general practice and handle all kinds of legal work for clients. However, a significant number spe cialize in one branch of law, such as corporation, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, or interna tional law. Some attorneys devote themselves entirely to trying cases in the courts. Others never appear in court but instead draw up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and other legal documents; conduct out-of-court negotiations; and do investigative and other legal work to prepare for trials. Some may act as trustees by managing a person’s property and funds, or as executors by seeing that the provisions of their client’s will are carried out. Still others teach, do research or write, or perform administrative work. Government attorneys help develop Federal and State laws and programs; they prepare drafts of proposed legislation, establish law enforcement procedures, and argue cases. Many people who have legal training do not work as lawyers but use their knowledge of law in other occupations. They may, for exam ple, be insurance adjusters, tax col lectors, probation officers, credit investigators, or claim examiners. A legal background also is an asset to those seeking or holding public of fice. Places of Employment Over 340,000 persons worked as lawyers in 1974. Although the majority were men, increasing num bers of women are choosing careers in law. In 1974, for example, about 1 of every 5 students in American Bar Association (ABA) approved law schools was a woman. Most lawyers are in private prac tice, either self-employed (alone or in partnerships) or working for other lawyers or law firms. In addi tion, about 22,000 lawyers worked for the Federal Government, chiefly in the Justice, Defense, and Treasury Departments, and the Veterans Administration; another 32,000 were employed by State and local governments. Others worked for private companies or taught in law schools. Some salaried lawyers also have independent practices; others do legal work part time while in another occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In order to practice law in the courts of any State, a person must be admitted to its bar. Applicants for admission to the bar must pass a written examination; however, a few States drop this requirement for graduates of their own law schools. Lawyers who have been admitted Jo the bar in one State usually can be admitted in another without taking an examination provided they meet that State’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Each Federal court or agency sets its own qualifications for those practicing before it. To qualify for the bar examina tion in most States, an applicant must have completed 3 years of col lege and have graduated from a law school approved by the American Bar Association or the proper State authorities. A few States accept the study of law wholly in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualification for taking the bar exam. Several States require regis tration and approval of students by the State Board of Examiners, either before they enter law school, or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must complete clerkships before they are admitted to the bar. The required college and law school work usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of college followed by 3 years in law school. Although a number of law schools accept students after 3 years of college, an increasing number require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divi sions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1974, about one-fifth of all law students in ABA-approved schools were enrolled in evening classes. Law schools seldom specify col lege subjects that must be included in students’ prelegal education. However, English, history, economics and other social sciences, logic, and public speaking are important for prospective lawyers. Students interested in a particular aspect of the law may find it helpful to take related cours es; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through the “ Law School Admissions Test.” In 1974, 156 law schools were approved by the American Bar Association. Others—chiefly night schools— were approved by State authorities only. The first year or year and a half of law school generally are devoted to fundamental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, pro perty law, and judicial procedure. In the third year, students may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Prac tical experience is often acquired by participation in school-spon sored legal aid activities, in the school’s practice court where stu dents conduct trials under the su pervision of experienced lawyers, and through writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. Gradu ates receive the degree of juris doc tor (J.D.) from most schools as the first professional degree. Advanced study is often desirable for those planning to specialize, do research, or teach in law schools. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and ideas, and be able to win the confidence of their clients. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice im mediately after passing the bar ex amination. Newly hired salaried at torneys usually act as research assistants (law clerks) to ex perienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively responsible salaried employment, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become judges. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in the number of law school graduates has created keen competition for the available jobs. In the years ahead, the number of graduates is expected to increase further and intensify this competition. Employers will be very selective in hiring new lawyers. Graduates of well-known law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs of cor porations and government agen cies, and as law clerks for judges. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic ratings will experience some difficulty in finding salaried jobs. However, many will find op portunities in fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. The employment of lawyers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for other occupations through the mid-1980’s as in creased business activity and popu lation create a demand for attor neys to deal with a growing number of legal questions. Supreme Court decisions extending the right to counsel for persons accused of lesser crimes, the growth of legal action in the areas of consumer pro tection, the environment, and safety, and an expected increase in the use of legal services by middle income groups through prepaid legal service programs also should provide employment opportunities. Other jobs will be created by the need to replace lawyers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Prospects for establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and expand ing suburban areas. In such commu nities competition is likely to be less than in big cities and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Salaried positions, on the other hand, will be limited largely to urban areas where the chief em ployers of legal talent—government agencies, law firms, and big cor porations—are concentrated. Earnings and Working Conditions Lawyers entering practice in 1974 earned starting salaries rang ing from about $10,000 to $12,000 a year. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates include: Their academic records; types, sizes, and locations of their em ployers; and whether the new lawyer has any specialized educa tional background that the em ployer requires. Lawyers with at least a year’s experience working in manufacturing and business firms earned about $16,000 a year; those with a few years of experience earned over $20,000 annually. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys were $12,841 or $15,481 in late 1974, depending upon their academic and personal qualifications. Those with a few years of experience earned $21,816 a year. On the average, lawyers earn over three times as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Beginning lawyers engaged in legal aid work usually receive the lowest starting salaries. New lawyers starting their own practices may earn little more than expenses during the first few years and may need to work part time in other oc cupations. Lawyers on salary receive in creases as they assume greater responsibility. In 1974, those in charge of legal staffs in private in dustry averaged more than $37,200 a year. Incomes of lawyers in private practice usually grow as their practices develop. Private practitioners who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and are under considerable pres sure when a case is being tried. In addition, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court decisions. However, since lawyers in private practice can determine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice well past the usual retire ment age. sales forecasts and make recom mendations on product design and advertising. Most marketing research starts with the collection of facts from sources such as company records, published materials, and experts on the subject under investigation. For example, marketing research work ers making sales forecasts may begin by studying the growth of sales volume in several different cities. This growth may then be traced to increases in population, size of the company’s sales force, or amount of money spent on advertis ing. Other marketing research workers may study changes in the quantity of company goods on store shelves or make door-to-door Sources of Additional surveys to obtain information on Information company products. Marketing research workers are The specific requirements for ad often concerned with customers’ mission to the bar in a particular opinions and tastes. For example, to State may be obtained at the State help decide on the design and price capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the secretary of of a new line of television sets, mar keting research workers may survey the Board of Bar Examiners. consumers to find out what styles Information on law as a career is and price ranges are most popular. available from: This type of survey usually is super Information Service, The American Bar As vised by marketing researchers who sociation, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, specialize in consumer goods; that III. 60637. Information on financial aid and is, merchandise sold to the general law school accreditation is available public. They may be helped by statisticians who select a group (or from: Association of American Law Schools, Suite sample) to be interviewed and 370, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Washington, “ motivational research” specialists D .C .20036. who phrase questions to produce reliable information. Once the in vestigation is underway, the mar keting research worker may super M ARKETING RESEARCH vise the interviewers as well as direct the office workers who tabu W ORKERS late and analyze the information (D.O.T. 050.088) collected. Marketing surveys on products Nature of the Work used by business and industrial Businesses require a great deal of firms may be conducted somewhat information to make sound deci differently from consumer goods sions on how to market their surveys. Marketing researchers products. Marketing research work often conduct the interviews them ers provide much of this informa selves to gather opinions of the tion by analyzing data on products product. They also may speak to and sales, making surveys, and con company officials about new uses ducting interviews. They prepare for it. They must therefore have specialized knowledge of both mar keting techniques and the industrial uses of the product. Places of Employment About 25,000 full-time market ing research workers were em ployed in 1974. Most jobs for mar keting research workers are found in manufacturing companies, ad vertising agencies, and independent research organizations. Large num bers are employed by stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers; others work for univer sity research centers and govern ment agencies. Marketing research organizations range in size from one-person enterprises to firms with a hundred employees or more. New York City has the largest number of marketing research workers. Many major advertising agencies, independent marketing organizations, and central offices of marketing research are statistics, English composition, speech, psychology, and economics. Some marketing research positions require skill in specialized areas, such as engineering, or substantial sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the company’s products. Knowledge of data processing is helpful because of the growing use of computers in sales forecasting, distribution, and cost analysis. Trainees usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from published sources, editing and cod ing questionnaires, and tabulating survey returns. They also learn to conduct interviews and write re ports on survey findings. As they gain experience, assistants and jun ior analysts may assume responsi bility for specific marketing research projects, or advance to su pervisory positions. An excep tionally able worker may become marketing research director or vice president for marketing and sales. Either alone or as part of a team, large manufacturers are located marketing research workers must there. The second largest concen tration is in Chicago. However, be resourceful as they analyze problems and apply various marketing research workers are techniques to their solution. As ad employed in many other cities as visers to management, they should well_wherever there are central be able to write clear reports in offices of large manufacturing and forming company officials of their sales organizations. findings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook Although a bachelor’s degree is required for marketing research trainees, graduate training is neces sary for many specialized positions and for advancement to higher level positions. Many graduates qualify for jobs through previous ex perience in other types of research, while employers may hire university teachers of marketing or statistics to head new marketing research de partments. College courses considered to be valuable preparation for work in Opportunities should be best for applicants with graduate training in marketing research or statistics. The growing complexity of market ing research techniques also will ex pand opportunities in this field for psychologists, economists, and other social scientists. Marketing research employment rises as new products and services are developed requiring informa tion to identify potential buyers. The demand for new products and services will grow most quickly when business activity and personal incomes are rapidly expanding. In periods of slow economic growth, however, the demand for marketing services may be reduced and limit the hiring of research workers. Over the long run, our growing population arid the increased variety of goods and services that businesses and individuals will require is expected to stimulate a high level of marketing activity. As a result, employment of marketing research workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for other occupations through the mid-1980’s. The competition among manu facturers of both consumer and in dustrial products will make it in creasingly important to appraise marketing situations. As techniques improve and more statistical data accumulate, company officials are likely to turn more often to market ing research workers for informa tion and advice. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for marketing research trainees were about $10,000 a year in 1974, according to the limited information available. Persons with master’s degrees in business administration and related fields usually started with somewhat higher salaries. Experienced workers such as senior analysts received salaries over $16,000 a year. Earnings were highest, however, for workers in management positions of great responsibility. Vice presidents of marketing research earned well over $25,000 a year in 1974. Marketing research workers usually work in modern, centrally located offices. Some, especially those employed by independent research firms, do a considerable amount of traveling in connection with their work. Also, they may frequently work under pressure and for long hours to meet deadlines. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers in marketing research is available from: American Marketing Association, 222 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, III. 60606. PERSONNEL AND LABOR RELATIO NS W ORKERS (D.O.T. 166.088 through .268; 169.118) Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the success of any organization. Today, most businesses are much too large for close contact between owners and their employees. In stead, personnel and labor relations workers provide the link between management and employees— assisting management to make ef fective use of employees’ skills, and helping employees to find satisfac tion in their jobs and working con ditions. Although some jobs require only limited contact with people outside the office, most jobs in this field involve frequent contact with other people. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. Personnel workers and labor relations workers concentrate on different aspects of employer-em ployee relations. Personnel workers interview, select, and recommend applicants to fill job openings. They handle wage and salary administra tion, training and career develop ment, and employee benefits. “ Labor relations” usually means union-management relations, and people who specialize in this field work for the most part in unionized establishments. They help company officials prepare for collective bar gaining sessions, participate in con tract negotiations with the union, and handle labor relations matters that come up everyday. In a small company, personnel work consists mostly of interview ing and hiring, and one person usually can handle it all. By con trast, a large organization needs an entire staff, which might include recruiters, interviewers, counselors, job analysts, wage and salary analysts, education and training specialists, and labor relations spe cialists, as well as technical and clerical workers. Personnel work often begins with the personnel recruiter or employ ment interviewer (D.O.T. 166.268), who works on a person-to-person basis with present and prospective employees. Recruiters travel around the country, often to college campuses, in the search for promis ing job applicants. Interviewers talk to applicants, and select and recom mend those who appear qualified to fill vacancies. They often ad minister tests to applicants and in terpret the results. Hiring and placement specialists need to be thoroughly familiar with the or ganization and its personnel poli cies, for they must be prepared to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective and newly hired em ployees. They also need to keep in formed about equal employment opportunity and affirmative action guidelines. Equal employment op portunity is a complex and sensitive area of personnel work which in some large organizations is handled by special EEO counselors or coor dinators. The work of Employment Counselors, which is similar in a number of ways, is described in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. Job analysts (D.O.T. 166.068) and salary and wage administrators (D.O.T. 169.118) do very exacting work. Job analysts collect and analyze detailed information on jobs, job qualifications, and worker characteristics in order to prepare job descriptions, sometimes called position classifications. Job descrip tions tell applicants, interviewers, supervisors, and others basically what the duties of a job are and what training and skills it requires. Whenever a government agency or large business firm introduces a new job or evaluates existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Accurate infor mation about job duties also is required when a firm evaluates its pay system and considers changes in wages and salaries. Establishing and maintaining pay systems is the principal job of wage administra tors. They devise ways of making sure that pay rates within the firm are fair and equitable, and conduct surveys to see how their pay rates compare with those elsewhere. Being sure that the firm’s pay system complies with laws and regulations is another part of the job, one which requires knowledge of compensation structures and labor law. Training specialists supervise or conduct training sessions, prepare manuals and other materials for these courses, and look into new methods of training. They also counsel employees on training op portunities, which may include onthe-job, apprentice, supervisory, or management training. Employee-benefits supervisors and other personnel specialists han dle the employer’s benefits pro gram, which often includes health insurance, life insurance, disability, and pension plans. These workers also coordinate a wide range of em ployee services, including cafeterias and snack bars, health rooms, recreational facilities, newsletters and communications, and counsel ing for work-related personal problems. Counseling employees who are approaching retirement age is a particularly important job of these workers. Occupational safety and health programs are handled in various ways. Quite often, in small compa nies especially, accident prevention and industrial safety are the respon sibility of the personnel depart ment—or of the labor relations spe cialist, if the union has a safety representative. Increasingly, how ever, there is a separate safety de partment under the direction of a safety and health professional, generally a safety engineer or indus trial hygienist. (The work of Occu pational Safety and Health Workers is discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Labor relations specialists (D.O.T. 169.118) advise manage ment on all aspects of unionmanagement relations. When the contract is up for negotiation, they provide background information and technical support, a job that requires extensive knowledge of | economics, labor law, and collec tive bargaining trends. Actual negotiation of the agreement is con ducted at the top level, with the director of labor relations or other top-ranking official serving as the employer’s representative, but members of the company’s labor relations staff play an important role throughout the negotiations. Much of the everyday work of the labor relations staff concerns in terpretation and administration of the contract, the grievance procedures in particular. Members of the labor relations staff would work with the union on seniority rights under the layoff procedure set forth in the contract, for exam ple. Later in the day, they might meet with the union steward about a worker’s grievance. Doing the job well means staying abreast of cur rent developments in labor law, in- Job analyst reviews new job descriptions with a company official. eluding arbitration decisions, and maintaining continuing liaison with union officials. Personnel workers in government agencies generally do the same kind of work as those in large business firms. There are some differences, however. Public personnel workers deal with employees whose jobs are governed by civil service regula tions. Civil service jobs are strictly classified as to duties, training, and pay. This requires a great deal of emphasis on job analysis and wage and salary classification; many peo ple in public personnel work spend their time classifying and evaluating jobs, or devising, administering, and scoring competitive examinations given to job applicants. Knowledge of rules and regula tions pertaining to affirmative ac tion and equal opportunity pro grams is important in public person nel work. In 1972, the U.S. Civil Service Commission established a specialization for Federal personnel workers concerned with promoting equal opportunity in hiring, train ing, and advancement. Similar at tention to equal employment op portunity, accompanied by a need for qualified staff, is evident in State and local government agencies. Labor relations is an increasingly important specialty in public per sonnel administration. Labor rela tions in this field have changed con siderably in recent years, as union strength among government wor kers has grown. This has created a need for more and better trained workers to handle negotiations, grievances, and arbitration cases on behalf of Federal, State, and local government agencies. Places of Employment In 1974, over 320,000 people were personnel and labor relations workers. Three out of four worked in private industry, for manufac turers, banks, insurance companies, airlines, railroads, department stores, and other business concerns. Some worked for private employ ment agencies, including executive job-search agencies, “office tem poraries” agencies, and others. A large number of personnel and labor relations workers, over 80,000 in 1974, worked for Federal, State, and local government agen cies. Most of these were in person nel administration, and handled recruitment, interviewing, testing, job classification, training, and other personnel matters for the Na tion’s 14.5 million public em ployees. Some were on the staff of the U.S. Employment Service and State employment agencies. Still others worked for agencies which oversee compliance with labor laws. Some, for example, were wage-hour compliance officers; their work is described in another part of the Handbook, in the state ment on Health and Regulatory In spectors (Government). Other public employees in this field car ried out research in economics, labor law, personnel practices, and related subjects, and sought new ways of ensuring that workers’ rights under the law are understood and protected. In comparison with private indus try, labor unions do not employ a large number of professionally trained labor relations workers. An elected union official generally han dles labor relations matters at the company level. At national and in ternational union headquarters, however, the research and educa tion staff usually includes specialists with degrees in industrial and labor relations, economics, or law. A few personnel and labor rela tions workers are in business for themselves as management con sultants or labor-management rela tions experts. In addition, some people in the field teach college or university courses in personnel ad ministration, industrial relations, and related subjects. Most jobs for personnel and labor relations workers are located in the highly industrialized sections of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers seek to fill beginning positions in personnel and labor relations with college graduates who have the potential to move into management jobs. Some employers look for graduates who have majored in personnel adminis tration or industrial and labor rela tions, while others prefer college graduates with a general business background. Still other employers feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is the best preparation for personnel work. A college major in personnel administration, political science, or public adminis tration can be an asset in looking for a job with a government agency. At least 200 colleges and univer sities have programs leading to a degree in the field of personnel and labor relations. (While personnel administration is widely taught, the number of programs which focus primarily on labor relations is quite small.) In addition, many schools offer course work in closely related fields. An interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, and a combination of courses in the social sciences, behavioral sciences, business, and economics is useful. Prospective personnel workers might include courses in personnel management, business administra tion, public administration, psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bar gaining, labor economics, labor his tory, and industrial psychology pro vide valuable backgound for the prospective labor relations worker. Graduate study in industrial rela tions, economics, business, or law provides sound preparation for work in labor relations. While the law degree seldom is required for jobs at the entry level, most of the people with responsibility for con tract negotiations are lawyers, and the industrial relations plus law degree combination is becoming highly desirable. A college education is important, but it is not the only way to enter personnel work. Some people enter the field at the clerical level, and advance to professional positions on the basis of experience. They often find it helpful to take college courses part time, however. New personnel workers usually enter formal or on-the-job training programs to learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or ad minister employee benefits. After the training period, new workers are assigned to specific areas in the company’s employee relations de partment. After gaining experience, they usually can advance within their own company or transfer to another employer. At this point, some people move from personnel to labor relations work. Some people enter the labor rela tions field directly, as trainees. They are usually graduates of master’s degree programs in indus trial relations, or may have a law degree. Quite a few people, how ever, begin in personnel work, gain experience in that area, and sub sequently move into a labor rela tions job. Workers in the middle ranks of a large organization often transfer to a top job in a smaller one. Em ployees with exceptional ability may be promoted to executive posi tions, such as director of personnel or director of labor relations. Personnel and labor relations workers should speak and write ef fectively and be able to work with people of all levels of education and experience. They also must be able to see both the employee’s and the employer’s points of view. In addi tion, they should be able to work as part of a team. They need super visory abilities and must be able to accept responsibility. Integrity and fairmindedness are important quali ties for people in personnel and labor relations work. A persuasive, congenial personality can be a great asset. Employment Outlook The number of personnel and labor relations workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 1985, as employers, increasingly aware of the benefits to be derived from good labor-management relations, continue to support sound, capably staffed employee relations pro grams. In addition to new jobs created by growth of the occupa tion, many openings will become available each year because of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Recent legislation setting stand ards for employment practices in the areas of occupational safety and health, equal employment opportu nity, and pensions has stimulated demand for personnel and labor relations workers. Continued growth is foreseen, as employers throughout the country review ex isting programs in each of these areas and, in many cases, establish entirely new ones. This has created job opportunities for people with appropriate expertise. The effort to end discriminatory employment practices, for example, has led to scrutiny of the testing, selection, placement, and promotion procedures in many companies and government agencies. The findings are causing a number of employers to modify these procedures, and to take steps to raise the level of professionalism in their personnel departments. Substantial employment growth is foreseen in the area of public per sonnel administration. Opportuni ties probably will be best in State and local government, areas which are expected to experience strong employment growth over the next decade. By contrast, Federal em ployment will grow slowly. Moreover, as union strength among public employees continues to grow, State and local agencies will need many more workers qualified to deal with labor relations. Enact ment of collective bargaining legislation for State and local government employees could greatly stimulate demand for labor relations workers knowlegeable about public sector negotiations. Although the number of jobs in both personnel and labor relations is projected to increase over the next decade, competition for these jobs also is increasing. Particularly keen competition is anticipated for jobs in labor relations. A small field, labor relations traditionally has been difficult to break into, and op portunities are best for applicants with a master’s degree or a strong undergraduate major in industrial relations, economics, or business. A law degree is an asset. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning job analysts in private industry started at $9,800 a year in 1974, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. Ex perienced job analysts earned $17,300 a year, about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Directors of personnel earned between $15,600 and $27,300 a year; top labor relations executives in large corporations earned considerably more. Beginning job analysts employed by State governments had starting salaries ranging from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1974, according to a survey of public service pay con ducted by the International Person nel Management Association. In the Federal Government, new grad uates with a bachelor’s degree generally started at $8,500 a year in late 1974. Those with a master’s degree started at about $10,500 a year, or in some cases, at $12,800 a year. Average salaries of Federal em ployees in several different areas of personnel work ranged from about $19,000 to $22,500 in late 1974, as follows: PUBLIC RELATIO NS W ORKERS Staffing specialists........................... $19,100 Position classifiers........................... 20,300 Personnel management specialists...................................... 21,500 Employee development specialists...................................... 21,500 Salary and wage administrators... 22,500 Nature of the Work Federal employees in the field of labor relations had generally com parable salaries. Labor-manage ment and employee relations spe cialists and labor-management rela tions officers averaged $21,500 a year in late 1974. Federal media tors’ salaries were higher: about $30,000 a year, on the average. Employees in personnel offices generally work 35 to 40 hours a week. As a rule, they are paid for holidays and vacations, and share in retirement plans, life and health in surance plans, and other benefits available to all professional workers in their organizations. (D.O.T. 165.068) How successfully an organization presents itself may affect its public acceptance and influence. Public relations workers help organiza tions build and maintain positive public images. Public relations is more than telling the employer’s “ story,” however. Understanding the attitudes and concerns of customers, employees, and various other “publics”—and communicat ing this information to manage ment—is an important part of the job. Public relations departments are found in many different organiza tions, and workers must tailor their programs to an employer’s particu lar needs. A public relations director for a college or university, for example, may devote most of his or her energies to attracting addi tional students, while one in a large corporation may handle the em ployer’s relations with stockhold ers, government agencies, and community groups. Public relations workers put together information that keeps the public aware of their employer’s ac tivities and accomplishments. After preparing the information, they contact people in the media who might be interested in publicizing their material. Many television commercials or special reports, newspaper items, and magazine ar ticles start at public relations work ers’ desks. Sometimes the subject Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in personnel and labor rela tions work, write to: American Society for Personnel Administra tion, 19 Church St., Berea, Ohio 44017. Information about careers in public personnel administration is available from: International Personnel Management As sociation, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, III. 60637. A brochure describing a career in labor-management relations as a field examiner is available from: Director of Personnel, National Labor Rela tions Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Washington, D C., 20570. Public relations worker reviews copy for new stockholders report with company officials. is a company and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutri tion, energy, or the environment. Public relations workers also ar range and conduct programs in which company representatives will have direct contact with the public. Such work includes setting up speaking engagements for company officials and writing speeches for them. These workers often serve as an employer’s representative during community projects and occa sionally show films at school assem blies, plan conventions, or manage fund-raising campaigns. Public relations staffs in very large firms may number 200 or more, but in most firms the staff is much smaller. The director of public relations may develop overall plans and policies with a top management executive having the authority to make final decisions. In addition, large public relations de partments employ writers, research workers, and other specialists who prepare material for the different media or write reports sent to stockholders. Workers who handle publicity for an individual or direct public rela tions for a university or small busi ness may handle all aspects of the job. They make contacts with peo ple outside the organization, do the necessary planning and research, and prepare material for publica tion. These workers may combine public relations duties with adver tising or sales promotion work; some are top-level officials and others have lower level positions. The most skilled public relations work of making overall plans and maintaining contacts usually is done by the department director and highly experienced staff mem bers. Places of Employment More than 100,000 persons— about 30 percent of them women— were public relations workers in 1974. Manufacturing firms, public utilities and transportation compa nies, insurance companies, and trade and professional associations employ the majority of public rela tions workers. However, a sizeable number work for government agen cies, or for schools, colleges, muse ums, and many other kinds of edu cational, religious, and welfare or ganizations. The rapidly expanding health field also offers opportuni ties for public relations work, in hospitals, pharmaceutical compa nies, and medical associations, for example. A number of public rela tions workers are employed by con sulting firms, which furnish public relations services to clients for a fee. Public relations workers are con centrated in large cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily available, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquar ters. More than half of the esti mated 1,700 public relations con sulting firms in the United States are in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. administration, psychology, and public speaking help in preparing for a public relations career. Ex tracurricular activities such as writ ing for a school publication provide valuable experience. Part-time or summer jobs in public relations pro vide training that can help in com peting for entry positions. Creativity, initiative, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are important to the public relations worker. Fresh ideas are so vital in public relations that some experts spend all their time developing new ideas, leaving the job of carrying out programs to others. People who choose public rela tions work as a career need an out going personality, self-confidence, and an understanding of human psychology. They should have the enthusiasm necessary to motivate people. Public relations workers need a highly developed sense of competitiveness and the ability to function as part of a team. Some companies—particularly those with large public relations staffs—have formal training pro grams for new workers. In other firms, new employees learn by Training, Other Qualifications, working under the guidance of ex and Advancement perienced staff members. Beginners A college education combined often maintain files of material with journalism experience is an ex about company activities, scan cellent preparation for public rela newspapers and magazines for ap tions work. Although most begin propriate articles to clip, and as ners have a college degree in jour semble information for speeches nalism, English, or public relations, and pamphlets. After gaining ex some employers prefer a perience, they work on more dif background in a field related to the ficult assignments, such as writing firm’s business—science or en press releases, speeches, and arti gineering, for example. Some firms cles for publication. Promotion to supervisory jobs want college graduates with at least may come as workers show they 1 year’s experience working for the can handle more demanding and news media. In 1974, over 80 colleges and creative assignments. Some ex more than 30 graduate schools of perienced public relations workers fered degree programs or special start their own consulting firms. curriculums in public relations. In addition, nearly 200 colleges of Employment Outlook fered at least one course in this Employment of public relations field. Courses in journalism, business workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to new jobs created by this growth, openings will occur every year because of the need to replace workers who leave the field. Demand for public relations wor kers may be affected by economic conditions, slackening as employers delay expansion or impose staff cuts during business slowdowns. Over the long run, however, public rela tions spending is expected to in crease substantially. Corporations, associations, and other large or ganizations are likely to expand their public relations efforts to gain public support and approval. Competition for beginning jobs is keen, for public relations work has an aura of glamour and excitement which attracts large numbers of job seekers. Prospects for a career in public relations are best for enthu siastic people with sound academic preparation and some media ex perience. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for college grad uates beginning in public relations work ranged from $7,500 to $9,000 a year in 1974, according to the limited data available. The salaries of experienced work ers generally are highest in large organizations with extensive public relations programs. Directors of public relations for medium-sized firms earned $15,000 to $30,000 a year; those at large companies had salaries in the $20,000 to $50,000 range. Salaries for some officials, such as vice-presidents in charge of public relations, can range from $25,000 to $75,000 a year or more. The median salary for directors of public relations was about $23,000 in 1974. Public relations consulting firms often pay higher salaries than organizations with their own public relations depart ments. In social welfare agencies, nonprofit organizations, hospitals, and universities, salaries generally are lower. Although the workweek for public relations staffs usually is 35 to 40 hours, overtime may be necessary to prepare ' or deliver speeches, attend meetings and com munity activities, or travel out of town. Occasionally, the nature of their regular assignments or special events requires public relations workers to be on call around the clock. Sources of Additional Information For career information and a list of schools offering degrees and courses in the field, write: Career Information, Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Salary data and other statistics are available from: PR Reporter, Meriden, N.H. 03770. PURCHASING A G EN TS (D.O.T. 162.158, 180.118, 191.118, and 252.358) Nature of the Work If materials, supplies, or equip ment are not on hand when needed, an organization’s work may be in terrupted or halted. Maintaining an adequate supply of items a firm needs to operate is the purchasing agent’s job. Purchasing agents, also called in dustrial buyers, and their assistants obtain goods and services of the required quality at the lowest possi ble cost, and see that adequate sup plies are kept on hand. Agents who work for manufacturing firms buy machinery, raw materials, and product components; those work ing for government agencies may purchase office supplies, furniture, and business machines. In fo rm a tion on retail buyers, who purchase merchandise for resale in its original form, is presented in the statement on Buyers elsewhere in the Handbook. Purchasing agents buy when stocks on hand reach a predeter mined reorder point, or when a de partment in the organization requisitions items it needs. Because agents often can purchase from many sources, their main job is selecting the seller who offers the best value. Purchasing agents use a variety of means to select among suppliers. They compare listings in catalogs and trade journals and telephone suppliers to get information. They also meet with salespersons to ex amine samples, watch demonstra tions of equipment, and discuss items to be purchased. Sometimes agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders; then they select the lowest bidder among those who meet requirements for quality of goods and delivery date. In some cases, however, purchas ing agents must deal directly with a manufacturer to obtain specially designed items made exclusively for their company. These agents must have a high degree of technical ex pertise to insure that all product specifications are met. It is important that purchasing agents develop good business rela tions with their suppliers. This can result in savings on purchases, favorable terms of payment, and quick delivery on rush orders or materials in short supply. They also work closely with personnel in vari ous departments of their own or ganization. For example, they may discuss product design with com pany engineers or shipment problems with workers in the shipping and receiving or traffic de partments. Once an order has been placed with a supplier, the purchasing agent makes periodic checks to in sure that it will be delivered on time. This is necessary to prevent work flow interruptions due to lack business firms and government agencies, however, have much larger purchasing departments; some employ as many as 100 spe cialized buyers or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement of materials. After an order has been received and inspected, the purchasing agent authorizes pay ment to the shipper. Because of its importance, purchasing usually is designated as a separate responsibility within a firm. In a large firm, the purchasing manager directs the work of a staff which includes purchasing agents, purchasing assistants, and clerical workers. In such a firm, purchasing agents usually are responsible for buying one or more specific items— for example, steel, lumber, cotton, or petroleum products. In smaller firms, agents generally are assigned certain categories of goods, such as all raw materials or all office sup plies, furniture, and business machines. Places of Employment Nearly 190,000 persons—18 per cent of them women—worked as purchasing agents in 1974. Over half worked in manufacturing in dustries. Large numbers also were employed by government agencies, construction companies, hospitals, and schools. Since the early 1960’s, employment of women purchasing agents has increased much faster than that of men. Particularly im pressive employment gains have been made by women with college degrees, and every indication points toward continuing job opportuni ties for women. About half of all purchasing agents work in organizations that have fewer than five employees in the purchasing department. Many Most large employers seek col lege graduates for entry positions as assistant purchasing agents. A growing number of large companies look for applicants who have done graduate work in purchasing management or related fields. Although companies that manufac ture complex machinery or chemi cals may prefer a background in en gineering or science, other compa nies hire business administration or liberal arts majors for trainee jobs. Courses in accounting, economics, and purchasing are helpful. Familiarity with the computer and its uses also is desirable. Some small firms prefer experience with the company, and select purchasing workers from among their own per sonnel, whether or not they have a college education. For advance ment to management positions, lowever, a college degree is becoming increasingly important. Regardless of previous training, beginning purchasing assistants must spend considerable time learning about their company’s operations and purchasing procedures. They may be assigned to the storekeeper’s section to learn about purchasing forms, inventory records, and storage facilities. Next they may work with experienced buyers to learn about types of goods purchased, prices, and suppliers. Following the initial training period, assistant purchasing agents are given responsibility for purchas ing standard catalog items. As they gain experience and demonstrate good judgment in performing vari ous purchasing tasks, they may be promoted to purchasing agent. Purchasing agents with proven ability can move into a job as manager of a purchasing depart ment; some advance to executive sistant purchasing agents in large positions as corporate director of firms earned about $8,500 a year in purchasing and material manage 1974, according to the limited data available. ment. Experienced agents purchasing The purchasing agent must be able to analyze numbers and techni standard items averaged about cal data in order to make buying $10,000 a year; buyers purchasing decisions and take responsibility for complex or technical goods spending large amounts of company averaged between $12,100 and money. The job requires the ability $14,700. Those responsible for the to work independently and a good purchase of highly complex and memory for details. In addition, a specialized items earned about purchasing agent must be tactful in $17,400 in 1974. Managers of dealing with salespersons and able purchasing departments earned substantially more and many top to motivate others. purchasing executives earned over $50,000 a year. Salaries generally Employment Outlook are lower in small companies. In Employment of purchasing 1974, earnings of purchasing agents agents is expected to increase much were about one and one-half times faster than the average for all occu as much as the average for all nonpations through the mid-1980’s. supervisory workers in private in Several thousand jobs will be open dustry, except farming. every year due to growth of the oc In the Federal Government, cupation and the need to replace beginning purchasing agents who those who die, retire, or transfer to had college degrees earned $8,500 other work. or $10,500 in late 1974, depending Growth in demand for industrial on scholastic achievement and rele machinery, including engines and vant-work experience. The average turbines, electronic computer salary for all purchasing agents in equipment, and communications the Federal Service was $18,600. equipment, will increase employ Salary levels vary widely among ment opportunities. For example, State governments; however, purchasing agents will be needed to average earnings range from $9,000 develop reliable new sources of to $ 11,700 for purchasers of stand supply for materials which are in ard items, $11,900 to $15,600 for short supply. In addition, the grow senior buyers purchasing highly ing specialization of manufacturing complex items, and $18,000 to processes will spur demand for $21,900 for State purchasing purchasing agents with a technical directors. background and those who have completed graduate level courses in Sources of Additional purchasing management. Information Many opportunities also should Further information about a occur in firms providing personal, business, and professional services. career in purchasing is available Strong growth is expected for this from: sector of the economy, and a grow ing number of employers are recog National Association of Purchasing Manage ment, 11 Park Place, New York, N.Y. nizing the importance of profes 10007. sional purchasers in relatively small National Institute of Governmental Purchas firms. ing, 1001 Connecticut Ave. NW., Earnings and Working Conditions College graduates hired as as Washirgton, D.C. 20036. URBAN PLANNERS (D.O.T. 199.168) Nature of the Work Urban planners, often called community or regional planners, develop programs to provide for fu ture growth and revitalization of urban, suburban and rural commu nities. They help local officials make decisions to solve social, economic and environmental problems. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues involved in community development or redevelopment and any changes in housing and building codes. Because suburban growth has increased the need for better ways of traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often in cludes designing new transportation and parking facilities. Urban planners prepare for situa tions or needs that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They estimate, for exam ple, the community’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for longrange community development, urban planners prepare detailed studies that show the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. These reports present information such as the ar rangement of streets, highways, and water and sewer lines, and the loca tion of schools, libraries, and playgrounds. They also provide in formation on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this in- formation, urban planners propose ways of using undeveloped land and design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as subways. They also prepare materi als that show how their programs can be carried out and the approxi mate costs. Urban planners often confer with private land developers, civic leaders, and officials of public agen cies that do specialized planning. They may prepare materials for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to ex plain and defend their proposals. In small organizations, urban planners must be able to do several kinds of work. In large organiza tions, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, com munity relations, or the reconstruc tion of run-down business districts. Places of Employment About 13,000 persons—about 10 percent of them women—were urban planners in 1974. Most work for city, county, or regional planning agencies. A growing number are employed by States or by the Federal Government in agencies dealing with housing, transportation, or environmental protection. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time working for a firm that provides services to private developers or government agencies. Urban planners also work for large land developers or research organizations and teach in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban planning. Two years of grad uate study in city planning, or the equivalent in work experience, are required for most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. Although the master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement at the entry level, some people who have a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, landscape architec ture, or engineering may qualify for beginning positions. In 1974, over 60 colleges and universities gave a master’s degree in urban planning. Although stu dents holding a bachelor’s degree in architecture or engineering may earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in urban planning require 2 or 3 years to complete. Graduate students spend considerable time in workshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban planning problems. Students often are required to work in a planning of fice part time or during the summer while they are earning the graduate degree. Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local government agen cies usually must pass civil service examinations to become eligible for appointment. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and to visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible in their approaches to problems and be able to cooperate with others and reconcile different viewpoints to achieve constructive policy recommendations. After a few years’ experience, urban planners may advance to as signments requiring a high degree of independent judgment, such as outlining proposed studies, design ing the physical layout of a large development, or recommending policy, program, and budget op tions. Some are promoted to jobs as planning directors, and spend a great deal of time meeting with offi- cials in other organizations, speak ing to civic groups, and supervising other professionals. Further ad vancement is more difficult at this level and often occurs through a transfer to a large city, where the problems are more complex and the responsibilities greater. Employment Outlook Employment of urban planners is expected to grow faster than the average for other occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to opportunities created by future growth of this relatively small occu pation, some jobs will open up because of the need to replace plan ners who leave their jobs. The number of persons enrolled in graduate planning programs has risen rapidly in recent years. If this trend continues, the number of ap plicants may begin to outstrip available openings, leading to in creased competition for jobs in this field. However, well qualified appli cants should continue to find good employment prospects. Future growth of the occupation will depend on the availability of money for the development of new communities and the restoration of older urban areas. Funding for these projects can be affected by shortages of mortgage money and higher costs for land, building materials, and necessary communi ty services such as education and police and fire protection. Further, government programs to aid the development of community planning are subject to frequent review. Future levels of Federal spending will greatly influence the growth of urban planning projects. Over the longrun, however, the Nation’s need for good quality housing, transportation systems, health care, and other social ser vices is expected to spur the de mand for additional urban planners. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for urban plan ners were about $ 11,000 a year in 1974. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Government at $12,841 a year in late 1974. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of either $8,500 or $10,520. The salaries of directors of planning depend largely on the size of the city where they work. In 1974, for example, the median earnings of planning directors in the Nation’s largest cities were well over $30,000 a year. In smaller towns, earnings may be less than half as large. Consultants earn fees that vary according to their reputa tion and previous experience. Most planners have sick leave and vacation benefits and are covered by retirement and health plans. Although most city planners have a scheduled workweek of 40 hours, they sometimes work in the evenings and on weekends to attend meetings with citizens’ groups. Sources of Additional Information Facts about careers in planning and a list of schools offering train ing are available from: American Institute of Planners, 1776 Mas sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Society of Planning Officials, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, III. 60637. SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Workers in service occupations perform a wide variety of tasks ranging from policing streets and fighting fires to serving food and cleaning buildings. In 1974 nearly 11.4 million people were employed in service jobs. The major groups of service occupations are discussed below: Food service occupations. The largest group of service workers, more than 3.5 million persons in 1974, prepared and served food in restaurants, schools, hospitals, and factory cafeterias. Workers in this group included cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, bartenders, and kitchen workers. Cleaning and related occupations. Workers in these occupations clean and maintain buildings such as apartment houses, schools, and of fices. Over 2.1 million persons were employed in these jobs in 1974. The group included janitors, building custodians, and pest controllers. Health service occupations. More than 1.6 million persons were em ployed as health service workers in jobs such as practical nurse or hospital attendant. Most of these workers were employed in hospitals, but some worked in doc tors’ or dentists’ offices. Personal service occupations. Workers in this group range from barbers and cosmetologists to ski instructors and theater ushers. About 1.6 million persons were em ployed in personal service jobs. Protective and related service oc cupations. More than 1.2 million people, or about one-tenth of all service workers, were employed to safeguard lives and property in 1974. The majority were police of ficers, guards, or firefighters. Most police officers and detectives were government employees, but some worked for hotels, stores, and other businesses. Guards, another large group of protective service em More Than 11 Million People Work in Service Occupations EMPLOYMENT, 1974 (in millions) Food service C lean in g service Health service Personal service Protective service Private household w o rkers S o u rce : Bureau of Labor Sta tistic s 12 ployees, worked chiefly for private companies to protect their property and enforce company rules and regulations. Firefighters worked mainly for city governments. The remaining protective service work ers were sheriffs and bailiffs, crossing guards and bridge tenders, and marshals and constables. Private household service occupa tions. Most of the 1.2 million private household workers em ployed in 1974 were domestic workers who cleaned their empolyer’s home, prepared meals, and cared for children. Some worked as launderers, caretakers, and com panions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and skill requirements differ greatly among the various service occupations. FBI special agents, for example, must have a college degree. Barbers and cosmetologists need specialized vo cational training. Still other occu pations—household worker, build ing custodian, and hotel bellhop, for example—have no specific edu cational requirements for entry, although a high school diploma is always an advantage. For many service occupations, personality traits and special abili ties may be as important as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength and endurance are a necessity for work as a porter, lifeguard, or win dow cleaner; and a pleasing manner and appearance are especially im portant for a waiter or waitress, elevator operator, or usher. Other service workers, such as store and hotel detectives and travel guides, need good judgment and should be skillful in dealing with people. Some service workers eventually go into business for themselves as caterers or restaurant operators, for example, or proprietors of barber or beauty shops. Advancement from service occupations that require little training or skill may be difficult for people without a good basic education and some knowledge of the business in which they work. Employment Outlook Employment in the service occu pations is expected to grow at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. The number of private household workers, however, has declined since the mid-1960’s and this trend is expected to continue despite a strong demand for these workers. If private household work ers are excluded from the total, service workers show a faster than average rate of growth. Most of the future employment increase is expected to be among the health care and protective service occupations. Population growth and the relative aging of the population will cause the demand for all health care occupations to increase. The need for police of ficers, firefighters, and guards also will increase as population grows and urbanization continues. Other occupations expected to grow faster than the average are cosmetologists, cooks and chefs, and waiters and waitresses. Rising incomes, increasing leisure time, and the growing number of women who combine family responsibilities and a job are likely to cause the de mand for these workers to rise. The following sections of the Handbook contain detailed informa tion on most of the service occupa tions mentioned here. Others are described in the industry statements on government; transportation, communications, and public utili ties; wholesale and retail trade; and service and miscellaneous indus tries. The health service occupa tions are included in the section on health care occupations, and state ments on Meatcutters, Pest Con trollers, and Funeral Directors can be found elsewhere in the Hand book. CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Every public building and apart BUILDING CUSTODIANS ment house needs to be kept clean (D.O.T. 187.168, 381.137 and and in good condition for the com .887; 382.884, 891.138) fort and safety of the people who work or live there. Much of this Nature of the Work work is done by persons in cleaning and related occupations. These Building custodians, sometimes workers may clean floors and win called janitors or cleaners, keep of dows in hospitals, change linens in fice buildings, hospitals, stores, and hotels, repair broken faucets in apartment houses clean and in good apartments, or exterminate insects condition. They see that heating and rodents in office buildings. and ventilating equipment work Workers in these occupations properly, clean floors and windows, usually learn their skills on the job, and do other necessary main but other training is sometimes tenance tasks. On a typical day, a available. Building custodians may custodian may wet- or dry-mop attend training programs offered by floors, vacuum carpets, dust furni unions and government agencies; ture, make minor repairs, and ex hotel housekeepers may take cour terminate insects and rodents. (See ses in housekeeping procedures and the statement on Pest Controllers interior design offered by their em elsewhere in the Handbook for more ployer. information on this occupation.) Besides a knowledge of their job, Custodians use many different these workers must be courteous, tools and cleaning materials. For tactful, and neat if their job requires one job they may need a mop and contact with the public. Some per bucket; for another an electric form monotonous and tiring tasks, polishing machine and a special such as scrubbing and waxing cleaning solution. Chemical floors, and must be able to stand the cleaners and power equipment have boredom of the job. made many tasks easier and less This section describes three time-consuming, but custodians cleaning and related occupations: must know how to use them Building Custodians, Pest Control properly to avoid harming floors lers, and Hotel Housekeepers and and fixtures. Assistants. Some custodians supervise a group of custodial workers and are responsible for maintaining a sec tion of a building or an entire build ing. They assign tasks to each worker, give instructions, and see that jobs, such as floor waxing or window washing, are done well. worked as building custodians. One-third worked part time. Most custodians worked in office buildings and factories, but schools, apartment houses, and hospitals also employed many. Some worked for firms supplying building main tenance services on a contract basis. Although custodial jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apartment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most custodial jobs, but the beginner should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow in structions. High school shop courses are helpful because minor plumbing or carpentry work may be a part of the job. Most building custodians learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners do routine cleaning and are given more complicated duties as they gain experience. In some cities, unions and government agencies have developed programs to teach custodial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers that they will use on the job. In struction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs is also given. As part of their training, stu dents learn to plan their work, to deal with people who live or work in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. A few training programs offer remedial courses in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Building custodians usually find work by answering newspaper ad Places of Employment vertisements, applying directly to a In 1974, more than 1.9 million company where they would like to people—75 percent of them men— work, or applying to a building evening work can expect to find many opportunities. Earnings and Working Conditions Building custodians spend most of their time on their feet, some times lifting or pushing heavy furni ture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Earnings of building custodians vary by industry and area of the country; workers in large cities of Sources of Additional the North Central region earn the Information highest wages. According to a Bu Information about custodial jobs reau of Labor Statistics survey of and training opportunities may be urban areas, custodians working in obtained from the local office of private industry had the following your State employment service. average hourly earnings in 1973-74. For general information on job opportunities and wage rates in local areas, contact: Average maintenance service. They also get jobs through State employment of fices. Custodial jobs in the govern ment are obtained by applying to the civil service personnel headquarters. Advancement opportunities for custodial workers are usually limited because the custodian is the only maintenance worker in many buildings. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, custodians can be promoted to su pervisory jobs. Having a high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some custodians go into business for themselves, main taining buildings for clients for a fee. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in this occupation are expected to be good through the mid-1980’s. The need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation will create thousands of jobs each year. Con struction of new office buildings, hospitals and apartment houses will increase the demand for main tenance services causing employ ment of custodians to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Persons seeking part-time or Industry Manufacturing.............................. Public utilities............................... Wholesale trade............................ Retail trade................................... Finance.......................................... Services......................................... hourly earnings $3.74 4.02 3.35 2.73 3.22 2.57 Service Employees International Union, 900 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. H O TEL HOUSEKEEPERS AND ASSISTAN TS Custodial workers generally earn (D.O.T. 321.138) about three-fourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsuperNature of the Work visory workers in private industry, A hotel’s or motel’s reputation except farming. Custodians working in the depends on how well it serves its Federal Government are paid at the guests. Although some offer same rates offered by private indus economical accommodations and others stress luxurious surroundings tries in the local area. Most building service workers and attentive service, all are con receive paid holidays and vacations, cerned with their guests’ comfort. Hotel housekeepers are responsible and health insurance. Because most office buildings are for keeping hotels and motels clean cleaned during the evening while and attractive and providing guests they are empty, custodians often with the necessary furnishings and work evening hours. In buildings supplies. It is their job to hire, train, requiring 24-hour maintenance, schedule and supervise cleaners, linen and laundry workers, and custodians may work a night shift. Although custodians usually repairers. They also keep employee work inside heated, well-lighted records and order supplies. More buildines. thev sometimes work than 18,000 persons, most of them outdoors sweeping walkways, mow women, worked as hotel house ing lawns, or shoveling snow. Work keepers in 1974. Housekeepers who work in small ing with machines can be noisy and some tasks, such as cleaning or middle-sized establishments may bathrooms and trash rooms, can be not only supervise the cleaning dirty. Custodial workers often staff, but perform some of these du suffer minor cuts, bruises, and ties themselves. In large or luxury burns caused by the machines, hand hotels, their jobs are primarily ad tools, and chemicals they use. ministrative and they are frequently called executive or head house keepers. Besides supervising a staff that may number in the hundreds, ex ecutive housekeepers prepare the budget for their departments; sub mit reports to the general manager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and suggested improve ments; and purchase supplies and furnishings. Executive housekeep ers are assisted by floor house keepers, who supervise the clean ing and maintenance of one or several floors in the hotel, and assistant executive housekeepers, who help with the administrative work. Some large hotel and motel chains assign executive house keepers to special jobs, such as reorganizing housekeeping procedures in an established hotel or setting up the housekeeping de partment in a new motel. preparation; interior decoration; and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and Although there are no specific fabrics. Executive housekeepers should educational requirements for be good at planning and organizing housekeepers, most employers prefer applicants who have at least work and must be able to get along a high school diploma. Experience well with people, especially those or training in hotel housekeeping they supervise. Housekeepers also should like to work independently also is helpful in getting a job. Several colleges and universities and be able to keep records and offer instruction in hotel adminis analyze numbers. Although assistant housekeepers tration that includes courses in may be promoted to executive housekeeping, and some of these courses are offered in summer or housekeepers after several years of opportunities are evening classes. Many schools have experience, developed programs under the limited because only one executive guidance and approval of the Na housekeeper job is available in any tional Executive Housekeepers As hotel or motel. sociation. In addition, the Amer Employment Outlook ican Hotel and Motel Association offers courses for either classroom Employment of hotel house or individual home study. Most keepers is expected to grow about helpful are courses on housekeep as fast as the average for all ing; personnel management; budget occupations through the mid- Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement 1980’s as additional hotels and motels are built. Most openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Because established hotels usually fill vacancies by promoting assistant housekeepers to executive housekeepers, beginners will find their best job opportunities in newly built motels or hotels. Competition is likely to be keen. See the statement on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of ad ditional information, and more in formation on the employment out look. PEST C O N TR O LLER S (D.O.T. 389.781 and 389.884) Nature of the Work Executive housekeepers usually use the telephone to place orders with suppliers or to inform the general manager of needed repairs or improvements in hotel guest rooms. Rats, mice, and common household insects, such as flies and roaches, contaminate food and spread sickness; termites can eat away houses. Protection of our health and property from these pests is the job of professional pest controllers who are classified either as pest control route workers or termite specialists. Although these fields of work are separate, many controllers do both. Pest control route workers serv ice restaurants, hotels, food stores, homes and other customers who have problems with rats, mice, and common household insects. Since these pests can be difficult to stamp out, many customers have contracts for regular service. Route workers serving such commercial accounts may visit a dozen or more locations in 1 day, and return to most of them 1 week to a month later. Service to homes may require only one to four visits a year. Route workers usually work alone. Termite specialists, on the other hand, may spend 1 day or more servicing a single building. Addi tional visits are seldom necessary, because a treatment usually keeps termites away for many years. Ter mite specialists frequently work in paris or are assisted by helpers. Pest controllers load their trucks or cars with chemical pesticides and other supplies and receive written instructions of services to be per formed. Most customers are billed, but sometimes they pay the pest controller who keeps work records, including pesticides used and amount of time spent at each loca tion. To choose the safest and most ef fective pesticide for each job, route workers must know the habits and hiding places of different insects and rodents, what attracts them, and how they get into buildings. Route workers spray liquid— usually premixed—pesticides be hind cabinets, under sinks, and in cracks and crevices. Dusting bulbs are used in some areas. Traps or poisonous baits are placed near areas where rats or mice nest. Route workers must be careful not to apply poisons around areas where food is exposed or where there would be a danger to children or pets. Most of their work is fairly routine, but occasionally they handle an unusual job, such as removing bird nests from an attic. Route workers tell customers how to correct conditions that at tract pests. For example, they may recommend replacing damaged garbage containers, sealing open food containers, and repairing cracks in walls. Subterranean termites, the most common wood-attacking insects, live in underground colonies and build mud “commuter tubes” to reach the house above. To destroy a colony, termite specialists put a poisonous chemical barrier between the colony and the wooden parts of the house. One way is to treat the soil around the foundation of the house using special tools at tached to a pressure pump. To block all avenues of entry, however, it is sometimes necessary to get at the soil underneath masonry sur faces, such as basement floors and brick steps. Termite specialists drill holes through these surfaces, and pour or pump the chemical into the holes. They seal these holes with a cement like putty and replace any floor coverings, such as tiles, which had to be removed. Because termites will not cross treated areas, those in the ground must find food Controllers know the habits and hiding places of different insects. or starve and those trapped in the house die for lack of moisture. Termite specialists sometimes have to alter buildings to prevent pests from returning. For example, they may raise foundations, install concrete flash walls, or insulate wood-to-earth contacts with concrete. Helpers assist termite specialists by digging around and underneath houses, helping set up and operate equipment, and mixing cement, and doing general cleanup work. Some highly experienced spe cialists inspect houses for termites, estimate costs, and explain the proposed work to customers. In most exterminating Firms, however, the manager, supervisor, or pest control salesworkers do these jobs. Places of Employment More than half of the estimated 27,000 pest controllers employed in 1974 were route workers; the rest were termite specialists and com bination route workers-termite spe cialists. Most pest controllers work for or own firms that specialize in this service. A small number work for Federal, State, and local govern ments. Jobs in this field can be found throughout the country. Employ ment, however, is concentrated in major metropolitan areas and large towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginning pest controllers are trained by supervisors and ex perienced workers. Many large firms also provide several weeks of training, which includes classes on the characteristics of termites or other pests, the safe and effective use of pesticides, customer rela tions, and the preparation of work records. To aid beginners, many employers provide training manuals. Beginners gain practical experience by helping pest control jobs resulting from employment route workers or termite specialists growth, the need to replace ex on the job. Most can complete perienced workers who retire or die training for routine work in one of or transfer to other occupations these occupations after 2 to 3 also will create many job openings. months. Because pests reproduce rapidly About 30 States currently require and tend to develop resistance to pest controllers to be licensed. In pesticides, their control is a never most States, the license is only for ending problem. Population growth registration, but a few require appli and further congestion of cants to pass a written examination. metropolitan areas will add to the Beginning in October 1976, the En need for more pest controllers. The vironmental Protection Agency will deterioration of older buildings also require that pest controllers be cer is increasing the need for these tified. All States will be required by workers, since buildings become law to give written or other tests to more prone to infestation as they determine that pest controllers are age. able to use pesticides competently and safely. Earnings and Working Employers prefer trainees who Conditions are high school graduates, have safe The starting pay for inex driving records, and are in good health. Many firms require their perienced trainees ranged from $2.50 to $3 an hour in 1974, based employees to be bonded; applicants for these jobs must have a record of on the limited information availa honesty and respect for the law. ble. Earnings of experienced pest Because route workers frequently controllers ranged from $3 to $,4.50 deal with customers, employers an hour. Some route workers are paid an look for applicants who are cour teous, tactful, and well-groomed. hourly rate or weekly salary. Others Termite specialists need manual receive a commission based upon dexterity and mechanical ability. charges' to customers. Nearly all Some firms give aptitude tests to termite specialists are paid an determine an applicant’s suitability hourly rate or weekly salary. for the work. On the average, pest controllers High school courses in chemistry work 40 to 44 hours a week. During and business arithmetic provide a spring and summer, however, hours helpful background for pest con may be longer because pests are trollers. Students interested in more prevalent. Most work is done becoming route workers also may during the day. Route workers, benefit from courses in sales. Those however, occasionally work nights interested in becoming termite spe because many restaurants and cialists can gain valuable ex stores do not want them to work perience by taking courses related while customers are present. to building construction such as Pest controllers work both in carpentry. doors and outdoors in all kinds of Experienced workers with ability weather. They frequently lift and can advance to higher paying posi carry equipment and materials, but tions, such as service manager or most items weigh less than 50 pounds. Route workers also do a pest-control salesworkers. great deal of walking. Termite spe Employment Outlook cialists occasionally must crawl Employment of pest controllers is under buildings and work in dirty, expected to grow faster than the cramped spaces. Workers in these average for all occupations through occupations are subject to some the mid-1980’s. In addition to the hazards. Although most pesticides are not harmful to humans, some can cause injury if they are inhaled or left on the skin. Such injuries, however, are avoided if safety precautions are followed. Because they spend a lot of time driving, route workers have a relatively high exposure to traffic hazards. Termite specialists risk injury from power tools and sharp or rough materials in buildings. Pest controllers are on their own to a great extent. They do not work under strict supervision and, within limits, may decide how they will handle a job. Sources of Additional Information Further information about op portunities in this field is available from local exterminating compa nies and the local office of the State employment service. General infor mation about the work can be ob tained from: National Pest Control Association, Inc.. 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va. 22180. FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Food service workers make up one of the largest and fastest grow ing occupational groups in the Na tion’s labor force. There are more than three times as many persons employed in food service as there are in the production and refining of oil, automobile manufacturing, and steel manufacturing combined. In 1974 more than 3 1/2 million persons were employed in food service, mostly in restaurants, hotels, factory and school cafe terias, and catering firms. Job opportunities can be found almost everywhere, because even very small communities have roadside diners and school cafeterias. There are no specific educational requirements for most food service work and skills usually can be learned on the job. Many restau rants hire inexperienced persons for jobs as dining room attendants, dishwashers, food counter workers, waiters and waitresses, and bar tenders. Experience is sometimes needed, however, to get one of these jobs in a large restaurant or catering firm. Persons who want to become cooks usually must have some prior experience in a food service occupation, such as kitchen helper or assistant cook*. Ex perienced workers may advance to food service manager, maitre d’hotel, head cook, or chef. Vocational schools, both public and private, offer courses in cook ing, catering, and bartending. Em ployment of food service workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. The demand for these workers will increase as new restaurants, cafeterias, and bars open in response to population growth and increased spending for food and beverages outside the home. Higher average incomes and more leisure time will allow people to eat out more often. Also, as an increasing number of wives work, families are finding dining out a welcome convenience. Detailed discussions of the work, training, outlook, and earnings of dining room attendants and dishwashers, food counter workers, waiters and waitresses, cooks and chefs, and bartenders are presented in the statements that follow. BARTENDERS (D.O.T. 312.878) Nature of the Work Cocktails range from the ordina ry to the exotic and bartenders make these concoctions by combin ing different kinds of liquor with other ingredients such as soft drinks, soda water, bitters, fruit ju ices, and cream. There are dozens of combinations, and each one can be made in several ways. Because some people have preferences for certain cocktail recipes, bartenders are often asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Besides cocktails, bartenders also serve wine, draft or bottled beer, and a wide variety of nonalcoholic beverages. Most bartenders take orders, serve drinks, and collect payment from customers. Others simply make drinks for waiters and waitresses to serve. Bartenders usually are responsi ble for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also ar range bottles and glasses to form a display, wash glassware, and clean the bar. Bartenders in large restaurants or hotels usually have bartender hel pers (D.O.T. 312.887) to assist them with their duties. Helpers keep the bar supplied with liquor, mixes, and ice; stock refrigerators with wine and beer; and replace empty beer kegs with full ones. They also keep the bar area clean and remove empty bottles and trash. Places of Employment Most of the 233,000 bartenders employed in 1974 worked in restau rants and bars, but many also had jobs in hotels and private clubs. Roughly one-fifth were self-em ployed. Several thousand people tend bar part time, many of whom have full time jobs in other occupations or attend college. Part-time workers often serve at banquets and private parties; usually they get these jobs through union clearinghouses. A growing proportion of bartend ers are women. About one-third were women in 1974, compared to only one-tenth in 1960. Most bartenders work in the urban population centers of New York, California, and other large States, but many are employed in small communities also. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some bartenders alternate between summer and winter resorts rather than remain in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bartenders learn their trade on the job. Although preparing drinks at home can be good prac tice, it does not qualify a person to be a bartender. Besides knowing a Employment Outlook Most bartenders learn their trade on the job. variety of cocktail recipes, bartend ers must know how to stock a bar properly, and be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Young persons who wish to become bartenders can get good experience by working as bartender helpers, dining room attendants, waiters, or waitresses. By watching the bartender at work, they can learn how to mix drinks and do other bartending tasks. Some private schools offer short courses in bartending that include intruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Bartenders should have pleasant personalities because they deal with the public. They need physical stamina, since they stand while they work and* also may have to lift heavy kegs and cases. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer those who are 25 or older. Some States require bar tenders to have health certificates assuring that they are free from contagious diseases. In some in stances, they must be bonded. Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and resorts usually offer a beginner the best entry opportuni ties. After gaining experience, a bartender may wish to work in a large restaurant or cocktail lounge where pay is higher and promotion opportunities are greater. Promo tion may be to head bartender, wine steward, or beverage manager. Some bartenders open their own business. Employment of bartenders is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings caused by employ ment growth, several thousand will arise annually from the need to replace experienced bartenders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The demand for bartenders will increase as new restaurants, hotels, and bars open in response to popu lation growth and as the amount spent for food and beverages out side the home increases. Higher average incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner or cocktails more often, and to take more vacations. Also, as more wives work, families are find ing dining out a welcome con venience. Job opportunities for bartenders should be especially favorable in States that have recently liberalized their drinking laws. In the early 1970’s 25 States either lowered the drinking age or legalized the sale of liquor by the drink, or both, and some other States may follow suit. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings of bartenders ranged from $2.90 to $5.40 in 1974, according to limited data from union contracts in the restau rant industry. Besides wages, bar tenders often receive tips that in crease their earnings. Bartenders usually receive free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or complete uniforms. Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, and night and weekend work and split shifts are common. For many bartenders, however, the opportunity to social ize with customers and the possibili ty of someday managing or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disadvantages. For others, the opportunity to get part-time work is important. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union, which is the principal union organizing bartenders, and from the State em ployment service. For general information on job opportunities in bartending, write to: National Institute for the Food Service In dustry, 120 S. Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. COOK S AND CHEFS cooks, and many kitchen helpers. Each cook usually has a special as signment and often a special job title—pastry, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Head cooks or chefs coor dinate the work of the kitchen staff, and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Places of Employment About 955,000 cooks and chefs were employed in 1974. Most worked in restaurants, but many worked in schools, colleges, and hospitals. Government agencies, factories, private clubs, and many other kinds of organizations also employed cooks and chefs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cooks acquire their skills on the job while employed as kitchen helpers although it is becoming common for cooks to have high school or post high school training in food preparation. Less frequently, they are trained as ap prentices under trade union con tracts or in the training programs some large hotels and restaurants have for new employees. Inex perienced workers usually can qualify as assistant or fry cooks after several months of on-the-job training, but acquiring all-round skills as head cook or chef in a fine restaurant often takes several years. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and (D.O.T. 313.131 through .887; 314.381 through .878; and 315.131 through .381) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant, whether it prides itself on “ home cooking” or exotic foreign cuisine. Cooks and chefs are largely respon sible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants and hotels where they work because of their skill in creat ing new dishes and improving familiar ones. A cook’s work depends partly on the size of the restaurant. Many small restaurants offer a limited number of short order dishes that are relatively simple to prepare, plus pies and other baked goods bought from bakeries. One cook usually prepares all of the food with the aid of a short order cook and one or two kitchen helpers. Large eating places usually have more varied menus and prepare more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include severat cooks, sometimes called assistant A restaurant’s reputation depends largely on the skills of its cooks. business administration are helpful in becoming a cook or chef. Persons who have had courses in restaurant cooking will have an ad vantage when looking for jobs in large restaurants and hotels where hiring standards are often high. Many vocational programs in both public and private high schools offer this kind of training to stu dents. Other courses, ranging from a few months to 2 years or more, and open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given under the guidance of restaurant associa tions, hotel management groups, trade unions, and technical schools and colleges. The Armed Forces are also a good source of training and experience in food service work. Although curricula may vary, stu dents usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice in wellequipped kitchens. Students learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. They also may be taught to select and store food, use leftovers, determine the size of portions, plan menus, and buy food supplies in quantity. Stu dents also learn hotel and restau rant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Many school districts provide onthe-job training and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria workers who wish to become cooks. School cooks are selected from em ployees who have participated. Persons who want to become cooks or chefs should like to work with people in a team relationship and be able to work under pressure during busy periods. Cleanliness and a keen sense of taste and smell also are important qualifications. Most States require health cer tificates indicating that cooks and chefs are free from contagious dis eases. Many cooks acquire higher pay ing positions and new cooking skills by moving from restaurant to restaurant. Others advance to su pervisory jobs. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restau rant owners; others may become in structors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and community colleges, and other institutions. Employment Outlook Employment of cooks and chefs is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to employment growth, thousands of job openings will arise annually from the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The demand for cooks and chefs will increase as population grows and people spend more money on eating out. Higher personal in comes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner more often and to take more vaca tions. Also, as an increasing number of wives work, more families are finding dining out a welcome con venience. Small restaurants and other eat ing places having simple food preparation will provide the greatest number of starting jobs for cooks. However, beginners who have had training in restaurant cooking may find jobs available in hotels and restaurants where foods are prepared more elaborately. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, hourly pay rates ranged from $3 to $5.90 for chefs, from $2.60 to $4.90 for cooks of various types, and from $2.30 to $2.90 for assistant cooks, according to limited data from union contracts in several large metropolitan areas. Wages of cooks and chefs vary depending on the part of the country and the type of establish ment in which they work. Wages generally are higher in the West and in large, well-known restaurants and hotels. Cooks and chefs in famous restaurants earn much more than the minimum rates and several chefs with national reputations earn more than $40,000 a year. Hours in restaurants may include late even ing, holiday, and weekend work, and range from 40 to 48 hours a week. Cooks employed in public and private schools work regular school hours during the school year only, usually for 9 months. Many kitchens are air-condi tioned and have convenient work areas and modern equipment. Others, particularly in older or smaller eating places, are often not as well equipped and working con ditions may be less desirable. In all kitchens, however, cooks must stand most of the time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. The principal union organizing cooks and chefs is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union, and local offices of the State employ ment service. General information about restaurant cooks and chefs is availa ble from: American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park,N.Y. 12538. Educational Director, National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, III. 60606. The Educational Institute, American Hotel and Motel Association, 1407 S. Har rison Rd., Michigan State University, Stephen S. Nisbet Bldg., East Lansing, Mich. 48823. The Council on Hotel, Restaurant and In stitutional Education, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. American Culinary Federation, 1407 S. Har rison Rd., Room 310, Michigan State University, Stephen S. Nisbet Bldg., East Lansing, Mich. 48823. (D.O.T. 311.878 and 318.887) are from attendant to waiter, and from dishwasher to cook’s helper or short-order cook. Advancement opportunities generally are best in large restaurants. Nature of the Work Employment Outlook Clean and attractive table settings are as important to a restaurant's reputation as the quali ty of food it serves. An egg-stained fork, soiled tablecloth, or empty salt shaker can make a customer unhappy. Dining room attendants and dishwashers provide the quick hands and sharp eyes needed to prevent such problems. Attendants do many jobs that otherwise waiters would have to do. They clear and reset tables, carry dirty dishes from the dining area to the kitchen and return with trays of food, and clean up spilled food and broken dishes. By taking care of these details, attendants give waiters more time to serve customers. In some restaurants, attendants also help by serving water and bread and butter to customers. When business is light, they do odd jobs like refilling salt and pepper shakers and cleaning coffee urns. Dishwashers pick up where the attendants leave off—with the dirty dishes. They operate special machines that clean silverware and dishes quickly and efficiently. Oc casionally, they may have to make minor adjustments to keep machines operating properly. Dish washers scrub large pots and pans by hand. In addition, they clean refrigerators and other kitchen equipment, sweep and mop floors, and carry out trash. Job openings for dining room at tendants and dishwashers are ex pected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who find jobs in other occupations, retire, or die. Turnover is particu larly high among part-time workers. About one-half of the attendants and dishwashers are students, most of whom work part time while at tending school and then find other jobs after graduation. Additional ope'nings will result from employment growth. Employ ment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s as population growth and higher in come create more business for restaurants. DINING ROOM A TTE N D A N TS AND DISHWASHERS Many dishwashers are students who work part-time. hotels. Dishwashers also work in schools and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Little formal education is needed to qualify for jobs as dining room attendants and dishwashers. Many employers will hire applicants who do not speak English. Some men tally retarded persons can be trained as dishwashers. Attendants and dishwashers must have good health and physical stamina because they stand most of the time and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require them to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious diseases. Attend ants must have a neat appearance Places of Employment and the ability to get along with About 210,000 dishwashers and people. Although little education is 160,000 attendants were employed needed to do these jobs, the ability in 1974. Many worked only part to read, write, and do simple time. Most attendants and dishwashers arithmetic is required for promo work in restaurants, bars, and tion. Typical lines of advancement Earnings and Working Conditions Dining room attendants and dish washers have relatively low earnings. Limited data from union contracts that cover restaurants and bars in several large cities indicate that hourly rates for these workers ranged from $1.30 to $3 in 1974. These amounts were below the average earnings of most other nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Attendants may receive a per centage of waiters’ tips in addition to wages. Tips often average between 10 and 20 percent of patrons’ checks. The majority of employers pro vide free meals at work and furnish uniforms. Paid vacations are cus tomary, and various types of health insurance and pension plans may be offered. Most attendants and dishwashers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day during either the lunch or dinner period. Others work both periods but may take a few hours off in the middle of the day. Weekend and holiday work often is required. Job hazards include the possibili ty of falls, cuts, and burns, but inju ries seldom are serious. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union, and local offices of the State employ ment service. Names of local unions can be obtained from the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union, 120 East 4th St., Cin cinnati, Ohio 45202. For general information about dining room attendants and dish washers, write to: National Restaurant Association, One IBM Plaza, Suite 2600, Chicago, 111. 60611. FOOD COUNTER W ORKERS (D.O.T. 311.878 and 319.878) Nature of the Work Counter workers serve customers in eating places that specialize in fast service and inexpensive food, such as hamburger and fried chicken carryouts, drugstore soda fountains, and school and public cafeterias. About 350,000 persons had food counter jobs in 1974, most of whom worked part time. Typical duties of counter workers include taking customers’ orders, serving food and beverages, making out checks, and taking payments. At drugstore fountains and in diners, they also may cook, make sandwiches and cold drinks, and Food counter worker takes order. prepare sundaes and other ice cream dishes. In hamburger carry outs, where food is prepared in an assembly-line manner, counter workers may take turns waiting on customers, making French fries, toasting buns, and doing other jobs. Counter workers in cafeterias fill plates for customers and keep the serving line supplied with desserts, salads, and other dishes. Unlike other counter workers, they usually do not take payments and make change. Counter workers also do odd jobs, such as cleaning kitchen equipment, sweeping and mopping floors, and carrying out trash. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the counter jobs that require totaling bills and making change, employers prefer to hire persons who are good in arithmetic and have attended high school, although a diploma usually is not necessary. There usually are no specific educational requirements for counter jobs in cafeterias. Because counter workers deal with the public, a pleasant per sonality and neat appearance are important. Good health and physi cal stamina also are needed because they stand most of the time and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require counter workers to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious disease. Opportunities for advancement are limited, especially in small eat ing places. Some counter workers move into higher paying jobs and learn new skills by transferring to a larger restaurant. Advancement can be to cashier, cook, waiter or waitress, or to counter or fountain supervisor. Many large companies, such as the nationwide hamburger carryout chains, operate formal management training programs. Counter workers who show leadership ability may qualify for these programs. Employment Outlook Job openings for food counter workers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Most openings will result from turnover—replace ment of workers who find jobs in other occupations, retire, or die. Many counter workers are high school and college students who work part time while attending school and find jobs in other occu pations after graduation. Because of the high turnover, jobs for counter workers are relatively easy to find. Additional job openings will result from employment growth. Employment is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s as population growth and higher income create more business for eating places. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly rates for food counter workers ranged from $1.90 to $2.60 in 1974, based on limited data from union contracts that covered eating places in several large cities. These amounts were well below the average earnings for most other nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. However, some counter workers, such as those in drugstores and diners, receive tips which can be greater than hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 and 20 percent of patrons’ checks. Counter workers usually receive free meals at work, and may be furnished with uniforms. Most counter workers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day for either the lunch or dinner period. Many others work both periods, but may take a few hours off in the mid dle of the day. Flexible schedules often allow students to fit their working hours around their classes. Weekend and holiday work often is required. Job hazards include the possibili ty of falls, cuts, and burns; but inju ries seldom are serious. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union, and local offices of the State employ ment service. Names of local unions are available from the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union, 120 East 4th St., Cin cinnati, Ohio 45202. For general information about food counter workers, write to: In preparing a beef carcass, meat cutters divide it into halves with a band saw, and then into quarters by cutting each half between the ribs with a knife and sawing through the backbone. A saw or knife is used to divide the quarters into primal cuts such as T-bone steaks or rib roasts. Meatcutters divide the primal cut into pieces small enough for an average serving. Meatcutters use a butcher knife or sheer to divide boneless cuts and a band saw or cleaver to divide pieces that contain bones. Any bone chips left on the meat are scraped off with a knife or brushed off by a machine. Cutters grind trimmings into hamburger. Places of Employment About 200,000 persons worked as meatcutters in 1974. They had jobs in almost every city and town in the Nation. Most meatcutters worked in retail foodstores. A few worked in wholesale stores, restau rants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Meatcutters acquire their skills on the job either informally or National Restaurant Association, One IBM through apprenticeship programs. Plaza, Suite 2600, Chicago, III. 60611. Generally, trainees begin by doing odd jobs, such as removing bone chips from retail cuts. Under the guidance of skilled meatcutters, M EATCUTTERS they learn about the various cuts (D.O.T. 316.781, 316.884) and grades of meats and the proper use of tools and equipment. After Nature of the Work demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide primal cuts into in Meatcutters prepare meat, fish, dividual portions and to divide and poultry in supermarkets or quarters into primal cuts. Trainees wholesale food outlets. Their pri may learn to cut and prepare fish mary duty is to divide animal car and poultry, roll and tie roasts, casses into steaks, roasts, chops, prepare sausage, and cure and corn and other serving-sized portions. meat. Later, they may learn mar They also may prepare meat products such as sausage and keting operations such as inventory control, meat buying and grading, corned beef. Cutters who work in and recordkeeping. retail foodstores may set up counter Meatcutters who learn the trade displays and wait on customers. through apprenticeship generally complete 2 to 3 years of supervised on-the-job training which may be supplemented by some classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices are given a meatcutting test which is observed by their employer. A union member is also present in union shops. Ap prentices who pass the test qualify as meatcutters. Those who fail can take the test again at a later time. In many areas, apprentices may become meatcutters in less than the usual training time if they can pass the test. Employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma and the potential to develop into meat de partment managers. High school or vocational school courses in busi ness arithmetic are helpful in weighing and pricing meats and in making change. Manual dexterity, good depth perception, color discrimination, and good eye-hand coordination are important in cutting meat. A pleasant personality, a neat ap pearance, and the ability to com municate clearly also are important qualifications when cutters wait on customers. Better than average strength is necessary since cutters work standing up and often lift heavy loads. In some communities, a health certificate may be required for employment. Meat cutters may progress to su pervisory jobs, such as meat depart ment managers in supermarkets. A few become meat buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some cutters open their own meat markets or retail foodstores. Employment Outlook Little change in the number of meatcutters is expected through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, thousands of entry jobs will be available as experienced .workers retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. Central cutting, the practice of having one location at which meat for several stores is cut and wrapped, will limit the demand for meatcutters. Central cutting, which permits meatcutters to specialize in both a type of meat and a type of cut, increases efficiency. This spe cialization also reduces the amount of training and skill necessary to become a cutter. Earnings and Working Conditions According to union contracts in six large cities, hourly earnings of most meatcutters ranged from about $4.70 to $6.80 in 1974. Beginning apprentices usually receive between 60 and 70 percent of the experienced cutter’s wage and generally receive increases every 6 to 8 months. Cutters work in coldrooms designed to prevent meat from spoiling. They must be careful when working with sharp tools, especially those that are powered. Most cutters are members of the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North Amer ica. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportu nities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For in formation on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: American Meat Institute, 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60605. Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America, 2800 North Sheridan Rd., Chicago, III. 60657. can be to cashier or supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, headwaiter, or hostess. Some superviso ry workers advance to jobs as restaurant managers. Employment Outlook WAITERS AND W AITRESSES (D.O.T. 311.138 through .878) Nature of the Work Waiters and waitresses take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, make out checks, and sometimes take payments. In diners, coffee shops, and other About one-fourth of waiters and wait small restaurants they provide fast, resses are students, most of whom efficient service. In other restau work part-time. rants, waiters and waitresses serve food at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal service to their waitresses alternate between customers. For example, they may summer and winter resorts instead suggest wines and explain the of remaining in one area the entire preparation of items on the menu. year. Waiters and waitresses may have duties other than waiting on tables. Training, Other Qualifications, They set up and clear tables and and Advancement carry dirty dishes to the kitchen. In very small restaurants they may Most employers prefer to hire ap combine waiting on tables with plicants who have had at least 2 or 3 counter service, preparing sand years of high school. Although most wiches, or cashiering. In large waiters and waitresses pick up their restaurants and in places where skills on the job, some public and meal service is formal, waiters and private schools and restaurant as waitresses are relieved of most ad sociations offer special training. ditional duties. Dining room attend A neat appearance, an even ants often set up tables, fill water disposition, and stamina are impor glasses, and do other routine tasks. tant qualifications. Waiters and waitresses also should be good at Places of Employment arithmetic and, in a few restaurants, About 1,180,000 waiters and knowledge of a foreign language is waitresses were employed in 1974. helpful. State laws often require More than half worked part time waiters and waitresses to obtain (less than 35 hours a week). Most health certificates showing that worked in restaurants; some they are free of contagious diseases. In most small eating places op worked in hotels, colleges, and fac tories that have restaurant facilities. portunities for promotion are Jobs are located throughout the limited. After gaining experience, country but are most plentiful in however, a waiter or waitress may large cities and tourist areas. Vaca transfer to a larger restaurant where tion resorts offer seasonal employ earnings and prospects for advance ment and some waiters and ment may be better. Advancement Job openings are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead, mainly due to the need to replace the waiters and waitresses who find other jobs or who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Turn over is particularly high among part-time workers. About onefourth of the waiters and waitresses are students, most of whom work part-time while attending school and then find other jobs after graduation. In addition to the job openings from turnover, many will result from employment growth. Employment of waiters and waitresses is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the midr 1980’s as population growth and higher incomes create more busi ness for restaurants. Higher in comes and.more leisure time will permit people to eat out more oftea Also, as an increasing number of wives work, more and more fami lies may find dining out a welcome convenience. Beginners will find their best op portunities for employment in the thousands of informal restaurants. Those who seek jobs in swank restaurants may find keen competi tion for the jobs that become availa ble. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly rates for waiters and waitresses (excluding tips) ranged from $1.20 to $3 in 1974, ac cording to limited data from union contracts that covered eating and drinking places in several large cities. For many waiters and waitresses, however, tips are greater than hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and waitresses receive meals at work and many are furnished with uniforms. Some waiters and waitresses work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. They also may work on holidays and weekends. The wide range in dining hours creates a good oppor tunity for part-time work. Waiters and waitresses stand most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food. During dining hours they may have to rush to serve several tables at once. The work is relatively safe, but they must be careful to avoid slips or falls, and burns. The principal union organizing waiters and waitresses is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the union previ ously mentioned, and local offices of the State employment service. General information on waiter and waitress jobs is available from: National Institute for the Food Service In dustry, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institu tional Education, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. greatest demand for their services exists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement PERSONAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Personal service workers perform difficult or time-consuming tasks for people, such as cleaning and pressing clothes, carrying baggage, or arranging funerals. Some of these tasks require special skills that must be learned through for mal training; others require skills that can be learned on the job. For some personal service jobs, workers must obtain State licenses after completing a training program or apprenticeship. Persons entering these occupa tions should be neat, tactful and able to get along well with people because success on the job depends on the impression personal service workers make on their customers. Physical stamina is necessary for those jobs that involve lifting heavy objects or standing for long periods of time. Personal service workers may receive salaries, commissions or both. In many cases they also receive tips that add substantially to their income. Employers often furnish uniforms for jobs that require them. Some workers, like barbers and cosmetologists, must provide their own tools. This section describes four per sonal service occupations: Barbers, Cosmetologists, Funeral Directors and Embalmers, and Bellhops and Bell Captains. BARBERS (D.O.T. 330.371) Nature of the Work Although most men go to a barber for just a haircut, other ser vices such as hairstyling and color ing are becoming increasingly popular. Barbers trained in these areas are called “ hairstylists” and work in styling salons, unisex salons, and some barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each customer and may color or straighten hair and fit hair pieces. All barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, facial massages, and shampoos. A small but growing number of barbers cut and style women’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons and may have male and female customers. Most States require a cosmetologist’s license as well as a barber’s license, however, to per manent wave or color women’s hair. As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs and other instruments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Those who own or manage a shop have additional responsibili ties such as ordering supplies, pay ing bills, keeping records, and hir ing employees. Places of Employment Most of the 130,000 barbers in 1974 worked in barbershops. Some worked in unisex salons, and a few worked for government agencies, hotels or department stores. More than half of all barbers operated their own businesses. About 95 percent of all barbers are men. All cities and towns have bar bershops, but employment is con centrated in the most populous cit ies and States. Hairstylists usually work in large cities where the All States require barbers to be licensed. The qualifications neces sary to get a license vary from one State to another, however. Generally a person must be a gradu ate of a State-approved barber school, have completed the eighth grade, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 (in some States 18) years old. Nearly all States require a beginner to take an examination for an apprentice license, and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the examination required for a license as a registered barber. In the examinations, the applicant usually is required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform the basic services. Fees for these examinations range from $5 to $75. A few States do not charge a fee for the apprentice examination. Because most States do not recognize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses obtained in another State, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a barber school. Barber training is offered in many public and private schools and a few vocational schools. Courses usually last 6 to 12 months. Trainees buy their own tools which cost about $200. They study the basic services—haircutting, shav ing, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under su pervision, practice on fellow stu dents and on customers in school “clinics.” Besides attending lec tures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, students take courses in sanitation and hy giene, and learn how to recognize certain skin conditions. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. Advanced cour ses are available in some localities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hairstyl ing, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better than average disposition. Good health and stamina also are important because barbers stand a great deal and work with both hands at shoulder level— a position that can be tiring. Beginners may get their first jobs through the barber school they at tended, or through the local barber’s union or employer’s as sociation. Some experienced barbers ad vance by becoming managers of large shops or by opening their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into busi ness for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. New equipment for a one-chair shop cost from $1,500 to $2,800 in 1974. Some shopowners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, how ever. Employment Outlook The employment decline of the last decade is expected to level off by the mid-1980’s as population growth and the increasing populari ty of hairstyling offset the effect of the fashion for longer hair. Although little change is expected in the level of employment, several thousand job openings will result each year from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Replacement needs are relatively high because barbers are somewhat older, on the average, than workers in other oc cupations. The shift in consumer prefer ences from regular haircuts to more personalized and intensive services has greatly affected the oc cupation. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have been more success ful than those who offer conven tional services. This trend is ex pected to continue, and employ ment will probably decline in the short run. In the long run, however, em ployment prospects should improve as population growth and the in creasing popularity of hairstyling cause the demand for barbering services to rise. Employment op portunities should be better for hairstylists than for regular barbers. ability to attract and hold regular customers. Most full-time barbers work more than 40 hours a week and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Although Saturdays and lunch hours are generally very busy, a barber may have some time off during slack periods. To assure an even workload, some barbers ask customers to make appoint ments. Under some union con tracts, barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vacations, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union which or ganizes barbers—both employees and shopowners—is the Jour neymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists and Proprietors’ In ternational Union of America. The principal professional association which represents and organizes shopowners, managers and em ployees is the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of Amer ica. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 65 to 75 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings of experienced barbers (including tips) generally ranged between $175 and $225 in 1974, according to limited informa tion available. Hairstylists usually earned $275 to $350 a week, because the services they provide are more personalized and there fore more expensive. Some hairstylists and a few barbers who operated their own shops earned more than $400 a week. Beginning barbers usually earn about $155 to $175 a week, hairstylists $175 to $225 a week. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ tipping habits, competition from other barbershops, and the barber’s Information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools is available from the State Board of Barber examiners or other State authority at each State capital. For general information on train ing facilities and State licensing laws, contact: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc. 361 24th St., Ogden, Utah 84401. Additional information on this occupation is available from: Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Road, P.O. Box 17782, Charlotte, N.C. 28211. National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Road, Bronx, N.Y. 10467. Information on barber schools is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St. NW., Room 440, Washington, D.C. 20036. Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of ad ditional information, and more in formation on employment outlook. BELLHOPS AND BELL CAPTAINS (D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) Nature of the Work Bellhops carry baggage for hotel and motel guests and escort them to their rooms on arrival. When show ing new guests to their rooms, bell hops make sure everything is in order and may offer information about valet services, dining room hours, or other hotel services. Bell hops also run errands for guests and may relieve elevator operators or switchboard operators. Large and medium-sized hotels employ bell captains to supervise bellhops on the staff. They plan work assignments, record the hours each bellhop is on duty, and train new employees. Bell captains take care of any unusual requests guests may make and handle any com plaints regarding their department. Sometimes they help arriving or de parting guests if a bellhop is unavailable. In 1974, more than 17,000 persons, most of them men, worked as bellhops and bell cap tains. A few hotels have large service departments and employ superin tendents of service to supervise bell captains and bellhops, elevator operators, doorkeepers, and washroom attendants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific educational require ments exist for bellhops, although high school graduation improves the chances for promotion to a job as desk clerk or reservation clerk. Many hotels fill bellhop jobs by promoting elevator operators. Because bellhops have frequent contact with guests, they must be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the local area is an as set because guests often ask about local tourist attractions, restau C O SM ETO LO G ISTS (D.O.T. 332.271 and .381; 331.878 and339.371) Nature of the Work rants, and transportation serv ices. Bellhops also must be able to stand for long periods, carry heavy baggage, and work independently. Bellhops can advance to bell cap tain and then to superintendent of service, but opportunities are limited. Because there is only one bell captain position in each hotel, many years may pass before an opening occurs. Opportunities for advancement to superintendent of service are even fewer. Employment Outlook Employment of bellhops is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Most openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Although many motels now offer services similar to those of a hotel and employ bellhops, the growing popularity of economy motels that offer only basic services is expected to limit employment growth. New workers will have better opportuni ties in motels and small hotels because the large luxury hotels prefer to hire experienced workers. Opportunities also will be available in resort areas where hotels and motels are open only part of the year. See the statement on the Hotel Hair has been a center of atten tion since women and men first began to care about their ap pearance. Throughout history a great deal of effort has gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Although styles change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s task remains the same; to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, who also are called beauty operators, hairdres sers, or beauticians, shampoo, cut and style hair, and advise customers on how to care for their hair. Frequently they straighten or per manent wave a customer’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetolo gists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair to better suit the customer’s skin color. Cosmetolo gists may give manicures and scalp and facial treatments, provide makeup analysis for women, and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Most cosmetologists make ap pointments and keep records of hair color formulas and permanent waves used by their regular customers. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize their hairdressing implements. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which in clude hiring and supervising work ers, keeping records, and ordering supplies. Places of Employment Most of the 500,000 cosmetolo- gists employed in 1974 worked in beauty salons. Some worked in unisex shops, barber shops, or de partment stores, and a few were employed by hospitals and hotels. More than a third operated their own businesses. Over 90 percent of all cosmetolo gists are women, and the proportion of men in the occupation has declined slightly in recent years. All cities and towns have beauty salons, but employment is concen trated in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetologists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the perform ing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifications necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a Stateapproved cosmetology school, have completed at least the 10th grade, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 years old. In some States completion of an apprenticeship training program can substitute for graduation from a cosmetology school, but very few cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is of fered in both public and private vo cational schools, in either daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; an evening course takes longer. Many public school programs include the academic subjects needed for a high school diploma and last 2 to 3 years. An apprenticeship program usually lasts 1 or 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, demon strations, and practical work. Most schools provide students with the necessary hairdressing implements, such as scissors, razors, and hair During a make-up analysis, cosmetologists show customers how to care for their skin and enhance their appearance by using make-up. rollers, and include their cost in the tuition fee. Sometimes students must purchase their own. A good set of implements costs about $65.00. Beginning students work on manikins or on each other. Once they have gained some experience, students practice on customers in school “ clinics.” After graduating from a cosmetology course, students take the State licensing examination. The examination consists of a writ ten test and a practical test in which applicants demonstrate their ability to provide the required services. In some States an oral examination is included and the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practi cal test. In some States a separate examination is given for persons who want only a manicurist’s license. Most States have reciprocity agreements that allow a cosmetologist licensed in one State to work in another without re-examination. Persons who want to become cosmetologists must have finger dexterity, a sense of form and artis try, and the physical stamina to stand for long periods of time. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow customers’ instructions. Because hairstyles are constantly changing, cosmetologists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are im portant for those who plan to operate their own salons. Practically all schools help their students find jobs. During their first months on the job, new cosmetolo gists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving manicures or shampoos, or are assigned to work on customers who are not regular patrons. Once they have demon strated their skill, they are assigned to regular customers and perform the more complicated tasks of styl ing, coloring, and permanent wav ing hair. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele; but many manage large salons or open their own after several years of ex perience. Some teach in cosmetolo gy schools or use their knowledge and skill to demonstrate cosmetics in department stores. A few work as inspectors for State cosmetology boards. for these workers because many men go to unisex shops or beauty salons for styling services. In addi tion to openings due to growth in the occupation, thousands of cosmetologists will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Employment in this occupation is not strongly affected by downturns in the business cycle, and job op portunities are expected to be good for both newcomers and ex perienced cosmetologists. Many openings should be available for persons seeking part-time work. Earnings and Working Conditions Cosmetologists receive income from commissions or wages and from tips. Those who are not shop owners receive a percentage of the money they take in, usually 50 per Employment Outlook cent; a few are paid straight sala Employment of cosmetologists is ries. expected to grow about as fast as the Weekly earnings of experienced average for all occupations through cosmetologists (including tips) the mid-1980’s as population in generally ranged between $250 and creases and the number of working $300 in 1974, according to limited women rises. The trend to hairstyl information available. After 10 ing for men also creates a demand years of experience, they can earn more than $400 a week. Beginners usually earned $75 to $ 100 a week. Those cosmetologists who cut and style men’s hair often earn more than those who work on women’s hair because the services they provide are more expensive. The few cosmetologists who set hairstyle trends earn $ 1,000 a week or more. Earnings also depend on the size and location of the salon, customers’ tipping habits, competi tion from other beauty salons, and the individual cosmetologist’s abili ty to attract and hold regular customers. Many full-time cosmetologists work more than 40 hours a week, Some cosmetologists work for menu* including evenings and Saturdays fecturers of heir-cere products end when beauty salons are busiest. demonstrete heir-cutting end styling More than one-third of all techniques at trade shows and conven cosmetologists work part time, tions. usually during these busy hours. A few large salons and depart ment stores offer group life and health insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s service. The principal union which or ganizes cosmetologists—both em ployees and salon owners—is the Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists, and Proprietor’s International Union of America. The principal trade association which represents and organizes salon owners and managers is the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Other or ganizations include the National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association, Inc.; the National As sociation of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which represents school owners and teachers; and the Na tional Beauty Culturists’ League, representing black cosmetologists, teachers, managers, and salon owners. Sources of Additional Information A list of approved training schools and licensing requirements can be obtained from State boards of cosmetology. Additional infor mation about careers in cosmetolo gy and State licensing requirements is available from: National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 19467. National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103. For general information about the occupation, contact: Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists, and Proprietors Inter national Union of America, 7050 West Washington St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46241. National Association of Cosmetology Schools, 599 South Livingston Ave., Livingston, N.J. 07039. FUNERAL DIRECTORS AND EMBALMERS (D.O.T. 187.168 and 338.381) Nature of the Work Few occupations require the tact, discretion, and compassion called for in the work of funeral directors and embalmers. The family and friends of the deceased may be under considerable emotional stress and bewildered by the many details of the occasion. The funeral director (D.O.T. 187.168) helps them to make the personal and business ar rangements necessary for the serv ice and burial. The embalmer (D.O.T. 338.381) prepares the body for viewing and burial. In many instances, one person per forms both functions. The director’s duties begin when a call is received from a family requesting services. After arranging for the deceased to be removed to the funeral home, the director ob tains the information needed for the death certificate, such as date and place of birth and cause of death. The director makes an appointment with the family to discuss the details of the funeral. These include: time and place of service; clergy and or ganist; selection of casket and clothing, and provisions for burial or cremation. Directors also make arrangements with the cemetery, place obituary notices in newspapers, and take care of other details as necessary. Directors must be familiar with the funeral and bu rial customs of various religious faiths and fraternal organizations. Embalming is a sanitary and preservative measure, and under certain circumstances, such as delayed burials, is required by law. Embalmers, perhaps with the help of apprentices, first wash the body with germicidal soap. The embalm ing process itself replaces the blood with a preservative fluid. Embal mers apply cosmetics to give the body a natural appearance and, if necessary, restore disfigured fea tures. Finally, they dress the body and place it in the casket selected by the family. On the day of the funeral, directors provide cars for the family and pallbearers, receive and usher guests to their seats, and organize the funeral procession. After the service they may help the family file claims for social security, in surance, and other benefits. Directors may serve a family for several months following the fu neral until such matters are satisfac torily completed. Places of Employment About 45,000 persons were licensed as funeral directors and embalmers in 1974. A substantial number of the directors were fu neral home owners. Most of the 23,000 funeral homes in 1974 had 1 to 3 directors and embalmers, including the owner. Many large homes, how ever, had 20 or more. Besides the embalmers employed by funeral homes, several hundred worked for morgues and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is needed to practice embalming. State licensing stand ards vary but generally an em balmer must be 21 years old, have a high school diploma or its equivalent, graduate from a mor tuary science school, serve an ap prenticeship, and pass a State board examination. One-half of the States require a year or more of college in addition to training in mortuary science. All but six States also require fu neral directors to be licensed. Qualifications are similar to those for embalmers, but directors may have special apprenticeship training and board examinations. Most peo ple entering the field obtain both licenses. Information on licensing requirements is available from the State office of occupational licensing. High school students can start preparing for a career in this field by taking courses in biology, chemistry, and speech. Students may find a part-time or summer job in a funeral home. Although these jobs consist mostly of maintenance and clean-up tasks, such as washing and polishing hearses, they can be helpful in gaining familiarity with the operation of funeral homes. In 1974, 28 schools had mortuary science programs accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Education. About one-half were private vocational schools that offer 1-year programs emphasizing basic subjects such as anatomy and physiology, as well as practical skills, such as embalming techniques and restorative art. A small number of colleges and universities offer 2-year and 4-year programs in funeral service. These programs included liberal arts and management courses as well as mortuary science. All programs of fered courses in psychology, ac counting, and funeral law. Apprentices work under the guidance of experienced embal mers and directors. An apprentice ship usually lasts 1 or 2 years and may be served before, after, or dur ing the time one attends mortuary school, depending on State regula tions. State board examinations consist of written and oral tests and actual demonstrations of skills. After passing the examination, ap prentices receive a license to prac tice. If they want to work in another State they may have to pass its ex amination, although many States have mutual agreements which make this unnecessary. Important personal traits for fu neral directors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. They also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in their time of sor row. Advancement opportunities are best in large funeral homes where directors and embalmers may earn promotion to higher paying posi tions such as personnel manager or general manager. Some workers eventually acquire enough money and experience to establish their own businesses. deaths increase. Most funeral homes, however, will be able to meet the demand without expand ing their employment. The average funeral home conducts only one or two funerals each week and is capa ble of handling several more without hiring additional em ployees. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Little change in the employment of funeral directors and embalmers is expected through the mid-1980’s. In recent years, the number of mor tuary school graduates has approxi mately equaled the number of jobs available due to retirements, deaths, and transfers to other occu pations. Barring any significant growth in enrollments, future grad uates should find employment op portunities available. Demand for funeral services will rise as the population grows and In 1974, funeral directors and embalmers generally earned from $200 to $300 a week. Managers generally earned between $10,000 and $15,000 a year, and many owners earned more than $20,000. Apprentices earned between $2.25 and $4 an hour. In large funeral homes, em ployees usually have a regular work schedule. Typically they put in 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Overtime, however, occasionally may be necessary. Some employees work shifts; for example, nights I week, and days the next. Occasionally embalmers may come into contact with contagious diseases but the possibility of their becoming ill is remote, even less likely than for a doctor or nurse. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties in this field is available from local funeral homes and from: National Funeral Directors Association of the United States, Inc., 135 W. Wells St., Milwaukee, Wise. 53203. National Selected Morticians, 1616 Central St., Evanston, 111. 60201. For a list of accredited schools of mortuary science and information about scholarship opportunities, contact: The American Board of Funeral Service Education, Inc., 201 Columbia St., Fair mont, W. Va. 26554. convalescent, elderly, or handi capped person who employs them, them. An area many private household workers specialize in is child care. Child monitors bathe children, PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD prepare their meals, launder their clothes, and supervise their play. SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Those who care for very young chil dren are responsible for sterilizing About 1.4 million workers were private household workers to help bottles, preparing formulas, and employed in private households in care for children, clean and main changing diapers. A Child mentor , 1974. The majority were domestic tain the house and yard, cook or tutor,usually has charge of workers who performed household meals, or serve the family. Some school-age children and supervises tasks such as cooking, cleaning, or household workers specialize in one their recreation, diet, and health, as caring for children, but workers in of these jobs, but the duties of most well as their education. These other occupations also are em workers change from day to day. workers also are responsible for ployed by private households. Frequently, workers who specialize disciplining the children and ar Gardeners keep the grounds of live in their employer’s house. ranging their activities. Sometimes Most private household workers they teach art, music, or languages. large estates looking attractive by planting shrubs and flowers and are employed as general houseA household with a large staff of cutting the lawn. Chauffeurs drive workers or mother’s helpers. These workers may employ a home their employers’ cars and keep the workers clean the house and may housekeeper or a butler to supervise vehicles clean and in good running also be responsible for meal prepa the staff and the operation of the condition. Some households em ration, laundry, or caring for chil household. These workers usually ploy private nurses and secretaries. dren. When hired by the day or are responsible for hiring and firing Most private household workers hour, they are called day workers. the other household employees. In work for several different em Heavy household tasks and yard addition to these duties, butlers ployers at once, spending a day or maintenance are usually performed receive and announce guests, two a week with each one. Others by caretakers. They may wash win answer telephones, serve food and work for only one employer, and in dows, paint fences and mow the drinks, and may act as gentleman’s some cases live in their employer’s lawn. attendants. Housekeepers order house. In some households meals are The following statement prepared by cooks. Some cooks do discusses some of the most impor everything from planning menus tant domestic occupations found in and buying food to serving meals private households, including and cleaning the kitchen. Others general housekeeper, companion, follow the instructions of a family and child monitor. For information on the services that nurses and member. Cooks may be assisted by secretaries may perform in private a cook's helper, who is less skilled households, see the statements on than a cook and performs simple these occupations elsewhere in the tasks, such as peeling vegetables and cleaning the kitchen. Handbook. A few households employ launderers to wash, iron, and fold the laundry. PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD Some private household workers W ORKERS specialize in performing personal services for members of the family. (D.O.T. 099.228, 301.887, Lady's and gentleman's attendants 303.138 and .878; 304.887, serve their employers by keeping 305.281, 306.878, 307.878, and their clothes pressed and hung, 309.138 through .999) making their beds, helping them Cooks employed in private households dress, and running errands. Com may be responsible for planning menus Nature of the Work panions do similar work, but they and buying food, as well as preparing and serving meals. Thousands of people employ also act as a friend or aide to the food and cleaning supplies and keep a record of expenditures. Places of Employment More than 1.2 million persons— about 98 percent of them women— were employed as private household workers in 1974. Nearly all worked in their employers’ homes, but a few specialized work ers, such as laundresses and child monitors, worked at their own homes. Most private household workers are employed part time, working half-days or only 2 or 3 days a week. Those who live in their em ployer’s house work longer hours. Household jobs can be found throughout the country, but most are located in urban areas and in the South. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most household jobs, formal education is much less important than experience and an ability to cook, clean, or care for a yard. Em ployers prefer workers who know how to operate vacuum cleaners, floor waxers, and lawn mowers, but most young people can learn these skills while helping with the house and yard work at home. Some household workers acquire skills by spending a year working as a mother’s helper under the supervi sion of either an experienced household worker or their em ployer. Home economics courses in high schools, vocational schools, and junior colleges offer training in child development and meal preparation that can be very useful to persons interested in becoming cooks or child care workers. Training pro grams sponsored by Federal agen cies, State employment service of fices, and local welfare departments also teach many of the skills needed for household work. For a person wishing a job as a child mentor or a companion, edu cational and cultural background is more important than work ex perience Generally a companion’s background, interests, and age should be similar to his or her em ployer’s, and practical nursing ex perience is useful if the employer is an invalid. Being able to read well or carry on an interesting conversa tion also is helpful. A well-rounded education, including art and music, and teaching skills are important to a child mentor, especially one who is responsible for younger children. Private household workers must have physical stamina because they are on their feet most of the time and sometimes must do some heavy lifting. The desire to do a job care fully and thoroughly is important. Household workers should be able both to get along well with people and to work independently. Some workers, particularly cooks and in fant’s nurses, need a health cer tificate showing that they are free of contagious diseases. Many em ployers arrange and pay for the necessary physical examination. Advancement other than an in crease in wages generally is not possible in private household work. Few households require live-in workers and even fewer require so many that a butler or home housekeeper is needed as a super visor. Workers can transfer to better paying and more highly skilled household jobs, such as cook, lady’s or gentleman’s attend ant, or child monitor; but job openings in these occupations are limited. Private household workers who are trained and experienced in child care, however, may obtain jobs in child or day care facilities. Cooks may obtain jobs in cafeterias or restaurants. Employment Outlook Although the number of private household workers is expected to decline through the mid-1980’s, thousands of openings will result each year from the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. The demand for household workers has exceeded supply for some time, as more women, especially those with young children, enter the labor force. Low wages, the tedious nature of some household tasks, and the lack of advancement opportunities discourage many persons from en tering the occupation, however, and some prospective employers are turning to child-care ’centers and commercial cleaning services for help. Opportunities for domestic workers, particularly general housekeepers and child monitors, will be good through the mid1980’s. Many openings will be available for part-time work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, full-time female private household workers averaged $2,243 a year, less than half the aver age for all nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. Earnings data are unavailable for men in the occupa tion because they represent such a small proportion of total employ ment. The provisions of Federal and State minimum wage laws were extended to private household workers in May 1974. Wages vary according to the work performed, employer’s in come, and the custom of the local area. Earnings are highest in large cities, especially in the North, workers who “live in” generally earn more than those who must travel to their jobs, but the latter often receive transportation money and a free meal. Most private household workers receive instructions from their em ployers, but are free to work on their own. Frequently, they have a key to the house or apartment. Household work is often tedious, especially for day workers who generally are given the less desira ble tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms or kitchen cupboards. Long or irregular working hours can isolate workers who “ live in” from their families and friends, and if they are the sole employees in the households, they are likely to be alone most of the time. Sources of Additional Information Information on laws affecting household workers and guidelines for work is available from: Facts about employment oppor tunities and training programs in private household work are availa ble from local offices of State em ployment services. National Committee on Household Employ ment, 7705 Georgia Ave., NW, Suite 208, Washington, D.C. 20012. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS The growth of our Nation’s popu lation and economy has put an in creasing emphasis on protective services. Each city, suburban area, and national port of entry requires protective and related service wor kers to check crime, minimize loss of life and property, and enforce regulations that protect the health and safety of our citizens at home and on the job. Careers in protective and related service occupations require varied combinations of education and ex perience. Workers such as FBI spe cial agents and some Federal Government inspectors must have at least a bachelor’s degree, while guards may have less than a high school education. Most occupa tions in this group, however, require a high school diploma. In many cases, a college degree is an asset for advancement to higher level positions. In addition to educational requirements, most workers in pro tective and related services must undergo formal training programs and get on-the-job experience be fore they are fully qualified. Train ing programs last from several days to a few months and emphasize specific job-related skills. Personal qualifications such as honesty and an understanding of human nature are important. Per sons seeking careers in protective and related service occupations should sincerely desire to serve the community and be able to exercise proper judgment under a variety of conditions. This section describes the work of several occupations in protective and related services: FBI Special Agents, Firefighters, Police Of ficers, State Police Officers, Guards, Occupational Safety and Health Workers, and Health, Regu latory, and Construction Inspec tors. their casework, Special Agents may interview people, observe the ac tivities of suspects, and participate in raids. Because the FBI’s work is highly confidential, Special Agents may not disclose any of the infor mation gathered in the course of their official duties to unauthorized persons, including members of their families. At times, agents have to testify in court about cases which they investigate. Although they work alone on most assignments, agents commu nicate with their supervisors by radio or telephone as the circum stances dictate. In performing potentially dangerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two or more agents are assigned to work together. FBI SPECIAL AG EN TS (D.O.T. 375.168) Nature of the Work Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Special Agents investigate violations of Federal laws such as bank robberies, kidnappings, frauds against the Government, thefts of Government property, espionage, and sabotage. The FBI, which is part of the U.S. Department of Justice, has jurisdiction over many different Federal investigative mat ters. Special Agents, therefore, may be assigned to any type of case, although those with specialized training usually work on cases re lated to their background. Agents with an accounting background, for example, may investigate bank em bezzlements or fraudulent bank ruptcies. Because the FBI is a fact-gather ing agency, its Special Agents func tion strictly as investigators, collect ing evidence in cases in which the United States is or may be an in terested party. (The FBI does not give personal protection to in dividuals or do police work to in sure that the law is obeyed. Such matters are handled by local and State law enforcement agencies.) In Places of Employment About 8,600 persons were Spe cial Agents in 1974. The FBI has been accepting applications from women since 1972, and 30 women now work as Special Agents. Most agents were assigned to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Nation and in Puer to Rico. They worked in cities where field office headquarters are located or in resident agencies (suboffices) established under field office supervision to provide prompt and efficient handling of in vestigative matters arising throughout the field office territory. Some agents are assigned to the Bu reau headquarters in Washington, D.C., which supervises all FBI ac tivities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be considered for appoint ment as an FBI Special Agent, an applicant usually must be a gradu ate of a State-accredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting. The law school train ing must have been preceded by at least 2 years of undergraduate col- U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. before assignment to a field office. During this period, agents receive intensive training in defensive tactics and the use of firearms. In addition, they are thoroughly schooled in Federal criminal law and procedures, FBI rules and regulations, fingerprint ing, and investigative work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for about 2 weeks before handling any assign ments independently. All administrative and superviso ry jobs are filled from within the ranks by selecting those FBI Special Agents who have demonstrated the ability to assume more responsibili ty- Employment Outlook FBI special agent photographs a weapon. lege work. Accounting graduates must have at least 1 year of ex perience in accounting, auditing, or a combination of both. From time to time, as the need arises, the FBI accepts applications from persons who have a 4-year college degree with a physical science major or fluency in a foreign language, and also from persons who have 3 years of profes sional, executive, complex in vestigative, or other specialized ex perience. Applicants for the position of FBI Special Agent must be citizens of the United States, at least 23 and not more than 35 years old, and willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be capable of strenuous physi cal exertion, and have excellent hearing and vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects which would prevent their using firearms or participating in dan gerous assignments. All applicants must pass a rigid physical examina tion, as well as written and oral ex aminations testing their knowledge of law or accounting and their ap titude for meeting the public and conducting investigations. All of the tests except the physical ex aminations are given by the FBI at its facilities. Background and character investigations are made of all applicants. Appointments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Each newly appointed Special Agent is given about 14 weeks of training at the FBI Academy at the The jurisdiction of the FBI has expanded greatly over the years. Although it is impossible to forecast Special Agent personnel require ments, employment may be ex pected to increase with growing FBI responsibilities. The FBI provides a career service and its rate of turnover is tradi tionally low. Nevertheless, the FBI is always interested in applications from qualified persons who would like to be considered for the posi tion of Special Agent. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI Spe cial Agents was $13,379 in late 1974. Special Agents are not ap pointed under Federal Civil Service regulations, but, like other Federal employees, they receive periodic within-grade salary raises if their work performance is satisfactory; they can advance in grade as they gain experience. Special Agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be availa ble for assignment at all times. Their duties call for some travel, for they are assigned wherever they are needed in the United States or Puerto Rico. They frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under specified condi tions, receive overtime pay up to about $3,350 a year. They are granted paid vacations, sick leave, and annuities on retirement. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D .C .20535. FIREFIGHTERS (D.O.T. 373.1 18 through .884) Nature of the Work Every year fires destroy thousands of lives and property worth millions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This statement gives information only about paid professional firefighters; it does not cover the many thousands of volun teer firefighters in local communi ties across the country. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to rush to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because firefighting is dan gerous and complicated, it requires organization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters perform specific duties assigned by their commanding officer: they may con nect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pressure pump, or position lad ders. Because their duties may change several times while the com pany is in action they must be skilled in many different firefighting activities. In addition, they help people to safety and administer first aid. Fire departments also are respon sible for fire prevention. Many de partments provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. In addition, firefighters educate the public about fire prevention and safety measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assem blies and civic groups, and, in some communities, they inspect private homes for fire hazards. Between alarms, firefighters spend much time improving their skills and doing maintenance work. They also have practice drills, clfean and lubricate equipment, and stretch hoses to dry. Places of Employment Nearly 220,000 persons, includ ing a small number of women, worked as firefighters in 1974. Nine out of ten worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters on the payroll while many small towns have fewer than 25. Some firefighters work in fire depart ments on State and Federal installa tions and others work in large manufacturing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs must pass a written intelligence test, a medical ex amination, and tests of strength, physical stamina, and agility, as specified by local civil service regu lations. These examinations are open to men and women who are at least 18 years of age, meet certain height and weight requirements, and have a high school education. Those who receive the highest scores on the examinations have the best chances for appointment. Extra credit usually is given for military service, and experience gained as a volunteer firefighter or through training in the Armed Forces also may improve an appli cant’s chances for appointment. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are-trained for several weeks at the city’s fire school. Through classroom instruction and practice drills, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire preven tion, local building codes, and first aid; also, they learn how to use axes, chemical extinguishers, lad ders, and other equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to local fire companies. Experienced firefighters often continue study to improve their job performance and prepare for pro motional examinations. Fire de partments frequently conduct train ing programs, and many colleges and universities offer courses such as Are engineering and fire science that are helpful to firefighters. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alert ness, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are extremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergency situations. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger, they should be de pendable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers who must establish and maintain a high degree of discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of the firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to higher ratings. After 3 to 5 years of service they may become eligible for promotion to the grade of. lieutenant. The line of further promotion usually is to captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Chances for ad vancement generally depend upon each candidate’s position on the promotion list, as determined by the score on a written examination, his or her supervisor’s rating, and seniority. cities usually is greater than the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. Therefore, com petition among candidates in urban areas is apt to remain keen. Oppor tunities should be much better in smaller communities. Employment Outlook In 1974, average entrance sala ries for beginning full-time firefighters ranged from $9,200 to $ 11,000 a year, depending on city size and region of the country. Average maximum salaries also varied—$10,100 in towns with a population less than 25,000, $ 11,900 in cities of 50,000 to 100,000 persons, and $12,800 in those over 500,000 in population. Earnings for firefighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and generally are higher in suburban districts than in large cities. Average earnings of all firefighters are about one and onehalf times as much as the average of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Fire chiefs in cities of 100,000 or more averaged $25,800 a year in 1974. Those who headed fire de partments in cities with populations of more than 1 million earned $39,000. Practically all fire departments furnish allowances to pay for pro tective clothing (helmets, boots, and rubber coats) and many also provide dress uniforms. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 24 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours or a night shift of 14; shifts are rotated at frequent intervals. The average workweek for firefighters is 52 hours, but duty hours usually in clude some time when they are free to read, study, or pursue other per sonal interests. In addition to Employment of firefighters is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s to meet the growing need for fire protection. Several thousand jobs will become available each year due to growth and the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Employment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire prevention sections. Much of the expected in crease will occur in smaller commu nities as volunteer fire companies are replaced by professional fire de partments. Additional firefighters also may be required as more and more cities shorten the workweek for firefighters and other municipal employees. The number of firefighters in a community ultimately depends upon the availability of funds from the municipal government for sala ries and equipment. Fire protection is an essential service and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand fire protection coverage. However, local governments must live within their budgets. This means that in some financially troubled cities, firefighter employment probably will remain at current levels or decline while in other cities, em ployment is likely to increase sub stantially to meet the needs of an expanding population. The number of young people who qualify for firefighter jobs in large Earnings and Working Conditions scheduled hours, firefighters often must work extra hours when they are bringing a fire under control. When overtime is worked, most fire departments give compensatory time off or extra pay. The job of a firefighter involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and danger from exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. In addition, they frequently work in bad weather. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of serv ice or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. Firefighters also receive paid vacations. Provisions for sick leave usually are liberal. Health and surgical benefit plans are offered in many fire depart ments and compensation is pro vided for firefighters injured in the line of duty. Most fire departments provide paid holidays—ranging to 11 or more a year—or compensato ry time off for working on holidays. About 8 out of 10 firefighters are members of the International As sociation of Firefighters (AFLCIO). Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter is available from local civil service commission offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a firefighter or specific job duties may be obtained from: International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1725 K S t NW., Washington, D.C. 10006. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of firefighters in various cities is published annually by the Interna tional City Management Associa tion in its Municipal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. GUARDS (D.O.T. 372.868) Nature of the Work Guards patrol and inspect pro perty to protect it against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. The specific duties of these workers, however, vary by size, type, and lo cation of employer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, merchan dise, money, and equipment. In de partment stores they often work with undercover detectives watch ing for theft by customers or store employees. At ports and railroads, guards protect merchandise in shipment as well as property and equipment. They insure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Some times they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paintings or ex hibits from fire, theft, or damage. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In large factories, aircraft plants, and defense installations where valuable information must be pro tected, some guards check the cre dentials of persons and vehicles en tering and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gatherings, guards maintain order, give information, and watch for suspicious persons. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization a single worker may be responsible for security. Patrolling usually is done on foot; but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and win dows, see that no unauthorized per sons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on machines for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and often carry a nightstick or gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Places of Employment In 1974, almost 475,000 per sons—over 95 percent of them men—worked as guards. Most work in office buildings, defense installa tions and other government buildings, stores, hotels, banks, and schools. Large numbers also work in manufacturing industries. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are Employment Outlook daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on Employment of guards is ex the job instead of taking a regular Training, Other Qualifications, pected to grow more slowly than lunch break. and Advancement the average for all occupations Guards often work alone, so that through the mid-1980’s. Most no one is nearby to help if an ac Most employers prefer guards openings will arise as guards retire, who are high school graduates. Ap die, or leave their jobs for other cident or injury occurs. Some large plicants with less than a high school reasons. Replacement needs in this firms therefore use a reporting education usually are tested for occupation are relatively high service that enables guards to be in their reading and writing abilities because guards are somewhat constant contact with a central sta and their competence in following older, on the average, than workers tion outside the plant. If they fail to written and oral instructions. Em in most occupations. Opportunities transmit an expected signal, the ployers also seek people who have will be most plentiful for persons central station investigates. had experience in the military po seeking work on night shifts. Sources of Additional lice or in State and local police de An increase in crime and vandal Information partments. ism will heighten the need for Candidates for guard jobs in the security in and around plants, Further information about work Federal Government must be stores, and recreation areas. Addi opportunities for guards is available veterans, have some experience as tional guards will be needed to pro from local employers and the guards, and pass a written examina vide better security, but an in nearest State employment service tion. For most Federal guard posi creased use of remote cameras, office. tions, applicants must qualify in the alarm systems, and other electronic use of firearms. A driver’s permit is surveillance equipment is expected required for some jobs. to limit employment growth. Many employers give newly hired POLICE OFFICERS guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several Earnings and Working (D.O.T. 375.118 through .868 weeks of on-the-job training. Conditions and 377.868) Guards may be taught the use of Guards averaged $2.71 an hour firearms, the administration of first Nature of the Work aid, how to handle various emer in 1974, according to a Bureau of gencies, and ways to spot and deal Labor Statistics survey of urban The security of our Nation’s cit areas. Those working in the North ies and towns greatly depends on with security problems. Applicants are expected to have earned more than the average while the work of local police officers good character references, no po guards employed in the South whose jobs range from controlling lice record, good health—especially earned somewhat less. Guards earn traffic to preventing and investigat in hearing and vision—and good about four-fifths as much as the ing crimes. Whether on or off duty, personal habits such as neatness average for all nonsupervisory these officers are expected to exer and dependability. They should be workers in private industry, except cise their authority whenever mentally alert, emotionally stable, farming. necessary. Police officers who work in a Depending on their experience, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Some employers newly hired guards in the Federal small community have many duties. require guards to meet height and Government earned between $130 In the course of a day’s work, they weight specifications or to be within and $146 a week. Top supervisory may direct traffic at the scene of a guards in the Federal Government fire, investigate a housebreaking, a certain age range. Although guards in small compa may be paid up to $247 a week. and give first aid to an accident vic nies receive periodic salary in These workers usually receive over tim. In a large police department, creases, advancement is likely to be time pay as well as a wage dif by contrast, officers usually are as limited. However, most large or ferential for the second and third signed to a specific type of duty. ganizations use a military type of shifts. Guards generally have paid Most officers are detailed either to ranking that offers advancement in vacations, sick leave, and insurance patrol or traffic duty; smaller num bers are assigned to special work position and salary. Guards with and pension plans. some college education may ad About two-thirds of all guards such as accident prevention or of communications vance to jobs that involve adminis work at night; the usual shift lasts 8 operation trative duties or the prevention of hours. Some employers have three systems. Others work as detectives espionage and sabotage. shifts where guards rotate to divide (plain-clothes officers) assigned to located areas. in highly industrialized criminal investigation; still others, cumstances, such as open windows as experts in chemical and micro or lights in vacant buildings, as well scopic analysis, firearms identifica as hazards to public safety such as tion, and handwriting and finger burned-out street lights or fallen print identification. In very large trees. Officers also watch for stolen cities, a few officers may work with automobiles and enforce traffic special units such as mounted and regulations. At regular intervals, motorcycle police, harbor patrols, they report to police headquarters helicopter patrols, canine corps, through call boxes, by radio, or by mobile rescue teams, and youth aid walkie-talkie. They prepare reports about their activities and may be services. Most newly recruited police of called on to testify in court when ficers begin on patrol duty. Recruits cases result in legal action. may be assigned to such varied areas as congested business districts Places of Employment or outlying residential areas. They may cover their beats alone or with About 480,000 full-time officers other officers, and they may ride in worked for local police depart a police vehicle or walk on “foot” ments in 1974. Although most were patrol. In any case, they become men, an increasing number of thoroughly familiar with conditions women are employed in police throughout their area and, while on work. patrol, remain.alert for anything Some cities have very large po unusual. They note suspicious cir lice forces. For example, New York has over 30,000 police officers and Chicago over 13,000. Hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 each. Women police of ficers work mainly in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local civil service regulations govern the appointment of police officers in practically all large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet certain height and weight stand ards. Eligibility for appointment depends on performance in com petitive examinations as well as on education and experience. The physical examinations often include tests of strength and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in police work, candidates are interviewed b y a senior officer at police headquar ters, and their character traits and background are investigated. In some police departments, can didates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a pyschologist, or be given a personality test. Although police officers work inde pendently, they must perform their duties in line with laws and depart mental rules. They should enjoy working with people, and should want to serve the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, appli cants usually must have a high school education. A few cities require some college training and some hire law enforcement students as police interns. A few police de partments accept applicants who have less than a high school educa tion as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. More and more, police depart ments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in sociology and psychology. As a result, more than 500 junior col leges, colleges, and universities now offer programs in law enforcement. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police career include English, American history, civics and government, business law, and physics. Physical education and sports are especially helpful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. Young persons who have completed high school can enter police work in some large cities as police cadets, or trainees, while still in their teens. As paid civilian em ployees of the police department, they attend classes to learn police skills and do clerical work. They may be appointed to the regular force at age 21 if they have all the necessary qualifications. Before their first assignments, of ficers usually go through a period of training. In small communities, recruits learn by working for a short time with experienced officers. Training provided in large city po lice departments is more formal and may last several weeks or a few months. This training includes classroom instruction in constitu tional law and civil rights; in State laws and local ordinances; and in accident investigation, patrol, and traffic control. Recruits learn how to use a gun, defend themselves from attack, administer first aid, and deal with emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a specified length of service. In a large department, promotion may allow an officer to specialize in one type of police work such as labora tory work, traffic control, commu nications, or work with juveniles. Promotions to the rank of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job per formance. Many types of training help po lice officers improve their per formance on the job and prepare for advancement. Through training given at police department acade mies and colleges, officers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil defense, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforce ment equipment. Many police de partments encourage officers to work toward college degrees, and some pay all or part of the tuition. tial nature of police work, it is likely that funding for law enforcement will have high priority and that the employment of city police officers will rise faster than the average for other occupations through the mid1980’s. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, entry level salaries for police officers varied widely from city to city. In some smaller com Employment Outlook munities, officers earned less than Police work is attractive to many. $600 a month, while some major cit The job frequently is challenging ies offered over $ 1,000 a month to and involves much responsibility. new employees. Most officers Furthermore, layoffs are rare. In receive regular salary increases dur periods of relatively high unem ing the first few years of employ ployment, the number of persons ment until they reach a set max seeking police employment may be imum for their rank. Maximum greater than the number of earnings ranged from about $800 to openings. However, the written ex over $ 1,200 a month in 1974. Promotion to a higher rank aminations and strict physical requirements always eliminate brings a higher basic salary. Serge many applicants. The outlook ants, for example, started at a salary should be good for persons having as high as $1,300 a month in 1974 some college training in law en and in the largest cities, lieutenants forcement. Opportunities should began at over $1,400 a month. In also be available for women and general, police officers are paid minority applicants as many depart about one and one-half times as ments recruit these workers to much as nonsupervisory workers in make police departments more private industry, except farming. Police departments usually pro representative of the populations vide officers with special al they serve. Law enforcement is complex and lowances for uniforms and furnish requires an approach tailored to the revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, particular problems of each city. and other required equipment. The scheduled workweek for po The police department of a city with a large mobile population is lice officers usually is 40 hours. likely to emphasize traffic control, Because police protection must be preventive patrol, and cooperation provided around the clock, in all with police agencies in the sur but the smallest communities some rounding areas. In smaller cities, or officers are on duty over weekends, those with well established commu on holidays, and at night. Police of nities and fewer employment and ficers are subject to call any time recreation centers, police work may their services are needed and may be less specialized. In either case, work overtime in emergencies. In however, the usual way of increas some departments, overtime is paid ing police protection is to provide at straight time or time and onehalf; in others, officers may be more officers for duty. The number of officers employed given an equal amount of time off will depend on the amount of on another day of the week. Police officers generally are money made available by local governments. Because of the essen covered by liberal pension plans, enabling many to retire at half pay by the time they reach age 55. In addition, paid vacations, sick leave, and health and life insurance plans frequently are provided. Police officers may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks officers take in pursuing speeding motorists, cap turing lawbreakers, and dealing with public disorder. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from local civil service commissions or police departments. Additional information describ ing careers as police officers is available from: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 11 Firstfield Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760. Fraternal Order of Police, National Headquarters, 3094 Bertha St., Flint, Mich. 48504. S TA TE POLICE OFFICERS (D.O.T. 375.118, .138, .168, .228, .268, and .388) Nature of the Work The laws and regulations that govern the use of our Nation’s road ways are designed to insure the safety of all citizens. State police of ficers (sometimes called State troopers) patrol our highways and enforce these laws. State police officers issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, call for emergency equipment including ambulances, and write reports to be used in determining the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for drivers in mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give infor mation about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emer gencies, as well as for special occur rences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, con duct driver examinations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsi bilities, State police may investigate crimes, particularly in areas that do not have a police force. They some times help city or county police catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. State highway patrols, however, normally are restricted to vehicle and traffic matters. Some police officers work with special State police units such as the mounted police, canine corps, and marine patrols. Others instruct trainees in State police schools, pilot police aircraft, or specialize in fingerprint classification or chemi cal and microscopic analysis of criminal evidence. State police officers also write re ports and maintain police records. Some officers, including division or bureau chiefs responsible for train ing or investigation and those who command police operations in an assigned area, have administrative duties. Places of Employment About 45,500 State police of ficers were employed in 1974. Although almost all were men, posi tions for women are expected to in crease in the future. The size of State police forces va ries considerably. The largest force (in California) has over 5,000 of ficers; the smallest (in North Dakota) has fewer than 100. One State (Hawaii) does not maintain a police force. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State civil service regulations govern the appointment of State police officers. All candidates must be citizens of the United States. Other entry requirements vary, but most States require that applicants have a high school education or an equivalent combination of educa tion and experience and be at least 21 years old. Officers must pass a competitive examination and meet physical and personal qualifications. Physical requirements include standards of height, weight, and eyesight. Tests of strength and agility often are required. Because honesty and a sense of responsibility are impor tant in police work, an applicant’s character and background are in vestigated. Although State police officers work independently, they must per form their duties in line with de partment rules. They should want to serve the public and be willing to work outdoors in all types of weather. In all States, recruits enter a for mal training program for several months. They receive classroom in struction in State laws and jurisdic tions, and they study procedures for accident investigation, patrol, and traffic control. Recruits learn to use guns, defend themselves from at tack, handle an automobile at high speeds, and give first aid. After gaining experience, some officers take advanced training in police science, administration, law en forcement, or criminology. Classes are held at junior colleges, colleges and universities, or special police institutions such as the National Academy of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. High school and college courses in English, government, psycholo gy, sociology, American history, and physics help in preparing for a police career. Physical education and sports are useful for developing stamina and agility. Completion of a driver education course and train ing received in military police schools also are assets. Police officer recruits serve a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. After a specified length of time, officers become eligible for promotion. Most States have merit promotion systems that require officers to pass a competi tive examination to qualify for the next highest rank. Although the or ganization of police forces varies by State, the typical avenue of ad vancement is from private to cor poral, to sergeant, to first sergeant, to lieutenant, and then to captain. Police officers who show adminis trative ability may be promoted to higher level jobs such as commis sioner or director. In some States, high school grad uates may enter State police work as cadets. These paid civilian em ployees of the police organization attend classes to learn various aspects of police work and are as signed nonenforcement duties. Cadets who qualify may be ap pointed to the State police force at age 21. Employment Outlook State police employment is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for other occupations. Although most jobs will result from this growth, some openings will be created as officers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. As job openings are filled from the ranks of available appli cants, the increased interest of women in police work will result in greater employment of women for patrol duties. Although some State police will be needed in criminal investigation and other nonhighway functions, the greatest demand will be for of ficers to work in highway patrol. This is the result of a growing, more mobile population. In ever increas ing numbers, Americans are using the motor vehicle as a source of recreation. Motorcycles, campers, and other recreational vehicles will continue to add to the Nation’s traf fic flow and require additional of ficers to insure the safety of highway users. Because law enforcement work is becoming more complex, spe cialists will be needed in crime laboratories and electronic data processing centers to develop ad ministrative and criminal informa tion systems. However, in many de partments, these jobs will be filled by civilian employees rather than uniformed officers. specified maximum is reached. In 1974, maximum rates ranged from about $750 to over $ 1,200 a month; maximum rates were most com monly between $900 and $1,000 a month. Earnings increase with promotions to higher ranks. The most common maximum salaries for State police sergeants in 1974 were between $1,000 and $1,200. Lieutenants earned more, often between $1,200 and $1,300 a month. State police agencies usually pro vide officers with uniforms, firearms, and other necessary equipment, or give special al lowances for their purchase. In many States, the scheduled workweek for police officers is 40 hours. Although the workweek is longer in some States, hours over 40 are being reduced. Since police protection must be provided around the clock, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police of ficers also are subject to emergency calls at any time. State police usually are covered by liberal pension plans. Paid vaca tions, sick leave, and medical and life insurance plans frequently are provided. The work of State police officers is sometimes dangerous. They al ways run the risk of an automobile accid en t while pursuing speeding Earnings and Working Conditions motorists or fleeing criminals. Of ficers also face the risk of injury while apprehending criminals or controlling disorders. In 1974, beginning salaries for State police officers ranged from al most $600 to about $1,000 a Sources of Additional month. The most common entry Information rates ranged from $600 to $700 a Information about specific en month. Although starting salaries are normally higher in the West and trance requirements may be ob lower in the South, State police of tained from State civil service com ficers on the average earn about 1 missions or State police headquar 1/2 times as much as nonsuperviso- ters, usually located in each State ry workers in private industry, ex capital. cept farming. State police generally receive regular increases, based on ex perience and performance, until a C O N STR U C TIO N INSPECTORS (G OVER N M ENT) (D.O.T. 168.168) Nature of the Work Federal, State, and local govern ment construction inspectors insure that recognized standards of safe construction and quality workman ship are observed in public and private construction. They inspect the construction, alteration, or repair of highways, streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to insure compliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regu lations, and contract specifications. Construction inspectors visit worksites to inspect recently completed construction. On large projects, visits generally are required after each new stage of construction is completed. Mem bers of large inspection staffs may be assigned to a single complex project. Inspectors prepare written reports and often keep a daily log of their work. Inspections are primari ly visual in nature, although blueprints, tape measures, standard electrical metering devices, and other types of testing equipment frequently are used. Construction inspectors notify the construction contractor, su perintendent, or supervisor when they discover a detail of a project that is not in compliance with the appropriate codes, ordinances, or contract specifications. If the defi ciency is not corrected within a reasonable period of time, they have authority to issue a “stopwork” order. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of “ bootlegging,” construction or al teration that is being carried on without proper permits. Persons found in violation of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Construction inspectors must keep abreast of new building code developments, since they advise representatives of the construction industry and the general public on matters of code interpretation, con struction practices, and new techni cal developments. Senior inspectors usually coordinate the inspection of large projects and handle the most complex inspection assignments. In addition to their field inspec tion duties, supervisory construc tion inspectors assign and coor dinate the work of other inspectors and review reports submitted to them. They may review plans and specifications of proposed con struction for compliance with codes, interpret codes and or dinances, and prepare construction progress reports. Supervisory build ing inspectors are often asked to assist in drawing up or revising local building codes and ordinances. Construction inspectors general ly specialize in one particular type of construction work. Broadly categorized, these are building, electrical, mechanical, and public works. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality of buildings. Be fore construction, they determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with local zoning regulations and are suited to the engineering and environmental demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foun dation is poured to inspect the posi tioning and depth of the footings. They inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the frequen cy and number of other visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they conduct a final com prehensive inspection. Some build ing inspectors may specialize, for example, in structural steel or rein forced concrete. Electrical inspectors inspect the installation of electrical systems and equipment to insure that they work property and are in com pliance with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security systems, and generating equipment. They also may inspect the installa tion of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, kitchen appliances, and other components. Mechanical inspectors examine plumbing systems including septic tanks, plumbing fixtures and traps, and water, sewer, and vent lines. They also inspect the installation of the mechanical components of kitchen appliances, heating and airconditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Some special ize in inspecting boilers, mechani cal components, or plumbing. Public works inspectors insure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, and asphalt paving. They also record the amount of work per formed and materials used so that contract payment calculations can be made. Public works inspectors nity or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, technical mathe matics, English, and building in spection. Places of Employment Construction inspectors must be About 22,000 persons, nearly all in good physical condition in order of them men, worked as govern to walk and climb about construc ment construction inspectors in tion sites. They also must have a 1974. More than three-fourths motor vehicle operator’s license. In worked for municipal or county addition, Federal, State, and many building departments. Public works local governments usually require construction inspectors were em that construction inspectors pass a ployed primarily at the Federal and civil service examination. State level. Construction inspectors receive The employment of local govern most of their training on the job. ment construction inspectors is During the first couple of weeks, concentrated in cities and in subur working with an experienced in ban areas undergoing rapid growth. spector they learn about inspection These governments employ large techniques; codes, ordinances, and inspection staffs, including most of regulations; contract specifications; the inspectors who specialize in and recordkeeping and reporting structural steel, reinforced duties. They begin by inspecting concrete, and boiler inspection. less complex types of construction About half the construction in such as residential buildings. The spectors employed by the Federal difficulty of their assignments is Government work for the Depart gradually increased until they are ment of Defense, primarily for the able to handle complex assign U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. ments. An engineering degree is frequently needed in order to ad Training, Other Qualifications, vance to supervisory inspector. and Advancement The Federal Government and most State and large city govern To become a construction in ments conduct formal training pro spector, several years of experience grams for their construction inspec as a construction contractor, super tors to broaden their knowledge of visor, or craft worker are generally construction materials, practices, required. Federal, State, and most and inspection techniques and to local governments also require an acquaint them with new materials applicant to have a high school diploma. High school preparation and practices. Inspectors who work should include courses in drafting, for small agencies which do not conduct training programs mathematics, and English. frequently can broaden their Workers who want to become in spectors should have a thorough knowledge of construction and up knowledge of construction materi grade their skills by attending Stateals and practices in either a general conducted training programs or by area like structural or heavy con taking college or correspondence struction, or in a specialized area courses. such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or Employment Outlook structural steel. Many employers Employment of government con prefer inspectors to be graduates of an apprenticeship program, to have struction inspectors is expected to studied at least 2 years toward an grow faster than the average for all engineering or architectural degree, occupations through the midor to have a degree from a commu 1980’s. Because of the increasing may specialize in inspection of highways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. complexity of construction technology and the trend toward the establishment of minimum professional standards for inspec tors by State governments, job op portunities should be best for those who have some college education or knowledge of a specialized type of construction. In addition to growth needs, job openings for construction inspec tors will occur each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. The number of new positions for construction inspectors will be largely affected by the level of new housing and commercial building activity. Because con struction activity is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy, the number of job openings may fluctuate from year to year. The demand for construction in spectors also should increase as they are given more responsibility for insuring quality workmanship and safe construction of prefabricated building materials and other components that are mass-produced in factories and as sembled on the construction site. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of construction inspectors working in cities and towns averaged about $10,500 a year in 1974, according to a survey conducted by the Public Personnel Association. Top salaries for senior inspectors averaged $13,000. Sala ries for supervisory inspectors were higher in large cities. Among geo graphic regions, the western region of the United States tended to have the highest salaries, cities in the southern region the lowest. In the Federal Government, con struction inspectors started at $8,500 or $10,520 a year in late 1974, depending on the amount and nature of their earlier work ex perience. Journeyman construction inspectors were paid salaries rang ing from $12,841 to $17,497, and more experienced workers were paid salaries ranging from $15,481 to over $20,000. Construction inspectors often spend a large portion of their time traveling between worksites. Usually, an automobile is furnished for their use or their expenses are reimbursed if they use their own. Since they spend most of their time outdoors or in partially enclosed structures, they are exposed to all types of inclement weather. Unlike the seasonal and intermit tent nature of employment in many of the occupations associated with the construction industry, inspec tion work tends to be steady and year-round. Sources of Additional Information regulatory inspectors help insure observance of the laws and regula tions that govern these responsibili ties. For discussion of a third, see the statement on Construction In spectors (Government) elsewhere in the Handbook. The duties, titles, and responsi bilities of Federal, State, and local health and regulatory inspectors vary widely. Some types of inspec tors work only for the Federal Government while others also are employed by State and local governments. Many other workers employed as accountants, agricul tural cooperative extension service workers, and other agricultural professionals also have inspection duties. Health Inspectors. Health inspec tors work with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, and health workers Persons seeking additional infor to insure compliance with public mation on a career as a State or health and safety regulations local government construction in governing food, drugs, and various spector should contact their State other consumer products. They also or local employment service, or: administer regulations that govern International Conference o f Building Offi the quarantine of persons and cials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., products entering the United States Whittier, Calif. 90601. from foreign countries. The major Persons interested in a career as a types of health inspectors are: food construction inspector with the and drug, meat and poultry, agricul Federal Government can get infor tural quarantine inspectors, and mation from: sanitarians. In addition, some in Interagency Board o f the U.S. Civil Service spectors work in a field which is Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 closely related to food inspection— E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. agricultural commodity grading. Most food and drug inspectors specialize in one area of inspection such as food, feeds and pesticides, HEALTH AND weights and measures, or drugs and R EG U LA TO R Y cosmetics. Some, especially those INSPECTORS who work for the Federal Govern (G OVER N M ENT) ment, may be proficient in several of these areas. Working individually (D.O.T. 168.168, and .287) or in teams under the direction of a senior or supervisory inspector they Nature of tha Work travel throughout a geographical Protecting the public from health area to check periodically firms and safety hazards, prohibiting un that produce, handle, store, and fair trade and employment prac market food, drugs, and cosmetics. tices, and raising revenue are in They look for evidence of inaccu cluded in the wide range of respon rate product labeling, decomposi sibilities of government. Health and tion, chemical or bacteriological contamination, and other factors that could result in a product becoming harmful to consumer health. They assemble evidence of violations, using portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights, con tainer sampling devices, thermome ters, chemical testing kits, and other types of equipment. Product samples collected as part of their examinations are sent to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspec tors discuss their observations with the management of the plant and point out any areas where cor rective measures are needed. They prepare written reports of their findings, and, when necessary, com pile evidence that may be used in court if legal actions must be taken to effect compliance with the law. Federal and State laws empower meat and poultry inspectors to in spect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public con sumption. Working as part of a con stant onsite team under the general supervision of a veterinarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughter ing, processing, and packaging operations. They also check to see that products are labeled correctly and that proper sanitation is main tained in slaughtering and processing operations. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agricultural products from the introduction and spread of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To safeguard the health of crops, forests, and gardens, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles entering the United States for the presence of restricted or prohibited plant or animal materials. Sanitarians, working primarily for State and local governments, perform a variety of inspection du ties to help insure that the food peo ple eat, the water they drink, and the air they breathe meet govern ment standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other in stitutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanitation rules and regulations. Sanitarians concerned with waste control oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and gar bage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, perform tests to detect pollutants, and collect air or water samples for analysis. Sanitarians determine the nature and cause of the pollution, then initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, sanitari ans may specialize in areas of work such as milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institutional sanitation, and occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of en vironmental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to various commodities to insure that retailers and consumers receive good and re liable products. They generally spe cialize in an area such as egg products, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, or dairy products. They inspect samples of a particular product to determine its quality and grade, and issue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equip ment to insure that adequate sanita tion standards are maintained. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors insure compliance with various laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Impor tant types of regulatory inspectors are: immigration; customs; aviation safety; mine; wage-hour com pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearms; and occupational safety inspectors. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking admis sion, readmission, or the privileges of passing through or residing in the United States. They inspect the passports of those seeking to enter the United States to determine whether they are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship, status, and identity. Immigration in spectors also prepare reports, main tain records, and process applica tions and petitions by aliens for privileges such as immigrating to or living temporarily in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce the laws governing U.S. imports and ex ports. Stationed at airports, seaports, and border crossing points, they count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to determine the amount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and arti cles worn or carried by the passen gers and crew of ships, aircraft, and motor vehicles to insure that all merchandise being brought through ports of entry is declared and the proper taxes paid. Aviation safety officers insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations that govern the quality and safety of aircraft equip ment and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety officers may inspect aircraft manufacturing, main tenance, or operations procedures. They usually specialize in inspect ing either commercial or general aviation aircraft. They are responsi ble for the inspection of aircraft manufacturing and of major repairs. They also certify aircraft pilots and schools, pilot examiners, flight instructors, and instructional materials. Mine inspectors work to enhance the health and safety of miners and to promote good mining practices. To insure compliance with safety laws and regulations, mine inspec tors visit mines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety conditions. Mine inspectors discuss their findings with the management of the mine, prepare written reports that incorporate their findings and decisions, and issue notices of findings that describe violations and hazards that must be corrected. They also investigate and prepare reports on mine accidents and direct rescue and firefighting opera tions when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance officers in spect the employer’s time, payroll, and personnel records to insure compliance with the provisions of various Federal laws on minimum wages, overtime, pay, employment of minors, and equal employment opportunity. They often interview employees to verify the employer’s records and to check for any com plaints. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in spectors insure that the industries which manufacture these products comply with the provisions of revenue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices. They spend most of their time in specting distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and importers; firearms and explosives manufac turers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They periodi cally audit these establishments to determine that appropriate taxes are correctly determined and paid. Places of Employment Over 110,000 people, 5 percent of them women, worked as health and regulatory inspectors in 1974. The largest single employer of food and drug inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State govern ments. Meat and poultry inspectors and commodity graders who work in processing plants are employed mainly by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural quaran tine inspectors work either for the U.S. Public Health Service or the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Sanitarians work primarily for State and local governments. Regulatory inspectors work for various agencies within the Federal Government, mainly in regional and district offices distributed throughout the United States. For example, aviation safety officers work for the Federal Aviation Ad ministration; wage-hour com pliance officers, for the Department of Labor; mine inspectors, the De partment of the Interior; and al cohol, tobacco, and firearms in spectors, the Treasury Department. Immigration, customs, and agricul tural quarantine inspectors work at U.S. airports, seaports, border crossing points, and at foreign air ports and seaports. They are em ployed by the Justice and Treasury Departments. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications Because inspectors perform such a wide range of duties, qualifica tions for employment in these posi tions vary greatly. The Federal Government requires a passing score on the Professional and Ad ministrative Career Examination (PACE) for several inspector occu pations, including immigration; customs; wage and hour com pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearms; occupational safety; and consumer safety (food and drug). To take this examination, a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of responsible work experience, or a combination of the two, are required. In some cases, agencies will give preference to an applicant whose course work or work ex perience is related to the field of employment. Other Federal inspectors must pass an examination based on spe cialized knowledge, in addition to having work experience in related fields. These include commodity in spectors such as those in meat, poultry, livestock, and egg products. Air safety inspectors must have considerable experience in aviation maintenance, and an FAA Air Frame and Power Plant certificate. In addition, various pilot cer tificates and considerable flight ex perience‘are required, with the type dependent on the inspection duties. Many air safety inspectors receive both their flight training and mechanical training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for mine safety in spector positions generally must have specialized work experience in mine management or supervision, or possess a skill such as electrical engineering (for mine electrical in spectors). In some cases, a general aptitude test may be required. Ad vancement to a supervisory position is competitive. Some Civil Service registers in cluding those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and fruit and vegetable graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and edu cation and require no written ex amination. Qualifications for inspectors at the State and local level are usually similar to those for Federal em ployees. However, this may vary among government employers, par ticularly at the local level. All inspectors are trained in the laws and inspection procedures re lated to their specific field through a combination of classroom and onthe-job training. In general, people who want to become health and regulatory inspectors should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to ex press themselves well orally and in writing. All Federal Government inspec tors are promoted on a Civil Service “career ladder.” This means that, assuming satisfactory work per formance, workers will advance au tomatically, usually at 1-year inter vals, to a specified maximum level. Above this level (usually superviso ry positions), advancement is com petitive, based on needs of the agency and individual merit. Employment Outlook Employment of health and regu latory inspectors as a group is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. The growth in em ployment of health inspectors is ex pected to be more rapid than that of regulatory inspectors. In addition to job opportunities stemming from growth, many inspectors will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Increased food consumption caused by population growth and greater public conce.m over poten tial health hazards, should create additional jobs for food and drug, meat and poultry, and other com modity inspectors and graders. Public concerns for improved quali ty and safety of consumer products also should result in new legislation in these areas, requiring additional inspectors to insure compliance. Aviation industry growth, in creased international travel, and in creases in the volume of U.S. im ports and exports should continue to create new openings for aviation safety officers, quarantine and im migration inspectors, and customs inspectors. Increasing coal mining activity and concern over mine safety should create additional mine inspector jobs. Continued public pressure for equal employ ment rights should cause a growing need for wage-hour compliance of ficers. Earnings and Working Conditions With the exception of mine in spectors and aviation safety of ficers, the Federal Government paid health and regulatory inspec tors and graders starting salaries of $8,500 or $10,520 a year in late 1974, depending on the type of position and the qualifications of the applicant. Aviation safety of ficers and mining inspectors usually received starting salaries of $12,841. Salaries of experienced meat and poultry inspectors, egg product in spectors, agricultural quarantine in spectors, alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, and customs and immigration inspectors were al most $13,000 a year in late 1974. Experienced food and drug inspec tors (consumer safety officers), agricultural quarantine inspectors, and wage-hour compliance officers usually received salaries of about $15,500 from the Federal Govern ment in late 1974. Mine inspector and aviation safety officers earned between $18,500 and $22,000. Nonsupervisory sanitarians had average starting salaries of almost $10,000 in late 1974, according to a survey by the International Per sonnel Management Association in selected U.S. cities and counties. Those working for State govern ments earned about $ 1,000 less. Most health and regulatory in spectors live an active life, meeting many people and working in a variety of environments. Many travel frequently and are usually furnished with an automobile or reimbursed for travel expenses. At times inspectors must work under unfavorable working condi tions. For example, meat and poultry, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors frequently come in contact with strong, un pleasant odors; mine inspectors often spend a great deal of time in mines where they are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors work long and often ir regular hours. Sources of Additional Information For facts about inspector careers in the Federal Government, con tact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. More detailed information on qualifications for Federal jobs is available from local Civil Service Commission offices or from in dividual Federal agencies. Information about career oppor tunities as inspectors in State and local governments is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. O C C U PATIO N AL SA FETY AND HEALTH W ORKERS (D.O.T. 010.081; 012.081 and .188; 079.188; 168.168, .268, and .284; 379.387; 821.387; and 909.128) Nature of the Work People in the occupational safety and health field have the challeng ing job of insuring a safe and healthful environment for workers and safe products for consumers. Safety and health workers in a number of different occupations strive to control occupational ac cidents and diseases, property losses, and injuries from unsafe products. This statement discusses both professional and paraprofes- sional occupations in private indus try; for a discussion of related occu pations in government, see the statement on Health and Regulato ry Inspectors elsewhere in the Handbook. The largest number of safety workers are safety engineers. Although alL of them are con cerned with preventing acci dents, their specific tasks de pend on where they work. For example, the safety engineer working in a large manufacturing plant (D.O.T. 012.081) may develop a comprehensive safety program covering several thousand employees. This usually entails detailed analysis of each job in the plant to identify potential hazards so that preventive measures can be taken. When accidents do occur, safety engineers in manufacturing plants investigate to determine the cause. If poor design, improper maintenance, or mechanical failure is involved, they use their technical skills to correct the situation and prevent its recurrence. When human error is the cause of an ac cident, safety engineers may establish training courses for plantworkers and supervisors or re emphasize existing ones. Safety engineers who work for trucking companies (D.O.T. 909.128) study schedules, routes, loads, and speeds to determine their influence on trucking accidents. They also inspect heavy rigs, such as trucks and trailers, to suggest ways of safer operation. In the min ing industry, safety engineers (D.O.T. 010.081) may inspect un derground or open-pit areas to in sure compliance with State and Federal laws, design protective equipment and safety devices for mine machinery, or lead rescue ac tivities during emergencies. Many safety engineers are directly concerned with the safety of their company’s product. They work closely with design engineers to develop models which meet all safety standards and they monitor the manufacturing process to insure the safety of the finished product. Safeguarding life and property against loss from fire, explosion, and related hazards is the job of the fire protection engineer (D.O.T. 012.188). Those who specialize in research investigate problems such as fires in high-rise buildings or the manufacture, handling, and storage of flarpmable materials. Fire pro tection engineers in the field use these research findings to identify hazards and devise ways to correct them. For example, new findings concerning flashpoints (the tem perature at which different materi als will ignite) are valuable to the engineer designing storage facilities in a chemical plant. Like safety engineers, fire protec tion engineers may have different job duties depending on where they work. One who works for a fire equipment manufacturing company may design new fire protection devices, while engineers in consult ing firms work with architects and others to insure that fire safety is built into new structures. In con trast, fire protection engineers working for insurance rating bu reaus (organizations that calculate basic costs of insurance coverage in particular areas) inspect private, commercial, and industrial proper ties to evaluate the adequacy of fire protection for the entire area. Many fire protection engineers have spe cial expertise in one area or more of fire protection, such as sprinkler or fire detection systems. Losses in the workplace cannot be reduced without measures to eliminate hazards to workers’ health. Designing and maintaining a healthful work environment is the job of the industrial hygienist (D.O.T. 079.188). These health professionals are concerned with how noise, dust, vapors, and other hazards common to the industrial setting affect workers’ health. After a problem is detected, perhaps by analyzing employee medical records, the industrial hygienist at the jobsite may take air samples, monitor noise levels, or measure radioactivity levels in the areas under investigation. Other industrial hygienists work in private laboratories or in those maintained by large insurance com panies or industrial firms. Labora tory hygienists analyze air samples, do research on the reliability of health equipment such as respira tors, or investigate the effects of ex posure to chemicals or radiation. Some hygienists specialize in problems of air and water pollution. For example, these health profes sionals may work with government officials, environmental groups, or ganized labor, and plant manage ment to develop a system to screen harmful substances before they enter and pollute a river. Loss control and occupational health consultants (D.O.T. 168.168) in property-liability in surance companies perform many services for their clients. These range from correcting a single hazard in a small business to devis ing a program to eliminate or reduce all losses arising out of a large firm’s operation. When deal ing with a new account, the con sultant makes a thorough inspec tion of the plant and then confers with management to formulate a program that meets the company’s needs. The consultant may, for ex ample, help set up plant health pro grams and medical services, assist plant personnel to insure that a new facility meets all safety require ments, or train plant safety people. Safety and health consultants also help their company’s underwriters determine whether a risk is ac ceptable and the amount of premi um to charge. Industrial hygienist taking an air sample. emerging trends. Many insurance companies offer training seminars An estimated 25,000 persons and correspondence courses for were engaged in occupational their staffs. The Occupational safety and health work in 1974. Safety and Health Administration About one-quarter of these carried (OSHA) conducts courses for the professional designation, Cer safety and health workers on topics tified Safety Professional, Certified such as occupational injury in Industrial Hygienist, or Member, vestigation and radiological health Society of Fire Protection En hazards. The recognized marks of gineers. Many others who are not achievement in the field are the certified performed professional designations Certified Safety level work, while a relatively small Professional; Certified Industrial number were employed in the occu Hygienist; and Member, Society of pational safety and health field as Fire Protection Engineers. Certifi technicians and inspectors. Proper cation is conferred by the Board of ty and liability insurance companies Certified Safety Professionals, the employ many occupational safety American Board of Industrial Hy and health workers to provide en giene, or the Society of Fire Protec gineering, consulting, and inspec tion Engineers after the candidate tion services to their clients. Others completes the required experience worked for a variety of industrial, and passes an examination. manufacturing, and commercial In addition to technical com concerns. petence, safety and health workers These workers are needed wher must be able to communicate well ever large numbers of people are and motivate others. They should concentrated and industrial be able to adapt quickly to different development occurs. Insurance situations, being equally at ease consultants generally have their with a representative of a local headquarters in a region’s major union, a supervisor in the welding city and travel to and from the sites shop, or a corporate executive. they visit. Because physical activity is basic to the job, good physical condition is Training, Other Qualifications, necessary. and Advancement Workers with proven ability will find much room for advancement. Entry level safety and health professionals generally need at least In the insurance business, safety a bachelor’s degree in engineering and health workers can be or a science. A more specialized promoted to department manager degree, such as one in safety in a small branch office, move up to management, industrial safety, or larger branch offices, and finally fire protection engineering, often is take an executive position in the helpful in getting a good job. Many home office. In industrial firms, employers prefer applicants with a they can advance to plant safety graduate degree in areas such as in and health manager or corporate dustrial hygiene, safety engineering, manager over several plants. or occupational safety and health Although extensive experience is engineering, or those with prior in required, technicians can advance dustrial work experience. Some em to professional safety and health ployers will hire graduates of 2-year positions. college curriculums as technicians, particularly if they have work ex Employment Outlook perience related to the job. Continuing education is necessa Employment of safety and health ry to stay abreast of changing workers is expected to increase technologies, new ideas, and faster than the average for all occu Places of Employment pations through the mid-1980’s as growing concern for occupational safety and health and consumer safety continues to generate pro grams and jobs. Many openings will arise also to replace workers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Much of the employment growth is expected to occur in industrial and manufacturing firms. Many firms now without a safety and health program are expected to establish one, and others will up grade and expand existing programs in response to government require ments, union interest, and rising in surance costs. The number of safety and health workers in casualty in surance companies also will in crease as more small employers request the services of their in surer’s engineering or loss control department. Prospects should be best for graduates of occupational safety or health curriculums. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of safety and health workers vary widely accord ing to education, experience, and specialty. In manufacturing firms, persons with a bachelor’s degree generally started at about $10,000 a year in 1974, accord ing to the limited data available. Those with a graduate degree salaries, and technicians somewhat lower ones. Safety and health workers with several years’ experience averaged $15,000 to $20,000, and corporate man agers well over $20,000 a year. Insurance companies started their loss consultant trainees at about $9,000; senior con sultants earned $12,000 to $16,000; and department managers were paid over $20,000 in 1974. The amount of travel required depends upon job specialty and geographic location. For example, the plant safety engineer may travel only to seminars and conferences, Also available from the Society is while the insurance consultant may spend about half the time traveling a booklet which lists colleges and between worksites. Usually, a car is universities offering degree pro furnished or safety professionals are grams in the occupational safety reimbursed for the expenses of and health field. Information concerning a career using their own vehicles. in industrial hygiene is available from: Sources of Additional Information For general information about professional safety careers, write to: American Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, III. 60068. American Industrial Hygiene Association, 665 Miller Rd., Akron, Ohio44313. Career information concerning fire protection engineering may be obtained from: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110. Career information on insurance loss control consulting is available from the home offices of many property-liability insurance com panies. OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS MAIL CARRIERS (D.O.T. 233.138 and 233.388) Nature of the Work Most mail carriers travel planned routes delivering and collecting mail. Carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery, readdressing letters to be forwarded, and taking care of other details. A carrier typically covers the route on foot, toting a heavy load of mail in a satchel or pushing it in a cart. In outlying suburban areas where houses are far apart, a car or small truck is sometimes needed to deliver mail. Residential carriers cover their routes only once a day, but carriers assigned a business dis trict may make two trips or more. Deliveries are made house-to-house except in large buildings, such as apartments, which have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides making deliveries, car riers collect postage-due and c.o.d. fees and obtain signed receipts for registered and sometimes for in sured mail. If a customer is not home the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. Carriers also pick up letters to be mailed. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street col lection boxes and homes. They may separate letters and parcels so that stamps can be canceled easily, and they turn in the receipts and money collected during the day. Many carriers have more special ized duties than those described above. Some deliver only parcel post. Others collect mail from street boxes and office mail chutes. Rural carriers provide a wide variety of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept parcels and letters to be re gistered or insured. All carriers answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and service and provide change-ofaddress cards and other postal forms when requested. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mail carriers must be at least 18 and pass a four-part written ex amination. The first part tests cleri cal accuracy by asking the appli cant to compare pairs of addresses and indicate which are identical. Carriers can work at their own pace as long as they cover their routes on time. The second part tests ability to memorize mail distribution systems. The third measures reading ability, including vocabulary, and the fourth tests ability to do simple arithmetic. Applicants must have a driver’s license and pass a road test if the job involves driving. They also must pass a physical examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants who have had health conditions that might interfere with work must have a special review to determine their eligibility. Applicants should apply at the post office where they wish to work because each post office keeps a separate list of those who have passed the examination. Appli cants’ names are listed in order of their scores. Five extra points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 extra points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. Disabled veterans who have a com pensable, service-connected disa bility of 10 percent or more are placed at the top of the list. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing of ficer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings. Mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are hired to help handle the Christ mas mail. Part-time flexible em ployees do not have a regular work schedule but replace absent work ers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule—for example, 4 hours a day. New carriers are trained on the job. They may begin as part-time flexible city carriers and become regular or full-time carriers in order of seniority as vacancies occur. Ad vancement possibilities are limited, but carriers can look forward to ob taining preferred routes as city car riers or to obtaining jobs as rural carriers or carrier technicians as their seniority increases. A relative ly small number of carriers become supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of mail carriers— who numbered 267,000 in 1974—is expected to change very little through the mid-1980’s. Although the amount of mail may increase along with growth in population and business activity, more efficient delivery of mail should limit the need for additional carriers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced car riers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Openings will be concentrated in metropolitan areas. Earnings and Working Conditions In mid-1974, part-time flexible carriers began at $4.77 an hour, with periodic increases up to $6.06 an hour after 8 years of service. Hourly wages of part-time regular workers were $4.61 an hour, with periodic increases up to $5.85 an hour after 8 years of service. By comparison, nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming, averaged $4.22 an hour. Full-time city carriers are paid on an annual basis, beginning at $9,588 and increasing to a max imum of $12,173 after 8 years. Rural carriers are paid a fixed an nual salary plus an amount varying with the number of miles on their routes. They also receive an al lowance of 15 1/2 cents a mile for the use of their automobiles. For example, as of mid-1974, the salary of a carrier with a 61-mile route (the average length) would begin at $9,730 a year and increase to $12,315 after 8 years. The automo bile allowance would provide an extra $9.46 each workday. Sub stitute rural carriers receive the same pay as the regular carriers whose routes they are covering. A full-time city carrier works an 8-hour day 5 days a week. City car riers who work more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week are paid one and one-half times their regular rate of pay for the extra hours. City car riers who work either full or part time receive 10 percent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Rural carriers work either a 5or 6-day week. Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 6 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather, walking from house to house with their heavy mailbags. Even those who drive must walk when making deliveries, and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. The job, however, has its ad vantages. Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon. They are also free to work at their own pace as long as they cover their routes within a cer tain period of time. Moreover, full time postal employees have more job security than workers in most other industries. (For information on fringe benefits, see the statement on Postal Service Occupations el sewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State em ployment service offices can supply details about entrance examina tions and employment opportuni ties for mail carriers. TELEP H O N E OPERATORS Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone numbers are dialed each day without assistance, practically everyone sometimes makes a call that requires help from the opera tor. Often the operator is asked to reverse long distance charges, locate an individual, or indicate the cost of the call. Frequently the customer needs a correct number. The operator also may be needed to contact the police in an emergency, assist a blind person who is unable to dial, or arrange a conference call for business executives in different locations. These and many other services are provided by two groups of operators—those at switchboards in telephone company central offices and those at private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. Usually operators place calls by in serting and removing plugs that make switchboard connections and by listening and speaking into their headsets. Some switchboards are operated by pushbuttons or dials. Telephone company operators may be assigned to handle either long distance calls or give directory assistance. Long distance operators obtain the information needed to complete the call, make the neces sary connections, and record the details for billing. Directory assistance operators (D.O.T. 235.862) look up and provide telephone numbers. Service assistants train and help new opera tors to complete difficult calls. PBX operators (D.O.T. 235.862) run switchboards for business offices and other establishments. They connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, assist company employees in mak ing outgoing calls, supply informa tion to callers, and record charges. In many small establishments, PBX operators work at switchboards that serve only a limited number of telephones. These operators may do other office work such as typing or sorting mail and many also act as receptionists or information clerks. (The work of receptionists is described elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some telephone operator switchboards operate by push buttons. Places of Employment About 390,000 telephone opera tors were employed in 1974; about one-half worked as operators in telephone companies and the rest as PBX operators in other types of businesses. A large number of PBX operators had jobs in manufactur ing plants, hospitals, schools, and department stores. One-fourth of all operators worked part time. Telephone company and PBX operators tend to be concentrated in heavily populated areas. Nearly one-fifth work in the New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons planning to become telephone operators should like to serve the public, be pleasant and courteous, and be able to sit in a confined area for long periods. A clear and pleasing voice and good hearing also are important. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math pro vide a helpful background. Most telephone companies and many large business firms require appli cants to pass physical examinations. New operators receive on-the-job training to become familiar with the equipment, records, and work. Operators first learn the procedures used to handle calls. Then they put through practice calls. After this in struction and practice—which usually lasts from 1 to 3 weeks— they are assigned to regular opera tor jobs and receive further instruc tion from supervisors. PBX operators who handle rou tine calls may have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. In large businesses, an instructor from the local telephone company may train new employees. Experienced telephone company operators may be promoted to cler ical, craft, or supervisory jobs. Similar opportunities exist for PBX operators in large firms; in many small businesses, however, opportu nities for advancement are limited. Employment Outlook Employment of telephone and PBX operators as a group is ex pected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. Neverthe less, thousands of full-time and part-time workers will be hired each year. Some will be needed to replace experienced operators who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Many other openings will result from the need to replace operators who advance to other oc cupations. Employment of telephone com pany operators is expected to decline slightly. As more companies start charging customers for directory assistance and informa tion calls, more people will dial numbers directly and use telephone directories to locate unknown num bers, thus reducing the need for operators. Employment of PBX operators is not expected to change significantly even though more small businesses will require PBX services. Employ ment growth will be limited as many large businesses convert to Central Exchange (CENTREX). With CENTREX, incoming and outgoing calls can be dialed directly without an operator’s assistance. Earnings and Working Conditions Telephone company operators in training averaged $3.40 an hour in early 1974; experienced operators $4.20; service assistants $5.20; and managers $7.12. Contracts between unions and telephone companies generally provide for periodic pay increases and extra pay for work on evenings, Sundays, and holidays. Most telephone company and PBX operators work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Often, their scheduled hours are the same as those of other clerical workers in the business community. In telephone companies, however, and in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is on a 24-hour basis, operators usually work on shifts and on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening, and have time off between these two periods. Operators usually work in welllighted and pleasant surroundings. Lounges often are provided for relaxation during breaks in their scheduled hours. Insurance, pen sion programs, holidays, vacations, and other fringe benefits are much the same as those for other types of clerical employees. For information about fringe benefits for telephone company operators, see the state ment on the Telephone Industry elsewhere in the Handbook. Many operators employed by telephone companies are members of the Communications Workers of America, the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers, and the Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employ ment opportunities, contact the telephone company in your com munity or local offices of the unions that represent telephone workers. For general information on telephone operator jobs, write to: Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 16518. United States Independent Telephone As sociation, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20005. EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS More and more people are going to school for a greater portion of their lives than ever before, as in creasingly complex and specialized skills and knowledge are called for in our growing economy. In addi tion, people of all ages are seeking to use their leisure time for personal growth and development. Teachers and librarians play vital roles in the educational process; their occupa tions are discussed in the following sections. ing numbers of teachers are freed from routine duties and can give more individual attention to stu dents. TEACHING OCCUPATIONS Teaching is the largest of the professions; over 2.7 million full time teachers were employed in 1973-74 in the Nation’s elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. In addition, thousands taught part time; among them were many scientists, physi cians, accountants, members of other professions, and graduate stu dents. Similarly, large numbers of craft workers instructed part time in vocational schools. Many other people taught in preschool and adult education and recreation pro grams. The number of teachers required in the future will depend on the number of students enrolled and the number of persons who leave the profession. New teachers also will be needed to allow the average size of classes to be lowered. Detailed information on teaching occupations and the outlook for teachers through the mid-1980’s is presented in the following state ments. KINDERGARTEN AND ELEM EN TAR Y SC H O O L TEACHERS (D.O.T. 092.228) Nature of the Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers introduce children to numbers, language, science and social studies, and develop stu dents’ capabilities in these subject areas. Their primary job is to pro vide a good learning environment and to plan and present programs of instruction using materials and methods designed to suit the stu dents’ needs. Most elementary school teachers instruct a single group of 25 to 30 children in several subjects. In some schools two teachers or more “team teach” and are jointly responsible for a group of students or for a par ticular subject. A recent survey in dicates that about 1 public elemen tary school teacher in 6 is a member of a teaching team An increasing number of elemen tary school teachers specialize in one or two subjects and teach these subjects to several classes; 1 teacher in every 5 teaches on this departmentalized basis. Some teach special subjects such as music, art, or physical education, while others teach basic subjects such as English, mathematics, or social studies. Besides the actual student in struction, teachers participate in many activities outside the class room. They generally must attend regularly scheduled faculty meetings and may serve on faculty committees. They must prepare les sons and evaluate student per formance. They also work with stu dents who require special help and confer with parents and other school staff. To stay up-to-date on educational materials and teaching techniques, they participate in workshops and other inservice ac tivities. New forms of instructional media give teachers more opportunities to work with students. Also, about 4 out of every 10 public elementary school teachers have aides who generally do secretarial work and help supervise lunch and playground activities. Thus, grow Places of Employment About 1.3 million people—85 percent of them women—worked as elementary school teachers in 1974. An increasing number of men, concentrated heavily in the upper grades, teach at the elemen tary level. Most teachers work in public ele mentary schools that have six grades; however, some teach in middle schools—schools that cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elementary grades and 4 years of high school. Only about 12 percent of elementary school teachers work in nonpublic schools. More than one-third of all public elementary teachers teach in urban areas; about one-fifth in cities of 250,000 or more; one-eighth in rural areas; and the remainder in small towns or suburban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public elementa ry school teachers to be certified by the department of education io the State in which they work. Some States also require certification of teachers in private and parochial schools. To qualify for certification, a teacher must study 4 years at an in stitution with an approved teacher education program. Besides a bachelor’s degree which provides the necessary liberal arts background, States require that prospective teachers have student teaching and education courses. In 1974, 13 States required teachers to get supplementary post graduate education—usually a master’s degree or a fifth year of study—within a certain period after their initial certification. Some States required U.S. citizenship; some an oath of allegiance; and several a health certificate. Local school systems sometimes have additional requirements for employment. Students should write to the local superintendent of schools and to the State department of education for information on specific requirements in the area in which they want to teach. In addition to educational and certification requirements, a teacher should be dependable, have good judgment, and should have the desire and ability to work with children. Enthusiasm for teaching and the competence to handle classroom situations also are impor tant. Opportunities for advancement in elementary teaching come prin cipally with experience. Teachers may advance within a school system or transfer to another which recog nizes experience and has a higher salary scale. Some teachers may ad vance to supervisory, administra tive, or specialized positions. Ad vancement for most teachers con sists of higher pay rather than more responsibility or a higher position, however. Employment Outlook salaries and have more recent train ing. Pupil enrollment is the basic fac tor underlying the need for teachers. Because of fewer births in the 1960’s, elementary enrollments have been on the decline since they peaked at nearly 32 million in 1967. The National Center of Education Statistics projects that by 1979 the downward enrollment trend will halt at a level of 27 million, and en rollments again will advance to nearly 29 million by 1985. However, a decline in the pro jected number of children born over the next decade could lessen the demand for teachers. While the trend has not been clearly established, since 1970 women have continued to have fewer chil dren, and according to a recent sur vey, they expect to continue having smaller families than were common 10 years ago. Teachers will be needed to fill new positions created by larger en rollments; to replace those who are not now certified; to meet the ex pected pressure for an improved pupil-teacher ratio; and to fill posi tions vacated by teachers who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. While the outlook based on past trends points to a competitive em ployment situation through the mid-1980’s, several factors could influence the demand for teachers. Increased emphasis on early child hood education, on special pro grams for disadvantaged children, and on individual instruction may result in larger enrollments, smaller student-teacher ratios, and con sequently an increased need for teachers. However, possible budget restraints for educational services might limit expansion. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers are expected to face competition for jobs through the mid-1980’s. If patterns of entry and reentry to the profession con tinue in line with past trends, the number of persons qualified to teach in elementary schools will ex ceed the number of openings. The basic sources of teacher supply are recent college graduates qualified to teach at the elementary Earnings and Working level and teachers seeking reentry Conditions to the profession. Reentrants, According to the National Edu although more experienced, will face increasing competition from cation Association, public elemen new graduates who command lower tary school teachers in 1974-75 averaged $11,234 a year. Average earnings in 1974 were over one and one-third times as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the five highest paying States (Alaska, New York, Hawaii, California, and Illinois), teachers’ salaries averaged more than $12,600; in the 10 States hav ing the lowest salaries (Mississippi, Arkansas, Vermont, South Dakota, Kentucky, Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Carolina, West Vir ginia, and Nebraska), they averaged less than $9,200. Public schools systems enrolling 6,000 or more pupils paid teachers with a bachelor’s degree average starting salaries of $7,720 a year in 1973-74; those with a master’s degree earned a starting average of $8,586. Public elementary school teachers worked an average of about 36-1/2 hours a week in 1974. Additional time spent preparing les sons, grading papers, making re ports, attending meetings, and su pervising extra-curricular activities increased the total number of hours to about 46. The elementary school teacher usually works 9 months and averages 181 days in the classroom and 4 workdays on nonteaching ac tivities. In addition, many teach summer sessions, and others take courses for professional growth or work at other jobs during the summer months. Employment in teaching is steady, and business conditions usually do not affect the market for teachers. In 1974, 38 States and the District of Columbia had tenure laws that insured the jobs of teachers who had successfully taught for a certain number of years. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasingly large number of teachers. In 1974, 31 States had enacted laws which required collec tive bargaining in the teacher con tract negotiation process. Most public school systems that enroll 1,000 students or more bargain with teacher organizations over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools and cer tification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fellow ships, and other information on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of general infor mation are: American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D C. 20036. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 091.228) Nature of the Work Secondary school teachers help prepare their students for future roles as citizens and jobholders. They introduce students to subjects ranging from world history and ele mentary algebra to anthropology and computer mathematics. Secondary school teachers usually specialize in a particular field. English, mathematics, social studies, and science are the subjects most commonly taught. Other spe cialties include health and physical education, business education, home economics, foreign lan guages, and music. Increasingly, teachers are developing courses which deal with particular areas within the broad subjects so stu dents may acquire in-depth as well as general knowledge of a field. Secondary school teachers usually conduct classes in their spe cialty for five groups of students a day. The average daily pupil load for public shool teachers is 136 stu dents. Teachers design their classroom presentation to meet the demands of balanced curriculum and to suit the individual student’s needs. Secondary school teachers instruct students at a single grade level or from different grades. They must consider instructional methods and materials that best meet the stu dent’s needs, as well as the subject matter. Secondary school teachers also supervise study halls and homerooms, prepare lessons, grade papers, evaluate students, and at tend meetings with parents and school personnel. Often they work with student groups outside of class. Teachers also participate in activi ties, such as workshops and college classes, to keep up-to-date on their subject specialty and on current trends in education. Increasingly, in recent years, teachers have been able to devote more time towards improved in struction due to the increased availability of teacher aides who perform secretarial work, grade papers, and do other routine tasks. Developments in educational technology also have provided teachers with instructional media and other new materials and techniques to improve student learning. Places of Employment More than 1 million teachers worked in secondary schools in 1974. Of these, about one-half were women. According to a recent survey, slightly more than one-half of all public secondary teachers work in senior high schools; about one-third teach at the junior high level. About one-tenth teach in junior-senior high schools, and a very small number are elementary-secondary combination teachers. Of those in public schools, about 1 teacher in 5 works in a city with a population of 250,000 or more—1 in 8 in a city of less than 250,000. Over one-half teach in small-town or suburban schools; and about 1 in 7 in a rural location. Only about 1 teacher in 14 works in a nonpublic school. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require the certification of public secondary school teachers. Many States also require certification of secondary teachers in private and parochial schools. In every State, the minimum edu cational requirement for certifica tion is a bachelor’s degree. Moreover, 14 States have specified that a secondary school teacher must get additional education, usually a fifth year of study or a master’s degree, within a certain period after beginning employment. In 1974, the District of Columbia was the only jurisdiction requiring a master’s degree for initial certifica tion as a senior high school teacher. However, according to a recent na tional survey, 2 out of every 5 public secondary school teachers had a master’s or higher degree. The educational qualifications for secondary school teachers vary by State and by school system. Ap proved colleges and universities in every State offer programs which include the education courses and student-teaching that States require. They also offer the academic courses which qualify teachers in subject specialties taught at the secondary level. States and local jurisdictions often have general teacher require ments, such as the recommendation of the college, a certificate of health, and citizenship. Prospective teachers may get complete informa tion on such educational and general requirements from each State department of education and from the superintendent of schools in each community. Personal qualifications which a secondary teacher must have in clude a desire to work with young people, an interest in a special sub ject, and the ability to motivate stu dents and to relate knowledge to them. For secondary teachers, educa tion and experience provide the pri mary bases for advancement. Ad vancement to supervisory and ad ministrative positions usually requires at least 1 year of profes sional education beyond the bachelor’s degree and several years of successful classroom teaching. Some experienced teachers with special preparation may work as special school service personnel, such as school psychologists, read ing specialists, or guidance coun selors. Often these jobs require spe cial certification as well as special education. The prime sources of teacher supply are recent college graduates qualified to teach secondary school and teachers seeking to reenter the profession. Although reentrants have experience in their favor, many schools may prefer to hire new graduates who command lower salaries and whose training is more recent. Pupil enrollment is the basic fac tor underlying the demand for teachers. The National Center for Education Statistics’ projections in dicate that enrollments in seconda ry schools will begin to decline in the mid-1970’s after continuous growth through the 1960’s and into the early 1970’s. This decline in en rollments is expected to reduce the demand for teachers. As a result, over the 1974-85 period, nearly all teaching positions will stem from the need to replace teachers who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. As a result, an in creasing proportion of prospective teachers will have to consider alter natives to secondary school teaching. However, pressures for an improved pupil-teacher ratio and replacement of noncertified teachers could create additional openings. Although the overall outlook for secondary teachers indicates a highly competitive market, employ ment conditions may be more favorable in certain fields. Accord ing to a recent survey, teacher supply was least adequate in mathe matics, natural and physical sciences, industrial arts, special education, and some vocationaltechnical subjects. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions The supply of secondary school teachers through the mid-1980’s will greatly exceed anticipated requirements if past trends of entry into the profession continue. As a result, prospective teachers are likely to face keen competition for jobs. According to the National Edu cation Association, public seconda ry school teachers in 1974-75 averaged $11,826. This is one and one-half times the average for nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In the five highest paying States (New York, California, Alaska, Illinois, and Michigan), teachers’ salaries averaged more than $13,000; in the five States having the lowest sala ries (Arkansas, Kentucky, Missis sippi, South Dakota, and Oklahoma), they averaged under $9,300 a year. Beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree in school systems with enrollments of 6,000 or more earned average salaries of $7,720 in the school year 1973-74. New teachers with a master’s degree started at $8,586 a year. Beginning teachers could expect regular salary increases as they gained experience and additional education. A recent survey of public school teachers indicated that the average required school week for those in secondary schools was 37 hours. However, when all teaching duties, including meetings, lesson prepara tion, and other necessary tasks are taken into consideration, the total number of hours spent working each week was slightly more than 48. In some schools, teachers receive supplementary pay for certain school-related activities such as coaching students in sports and working with students in extracur ricular activities, in music, dra matics, or school publications. About one-fourth of the public secondary teachers receive pay for extra duties, such as supervising ex tracurricular activities, and onethird supplement their incomes with earnings from additional school work. One-sixth of public school teachers also work in their school systems during the summer. More than one-fourth hold summer jobs outside the school system. In all, about three-fifths of public secon dary school teachers have extra earnings from summer work, addi tional school-year work, or a com bination of the two. During the school year, teachers work an average of 181 days. They average 26 teaching periods and 5 unassigned periods a week. Laws in 38 States and the District of Colum bia ensure the employment of those who have achieved tenure status. Laws requiring collective bargain ing of wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment cover increasing numbers of teachers. Sources of Additional information Information on schools and cer tification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fellow ships, and other information on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of general infor mation are: American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY TEACHERS (D.O.T. 090.168 through .999) Nature of the Work About 30 percent of all persons in the United States between the ages of 18 and 21 attended college in 1974. To meet the demand of students for higher education, col leges and universities hire teachers to provide instruction in many fields. The most common subjects include social sciences, teacher education, the physical sciences, health professions, fine and applied arts, English, the biological sciences, mathematics, foreign lan guages, and business and com merce. Slightly more than one-half of all college and university teachers in struct undergraduates; another onethird teach both graduates and un dergraduates; and about one-tenth work only with graduate students. Most teachers lecture and con duct classroom discussions to present subject matter effectively. Many work with students in labora tories. Some teachers provide in dividual instruction or supervise in dependent study. Nearly one-third of the faculty in universities have teaching assistants. Some college and university teachers use closedcircuit television. In 2-year colleges especially, instruction is frequently machino-aided. To be effective, college teachers must keep up with developments in their field by reading current material, participating in profes sional activities, and conducting research. Some publish books and articles. The importance of research and publication varies from one institutional level to another. In universities, about 70 percent of the faculty have published professional articles com pared to 25 percent of 2-year col lege faculty. Also, in certain fields such as engineering and the physi cal sciences, the demand for research is strong. In addition to time spent on preparation, instruction, and evaluation, college and university teachers participate in faculty ac tivities; work with student organiza tions and individual students out side of classes; work with the col lege administration; and in other ways serve the institution and the community. Some are department heads and have supervisory duties. Places of Employment In 1974, about 622,000 teachers worked in more than 2,600 colleges and universities. About one-fourth of all college and university teachers are women. An estimated 399,000—nearly two-thirds—were and college-level teaching ex perience, outstanding academic, administrative, and professional contributions influence advance ment. Research, publication, and work experience in a subject area may hasten advancement. The ranks of college and univer sity teachers and their educational backgrounds differ by institutional level. In universities, more than 50 percent of the faculty have doctoral degrees compared with about 10 percent in 2-year colleges. Cor respondingly, more than 50 percent of the faculty in universities are either professors or associate professors, while in 2-year colleges, only 1 teacher in 4 is within these upper ranks. Conversely, in com munity and junior colleges, where the master’s is the highest degree held by nearly three-fourths of the faculty, instructors constitute a relatively large faculty segment. Employment Outlook College and university teaching candidates are expected to face keen competition through the midfull-time senior staff. Of the academic ranks: instructors, 1980’s. The demand for college and professors, associate university teachers is expected to remainder, about 112,000 were assistant part-time senior staff, and nearly professors, and full professors. fall. However, the principal source 16,000 were full-time junior in About 75 percent of all faculty are of teacher supply—master’s and Ph. structors; the rest generally worked assistant, associate, or full profes D. degree recipients—is expected as part-time assistant instructors, sors, with the three ranks equally to continue to grow. Consequently, teaching fellows, teaching distributed. Ten percent are in a smaller proportion of each year’s degree recipients will be needed for structors. assistants, or laboratory assistants. To get an initial appointment, in college teaching. An increasing Of full-time faculty, about onethird teach in universities; nearly structors generally must have a proportion of prospective college one-half work in 4-year colleges; master’s degree. For advancement teachers, therefore, will have to and about one-seventh teach in 2- to higher ranks, they need further seek nonacademic jobs. Govern year colleges. About two-thirds of academic training plus experience. ment and private industry should the faculty in universities and 4- Assistant professors usually need a provide some positions, but some year colleges teach in public institu year of graduate study beyond the persons holding graduate degrees tions; nearly nine-tenths of the master’s degree and at least a year may Find it necessary to enter occu faculty in 2-year institutions work or two of experience as an instruc pations that have not traditionally in public junior and community col tor. Appointments as associate required advanced study. professors frequently demand the The basic factor underlying the leges. doctoral degree and an additional 3 demand for teachers is college en Training, Other Qualifications, years or more of college teaching rollment. During the 1960’s and experience. For a full professorship, early 1970’s, teacher employment and Advancement the doctorate and extensive expanded due to growth in both the Most college and university teaching experience are essential. number of college-age persons and faculty are classified in four In addition to advanced study the proportion of 18- to 21-year olds enrolled in college. The number of college-age persons will decline after 1978, and by the early 1980’s, enrollment will taper off and begin to fall. As a result, the total number of college teachers needed over the 1974-85 period will decline, as compared with an 80-percent increase over the previ ous 11-year period. The type and level of the institu tion and the extent to which it wishes to upgrade its faculty also will influence the demand for teachers. Although enrollments in the 1970’s are expected to stabilize in 4-year colleges and universities, many institutions, including junior and community colleges, may hire additional Ph. D.’s to upgrade their faculties. Master’s degree holders also will continue to find jobs in 2year colleges. Public institutions are expected to continue to attract an increasing proportion of total col lege enrollment. Thus, opportuni ties in public colleges will be greater than in private institutions. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974-75, full-time college and university faculty on 9-10 month contracts averaged $16,704, or twice the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Salaries varied, however, by teacher rank and by institutional level. Average salaries were: Instructors................................... Assistant professors................... Associate professors.................. Professors.................................... $12,825 13,104 15,920 20,653 In general, larger institutions paid higher salaries. Salaries of teachers in 4-year colleges tended to be higher than those in 2-year colleges; university teachers averaged the most. College and university teachers’ salaries also vary by geographic re gion. According to a recent survey of 4-year colleges and universities, schools in the Mideast, New Eng land, and Pacific regions paid the highest full-time faculty salaries. Since about 2 out of 3 college teachers have 9 to 10-month con tracts, many have additional summer earnings from research, writing for publication, or other employment. Royalties and fees for speaking engagements may provide additional earnings. Some teachers also undertake additional teaching or research projects or work as con sultants. College and university teachers also may enjoy certain benefits, in cluding tuition waivers for depen dents, housing allowances, travel al lowances, and leaves of absence. Colleges typically grant a semester’s leave after 6 or 7 years of employment. About 85 percent of all college and university teachers work in in stitutions which have tenure systems. Of the full-time teachers employed in these institutions, over one-half are tenured. Under a tenure system, a teacher usually receives 1-year contracts during a probationary period ranging from 3 to 7 years; some universities award 2- or 3-year contracts. After the probationary period, institutions consider teachers for tenure (the assurance of continuing employ ment with freedom from dismissal without cause). The working hours and environ ment of college teachers generally are favorable. Classrooms, office facilities, and laboratories usually are well-equipped and teachers have access to library facilities and clerical assistance. College teachers usually have flexible teaching schedules. Ac cording to a recent survey, the un dergraduate faculty in 4-year col leges and universities normally teach 12 hours a week and seldom more than 14 or 15 hours. Graduate faculty have a teaching load of about 10 hours a week. In addition to time spent in the classroom, col lege and university teachers devote much time to preparation and other duties. Overall, full-time faculty spend about 40 hours a week on school-related activities. For facul ty in junior and community col leges, the normal teaching load is slightly heavier, but the total number of hours on the job are fewer. Sources of Additional Information Information on college teaching as a career is available from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20202. American Council on Education, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20065. Professional societies in the vari ous subject fields will generally pro vide information on teaching requirements and employment op portunities in their particular fields. Names and addresses of societies are given in the statements on specific professions elsewhere in the Handbook. LIBRARY OCCUPATIONS less frequently with the public; they order, classify, catalog, and in other ways prepare the materials for use. The size of the library determines to a large extent the scope of a librarian’s job. In small libraries, the job may include both user and technical services. The librarian may select and organize materials, publicize services, do research, and give reference help to groups and individuals. In large libraries, librarians usually specialize in either user or technical services. They may specialize further in cer tain areas, such as science, busi ness, the arts, or medicine. Their work may involve reviewing and ab stracting published materials and preparing bibliographies in their specialty. LIBRARIANS Librarians generally are classified according to the type of library in (D.O.T. 100.118 through .388) which they work: public libraries, school media centers, college and Nature of the Work university libraries, and special Making information available to libraries. people is the job of librarians. They Public librarians serve all kinds of select and organize collections of people—children, students, books, pamphlets, manuscripts, research workers, teachers, and periodicals, clippings, and reports, others. Increasingly, public librari and assist readers in their use. In ans are providing special materials many libraries, they also provide and services to culturally and edu phonograph records, maps, slides, cationally deprived persons, and to pictures, tapes, films, paintings, persons who because of physical braille and talking books, handicaps cannot use conventional microfilms, and computer tapes. print. User services and technical The professional staff of a large services are the two principal public library system may include kinds of library work. Librarians the chief librarian, an assistant in user services—for example, chief, and several division heads reference and children’s librar who plan and coordinate the work ians-work directly with the of the entire library system. The public. Librarians in technical system also may include librarians services-for example, catalogers who supervise branch libraries and and acquisitions librarians—deal specialists in certain areas of library People in all walks of life are in the midst of an information explo sion. Worlds and ideas are being ex plored that just a few years ago were beyond imagination, and in formation is growing at a rapid pace. The main storehouses of in formation are the Nation’s libraries. Librarians and library techni cians and assistants serve library users of all ages and lifestyles. They provide the public with access to books, periodicals, and other printed materials, as well as less conventional forms of information such as microfilms, slides, and com puter tapes. The following state ments describe their work in more detail. work. The duties of some of these specialists are briefly described in the following paragraphs. Acquisition librarians purchase books and other materials and maintain a well-balanced library that meets the needs and interests of the public. Catalogers classify these materials by subject and otherwise describe them to help users find what they are looking for. Reference librarians answer specific questions and suggest sources of in formation that may be useful. Some librarians ' work with specific groups of readers. Chil dren's librarians serve the special needs of young people by finding books they will enjoy and showing them how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special pro grams such as story hours or film programs. Their work in serving children often includes working with school and community or ganizations. Adult services librarians suggest materials suited to the needs and interests of adults. They may cooperate in planning and con ducting education programs, such as community development, public affairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, and home and family. Young adult services librarians help junior and senior high school stu dents select and use books and other materials. They may organize programs of interest to young adults, such as book or film discus sions or concerts of recorded popu lar and classical music. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school programs. Extension or outreach librarians working in book mobiles offer library services to people not adequately served by a public library such as those in inner city neighborhoods, migrant camps, rural communities, and institutions, including hospitals and homes for the aged. School librarians instruct students in the use of the school library and help them choose from the media center’s collection of print and non print materials items that are re lated to their interests and to class room subjects. Working with teachers and supervisors, school librarians familiarize students with the library’s resources. They prepare lists of materials on certain subjects and help select materials for school programs. They also select, order, and organize the library’s materials. In some schools, they may work with teachers to develop units of study and indepen dent study programs, or they may participate in team teaching. Very large high schools may employ several school librarians, each responsible for a particular function of the library program or for a spe cial subject area. College and university librarians serve students, faculty members, and research workers in institutions of higher education. They may pro vide general reference service or may work in a particular subject field, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. Those work ing on university research projects operate documentation centers that use computers and other modern devices to record, store, and retrieve specialized information. College and university librarians may teach classes in the use of the library. Special librarians work in libraries ans worked in correctional institu maintained by government agencies tions, hospitals, and State institu and by commercial and industrial tions, while a small number served firms, such as pharmaceutical com as consultants, and State and panies, banks, advertising agencies, Federal Government administrators and research laboratories. They and faculty in schools of library provide materials and services science. The Federal Government covering subjects of special interest employed about 3,200 professional to the organization. They build and librarians. arrange the organization’s informa More than 85 percent of all tion resources to suit the needs of librarians are women. In college the library users. Special librarians and university libraries, however, assist users and may conduct litera men make up about 35 percent of ture searches, compile bibliogra the total professional staff. Men phies, and in other ways provide in also are relatively numerous in law formation on a particular subject. libraries and in special libraries Others called information science concerned with science and specialists, like special librarians, technology. work in technical libraries or infor Most librarians work in cities and mation centers of commercial and towns. Those attached to bookmo industrial firms, government agen bile units serve widely scattered cies, and research centers. population groups. Although they perform many duties of special librarians, they must pos Training, Other Qualifications, sess a more extensive technical and and Advancement scientific background and a knowledge of new techniques for A professional librarian ordinari handling information. Information ly must complete a 1-year master’s science specialists abstract com plicated information into con degree program in library science. densed, readable form, and in A Ph. D. degree is an advantage to those who plan a teaching career in terpret and analyze data for a highly library schools or who aspire to a specialized clientele. Among other top administrative post, particularly duties, they develop classification in a college or university library or systems, prepare coding and pro gramming techniques for compu in a large library system. For those who are interested in the special terized information storage and retrieval systems, design informa libraries field, a master’s degree or doctorate in the subject of the libra tion networks, and develop ry’s specialization is highly desira microfilm technology. ble Information on library techni In 1974, 53 library schools in the cians and assistants is found in a United States were accredited by separate statement in the Hand the American Library Association book. and offered a master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.). In addi tion, many other colleges offer Places of Employment graduate programs or courses Of the estimated 125,000 profes within 4-year undergraduate pro sional librarians employed in 1974, grams. school librarians accounted for Most graduate schools of library nearly one-half; public libraries and science require graduation from an colleges and universities each em accredited 4-year college or univer ployed about one-fifth. An esti sity, a good undergraduate record, mated one-seventh worked in spe and a reading knowledge of at least cial libraries, including libraries in one foreign language. Some schools government agencies. Some librari also require introductory un dergraduate courses in library science. Most prefer a liberal arts background with a major in an area such as the social sciences, the arts, or literature. Some schools require entrance examinations. Special librarians and informa tion science specialists must have extensive knowledge of their sub ject matter as well as training in library science. In libraries devoted to scientific information, librarians should be proficient in one foreign language or more. They also must be well informed about compu terized methods for storing and retrieving technical information. Most States require that public school librarians be certified and trained both as teachers and librari ans. The specific education and ex perience necessary for certification vary according to State and the school district. The local superin tendent of schools and the State de partment of education can provide information about specific require ments in an area. In the Federal Government, beginning positions require comple tion of a 4-year college course and a master’s degree in library'science, or demonstration of the equivalent in experience and education by a passing grade on an examination. Many students attend library schools under cooperative workstudy programs that combine the academic program with practical work experience in a library. Scholarships for training in library science are available under certain State and Federal programs and from library schools, as well as from a number of the large libraries and library associations. Loans, assistantships, and financial aid also are available. Librarians should be intellec tually curious and able to express themselves verbally, and should have the desire and ability to help others use library materials. Experienced librarians may ad vance to administrative positions or to specialized work. Promotion to these positions, however, is limited primarily to those who have completed graduate training in a library school, or to those who have specialized training. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for librarians is expected to be somewhat competitive through the mid-1980’s. Although employment in the field is expected to grow over the period, the supply of persons qualified for librarianship is likely to expand as an increasing number of new graduates and labor force reentrants seek jobs as librarians. The anticipated increase in de mand for librarians in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s will not be nearly as great as it was in the 1960’s. Then, school enrollments were rising rapidly and Federal ex penditures supported a variety of library programs. Fewer births during the 1960’s will result in a slight, decline in ele mentary and secondary school en rollments through the remainder of the 1970’s and early 1980’s. The ef fect of birth rates in the 1960’s will begin to be manifested in colleges and universities in the early 1980’s, when total degree-credit enroll ment is expected to level off. In both the schools and the colleges and universities, as a result, the de mand for librarians will increase at a slower pace than in the past. On the other hand, requirements for public librarians are expected to increase through 1985. The growth of a better educated population will necessitate an increased number of librarians to serve the public. The educationally disadvantaged, hand icapped, and various minority groups also will need qualified librarians to provide special serv ices. Also, the expanding use of computers to store and retrieve in formation will contribute to the in creased demand for information specialists and library automation specialists in all types of libraries. In addition to openings from growth, replacements will be needed each year for librarians who retire, die, transfer to other types of work, or leave the labor force. Employment opportunities will vary not only by type of library but also by the librarian’s educational qualifications and area of spe cialization. Although the overall employment outlook is competi tive, persons who are willing to seek positions in other geographical areas and in different types of libra ries will have better opportunities. New graduates having more recent training may have an employment advantage over reentrants, delayed entrants, or transfers to the profes sion. Their lower beginning salaries, compared to more experienced workers, may also be an employ ment advantage. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of librarians vary by type of library, the individual’s qualifica tions, and the size and geographical location of the library. Starting salaries of graduates of library school master’s degree pro grams accredited by the American Library Association averaged $9,423 a year in 1974, ranging from $8,956 in public libraries to $9,864 in special libraries. The average an nual salary for special librarians was $13,900 in 1974. For librarians in college and university libraries, average salaries ranged from $8,700 a year for those with limited experience working in private 4year colleges to over $13,000 for university librarians with more ex tensive experience. Salaries for library administrators ranged somewhat higher. Department heads in college libraries earned between $10,000 and $14,000 a year. In general, librarians earned about one and one-half times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for librarians with a master’s degree in library science was $12,841 a year in late 1974. The average salary for all librarians in the Federal Government was $17,013. The typical workweek for librari ans is 5 days, ranging from 35 to 40 hours. The work schedule of public and college librarians may include some weekend and evening work. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as class room teachers. A 40-hour week during normal business hours is common for government and other special librarians. The usual paid vacation after a year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. Vaca tions may be longer in school libra ries, and somewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident in surance; and pension plans. American Society for Information Science, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Individual State library agencies can furnish information on scholar ships available through their of fices, on requirements for certifica tion, and general information about career prospects in their regions. State boards of education can furnish information on certification requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. LIBRARY TEC H N IC IAN S AND ASSISTAN TS (D.O.T. 249.368) Nature of the Work Library technicians and assistants support and assist professional librarians in providing information. Many work directly with the library users to explain and discuss availa ble services. They are supervised by a librarian and have duties in either technical services or user services. In technical services, library assistants prepare the library’s materials and equipment for readers’ use. For example, they may keep current files of special materi als, such as newspaper clippings and pictures. They may operate and maintain audiovisual and data processing equipment, including slide projectors and tape recorders, as well as readers that magnify, pro ject on a screen, and sometimes print out information on microfilm and microfiche cards. Library assistants also may perform many of the routine tasks involved in purchasing and processing library materials. The details of cataloging new books and other additions to the library’s collection are often an important part of their job. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, particu larly on accredited programs and scholarships or loans, may be ob tained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on requirements for special librarians, write to: Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave., South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Information on Federal assistance for library training under the Higher Education Act of 1965 is available from: Office of Libraries and Learning Resources, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. Those interested in a career in Federal libraries should write to: Secretariat, Federal Library Committee, Room 310, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540. Material on information science specialists may be obtained from: Library assistant checking film for damage on inspecting machine. In user’s services, library assistants furnish information on library services, facilities, and rules, and answer questions that involve simple factfinding in standard reference sources. They also assist readers in the use of catalogs and indexes to locate books and other materials. Library assistants may check out, reserve, and receive materials that users borrow. In ad dition, their duties include sorting and shelving, inspection and repair of books and other publications, is suing and checking library cards, is suing notices for overdue books, and related clerical work. In many libraries, more highly trained personnel known as library technicians perform duties similar to those of assistants, but which require more technical knowledge. However, library technicians do not usually sort or shelve books or han dle clerical or related tasks. Some, in addition to their regular duties, may supervise the work of others who perform the more routine work of the library. may receive training for their work either on the job or in a formal posthigh school program. Depending on the library, on-the-job programs generally require from 1 to 3 years to complete. Junior or community colleges and technical institutes offer 2-year formal educational programs which lead to an associate of arts degree in library technology. Many people working in libraries take courses part-time to get their degree. Junior and community college programs generally include 1 year of liberal arts courses and a year of library-related study on purposes and organization of libraries, and on procedures and processes in volved in operating a library. Stu dents learn to order and process, catalog, and circulate library materials. Some receive training in data processing as it applies to libraries. Many learn to use and maintain audiovisual materials and equipment. In 1974, 59 institutions offered library technical assistant training. These institutions—mostly 2-year colleges—are in 23 States. Some Places of Employment programs teach skills for a particu lar type of library. Therefore, a An estimated 135,000 people— prospective student should select a four-fifths of them women— program with a knowledge of the worked as library technicians and curriculum, instructional facilities, assistants in 1974. Most worked in faculty qualifications, and the kinds large public libraries or in college of jobs that graduates have found. and university libraries. Smaller Also, while programs may lead to numbers worked in school libraries an associate degree, credits earned and in medical, law, scientific, in a library technology program technical, and other special libra may not apply toward a profes ries. sional degree in library science. In 1974, the Federal Government A high school diploma or its employed about 3,200 library equivalent is the standard requirtechnicians. These people worked ment for both academic and on-thechiefly in the Department- of job training programs. Many pro Defense and the Library of Con grams also require typing. gress, although some worked in Library technicians and assistants small Federal libraries throughout should enjoy detail and have the country. manual dexterity, verbal ability to explain procedures to library users, and numerical ability to handle cir Training, Other Qualifications, culation statistics. Jobs may require and Advancement much standing, stooping, bending, Library technicians and assistants and reaching. Employment Outlook The number of library techni cians and assistants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. More positions are likely to be available in large public and col lege and university libraries, par ticularly for persons who graduate from academic programs. Factors influencing the demand for library technicians and assistants are population and school and college enrollment growth and expansion of library service. Libra ry technicians and assistants in creasingly are performing some of the routine tasks formerly done by the professional staff. In addition to openings created by growth, many library technicians and assistants will be needed an nually to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries for library technicians and assistants vary widely depend ing on the size of the library or library system in which they work as well as the geographical location and size of the community. How ever, in general, they averaged about the same as all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. In the Federal Government, sala ries of library technicians generally ranged from $6,764 to $10,520 ^ year in 1974. A few earned $ 12,841 a year, or more. Library technicians in govern ment and special libraries usually work a regular 40-hour week, but persons in public libraries and col lege and university libraries may have schedules that include weekend and evening hours. In schools, library assistants work dur ing regular school hours. Most libraries provide fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement pay. Additional benefits offered by private busi- nesses often include educational assistance programs. Library technicians employed by the Federal Government receive the same benefits as other Federal workers. Sources of Additional Information Council of Library Technical Assistants, De partment of Library Science, University of Mississippi, University, Miss. 38677. For information on institutions offering programs for the training of library technicians, write: American Library Association, Office of Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. SALES OCCUPATIONS Saleswork offers career opportu nities for people who have completed high school as well as for college graduates, for those who want to travel and those who do not, and for salaried workers as well as for men and women who wish to run their own businesses. Workers in these jobs may sell for manufacturers, service firms, wholesalers, or retailers. In 1974, over 5.4 million people were in sales occupations; almost 30 per cent worked part time. The accom panying chart shows employment in the major sales occupations discussed in this section. Other statements in this section cover au tomotive salesworkers, automobile parts counter workers, automobile service advisors, gasoline service at tendants, models, and route drivers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for saleswork are as varied as the work itself. Salesworkers who sell standardized merchandise such as magazines, candy, cigarettes, and cosmetics usually are trained on the job by experienced salesclerks; in some large stores, they may attend brief training courses. The salesworker who sells complex products or services, such as elec tronic equipment or liability in surance, needs more education and training than most retail salesclerks. For some positions, salesworkers must be college graduates with majors in a field such as engineer ing. Others get the necessary technical knowledge from universi ty or manufacturers’ courses. Still others learn through years of onthe-job experience, often supple mented by home study. Thus, a real estate agent may take university ex tension courses; a department store beauty counselor may participate in an industry-sponsored training pro gram; or a jewelry salesworker may learn through years of observation and study on the job. About 5.4 Million Workers are in Sales Occupations 13 PERCENT in Sa la s O ccu p a tio n s, 1 9 7 4 0 10 20 30 50 60 I I R a ta il sa le sw o rk e rs W h o le sa le sa lesw o rk ers In su ra n ce ag ents a n d brokers R e a l estate a g e n ts a n d b rokers M a n u fa ctu re rs’ sa lesw o rk ers Securities sa lesw o rk ers A ll other Source: Bureau of Labor S ta tis tic s Even in the most routine kinds of selling, a high school diploma is an asset to a beginner. Courses in busi ness, as well as specialized courses in distributive education, are par ticularly good preparation. Salesworkers must understand the needs and viewpoints of their customers and be poised and at ease with strangers. Other impor tant attributes for selling are ener gy, self-confidence, imagination, self-discipline, and the ability to communicate. Arithmetic skills are an asset. In almost all saleswork ex cept retail trade, salesworkers need initiative to locate prospective customers and to plan work schedules. Employment Outlook Employment in sales occupations is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs resulting from growth, thousands of openings will occur each year as workers die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. As employment rises, the propor tion of part-time workers—already high—is likely to increase. Many part-time jobs will be in suburban shopping centers which have retail stores open several nights a week. Further information about em ployment prospects for saleswork ers is given in statements that follow. AUTOM OBILE PARTS COUNTER W ORKERS (D.O.T. 289.358) Nature of the Work Automobile parts counter work ers sell replacement parts and ac cessories for automobiles, trucks, and other motor vehicles. Most of them work in wholesale stores and automobile dealerships. They sell over the counter and take telephone orders for items such as piston rings, head gaskets, shock absorbers, rearview mirrors, and seat covers. Parts counter workers for wholesalers sell parts for many makes of automobiles and trucks to independent repair shops, service stations, self-employed mechanics, and “do-it-yourselfers.” Counter workers for dealers usually sell parts only for the makes of automo biles and trucks sold by the dealers. They may spend most of their time supplying parts to the dealer’s mechanics. Parts counter workers identify and locate in the stockroom items the customer needs—often only from general descriptions. By knowing parts catalogs and the layout of the stockroom they quickly can find any of several thousand items. If a customer needs a part that is not stocked, counter workers may suggest one that is in terchangeable, place a special order, or refer the customer elsewhere. Counter workers determine the prices of parts from lists, fill out sales receipts, and accept pay ments. When necessary they package items sold. In addition to selling, counter workers keep catalogs and price lists up to date, replenish stock, un pack and distribute incoming ship ments, record sales, and take inven tories. Large firms employ stock and receiving clerks to do some of the work. Counter workers use microme ters, calipers, fan belt measures, and other devices to measure parts for interchangeability. They also may use coil condenser testers, spark plug testers, and other equip ment to find defective parts. In some firms, particularly small wholesale stores, they repair parts by using equipment such as brake riveting machines and brake drum lathes. Places of Employment About 75,000 persons were em ployed as automobile parts counter workers in 1974. Most worked for automobile dealers and parts wholesalers. Dealers typically em ployed one to four counter workers; many wholesalers employed more than four. Other employers include truck dealers, retail automobile parts stores, and warehouse dis tributors of automotive parts. Trucking companies and buslines employ counter workers to main tain stockrooms and dispense parts to mechanics who repair their fleets. Parts counter workers are located throughout the country in dealerships and automobile parts wholesale stores. Those who work for warehouse distributors, trucking companies, and buslines are em ployed mainly in large cities. catalogs and price lists, and the layout of the stockroom. Although trainees may wait on customers after a few months’ experience, generally about 2 years are required for a counter worker to become fully qualified. Automobile parts counter wor kers should know the different types and functions of motor vehi cle parts and be able to work with numbers. Employers generally prefer high school graduates for entry jobs. Courses in automobile mechanics, commercial arithmetic, merchandising, selling, and book keeping are helpful to young per sons interested in becoming parts counter workers. Practical ex perience from working in a gasoline service station or automobile repair shop, or working on cars as a hobby also is helpful. Persons considering careers as automobile parts counter workers should be neat, friendly, and tactful since they deal with the public in many cases. A good memory and the ability to write legibly and con centrate on details also are desira ble. Counter workers who have su pervisory and business management ability may become parts depart ment managers or store managers. Others may become outside sales representatives for parts wholesalers and distributors. These people call on automobile repair shops, service stations, trucking companies, and other businesses that buy parts and accessories in large quantities. Some counter workers open their own automobile parts stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook Most parts counter workers learn the trade on the job. Beginners usually are hired as parts deliverers or trainees. In some large firms, beginners start as stock or receiving clerks. Trainees gradually learn the different types of parts, the use of Employment of automobile parts counter workers is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations. Employment will rise because more parts will be needed to repair the Nation’s grow ing number of motor vehicles. feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Details about employment op portunities may be obtained from local automobile dealers and parts wholesalers, locals of the unions previously mentioned, or the local office of the State employment ser vice. For general information about the occupation, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 230 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, III. 60601. National Automotive Parts Association, 10400 West Higgins Rd., Rosemont, III. 60018. AUTOM OBILE SALESW ORKERS (D.O.T. 280.358) Nature of the Work Counter worker discusses parts order with auto mechanic. In addition to jobs from employ ment growth, more than a thousand openings are expected annually to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. The number of openings is not expected to fluctuate signifi cantly from year to year because the demand for automobile parts, unlike some products, is not very sensitive to changing economic conditions. Earnings and Working Conditions Automobile parts counter work ers are paid a weekly or monthly salary, or an hourly wage rate. In addition, they may receive commis sions on sales. Counter workers em ployed by automobile dealers in 34 large cities had estimated average earnings of $4.60 an hour in late 1974, slightly higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Parts counter workers typically work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work half a day on Saturday. Stockrooms usually are clean and well lighted. The work is not physi cally strenuous, but counter work ers spend much time standing or walking. They have to work rapidly when waiting on customers and an swering telephone calls at the same time. Many parts counter workers be long to unions such as: the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International As sociation; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf Automobile salesworkers are im portant links between dealers and car buyers. Many sell only new or used cars. Others, particularly those employed in small dealerships, sell new and used cars, as well as trucks. (This statement does not discuss truck sales specialists.) Automobile salesworkers spend much time waiting on customers in the showroom or used-car lot. They find out the kind of car the customer wants by asking questions and encouraging comments about cars on display. For example, one customer may be interested primarily in economy, but another may be more impressed with styling and performance. The salesworkers emphasize the points that satisfy the customers’ desires and stimulate their willingness to buy. To illus trate features such as performance, ride, and handling, the salesworker invites the customer to test-drive the car. into frequent contact with people. Salesworkers may contact prospects by phone or mail. Places of Employment About 130,000 persons worked as automobile salesworkers in 1974. New-car dealers employed about four-fifths of the total, and used-car dealers employed the remainder. Although many usedcar dealers employ only one salesworker, a few new-car dealers employ more than 50. Automobile salesworkers are em Auto salesworker discusses new car features with customer. ployed throughout the country, but most are concentrated in heavily Because cars are a major populated areas. purchase, customers must be con vinced that they are making a wise Training, Other Qualifications, decision. Successful salesworkers and Advancement can overcome the customer’s Most beginners are trained on the hesitancy to buy, and get the order. Since closing the sale frequently is job by sales managers and ex difficult for beginners, experienced perienced salesworkers. Many large salesworkers or sales managers dealers also provide several days of often lend assistance. Salesworkers classroom training on how to obtain may quote prices and trade-in al customer leads, make sales presen lowances, but these figures usually tations, and close sales. Automobile require the approval of the manufacturers may furnish training manager. Salesworkers register cars manuals and other educational Experienced and and may get license plates and ar material. range financing and insurance for beginning salesworkers receive continuing guidance and training customers. Salesworkers approve delivery, from their managers, both on the and they answer customers’ job and at periodic sales meetings. questions on subjects such as the They also may attend training pro car’s controls and the maintenance grams offered by automobile manu warranty. Following delivery, they facturers. A high school diploma usually is may contact customers to express appreciation for their business and the minimum educational require to inquire about their satisfaction ment for beginners. Courses in speaking, commercial with the car. From time to time, public they also may send literature to arithmetic, English, merchandising, customers in order to build repeat selling, business law, and psycholo gy also provide a good background business. Salesworkers develop and follow for this type of work. Previous sales leads on prospective customers. For experience or other work requiring example, they obtain names of contact with the public is helpful. prospects from automobile registra Many persons in automobile sales, tion records and dealer sales, serv for example, previously were in fur ice, and finance records. They also niture, appliance, or door-to-door can get leads from gas station sales. However, automobile sales operators, parking lot attendants, managers frequently will hire inex and others whose work brings them perienced applicants who have satisfactory personal and educa tional qualifications. Although age requirements for beginners vary, many employers prefer applicants who are at least in their mid- or late twenties. As a rule, however, 21 is the minimum age for beginners. Age require ments may be waived for a mature applicant. Automobile salesworkers must be tactful, well-groomed, and able to express themselves well. Initia tive and aggressiveness also are im portant since the number of cars sold usually depends on the number of prospective customers con tacted. Because automobile salesworkers occasionally work for days without making a sale, they need self-confidence and deter mination to get through these slow periods. Successful employees who have managerial ability may advance to assistant sales manager, sales manager, or general manager. Some managers and general managers open their own dealer ship or become partners in dealer ships. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile salesworkers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1980’s as the demand for automobiles in creases. In addition to jobs resulting from employment growth, thousands of openings will occur as salesworkers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Over the long run, rising popula tion and personal incomes will lead to increased car sales, and employ ment of salesworkers will grow. However, employment will fluctu ate from year to year because car sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer preferences. Therefore, opportuni ties for beginners will be plentiful in some years, scarce in others. Earnings and Working Conditions Most salesworkers are paid a commission based on the selling price of a car or the profit received by the dealer. Additional commis sions may be paid when cars are financed and insured through the dealer. Although salesworkers are employed year-round, their sales, and therefore their commissions, vary from month to month. Many dealers pay a modest weekly or monthly salary so that commis sioned salesworkers will have a steady income. Others advance them money against future commis sions. A few dealers pay a straight salary. Dealers may guarantee beginners a modest income for a few weeks or months. Thereafter, they are paid on the same basis as the experienced staff. Salesworkers employed by newcar dealers had estimated average weekly earnings of about $260 in 1974. Earnings varied, depending on individual ability and ex perience, geographic location, and dealership size. For example, salesworkers who worked for dealers that sold between 100 and 149 new vehicles annually averaged about $197 a week, while those em ployed by dealers that sold 1,000 cars or more averaged about $300 per week. Earnings may fluctuate signifi cantly from year to year due to changes in the demand for cars. In lean years, workers with poor sales records may be laid off or may quit to find better paying jobs in other fields. Many, however, return when the demand for cars improves. Many dealers furnish their sales staffs with demonstrator cars free of charge. Others sell or lease demon strators at a discount, often at dealer’s cost. Salesworkers also receive discounts on cars bought for personal use. Because most customers find shopping after work convenient, salesworkers frequently work evenings. In some areas, they may work Sunday and take a day off during the week. Many dealers as sign salesworkers “floortime”— hours they spend in the showroom greeting customers. For example, a salesworker may be in the showroom from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. one week, from 3 p.m. to 9 p.m. the next week, and all day on Satur days. When not assigned to the showroom, they may spend a few hours each day delivering cars to customers and looking for new customers. 9 the car is difficult to start, the ad visor may try to find out if this hap pens when the engine is cold or after it warms up. The advisor then writes a brief description of these symptoms on the repair order to help the mechanic locate the trou ble. Service advisors also include the name of the customer and make of the car on the repair order. If a factory warranty covers the repairs, the engine and body numbers, mile age, and date of purchase are recorded. If customers request, service ad visors explain what repairs are Sources of Additional needed, their approximate cost, and Information how long the work will take. Since this cannot always be done until Details on employment opportu mechanics have inspected the cars, nities may be obtained from local service advisors may phone the automobile dealers of the local of customers later, give them this in fice of the State employment serv formation, and thank them for per ice. For general information about mission to do the work. They may the work, write to: advise on the necessity of having National Automobile Dealers Association, work done, by pointing out that it 2000 K St NW„ Washington, D.C. will assure improved performance, 20006. safer operation, and prevent more serious trouble. In addition to advis ing customers on service needs, they may sell accessories such as AUTOM OBILE SERVICE air-conditioners or radios. ADVISORS Service advisors give repair or (D.O.T. 620.281) ders to the shop dispatcher who then figures cost of repairs and as Nature of the Work signs work to mechanics. In some shops, advisors compute repair Many automobile dealers and costs. If mechanics have questions some large independent garages about a repair order, they contact employ service advisors to wait on the advisor who wrote it. After the customers who bring their cars for mechanic has finished the work, the maintenance and repairs. The serv service advisor may test drive the ice advisor, sometimes called serv car to be sure the problem has been ice salesworker or service writer, corrected. confers with customers to deter When the customer returns for mine their service needs and ar the car, the service advisor answers ranges for a mechanic to perform questions regarding the repairs and the work. settles complaints about their cost For a routine checkup, service or quality. If the car is to be advisors merely write the returned to the shop because the customer’s requests on a repair customer is dissatisfied or the cost order. However, when the customer of repairs is to be adjusted, the ad complains of major trouble, the ad visor usually must get permission visor asks about the nature of the from the service manager. In some trouble and may test drive the car. dealerships, the most experienced For example, if the customer says service advisors substitute for serv- worker trainee. Some firms, how ever, prefer to hire fully ex perienced mechanics. Because service advisors deal directly with customers, employers look for applicants who are neat, courteous, even-tempered, atten tive listeners, and good conversa tionalists. High school and voca tional school courses in automobile mechanics, commercial arithmetic, sales, public speaking, and English are helpful. Service advisors with supervisory ability may advance to shop super visors or to service managers. Some open their own automobile repair shops. Employment Outlook ice managers when they are absent. the shop, to compute costs, and to determine the time required for dif ferent repairs. The beginner usually Places of Employment can become a qualified service ad More than 20,000 persons visor in 1 to 2 years, but learning to worked as automobile service ad estimate the cost of automobile visors in 1974. Most worked for body repairs may take a longer large automobile dealers that em time. In addition to on-the-job ployed from one to four advisors, training, some advisors attend for but some worked for large indepen mal training programs conducted dent automobile repair shops. by automobile manufacturers. For service advisor trainees, em ployers prefer high school gradu Training, Other Qualifications, ates over 21 years of age with work and Advancement experience in automobile repair or activities. Employers Service advisors are trained on related the job under the guidance of ex usually promote persons from perienced service advisors and the within their own organizations. For service manager. In many shops, example, a person may apply for a trainees begin by helping the serv job as service advisor trainee after ice department dispatcher. They gaining experience in the firm as a learn to route repair orders through mechanic trainee or parts counter Employment in this small occu pation is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1980’s. There will be more automobiles on the road, and they will be more complex. This will result in a need for more service advisors. In addi tion to the job openings resulting from employment growth, a few hundred openings will arise each year to replace experienced service advisors who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The number of openings is not expected to fluc tuate significantly from year to year because the demand for automobile repairs is not very sensitive to changing economic conditions. Job openings for service advisors will be concentrated in large au tomobile dealerships, most of which are located in metropolitan areas. In small towns, many dealers do not have enough repair business to hire service advisors; shop supervisors do the work instead. Earnings and Working Conditions Service advisors employed by au tomobile dealers in 34 large cities had estimated average earnings of $5.95 an hour in late 1974, more than one-third higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Many service advisors are paid a salary plus commission; others are paid a straight commission. Com missions usually are based on both the cost of repairs and the price of accessories sold. Most service advisors work 40 to 48 hours a week. They are busiest in the early morning when most customers bring their cars for repairs, and in late afternoon when they return. During these peak hours advisors may be rushed to wait on customers. Occasionally, they have to deal with disgruntled customers. Service advisors stand much of the time and may be outdoors in all kinds of weather, but their work is not physically strenuous. Unions that organize service ad visors include the International As sociation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International As sociation; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf fers, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). G ASO LIN E SERVICE STA TIO N A TTE N D A N TS (D.O.T. 915.867) Nature of the Work Gasoline service station attend ants help keep the Nation’s 125 million motor vehicles running and in good operating condition. Service station attendants pump gasoline, clean windshields, and offer the additional services of checking water level, oil level, and tire air pressure. They also may check the tires, fan belt, and other parts for excessive wear. Attendants have other responsi bilities besides servicing cars. They sell and install parts and accessories such as tires, batteries, fan belts, and windshield wiper blades. When a customer pays the bill, attendants either make change or prepare a charge slip. They may do minor maintenance and repair work, such as changing oil, rotating tires, fixing flats, or replacing mufflers. Some attendants, called mechanic-attend ants, perform more difficult repairs, repairs. Attendants also may keep the service areas, building, and restrooms clean and neat. In some stations, they help the station manager take inventory, set up dis Sources of Additional plays, and keep business records. Information If a service station provides emer Details on employment opportu gency road service, attendants oc nities may be obtained from local casionally may drive a tow truck to automobile dealers or repair shops; a disabled car to “ boost” the bat locals of the unions previously men tery, change a flat tire, or perform tioned; or the local office of the other minor repairs. If more exten State employment service. sive repairs are needed, they tow For general information about the car back to the station. the work of automobile service ad Attendants may use simple handvisors, write to: tools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, and power tools such Automotive Service Industry Association, 230 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. as pneumatic wrenches. Mechanic60601. attendants frequently use more Automotive Service Councils of America, complex equipment, such as motor Inc., 4001 Warren Blvd., Hillside, 111. analyzers and wheel alignment 60162. machines. Places of Employment Over 450,000 people worked as gasoline service station attendants in 1974. About one-third of these were part-time employees. In addi tion to attendants, more than 225,000 gasoline service station managers and owners did similar work. Service station attendants work in every section of the country, in the largest cities, in the smallest towns, and in outlying areas. Training, Other Qualifications and Advancement Applicants for jobs as gasoline service station attendants should have a driver’s license, a general understanding of how an automo bile works, and some sales ability. They should be friendly people, able to speak well, and presenting a generally neat appearance. They also need self-confidence. Appli cants should know simple arithmetic so they can make change quickly and accurately and help keep business records. They also should be familiar with local roads, highways, and points of interest in order to give directions to customers and to locate cars whose owners have called for road service. Although completion of high school is not generally a require ment for getting an entry job, it is an advantage because it indicates to many employers that a young per son can “finish a job.” A high school education usually is required for service station management training programs conducted by oil companies. Service station attendants receive most of their training on the job, although there are some formal training programs. Trainees do rela tively simple work at first, such as cleaning the station, pumping gas, and cleaning windshields. Gradually, they progress to more advanced work such as doing sim ple maintenance work, installing accessories on cars, and helping to keep the station records. It usually takes from several months to a year to become a fully qualified attend ant. Formal training programs for gasoline service station work are of fered in many high schools around the country. In this curriculum, stu dents in their last 2 years of high school take business education courses and work part-time in a gasoline service station, where they receive instruction in all phases of service station work. Some attendants are enrolled in formal training program for serv ice station managers, which are conducted by most major oil com panies. These programs usually last from 2 to 8 weeks and emphasize subjects such as simple automobile maintenance, salesmanship, and business management. Several avenues of advancement are open to service station attend ants. Additional training qualifies attendants to become automobile mechanics; those having business management capabilities may ad vance to station manager. Many ex perienced station managers and au tomobile mechanics go into busi ness for themselves by leasing a sta tion from an oil company or buying their own station. Oil companies hire some service station managers as sales representatives or district managers. Employment Outlook Employment of gasoline service station attendants should continue to grow over the next few years. However, the extent of longrun em ployment growth of gasoline service station attendants is difficult to esti mate. The trend toward cars with better gas mileage capabilities could eventually reduce total gasoline consumption, which might severely limit growth in this occu pation over the long run. Selfservice gas stations also may limit growth. However, in this occupa tion of many persons, thousands of job openings are expected each year to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of gasoline service sta tion attendants vary considerably. Hourly earnings for many attend ants ranged from $2 to $3 in 1974, according to the limited informa tion available. Attendants em ployed in large metropolitan areas generally had higher earnings than those in small towns. Full-time attendants work 40 hours a week or more. Work schedules may include evenings, weekends, and holidays. Attendants work outdoors in all kinds of weather. They do con siderable lifting and stooping and spend much time on their feet. Possible injuries include cuts from sharp tools and burns from hot en gines. For many attendants, how ever, the opportunity to deal with people and the possibility of some day managing their own service sta tions more than offset these disad vantages. For others, the opportuni ty to get part-time employment is important. Some college students have been able to work their way through school as service station attendants. Some workers also supplement their income from regular jobs by working part time as attendants. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work op portunities, contact local gasoline service stations or the local office of the State employment service. INSURANCE AG EN TS AND BROKERS (D.O.T. 250.258) Nature of the Work Insurance agents and brokers sell policies that protect individuals and businesses against future losses and financial pressures. They may help plan financial protection to meet the special needs of a customer’s family; advise about insurance pro tection for an automobile, home, business, or other property; or help a policyholder obtain settlement of an insurance claim. Agents and brokers usually sell one or.more of the three basic types of insurance: life, property-liability (casualty), and health. Life in surance agents, sometimes called life underwriters, offer policies that pay survivors when a policyholder dies. Depending on the pol icyholder’s individual circum stances, a life policy can be designed to provide retirement in come, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Casualty agents sell policies that protect in dividual policyholders from finan cial losses as a result of automobile accidents, fire or theft, or other losses. They also sell industrial or commercial lines, such as workers’ compensation, product liability, oi medical malpractice insurance. Health insurance policies offer pro tection against the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury, and most life agents and casualty agents offer this type of insurance to their customers. Many agents also offer securites, such as mutual fund shares or variable annuities. An insurance agent may be either an insurance company employee or an independent business person authorized to represent one oi more insurance companies. Brokers are not under exclusive contract with any single company; instead, they place policies directly with the company that best meets a client’s needs. Otherwise, agents and brokers do much the same kind of work. They spend most of their time discussing insurance policies with prospective and existing customers. Some time must be spent in of- ficework to prepare reports, main tain records, plan insurance pro grams that are tailored to prospects’ needs, and draw up lists of prospec tive customers. Specialists in group policies may help an employer’s ac countants set up a system of payroll deductions for employees covered by the policy. Places of Employment As many as 450,000 agents and brokers sold insurance full time in 1974. In addition, thousands of others worked part time. About half of the agents and brokers special ized in life insurance; the rest, in some type of property/liability in surance. A growing number of agents offer both life and propertyliability policies to their customers. Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work near large population centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many employers prefer college graduates for jobs selling in surance, most will hire high school graduates with work experience. College training may help the agent grasp the fundamentals and procedures of insurance selling more quickly. Courses in account ing, economics, finance, business law, and insurance subjects are helpful. All agents and most brokers must be licensed in the State where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who pass written ex aminations covering insurance fun damentals and the State insurance laws. Agents who plan to sell mu tual fund shares and other securities also must be licensed by the State. New agents usually receive training at insurance company home offices or at the agencies where they will work. Beginners sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experienced salesworkers when they call on prospective clients. Agents and brokers can broaden their knowledge of the insurance business by taking courses at col leges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. The Life Un derwriter Training Council (LUTC) awards a diploma in life in surance marketing to agents who successfully complete the Council’s 2-year life program. They also offer courses in health insurance and equity products. As agents or brokers gain experience and knowledge, they can qualify for the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the Amer ican College of Life Underwriters. In much the same way, a propertyliability agent can qualify for the Chartered Property Casualty Un derwriter (CPCU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Un derwriters, Inc. The CLU and CPCU designations are recognized marks of achievement in their respective fields. Agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, self-confident, and able to communicate effectively. Because agents usually work without supervision, they need in itiative to locate new prospects. For this reason, many employers seek people who have been successful in other jobs. Insurance agents who show unusual sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a district office or assume a managerial job in a home office. A few agents may advance to top posi tions as agency superintendents or company vice-presidents. Many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in saleswork. Some, particularly in the propertyliability field, eventually establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Employment Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s as the volume of insurance sales continues to expand. Many additional jobs will open as agents and brokers die, retire, or leave their jobs to seek other work. Due to the competitive nature of in surance selling, beginners often leave their jobs because they have been unable to establish a suffi ciently large clientele. Therefore, opportunities should be quite favorable for ambitious people who enjoy saleswork. Future demand for agents and brokers depends on the volume of insurance sales. Volume should in crease rapidly over the next decade as a larger proportion of the popu lation enters the period of peak earnings and family responsibilities. Life insurance sales should grow as more families select policies designed to provide educational funds for their children and retire ment income. Rising incomes also should stimulate the sale of equity products such as mutual funds, vari able annuities, and other invest ments. Sales of property-liability in surance should rise as more con sumer purchases are insured and as commercial coverages, such as product liability and workers’ com pensation, are expanded. However, employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales because more policies will be sold to groups and by mail. Also, agents should be able to handle more busi ness as computers relieve them of timfe-consuming clerical tasks. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginners in this occupation often are guaranteed moderate salaries or advances on commis sions while they are learning the business and building a clientele. Thereafter, most agents are paid a commission. The size of the com mission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. After a few years, an agent’s commissions on new policies and renewals may range from $10,000 to $20,000 an nually. A number of established and highly successful agents and brokers earn more than $30,000 a year. Agents and brokers generally pay their own automobile and traveling expenses. In addition, those who own and operate independent busi nesses must pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating expen ses out of their earnings. Although insurance agents usually are free to arrange their own hours of work, they often schedule appointments during evenings and weekends for the con venience of clients. Some agents work more than the customary 40 hours a week. (See the statement on the Insurance Industry for more information about work in life and property-liability companies.) Sources of Additional Information General occupational informa tion about insurance agents and brokers is available from the home office of many life and property-lia bility insurance companies. Infor mation on State licensing require ments may be obtained from the de partment of insurance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance agent also is available from: Institute of Life Insurance, 227 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Life Insurance Marketing and Research As sociation, 170 Sigourney St., Hart ford, Conn. 06105. The National Association o f Life Under writers, 1922 F St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For career information on property/liability agents, contact: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, Inc., 85 John St., New York, N.Y. 10038. M ANUFACTURERS’ SALESW ORKERS (D.O.T. 260. through 298.458) Nature of the Work Practically all manufacturers— whether they make computers or can openers—employ salesworkers. Manufacturers’ salesworkers sell mainly to other businesses—facto ries, railroads, banks, wholesalers, and retailers. They also sell to hospitals, schools, libraries, and other institutions. Most manufacturers’ saleswork ers sell nontechnical products. They must be well informed about their firms’ products and also about the special requirements of their customers. When salesworkers visit firms in their territory, they use an approach adapted to the particular line of merchandise. A salesworker who handles crackers or cookies, for example, emphasizes the wholesomeness, attractive packag ing, and variety of these products. Sometimes salesworkers promote their products by displays in hotels and conferences with wholesalers and other customers. Salesworkers who deal in highly technical products, such as elec tronic equipment, often are called sales engineers or industrial salesworkers. In addition to having a thorough knowledge of their firms’ products, they must be able to help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, they may try to determine the proper materials and equipment for a firm’s manufacturing process. Manufacturers’ aalesworker takas order for camera equipment from photo buyer in a department store. They then present this information to company officials and try to negotiate a sale. Often, sales en gineers work with the research-anddevelopment departments of their own companies to devise ways to adapt products to a customer’s spe cialized needs. Salesworkers who handle technical products some times train their customers’ em ployees in the operation and main tenance of new equipment, anc make frequent return visits to be certain that it is giving the desired service. Although manufacturers salesworkers spend most of their time visiting prospective customers, they also do paperwork including reports on sales prospects or customers’ credit ratings. In addi tion, they must plan their work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appointments, handle some correspondence, and study literature relating to their products. Places of Employment Almost 380,000 people—10 per cent of them women—were manu facturers’ salesworkers in 1974. About 21,000 were sales engineers. Some work out of home offices, often located at manufacturing plants. The majority, however, work out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective customers. More salesworkers are employed by companies that produce food products than by any other indus try. Large numbers also work in the printing and publishing, chemicals, fabricated metal products, and electrical and other machinery in dustries. Most sales engineers work for companies that produce heavy machinery, transportation equip ment, fabricated metal products, and professional and scientific in struments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although high school graduates can be successful manufacturers’ salesworkers, college graduates are preferred as trainees. Manufacturers of nontechnical products often hire college gradu ates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration. Some positions, however, require specialized training. Drug Sales workers usually need training at a college of pharmacy. Man ufacturers of electrical equip ment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire college-trained engineers or chemists. (Information on chemists, engineers, and others with the technical training suitable for work as manufacturers’ sales workers is given eleswhere in the Handbook.) Beginning salesworkers take spe cialized training before they start on the job. Some companies, espe cially those that manufacture com plex technical products, have for mal training programs that last 2 years or longer. In some of these programs, trainees rotate among jobs in several departments of the plant and office to learn all phases of production, installation, and dis tribution of the product. Other trainees take formal class instruc tion at the plant, followed by onthe-job training in a branch office under the supervision of field sales managers. A pleasant personality and ap pearance, and the ability to meet and get along well with many types of people are important. Because salesworkers may have to walk or stand for long periods or carry product samples, some physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales super visors, branch managers, or district managers. Those with managerial ability eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executive jobs in industry are filled by people who started as salesworkers. Because of frequent contact with business people in other firms, salesworkers often transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for themselves as manufacturers’ agents selling similar products of several manufacturers. Other ex perienced salesworkers find oppor tunities in advertising and market ing research. Employment Outlook Persons with sales ability should find the best opportunities for jobs as manufacturers salesworkers over the next 10 years. Although thousands of sales openings will arise each year because of employ ment growth and the need to replace experienced workers who leave their jobs, manufacturers are expected to be selective in hiring. They will look for ambitious people who are well trained and tempera mentally suited for the job. Employment growth in this field is expected to be slower than the average for all occupations, chiefly because of the trend toward wholesale distribution. Some growth will occur, however, because of the rising demand for technical products and the resulting need for trained salesworkers. In addition, industrial firms, chain stores, and institutions that purchase large quantities of goods at one time frequently buy directly from the manufacturer. The need for salesworkers will increase as manufacturers emphasize sales ac tivities to compete for the growing number of these valuable accounts. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the limited infor mation available, salaries for beginning salesworkers averaged about $9,000 a year in 1974, exclu sive of commissions and bonuses. The highest starting salaries generally were paid by manufac turers of electrical and electronic equipment, construction materials, hardware and tools, and scientific and precision instruments. Some manufacturing concerns pay experienced salesworkers a straight commission, based on their dollar amount of sales; others pay a fixed salary. The majority, however, use a combination of salary and commission, salary and bonus, or salary, commission, and bonus. Commissions vary according to the salesworkers’ efforts and ability, the commission rate, location of their sales territory, and the type of product sold. Bonus payments may depend on individual performance, on performance of all salesworkers in the group or district, or on the company’s sales. Some firms pay annual bonuses; others offer bonuses as incentive payments on a quarterly or monthly basis. In general, the earnings of manufac turers’ salesworkers are higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Some manufacturers’ saleswork ers have large territories and do considerable traveling. Others usually work in the neighborhood of their “home base.” When on business trips, salesworkers are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation and hotels. Some companies provide a car or pay a mileage allowance to salesworkers who use their own cars. Manufacturers’ salesworkers call at the time most convenient to customers and may have to travel at night or on weekends. Frequently, they spend evenings writing reports. However, some plan their schedules for time off when they want it. Most salesworkers who are not paid a straight commission receive 2 to 4 weeks’ paid vacation, depending on their length of service. They usually share in company benefits, includ ing life insurance, pensions, and hospital, surgical, and medical benefits. Sources of Additional Information For more information on the oc cupation of manufacturers’ salesworker, write: Sales and Marketing Executives Interna tional, Student Education Division, 380 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. MODELS (D.O.T. 297.868 and 961.868) Nature of the Work Selling a product is always easier if an attractive man or woman is shown using it. In magazine adver tisements and television commer cials models can be seen posing with a wide variety of products, in cluding cars, soft drinks, and per fume. Most models, however, are used to show the latest in fashion designs and cosmetics. Models usually specialize in either live or photographic work. Fashion models generally work be fore an audience, modeling the creations of well-known designers at fashion shows. While the an nouncer describes what they are wearing, they walk past customers and photographers and point out special features of the design. On some jobs they may stop to tell in dividual customers a garment’s price and style number. Fashion models who work for clothing designers, manufacturers, and distributors are called showroom or wholesale models. When new spring or fall designs are being shown to prospective buyers, these models are extremely busy. During slack times, however, they may have some general office du ties, such as typing or filing. Some informal models work in department stores and custom salons where the pace is more lei surely than in showrooms. Others demonstrate new products and services at manufacturers’ exhibits and trade shows. Photographic models usually are hired to pose for a particular assign ment. Although most model clothes Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement and cosmetics, they often pose with other merchandise as well. In addi tion to fashion and photographic work, some models pose for artists or sculptors, or work in films or television. Places of Employment About 9,000 models were em ployed in 1974, most of them women. Clothing manufacturers, designers, and wholesalers employ the largest number of models. In New York City’s garment district, hundreds of firms each employ one or two permanent models to show their latest fashion designs to prospective retail buyers. Many models work on a free-lance basis, however, and either obtain assign ments through a modeling agency or, in some cases, seek clients them selves. Advertising agencies, retail stores, magazines, and photog raphers almost always employ freelance models for their fashion articles or advertisements. Modeling jobs are available in nearly all urban areas, but most jobs are in New York City because it is the center of the fashion industry. Chicago and Los Angeles are two other cities with many jobs for models. The most important asset for a model is a distinctive and attractive physical appearance. Advertisers and clothing designers hire models who have the right “ look” for their product and a face or style that will be remembered. To develop an in dividual style, many models attend a modeling school where they learn to style their hair, walk and stand gracefully, pose in front of a camera, and apply makeup. Model ing agencies also provide this train ing, but normally accept only the most promising beginners. Female models must be at least S feet 7 inches tall and weigh no more than 120 pounds. Male models must be 6 feet tall and wear a size 40 suit. Size requirements are quite rigid because manufacturers’ and designers’ samples are standard and models must Fit the clothes without alteration. Photographic models usually are thinner than fashion models because the camera adds at least 10 pounds to a person’s appearance. In addition, they must have fine, regu lar features and good teeth and hands. There are no educational requirements for models; some have completed high school and others have had college training. Courses in drama, dancing, art, and fashion design are useful because they can develop poise and a sense of style. Models should enjoy working with people and must be able to withstand the pressures of competi tion, tight schedules, and quick changes. Physical stamina is impor tant because models are on their feet most of the time and must sometimes assume rather awkward positions when posing for photog raphers. Many beginners get their first job through the modeling school they attended. All agencies find jobs for their models. Usually, they require their models to obtain a portfolio of photographs of themselves in vari ous styles and poses which the agency can show to prospective clients. Some department stores hold auditions that give inex perienced models a chance to model at a fashion show and per haps obtain other jobs if they do well. In addition, many sales jobs in de partment stores provide useful ex perience in selecting and coordinat ing fashions, experimenting with makeup, and occasional modeling. Sometimes a model can gain ex perience by working in fashion shows given by local community or ganizations. Modeling can be a stepping stone to other jobs in the fashion field, such as staff editor of a fashion magazine, consultant for a cosmetic firm, or fashion coordinator for a department store. Some models take courses in art and design and may become fashion illustrators or designers. A few models who work in television commercials become actors or actresses. Employment Outlook Although employment of models is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s, competi tion for the available jobs will be keen. The glamour of modeling at tracts many more persons than are needed in the occupation. Rising advertising expenditures and sales of clothing and accesso ries will cause the demand for both photographic and fashion models to increase. Most job openings, how ever, will result from the need to replace models who have left the occupation. Many models have to retire when they lose their youthful appearance because most em ployers prefer younger models. Others leave the occupation because their particular “ look” goes out of style or becomes as sociated with an outdated product. Earnings and Working Conditions A model’s earnings depend on the number and length of assign ments he or she receives. Although a few top models earn as much as business executives, most earn far less. According to the limited infor mation available, fashion models working full time for manufacturers or wholesalers earned from $ 125 to $200 a week in 1974. Models work ing for New York City retail stores were paid from $110 to $200 a week, and those working outside of New York from $80 to $140. Free-lance models are paid a fee for their work. If they are registered with an agency, they pay a commis sion for the services it provides. In 1974, free-lance models working in fashion shows earned an average fee of $50 an hour. Those in New York earned as much as $75 an hour. These rates are misleading, however, because many models, especially beginners, work only a few hours each week and spend a great deal of their time auditioning for prospective clients. Although photographic modeling often pays well, models usually must provide their own accessories, such as wigs and hairpieces, and pay for their transportation. Occasionally, a model must buy a complete outfit in order to get a particular job. Models appearing in television commercials earn at least $126 for a job as an extra, and about $165 for one as a principal character; they also receive additional income each time the commercial is rerun. Television models must be mem bers of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists or the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Models sometimes must work under uncomfortable conditions, posing in a swimsuit in the middle of winter, for example. The work can also affect their personal lives because models must always look fresh and well-rested for the camera and may have to limit evenings out with friends. In addition, a female model must spend part of each night on beauty care, and some times has to prepare her clothing and accessories for the next day’s assignments. Sources of Additional Information Employers of models such as magazines and newspapers may be able to recommend reputable modeling agencies or schools. A list of approved modeling schools is available from individual State departments of education. Write the directors of particular modeling schools for catalogs describing their programs, entrance requirements, and tuition costs. REAL ESTATE SALESW ORKERS AND BROKERS (D.O.T. 250.358) Nature of the Work Real estate salesworkers and brokers represent property owners in selling or renting their properties. They also are called real estate agents or, if they are members of the National Association of Real tors, “ realtors” or “ realtor as sociates.” Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real estate, but also rent and manage proper ties, make appraisals, and develop new building projects. In closing sales, brokers usually arrange for loans to finance the purchases, for title searches, and for meetings between buyers and sellers, when details of the transaction are agreed upon and the new owners take pos session. Brokers also must manage their own offices, advertise the pro perties they list, and handle other business operations. Some combine other types of work such as selling insurance or practicing law with their real estate business. Salesworkers or agents work for brokers. They show and sell real estate, handle rental properties, and obtain “ listings” (owner agree ments to place properties for sale with the firm). Because obtaining listings is an important job duty, salesworkers may spend much time on the telephone exploring leads gathered from advertisements and personal contacts. They also answer inquiries about properties over the telephone. A worker who sells real estate or handles rental properties often must leave the office to call on prospects and drive them to inspect properties for sale. When a number of houses are for sale in a new development, the agent may operate from a model home. Most real estate salesworkers and brokers sell residential property. A few, usually in large firms, special ize in commercial, industrial, or other types of real estate. Each spe cialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property. Selling or leasing business property, for ex ample, requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, churches, shopping facilities, and public transportation. Familiarity with tax rates and insurance coverages also is important. Places of Employment Nearly 400,000 persons sold real estate full time in 1974; many others sold on a part-time basis. The number of people licensed to sell totaled about 1.4 Tnillion in 1974, according to the National As sociation of Real Estate License Law Officials. Most real estate salesworkers work for small establishments; some, particularly in urban areas, work for large firms with several of fices. A few sales agents are em ployed by builders to sell new homes in a particular development. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate salesworkers and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Colum bia. All States require prospective agents to pass written tests. The ex amination—more comprehensive for brokers than for salesworkers— includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws af fecting the sale of property. A majority of States require can didates for a broker’s license to have a specified amount of ex perience in selling real estate or the equivalent in related experience oi education (generally 1 to 3 years). State licenses usually can be renewed annually without reex amination. Employers prefer applicants with at least a high school education. As real estate transactions have become more complex, many of the large firms have turned to college graduates to fill sales positions. Most agents have some college training and the number of college graduates has risen substantially in recent years. However, many em ployers consider personality traits as important as academic training. They look for applicants who pos sess such positive characteristics as a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should have a good memory foi names and faces and business details such as taxes, zoning regula tions, and local land-use laws. Young men and women in terested in beginning jobs as real estate salesworkers often apply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job under the direction of an experienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced salesworkers. About 360 universities, colleges, and jun ior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate’s or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National Association of Real tors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in ap praisal, mortgage financing, and property development and manage ment also are available through various National Association af filiates. Trained and experienced salesworkers can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Licensed brokers may open their own offices. Training and experience in estimating pro perty value can lead to work as a real estate appraiser, and people familiar with operating and main taining rental properties may spe cialize in property management. Those who gain general experience in real estate, and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their locali ties, may enter mortgage financing or real estate counseling. Employment Outlook Employment of real estate salesworkers and brokers is ex pected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations in order to satisfy a growing demand for housing and other properties. In ad dition to opportunities that result from this growth, several thousand openings will occur each year as employees die, retire, or leave for other reasons. Replacement needs are high, because a relatively large number of people retire from the real estate business every year. Moreover, many beginners transfer to other work after a short time selling real estate. The favorable outlook for em ployment in this field will stem primarily from increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade will result in a larger number of young adults with careers and family responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally makes the bulk of home purchases. As their incomes rise, these families also can be expected to purchase larger homes and vacation proper ties. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the result ing demand for salesworkers usually declines. During these periods, the number of persons seeking sales positions may out number openings. Over the long run, however, the outlook for salespeople is favorable. Many job opportunities should occur for both college graduates and mature workers transferring from other kinds of saleswork. This field is likely to remain highly com contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow a salesworker a draw ing account against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, there fore, should have enough money to live on until commissions increase. Earnings and Working Brokers provide office space, but Conditions salesworkers generally furnish their Commissions on sales are the own automobiles. Agents and main source of earnings—very few brokers often work in the evenings real estate agents work for a salary. and during weekends to suit the The rate of commission varies ac convenience of customers. Some cording to the type of property and firms, especially the large ones, its value; the percentage paid on the furnish group life, health, and ac sale of farm and commercial pro- cident insurance. 'perties or unimproved land usually Sources of Additional is higher than that paid for selling a Information home. Commissions may be divided Details on licensing requirements among several salespersons in a real for real estate salesworkers and estate firm. The person who obtains brokers are available from most the listing often receives a part local real estate organizations or when the property is sold; the from the real estate commission or broker who makes the sale either board located in each State capital. gets the rest of the commission, or Many States can furnish manuals else shares it with the agent who helpful to applicants who are handles the transaction. Although preparing for the required written an agent's share varies greatly from examinations. one firm to another, often it is For more information about op about half of the total amount portunities in real estate work, as received by the firm. well as a list of colleges and univer Earnings of full-time real estate sities offering courses in this field, agents generally range between contact: $12,000 and $20,000 a year, ac Association of Realtors, 155 E. Su cording to the limited data availa National perior St., Chicago, 111. 60611. ble. Beginners usually earn less. Many experienced real estate salesworkers earn $30,000 or more a year. Full-time agents and brokers RETAIL TRADE earn nearly three times as much as SALESW ORKERS average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, (D.O.T. 260. through 290.877) except farming. Income usually increases as an Nature of the Work agent gains experience, but in dividual ability, economic condi The success of any retail business tions, and the type and location of depends largely on its salesworkers. the property also affect earnings. Courteous and efficient service Salesworkers who are active in from behind the counter or on the community organizations and local sales floor does much to satisfy real estate boards can broaden their customers and build a store’s repu petitive and prospects will be best for well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling. The proportion of part-time real estate salesworkers may decline, however, as State licensing requirements change and agents need more specialized knowledge to handle real estate transactions. tation. Even though contact with customers is a part of all sales jobs, the duties, skills, and responsibili ties of salesworkers are as different as the kinds of merchandise they sell. In selling items such as furniture, electrical appliances, or clothing, the salesworker’s primary job is to create an interest in the merchan dise. The salesworker may answer questions about the construction of an article, demonstrate its use, and show various models and colors. In some stores, special knowledge or skills may be needed to sell the merchandise. In a pet shop, for ex ample, the salesworker should know about the care and feeding of animals. People who sell stand ardized articles, such as many items in hardware and drugstores, often do little more than take pay ments and wrap customers’ purchases. (In supermarkets and some drugstores, cashiers wrap or bag purchases, receive payments, and make change. See statement el sewhere in the Handbook on Cashiers.) In addition to selling, most retail salesworkers make out sales or charge slips, receive cash payments, and give change and receipts. They also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise and keep their work areas neat. In small stores, they may help order merchandise, stock shelves or racks, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare dis plays. (Route drivers, who sell bread, milk, and other products directly to customers on a regular route, are discussed under Sales Occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment In 1974, about 2.8 million salesworkers—three-fifths of them women—were employed in retail businesses. They worked in stores ranging from the small drug or grocery store that employs one part-time salesclerk to the giant de- jobs at the management level. Some salesworkers are promoted to jobs as buyers, department managers, or store managers. Others, particularly in large stores, may advance to ad ministrative work in areas such as personnel or advertising. Opportu nities for advancement are limited in small stores where one person, often the owner, does most managerial work. Retail selling ex perience may be an asset in qualify ing for saleswork with wholesalers or manufacturers. Employment Outlook partment store that has hundreds of salesworkers. They worked also for door-to-door sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest em ployers of retail trade salesworkers are department stores and those selling general merchandise, ap parel and accessories, and food. Although sales jobs are found in almost every community, most salesworkers are employed in large cities and nearby suburban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for sales jobs. Subjects such as commercial arithmetic and merchandising provide a good background for many selling posi tions. Some high schools have dis tributive education programs that offer courses in principles of retail selling; many give students a chance to gain practical experience work ing part time in local stores. Such part-time selling experience may be helpful in getting a full-time job. Persons interested in sales jobs should apply to the personnel of fices of large retail stores, where they are likely to be interviewed and, in some cases, given an ap titude test. Employers prefer those who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with different personalities. Among other desira ble characteristics are an interest in saleswork, a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. Also, prospective salesworkers should be healthy since they must stand for long periods. In many small stores, an ex perienced employee or the proprie tor instructs newly hired sales per sonnel in making out sales slips and operating the cash register. In larger stores, training programs are likely to be more formal, and to in clude specialized training in selling certain products. Retail selling remains one of the few fields in which able employees may advance to executive jobs re gardless of educational background. Although large retail businesses generally hire college graduates as management trainees, this is not the only way to move into Retail trade selling will continue to be an excellent source of job op portunities for high school gradu ates. In addition to full-time jobs, there will be many opportunities for part-time workers, as well as for temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christ mas season. Prospects are expected to be good because retail selling is a large occupation and turnover is high. Most openings will occur as experienced full and part-time salesworkers leave their jobs. Employment of salesworkers in retail trade is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s, as the volume of sales rises and stores continue to remain open longer. However, sales employment will increase more slowly than the volume of sales as self-service—al ready the rule in most foodstores— is extended to drug, variety, and other kinds of stores. At the same time, rising income levels may in crease the demand for “big ticket items,’’ such as television sets, that require the salesworker to spend a good deal of time with each customer. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1974, salesworkers starting in routine jobs where they did little more than “wait on’’ customers generally earned $1.90 or $2 an hour, the Federal minimum wage. In stores where selling is more im portant, starting salaries were sometimes higher. Salaries usually are lower in rural than in urban areas. Experienced salesworkers, in cluding those whose pay scales are determined by union contracts, often earn $3 to $6 an hour or more. Many are paid a straight sa lary. In addition to their salary, some salesworkers receive commis sions—that is, a percentage of the sales they make. Still others are paid a straight commission alone. Those paid only by commission may find their earnings greatly af fected by ups and downs in the economy. Earnings are likely to be highest in jobs that require special skill in dealing with customers, or technical knowledge of the merchandise sold. Among the highest paid are people who sell au tomobiles, major appliances, and furniture. On the average, retail trade salesworkers earn about as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Salesworkers in many retail stores may buy merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 25 per cent below regular prices. This privilege sometimes is extended to the employee’s family. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay all or part of the cost of such employee benefits as life insurance, health in surance, and a pension. Many full-time salesworkers have a 5-day, 40-hour week, although in some stores the standard workweek is longer. Because Saturday is a busy day in retailing, employees usually work that day and have another weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled be fore Christmas and during other peak periods, and employees who work overtime receive additional pay or an equal amount of time off during slack periods. Some, espe cially those employed by stores in suburban shopping centers, regu larly work one evening a week or more. Part-time salesworkers generally work during the store’s peak hours of business—daytime rush hours, evenings, and weekends. Salesworkers in retail trade usually work in clean, well-lighted places and many stores are air-con ditioned. Some jobs, however, require work outside the store. A Icitchen equipment salesworker may visit prospective customers at their homes, for example, to help them plan renovations, and a usedcar salesworker may spend much time at an outdoor lot. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in retail sales is available from: The National Retail Merchants Association, 100 W. 31st St., New York, N Y. 10001. Additional information on careers in retailing may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ as sociations; or from local unions of the Retail Clerks International As sociation. ROUTE DRIVERS (D.O.T. 292.358) Nature of the Work Route drivers use light trucks on assigned routes to sell and deliver goods or provide services. They are sometimes known as driversalesworkers or route-salesworkers. They must, through their selling ability, increase sales to existing customers and obtain new business by finding additional customers within their territories. Route drivers’ duties vary ac cording to the industry in which they are employed, the type of route they have (retail or wholesale), and the company em ploying them. Some specific exam ples, however, may describe in a general way what most route drivers do. On a typical day, laundry and drycleaning route drivers begin by picking up cleaned garments at the processing plant. They deliver the clean garments to customers’ homes and pick up any dirty clothing. Drivers mark the dirty clothes so that they can be returned to the owner. Sometimes, they make notes of the type of stains to be removed or of special processes to be used, such as waterproofing. After delivering the clean garments, drivers present each customer with an itemized bill and collect the amount of money due. Although all route drivers must be able to get along well with peo ple, it is particularly important for the drycleaning and laundry route drivers. Their reactions to com plaints and requests for special services may be the difference between getting more business or losing customers. Periodically, they stop at homes along their routes to try to sell their company’s services. Wholesale bakery route drivers deliver bread and other baked goods to grocery stores. Before starting on the route they check to see whether the proper variety and quantity of products have been loaded. At each of the 10 to 50 grocery stores along their route, they carry the orders of bread and other baked goods into the store and arrange them on the display racks. Together with the store owner or manager, bakery route drivers check the merchandise delivered and prepare a bill. They also credit the store for the value of the stale items left over from the previous delivery. Bakery route drivers prepare a list of products they plan to deliver the next day. These lists are esti mates of the amount and variety of baked goods that will be sold by the grocery stores. From time to time, they visit grocers along the route who are not customers and try to get orders from them. Vending machine route drivers make certain the machines on their routes are stocked with merchan dise and in good working order. At each location, they check the items remaining in machines and remove the money deposited in the cash boxes. Drivers also check vending machines to see that merchandise and change are dispensed properly, and make minor adjustments to machines that are broken. In addi tion, they clean machines and replace stock. Route drivers keep records of the merchandise placed in each machine and the money removed. They may try to find new locations for vending machines by visiting stores, factories, and other businesses along their routes. Places of Employment About 190,000 route drivers worked for a wide variety of busi nesses in 1974. Since most are em ployed by companies that distribute food products or provide personal services, they work in small towns as well as in large cities. The greatest concentration of employ ment is in dairies, bakeries, food and beverage distribution firms, and drycleaning plants in large cities. license can be obtained from State motor vehicle departments. Most employers prefer their route drivers to be high school graduates. Route drivers who han dle a great deal of money may have to be bonded. Most companies give their new employees on-the-job training which varies in length and thoroughness, and many large com panies have classes in sales techniques. School-and-work programs in retail and wholesale merchandising are helpful to a person interested in entering this occupation. High school courses in sales techniques, public speaking, driver training, bookkeeping, and business arithmetic are helpful. Valuable ex perience may be obtained as a sales clerk in a store or in some other type of selling job. Some people enter this occupa tion as route driver helpers (D.O.T. 292.887). Helpers receive on-thejob training from drivers. When openings occur, they may be promoted to drivers. Helpers, how ever, are not likely to be employed in the dairy or vending machine in dustries. Route drivers may be promoted to route or sales supervisor, but these jobs are relatively scarce. Ad vancement usually is limited to moving from a retail to a wholesale route, where earnings generally are higher. However, some drivers ob tain better-paying sales jobs as a result of their experience in route selling. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Route drivers must be good drivers, and must have sales ability. To get people to buy, they must have a thorough knowledge of the product or service they sell and a persuasive personality. Other im portant sales qualifications are a Employment Outlook pleasant voice, ability to speak well, The total number of route drivers and a neat appearance. They also need self-confidence, initiative, and is expected to change little through the mid-1980’s. However, some tact. Route drivers must be able to openings for new workers will arise work without direct supervision, do as experienced route drivers simple arithmetic, and write legibly. transfer to other fields of work, In most States, a route driver is retire, or die. Applicants with sales required to have a chauffeur’s experience and good driving license, which is a commercial driv records have the best chance of ing permit. Information on this being hired. Although total employment is ex pected to remain about the same, employment trends will differ for various types of routes. For exam ple, employment of laundry and drycleaning route drivers is ex pected to decline as more people take their clothes to neighborhood stores for quicker, cheaper service, or use clothes made from material which can be washed easily at home. On the other hand, employment of vending machine route drivers is expected to grow due to the greater use of automatic food service in factories, schools, hospitals, and other locations where machines are the only practical way of providing food and beverages. Earnings and Working Conditions Most route drivers receive a minimum salary plus a percent of the sales they make. Thus, earnings are determined largely by their selling ability and initiative. Ac cording to limited information available in 1974, route drivers in the dairy and baking industries were guaranteed weekly wages of $90 to $125 plus commissions on sales. Many of these workers earned more than $200 a week. Wholesale route drivers who make deliveries to stores usually earn more than those who make delive ries to homes. The number of hours worked by route drivers varies. Some work only about 30 hours a week; others may work 60 hours or more de pending upon whether they have well-established routes or are trying to build up new ones, and how am bitious they are. The number of hours worked may be limited by a union contract, although many con tracts specify merely the earliest hour that work may begin and the latest quitting time. The hours also may vary with the season. During the spring-cleaning season, for ex ample, drycleaning route drivers may work about 60 hours a week, but in winter they may work less than 30 hours. Many companies require route drivers to wear uniforms. Some em ployers pay for the uniforms and for keeping them clean. Route drivers do not work under close supervi sion. Within certain broad limits, they decide how rapidly they will work and where and when they will have a lunch or rest period. On the other hand, route drivers have to make deliveries in bad weather and do a great deal of lifting, carrying, and walking. They also may have to work unusual hours. For example, drivers who have retail milk routes generally start to work very early in the morning. Many route drivers, particularly those who deliver bakery and dairy products, are members of the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) Some belong to the unions which represent the plantworkers of their employers. Sources of Additional Information For details on route driver em ployment opportunities, contact local employers, such as bakeries and vending machine companies, or the local office of the State employ ment service. SECURITIES SALESW ORKERS (D.O.T. 251.258) Nature of the Work When investors buy or sell stocks, bonds, or shares in mutual funds, they call on securities salesworkers to put the “ market machinery” into operation. Both the individual who invests a few hundred dollars and the large in stitution with millions to invest need such services. Often these workers are called registered representatives, account execu tives, or customers' brokers. In initiating buy or sell transac tions, securities salesworkers relay orders through their firms’ offices to the floor of a securities exchange. When the trade takes place in the over-the-counter mar ket instead, they send the order to the firm’s trading department. In either case, the sales worker promptly notifies the customer of the completed transaction and the final price. In addition, they provide many related services for their customers. They may explain to new investors the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices; offer the client complete financial counsel ing; devise an individual financial portfolio including securities, life insurance, and other investments for the customer; and advise on the purchase or sale of a particular security. Some individuals may prefer long-term investments designed for either capital growth or income over the years; others might want to make short-term in vestments which seem likely to rise in price quickly. Securities salesworkers furnish information about the advantages and disad vantages of each type of investment based on each person’s objectives. They also supply the latest stock and bond quotations on any securi ty in which the investor is in terested, as well as information on the activities a'nd financial positions of the corporations these securities represent. Securities salesworkers may serve all types 6f customers or they may specialize in one type only, such as institutional investors. They also may specialize in handling only certain kinds of securities such as mutual funds. Some handle the sale of “new issues,” such as corpora tion securities issued for plant ex pansion funds. Beginning securities salesworkers spend much of their time searching for customers. Once they have established a clientele, however, they put more effort into servicing existing accounts and less into seek ing new ones. Places of Employment About 100,000 persons—about 10 percent of them women—sold securities full time in 1974. It is esti mated that an additional 100,000 persons sold securities less than full time. These include partners and branch office managers in securities firms, insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers, and part-time mutual fund representatives. Securities salesworkers are em ployed by brokerage firms, invest ment bankers, and mutual funds in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most salesworkers, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in New York) or the approximately 6,000 branch offices in other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because a securities salesworker must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. This is not true, however, for part-time work selling mutual funds. Although employers seldom require specialized training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Almost all States require persons who sell securities to be licensed. State licensing requirements may include passing an examination and furnishing a personal bond. In addi tion, salesworkers usually must register as representatives of their firms according to regulations of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National As sociation of Securities Dealers, Inc. positions as branch office managers, who supervise the work of other salesworkers while execut ing “ buy” and “sell” orders for their own customers. A few representatives may become part ners in their firms or do administra tive work. Employment Outlook (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representa tives, they must pass the Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC’s) General Securities Ex amination, or examinations prepared by the exchanges or the NASD. These tests measure the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities busi ness. Character investigations also are required. Before securities salesworkers can sell insurance, they must be licensed by the State in which they live. Most employers provide training to help salesworkers meet the requirements for registration. In member firms of all major exchanges the training period is at least 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom in struction in security analysis and ef fective speaking, take courses of fered by schools of business and other institutions and associations, and undergo a period of on-the-job training. In small firms, and in mu tual funds and insurance compa nies, training programs may be brief and informal. Beginners read as signed materials and watch other salesworkers transact business. Many employers consider per sonality traits as important as academic training. Employers seek applicants who are well groomed, able to motivate people, and ambi tious. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many emexployers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Suc cessful sales or manageriall perience is very helpful to an appli cant. The principal form of advance ment for securities salesworkers is an increase in the number and the size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventually they may handle very large accounts such a s . those of banks and pension funds. Some ex perienced salesworkers advance to The number of securities salesworkers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1980’s as investment in securities continues to increase. In addition to jobs resulting from growth, several thousand salesworkers will be needed annually to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Replacement needs are rela tively large, due to the competitive nature of the occupation. Many salesworkers leave their jobs each year because they are unable to establish a successful clientele. Employment of securities salesworkers is expected to expand as economic growth and rising per sonal incomes increase the funds available for investment. The for mation of investment clubs, which enable small investors to make minimum monthly payments toward the purchase of securities, also will contribute to the demand for securities salesworkers. Growth in the number of institutional in vestors will be particularly strong as more people purchase insurance; participate in pension plans; con tribute to the endowment funds of colleges and other nonprofit institu tions; and deposit their savings in banks. In addition, more workers will be needed to sell securities is sued by new and expanding cor porations and by State and local governments financing public im provements. The demand for securities salesworkers fluctuates as the economy expands and contracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the number of persons seeking jobs Earnings of full-time, ex may exceed the number of openings—sometimes by a great perienced securities salesworkers deal. Over the long-run, however, averaged about $21,000 a year in job opportunities for securities 1974, according to the limited data salesworkers are expected to be available. Many earned more than favorable. During severe slumps in $30,000 a year. Full-time securities market activity, job prospects and salesworkers earn about three times income stability will be greater for as much as average earnings for salesworkers who are qualified to nonsupervisory workers in private provide their clients with complete industry, except farming. financial services than those who Securities salesworkers usually rely strictly on commissions from work in offices where there is much stock transactions. activity. In large offices, for exam Mature individuals with success ple, rows of salesworkers sit at ful work experience should find desks in front of “quote boards” many job opportunities. Demand which continually flash information will be strongest for well-rounded on the prices of securities transac persons who are willing to learn all tions. Although established aspects of the securities business. salesworkers usually work the same Those seeking part-time work will hours as others in the business com be limited to selling shares in mu munity, beginners who are seeking customers may work longer. Some tual funds. salesworkers accommodate customers by meeting with them in Earnings and Working the evenings or on weekends. Conditions Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and regis tration requirements. After regis tration, a few firms continue to pay a salary until the new representa tive’s commissions increase to a stated amount. The salaries paid during training usually range from $800 to $1,000 a month; those working for large securities firms may receive higher salaries. After candidates are licensed and registered, their earnings depend on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling, and lower when there is a slump in market ac tivity. Most firms provide sales workers with a steady income by paying a “draw against com mission” —that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions which then can be expected to earn. A few firms pay salesworkers only salary and bonuses, that usually are determined by the volume of company business. Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning a career as a securities salesworker may be obtained from the person nel departments of individual secu rities firms. W HOLESALE TRADE SALESW ORKERS (D.O.T. 260. through 289.458) Nature of the Work Salesworkers in wholesale trade play an important role in moving goods from the factory to the con sumer. Each salesworker may represent a wholesaler that dis tributes hundreds of similar products. A wholesale drug com pany, for example, may stock its warehouse with many brands of drugs, soap, and cosmetics to supply stores that sell directly to the consumer. Likewise, a wholesale building materials distributor sells hardware and construction materi als to builders who would otherwise have to deal with many manufac turers. At regular intervals, salesworkers visit buyers for retail, industrial, and commercial firms, as well as buyers for institutions such as schools and hospitals. They show samples, pictures, or catalogs that list the items which their company stocks. Salesworkers seldom urge customers to purchase any particu lar product, since they handle a large number of items. Instead, they offer prompt, dependable service so buyers will become regular customers. Wholesale salesworkers perform many important services, such as checking the store’s stock and or dering items that will be needed be fore the next visit. Some wholesale salesworkers help store personnel improve and update systems for or dering and inventory. In addition, they often advise retailers about ad vertising, pricing, and arranging window and counter displays. A salesworker who handles special ized products, such as air-condi tioning equipment, may give techni cal assistance on installation and maintenance. Salesworkers do some record keeping and attend to other details. They must forward orders to their wholesale houses, prepare reports and expense accounts, plan work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appointments, and study literature relating to their products. Some collect money for their companies. Places of Employment About 770,000 persons were em ployed as wholesale salesworkers in 1974. Wholesale houses usually are located in cities, but salesworkers may be assigned territories in any part of the country. Their territory may cover a small section of a city having many retail stores and indus trial users; in less populated regions grams, some college students com bine academic study and on-the-job experience. Graduates with this background often begin outside saleswork without further training. High school graduates may begin a career with a wholesale firm in a n^nselling job or be hired as a sales trainee. In either case, beginners usually work in several kinds of nonselling jobs before being as signed to sales. They may start in the stockroom or shipping depart ment to become familiar with the thousands of items the wholesaler carries. Later they may learn the prices of articles and discount rates for goods sold in quantities. Next, they are likely to work on “ inside” sales, and write telephone orders. Later, as they accompany an ex perienced salesworker on calls, trainees come to know some of the firm’s customers. The time spent in these initial jobs varies among com panies, but usually it take 2 years or longer to prepare trainees for out side selling. Experienced salesworkers who have leadership qualities and sales ability may advance to supervisor, sales manager, or other executive positions. Employment Outlook it may cover half a State or more. Firms selling machinery and building materials to industrial and business users are leading em ployers of wholesale salesworkers. Other large employers are compa nies that sell food products. Wholesalers dealing in drugs, dry goods and apparel, motor vehicle equipment, and electrical ap pliances employ many salesworkers as well. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring trainees for sales work, most wholesalers seek people who are neat, outgoing, self-confident, enthusiastic about the job, and un derstanding of human nature. As in most selling jobs, skills in arithmetic and a good memory are assets. High school graduation is usually required, although many companies prefer applicants who have special ized training beyond high school. An engineering degree may be required to sell scientific and technical products. Newly hired salesworkers who are college graduates usually par ticipate in formal training programs that combine classroom instruction and short rotations in various non selling jobs. By working a few weeks in the wholesaler’s warehouse, a new employee may gain first-hand experience in writ ing orders, pricing, and locating stock. Through cooperative pro Employment opportunities for salesworkers in wholesale trade are expected to be good. In addition to new positions created by growth, many openings will stem from turn over, which is fairly high in this oc cupation. A person’s success in selling greatly depends on his or her ability to locate new customers and persuade them to buy. A number of new salesworkers find they are not suited to the competitive nature of selling and leave the occupation. The number of wholesale salesworkers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Businesses and institutions will require a wide variety of products for their own use and for eventual resale. Although many large purchasers and others who require highly specialized products will buy directly from manufac turers, the majority of transactions will involve the wholesale distribu tor. As chain stores and other large firms centralize purchasing activi ties, the value of the sales made to individual customers becomes larger and competition for sales correspondingly greater. Wholesalers can be expected to meet this competition by emphasiz ing customer services and increas ing the size of their sales forces. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited informa tion, most beginning salesworkers earned around $9,000 a year in 1974. Experienced salesworkers earned considerably more. Since commissions often make up a large proportion of the salesworker’s in come, earnings vary widely in this occupation. In general, wholesale salesworkers’ earnings are much higher than those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most employers pay a salary plus a percentage commission on sales; others pay a straight commission. Although most wholesale sales workers have steady, year-round work, sales (and commissions) vary because demand for some products—for example, air-condi tioning—is greater during certain seasons. To provide salesworkers with a steady income, many compa nies pay experienced personnel a “draw” against annual commis sions. Most companies furnish cars or allowances for cars and reimbur sements for certain expenses on the road. Salesworkers often have long, ir regular work hours. Although they call on customers during business hours, they may travel at night or on weekends to meet their sched ule. However, most saleswork ers seldom are awav from home for more than a few days at a time. They may spend evenings writing reports and orders, may carry heavy catalogs and sample cases, and be on their feet for long periods. Depending on length of service, most salesworkers have a 2- to 4week paid vacation. Many are covered by company benefits, in cluding health and life insurance and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs in wholesale selling may be obtained directly from local wholesale houses or from associations of wholesalers in many of the larger cities. If no local association is available, write to: National Association of Wholesaler-Dis tributors, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D .C .20006. Sales and Marketing Executives Interna tional, Student Education Division, 380 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 1001 CONSTRUCTION OCCUPATIONS Construction craft workers represent the largest group ot skilled workers in the Nation’s labor force. Altogether, there were 3.4 million employed in 1974— about 3 out of every 10 skilled wor kers. The more than 2 dozen skilled construction trades vary greatly in size. Several major trades—car penter, painter, operating engineer, plumber, and electrician—each had more than a 200,000 workers; car penters alone numbered more than 1 million, about one-third of all construction craft workers. In con trast, only a few thousand each were employed in trades such as marble setter, terrazzo worker, and stonemason. asbestos worker. Mechanical work: Plumber, pipefitter, construction electrician, sheet-metal worker, elevator constructor, and mill wright. Most construction trades are described individually later in this chapter. Boilermakers and mill wrights are described elsewhere in the Handbook. These descriptions are necessarily brief, and do not apply fully to workers in all locali ties. Also, they are not statements or recommendations concerning the work jurisdiction of these trades and are inappropriate for use in ju risdictional negotiations or the set tlement of jurisdictional questions. Places of Employment Most jobs are with contractors in the construction industry. There are several hundred thousand con tractors, and most are small— generally employing fewer than 10 people. Some large contractors, What are the Construction Trades? Workers in the construction trades build, repair, and modernize homes and all kinds of buildings. They also work on a variety of other structures, including highways, air ports, and missile launching pads. Construction work may be di vided into three categories: struc tural, finishing, and mechanical. In general, each trade falls in one of these categories: Structural work-. Carpenter, operating engineer (construction machinery operator), bricklayer, structural-iron worker, ornamental-iron worker, cementmason, reinforcing-iron worker, rigger and machine mover, stonemason, and boilermaker. Finishing work: Lather, plasterer, marble setter, terrazzo worker, painter, paperhanger, glazier, roofer, floor covering installer, and Construction is a major source of employment for skilled workers. Mm oyment in the Construction Trades 14 W O RKERS 1974 (in hundreds of thousands) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 C a rp e n te rs Painters O p e ra tin g e n g in e e rs Plum bers a n d pipefitters 1 B ric k la y e rs a n d sto n e m a so n s2 -, ,;-i - --------:----------E lectricia n s 1 ... Cem en t m a so n s' 5 ■ Roofers a n d slaters Stru ctu ra l m etal w orkers n ‘ ?- l; liH li j J Plasterers ‘. v P?m§§ Mm \ P a p e rh a n g e rs T ^ Exclud es m a in te n a n ce e lectricia n s. 1 t i i 1 1 ^ Includes m arb le setters a n d tile setters. 3 Includ es terrazzo w orkers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics however, employ thousands. Large numbers of construction trade workers are employed in other in dustries, such as mining and manu facturing, mainly to do maintenance and repair work. Chemical manu facturers, for example, need plum bers and pipefitters to maintain the complex pipe networks in their processing plants. Government agencies employ construction trade workers to maintain highways, buildings, and sanitation systems. Many construction tradeworkers are self-employed and contract with homeowners and businesses for small jobs. Self-employment is most common in paperhanging, painting, and floor covering work, but it also is found in other trades. Employment in the construction trades is distributed geographically in much the same way as the Na tion’s population. Thus, the highest concentration generally is in indus trialized and highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recom mend formal apprentice training as the best way to acquire the all round skills in the construction trhdes. Apprenticeship is a prescribed period of on-the-job training, supplemented by related classroom * instruction which is designed to familiarize apprentices with the materials, tools, and princi ples of their trade. Formal ap prenticeship agreements are reg istered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Although apprenticeship is the best way to train, many people acquire construction skills infor mally by working as laborers and helpers and observing experienced craft workers. Some acquire skills by attending vocational or trade schools or by taking correspond ence school courses. Apprentices generally must be at least 18 years old, and in good physical condition. A high school or vocational school education, or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics and mechanical draw ing, is desirable. Courses in con struction trades, such as carpentry and electricity, also are recom mended. Often, applicants are given tests to determine their ap titudes. For some trades, manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, and an eye for proper alignment of materials are important. The formal apprenticeship agree ment generally calls for 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training and 144 hours or more of related classroom instruction each year. On the job, most instruction is given by a par ticular craft worker to whom the apprentice is assigned. Classroom instruction varies among the construction trades, but usually includes courses such as his tory of the trade, characteristics of materials, shop mathematics, and basic principles of engineering. In most communities, the ap prenticeship programs are super vised by joint apprenticeship com mittees composed of local em ployers and local union representa tives. The committee determines the need for apprentices in the community and establishes minimum standards of education, experience, and training. Whenever an employer cannot provide all round instruction or relatively con tinuous employment, the commit tee transfers the apprentice to another employer. Where spe cialization by contractors is exten sive—for instance, in electrical work—customarily the committee rotates apprentices among several contractors at intervals of about 6 months. In areas where these committees have not been established, the ap prenticeship agreement is solely between the apprentice and the em ployer or employer group. Many people have received valuable training under these programs but they have some disadvantages. No committee is available to supervise the training offered and settle dif ferences over the terms and condi tions of training. What the ap prentice learns depends largely on the employer’s business prospects and policies. If the employer lacks continuous work or does only a restricted type of work, the ap prentice cannot develop all-round skills. In many localities, craft work ers—most commonly electricians and plumbers—are required to have a license to work at their trade. To qualify for these licenses, they must pass an examination to demonstrate a broad knowledge of the job and of State and local regu lations. Construction trades craft work ers may advance in a number of ways. Many become supervisors. In most localities, small jobs are run by “working supervisors” who work at the trade along with members of their crews. On larger jobs, the su pervisors do only supervisory work. Craft workers also can become esti mators for contractors. In these jobs, they estimate material requirements and labor costs to enable the contractor to bid on a particular project. Some craft workers advance to jobs as super intendents on large projects. Others become instructors in trade and vocational schools or sales representatives for building supply companies. A large number of craft workers have become con tractors in the homebuilding field. Starting a small contract con struction business is easier than starting a small business in many other industries. Only moderate financial investment usually is needed, and conducting a fairly substantial business from the one’s home is possible. However, the con tract construction field is very com petitive, and the rate of business failure is high among small contrac tors. Employment Outlook Employment in the construction trades is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. However, since construction ac tivity is sensitive to changes in the Nation’s economy, the number of openings may fluctuate sharply from year to year. Over the long run, construction activity is expected to grow sub stantially. The anticipated increases in population and households, and the relatively low level of housing construction in the mid-1970’s, are expected to create strong pressure for new housing. Among other fac tors that will stimulate construction activity are a rise in spending for new industrial plants and equip ment and higher levels of personal and corporate income. Also, there will be a growing demand for altera tion and modernization work on ex isting structures, as well as for maintenance and repair work on highway systems, dams, bridges, and similar projects. The increase in employment is not expected to be as great as the expansion in construction activity. Continued technological develop ments in construction methods, tools and equipment, and materials will raise output per worker. One important development is the grow ing use of prefabricated units at the job site. For example, preassembled outside walls and partitions can be lifted into place in one operation. An outgrowth of prefabrication is “module building” in which units, including complete rooms, are as sembled at a factory. The rates of employment growth will differ among the various con struction trades. Employment growth is expected to be fastest for asbestos and insulation workers and for operating engineers. Trades that will have the slowest growth rates are lathers and plasterers. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for construc tion trade workers are relatively high. However, because construc tion work is seasonal and time also may be lost because of occasional unemployment between jobs, an nual earnings are not as high as the hourly rates of pay would indicate The accompanying tabulation shows union hourly averages foi selected construction trades in large cities surveyed in 1974. Hourly rate Plumbers.......................................... Electricians...................................... Bricklayers...................................... Plasterers........................................ Carpenters....................................... Painters............................................ $9.00 8.96 8.97 8.32 8.41 8.07 Hourly wage rates for ap prentices generally start at 50 per cent of the rate paid to experienced craft workers. These rates increase at 6-month to 1-year intervals until the full rate is achieved upon the completion of training. Construction work frequently requires prolonged standing, bend ing, stooping, and working in cramped quarters. Exposure to weather is common as much of the work is done outdoors or in par tially enclosed structures. Many people prefer construction work because it permits them to be out doors. Construction jobs generally are more dangerous than other jobs, but the risk of injury is lessened considerably when safe work prac tices are followed. The construction trades offer especially good opportunities for young people who are not planning to go to college, but who are willing to spend several years in learning a skilled occupation. Construction workers can find job opportunities in all parts of the country. Their hourly wage rates generally are much higher than those of most other manual workers. As previ ously noted, construction trade workers with business ability have greater opportunities to open their own businesses than workers in most other skilled occupations. A large proportion of construc tion workers are members of trade unions affiliated with the Building and Construction Trades Depart ment of the AFL-CIO. Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities for apprenticeship or other training can be obtained from local con struction firms and employer as sociations, the local office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency, or the local office of the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Many apprenticeship pro grams are supervised by local union-management committees. In these instances, an apprentice ap plicant may apply directly to the coordinator of the committee. For additional information on jobs in the construction trades, con tact: American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Orgazations, Building and Construction Trades Department, 8IS 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For the names of labor organiza tions and trade associations con cerned with specific trades, see the discussions of individual building trades which follow. ASB ESTOS AND IN SU LATIO N W ORKERS (D.O.T. 863.381, .781, and .884) Nature of the Work Asbestos and insulation workers cover pipes, boilers, furnaces, and related equipment with asbestos and other insulating materials. These materials retain heat or cold, absorb sound, and can act as a vapor barrier. Insulated walls and ceilings in a home, for example, reduce fuel costs by preventing loss of heat during the cold months. Insulating materials are installed by pasting, wiring, taping, stud welding, spraying, or plastering. When covering pipework, asbestos workers cut either block or formed insulation to the required size and shape, and then wrap it around the pipe. They secure the insulating material by using wire bands, or by covering it further with tar paper, cloth, or canvas, sewed or stapled into place. Care is required to cover joints completely. When covering flat surfaces, asbestos workers spotweld or screw wire fasteners to the surface and in stall the insulating material. They coat joints with an asbestos cement and wrap them with tape for a tight seal. They sometimes spray or plaster insulating material to a wire mesh placed on the surface to be covered. The wire mesh provides a surface for adhesion as well as structural strength for the insula tion. A final coat is applied and finished for a smooth appearance. Asbestos and insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, scissors, sewing equip ment, and stud-welding guns. Powersaws, as well as handtools, are used to cut and fit insulating materials. Places of Employment About 30,000 asbestos and insu lation workers were employed in 1974. Most worked for insulation contractors. Others were employed to alter and maintain insulated pipework in chemical factories, petroleum refineries, atomic energy installations, and similar plants which have extensive steam instal lations for power, heating, and cooling. Some large firms which have cold-storage facilities also em ploy these workers for maintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all asbestos and insula tion workers learn their trade through either informal on-the-job training or a formal 4-year “ improvership” program. A trainee in an informal on-the-job program is assigned to an experienced insu lation worker for instruction and supervision. A trainee begins with simple tasks, such as supplying insu lation material to experienced workers or holding the material while they fasten it in place. In about 6 to 8 months, assign ments become more complex, and within a year a trainee usual ly learns to measure, cut, fit, and install various types of insulation. With experience, the trainee receives less supervision and more responsibility. Trainees who receive informal in struction usually learn to specialize in only three or four types of instal lation. In contrast, trainees in 4year “ improvership” programs receive in-depth instruction in al most all phases of insulation work. These programs consist of on-thejob training, as well as classroom in struction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. For entry, jobs, employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, and general construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking 4-year “ improvership” positions must have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Skilled asbestos and insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop superintendent, or insulation contract estimator, or may open an insulation contracting business. * Employment Outlook Employment of asbestos and in sulation workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980*s. In addition to jobs from em ployment growth, several hundred asbestos sometimes presents a health hazard. A large proportion of the workers in this trade are members of the In ternational Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about asbestos and insulation workers’ improvership programs or other work oppor tunities in this trade, contact a local asbestos contractor; a local of the union mentioned above; or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or State apprentice ship agency. BRICKLAYERS AND STONEM ASONS (D.O.T. 861.381, .781, and .884) Nature of the Work openings will arise annually from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. More workers will be needed to install energy-saving insulation in new homes and businesses. Insula tion for boilers and pipes in new factories and power plants also will stimulate employment growth. Moreover, old buildings that need extra insulation to save fuel will add to employment requirements. Employment opportunities will be best in metropolitan areas where most insulation contractors are located. In small towns much of the insulation work is done by persons in other trades, such as carpenters and bricklayers, rather than by asbestos and insulation workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Union asbestos and insulation workers in metropolitan areas had estimated average wages of $9.35 in 1974, slightly higher than the average for all union building trades workers. Apprentice wage rates start about half the rate paid to ex perienced workers and increase periodically. Asbestos and insulation workers spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, stooping, or squatting. Sometimes they work from ladders or in tight spaces when covering pipes and ducts. Removing old insulation be fore installing new materials is often dusty and dirty and working with Bricklayers build walls, parti tions, fireplaces, and other struc tures with brick, cinder block, and other masonry materials. They also install firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build the stone ex teriors of structures. They work with two types of stones—natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artifical stone made from cement, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Because stone is expensive, stonemasons work mostly on high-cost buildings, such as offices, hotels, and churches. In putting up a wall, bricklayers first build the corners at each end of the wall, using plumblines and a mason’s level. A line is then stretched from corner to comer as a guide for each course or layer of brick. Bricklayers spread a bed of mortar (cement mixture) with a trowel, place the brick on the mor tar bed, and then tap it into place. hammers, wooden or hard rubber mallets, and chisels. For rapid cutting, pneumatic tools are used. They use special power tools to smooth the surface of large stones. Places of Employment When necessary, they cut bricks to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools to leave a neat and uniform appearance. Bricklayers also weld metal sup ports for bricks. Bricklayers use handtools primarily, including’ trowels, brickhammers, levels, chisels, and rules. Powersaws are often used for cutting and fitting bricks and other masonry materials. Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or helpers, who supply them with bricks and other materi als, mix mortar, and set up and move scaffolding. (Detailed occu pational descriptions for Construc tion Laborers and Hod Carriers ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identifica tion. Helpers locate and bring the pieces needed to the masons. A der rick operator using a hoist lifts large pieces into place. Masons set the stone in mortar and move it into position with a mallet, hammer, or crowbar. They align stones with a plumbline and finish the joints with a pointing trowel. When necessary, they weld or fasten the stone to sup ports with metal ties or anchors. To cut various shapes and sizes, masons find the grain of each piece of stone and use a special hammer to strike it along a predetermined line. Valuablp pieces often are cut with an abrasive saw. Stonemasons also do veneer work, in which cut stone is applied in various patterns. In one special ized branch of the trade known as alberene stone setting, masons set acid-resistant soapstone linings for vats, tanks, and floors. The principal handtools of the stonemasons are trowels, heavy About 165,000 bricklayers and stonemasons were employed in 1974, most of whom were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts were employed primarily by special trade, building, or general contrac tors. A relatively small number of bricklayers work for government agencies or business that do their own construction and alteration work. Workers in both trades are em ployed throughout the country, but are concentrated in metropolitan areas. In cities that are too small to have a demand for full-time stonemasons, some bricklayers do stonework as a sideline. About 1 out of 7 bricklayers and stonemasons is self-employed—a proportion higher than that in most building crafts. Many of the selfemployed specialize in contracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recom mend the completion of an ap prenticeship program as the best way to become a bricklayer or a stonemason. Many workers, how ever, pick up their skills informally by working as a helper or a hod car rier and by observing and learning from experienced workers. A bricklayer or stonemason ap prenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training, in addi tion to 144 hours of classroom in struction each year. Although these programs have some similarities, they provide different kinds of training. On the job, bricklayer ap prentices begin by learning to spread mortar and lay brick in sim trade is sensitive to ups and downs ple patterns. Within a year, they in construction activity. For any learn to weld and—in time—to given year, opportunities usually operate equipment such as a are best during the spring and masonry saw. Stonemason ap summer when construction activity prentices, on the other hand, begin picks up. by learning to recognize various Employment of stonemasons is types of stones, set and align them, not expected to change significantly and finish the joints. With ex through the mid-1980’s. Stone has perience, they also learn to weld lost popularity as a building materi and eventually to cut stone. Class al because it has become much room instruction in either program more expensive than other materi includes blueprint reading, layout als such as brick and concrete. work, and sketching. Nevertheless, a relatively small Applicants for bricklayer or number of jobs will become availa stonemason apprenticeships must ble due to the need to replace be at least 17 years old and in good stonemasons who retire, die, or physical condition. A high school or transfer to other occupations. vocational school education is Earnings and Working preferable, as are courses in mathe Conditions matics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Bricklayers averaged $8.97 an Experienced bricklayers or hour and stonemasons $8.85 an stonemasons can advance to super hour, according to a 1974 survey of visory positions, or become estima union wage rates in metropolitan tors. They also can open contract areas. In comparison, the average ing businesses of their own. for all building trades was $8.16 an hour. Although hourly rates for these Employment Outlook workers are relatively high, time Employment of bricklayers is ex lost because of poor weather and pected to increase about as fast as occasional unemployment between the average for all occupations jobs makes annual earnings less through the mid-1980’s. In addition than the hourly rates would imply. to the job openings that result from Wages for apprentices in either employment growth, many trade usually start at 50 percent of openings will arise as experienced the rate paid to experienced work bricklayers retire, die, or transfer to ers and increase periodically ac other occupations. cording to a set scale. As population and business The work of bricklayers and growth create a need for new stonemasons is sometimes strenu homes, factories, offices, and other ous because it involves moderately structures, the demand for heavy lifting' and prolonged stand bricklayers will grow. Stimulating ing and stooping. Most of the work this growth will be the increasing is performed outdoors. use of brick for decorative work on A large proportion of bricklayers building fronts and in lobbies and and stonemasons are members of foyers. The use of brick, particu the Bricklayers, Masons and larly for interior load-bearing walls, Plasterers’ International Union of is growing and will add to overall America. employment needs. Over the long run, job openings Sources of Additional for bricklayers are expected to be Information plentiful; however, the number of For details about apprenticeships openings may fluctuate from year to year because employment in this or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying or stonemasonry contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or State apprentice ship agency. For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact: Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ Interna tional Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Brick Institute of America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. CARPENTERS (D.O.T. 860.281 through .781) Nature of the Work Carpenters, the largest group of building trades workers, are em ployed in almost every type of con struction activity. They erect the wood framework in buildings and install windows, doors, paneling, cabinets, and other items. They also build stairs, lay hardwood floors, and install other flooring materials such as asphalt tile. Carpenters install heavy timbers used to build docks, railroad tres tles, and similar structures. They build the forms needed to pour concrete decks, columns, piers, and retaining walls used in construction of bridges, buildings, and other structures. They erect scaffolding and temporary buildings at the con struction site. Because of the variety of work in the trade, some carpenters special ize in a particular type of carpentry. For example, some build forms to receive concrete; others install millwork and finish hardware Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (trimming), lay and finish hard wood floors, or build stairs. Spe cialization is more common in large cities; in small communities, car penters often perform a wider range of tasks. In rural areas, carpenters may do insulating, painting, or roof ing. Carpenters generally stay in a particular field of construction, such as home, bridge, or highway construction,